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E.XCYCLOPEDIA  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


DICTIONARY 


OF   THE 


SCIENCE  AND  PKACTICE 


OF 


rtlitrctiin,  §uiltiinu,  Car|ciito,  drtc, 


FROM 


THE  EAKLIEST  AGES  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME, 

FORMING  A  COMPREHENSIVE   WORK  OP  REFERENCE  FOR  THE   USE  OF  ARCHITECTS,   BUILDERS, 
CARPENTERS,    MASONS,    ENGINEERS,   STUDENTS,    PROFESSIONAL   MEN, 

AND  AMATEURS. 

BY    PETER    NICHOLSON, 

ARCHITECT     AND     BUILDER. 
EDITED  BY 

EDWARD  LOMAX  AND  THOMAS  GUNTON, 

ARCHITECTS     AND     CIVIL     ENGINEERS. 

ILLUSTRATED  WITH  TWO  HUKDREB  AND  THIRTY  ENGRAVINGS  ON  STEEL, 

MOSTLY   FROM    WORKING   DRAWINGS   IN    DETAIL. 


IN     TWO     VOLUMES. 

VOL.    I. 


NEW   YORK: 

PUBLISHED    BY    JOHNSON,     FRY    &    CO., 

27    BEEKMAN    STREET. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    AMERICA!    EDITION. 


It  is  the  design  of  the  present  work  to  give  an  account,  not  only  of  Architecture  itself,  but  also  of  the 
various  other  Arts  and  Sciences  connected  with  it,  and  without  which  a  comprehensive  and  complete  know- 
ledge of  it  cannot  be  attained. 

An  alphabetical  arrangement  was  adopted  by  the  author,  Mr.  P.  Nicholson,  as  considered  the  best 
adapted  for  the  use  of  mechanics,  as  well  as  the  most  expeditious,  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
of  art,  which  are  very  numerous,  being  more  easily  acquired  by  this  mode  than  by  any  other. 

The  EiSE  AND  Progress  of  every  department  are  given  as  far  as  authentic  information  could  be  obtained. 
The  greatest  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  Definitions  ;  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  be  found  to  be  far 
more  intelligible  than  those  which  have  been  hitherto  given  in  Dictionaries,  and  in  Treatises  on  Architecture. 
Geometry  being  the  key  to  works  of  this  description,  such  Geometrical  Problems  are  introduced  as  will  be 
found  useful  in  delineating  the  various  kinds  of  objects  that  may  occur. 

Orthographical  and  Perspective  Drawing  being  necessary,  not  only  to  the  Architect,  but  also  to  the 
Builder  and  Workman,  their  principles  are  laid  down,  and  their  application  is  shown  by  means  of  numerous 
examples. 

Carpentry  and  Joinery,  also,  are  here  treated  in  a  manner  far  superior  to  that  which  characterizes  any 
previous  work  upon  those  subjects. 

In  the  other  branches  has  been  given,  iiot  only  wJiat  has  fallen  under  the  immediate  observation  of  the  author, 
but  also  the  valuable  information  which  has  resulted  from  the  diligent  inquiries  he  has  made  of  the  most  skilful 
workmen.  An  account,  also,  of  the  Properties  of  the  Materials  used  in  the  execution  of  works,  and  of 
the  Eules  for  judging  of  their  quality,  is  given  at  large. 

In  preparing  the  present  edition  for  the  press,  the  Publishers  have  availed  themselves  of  the  valuable 
labours  of  Mr.  Edward  Lomax  and  Mr.  Thomas  Gunyon,  practical  Architects  and  Engineers. 

The  improvements  are  rather  those  of  enlargement  than  of  alteration,  the  greater  part  of  the  work  being 
left  in  its  original  condition,  more  especially  such  parts  as  related  to  Carpentry,  and  subjects  of  a  kindred 
nature,  in  which  the  Author  is  universally  accredited  as  an  authority  of  thfe  highest  standing. 

Some  parts  of  the  original  edition,  however,  had  become  obsolete  and  out  of  date,  and  such  it  was  con- 
sidered advisable  to  expunge,  or  modify  in  such  a  manner  as  might  make  them  suitable  to  the  more  advanced 
knowledge  of  the  present  day.  The  articles  on  Bridges,  Strength  of  Materials,  the  Orders,  and  such 
like,  will  afford  a  fair  specimen  of  the  treatment  of  such  subjects  as  required  modification  or  enlargement. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  new  matter  which  has  been  added,  may  be  particularly  enumerated  a  series  of 
papers  treating  of  the  history  and  characteristics  of  the  various  styles  of  Architecture,  which, 
it  is  hoped,  may  prove  an  interesting  and  not  unuseful  feature  in  the  present  Dictionary.  Besides  these,  many 
papers  of  an  Arch^ological  and  general,  as  well  as  of  a  practical  character,  have  been  added,  and  a  very 
large  number  of  Definitions  introduced,  which  were  not  in  the  original  work.  Amongst  the  Archaeological 
papers,  those  on  Church  Architecture  and  Ecclesiology  in  general,  may,  it  is  hoped,  be  referred  to  with 
satisfaction ;  whilst  those  of  a  practical  character  may  be  fairly  represented  by  the  articles  on  Roads,  Sewers, 
Cement,  &c. 

The  Plates  contained  in  the  original  work  have  also  been  very  carefully  compared  with  the  text.  Several 
errors  of  importance  have  been  corrected,  besides  a  very  large  number  of  others  of  less  importance,  such  as 
would,  however,  tend  to  perplex  the  student,  and  even  render  the  information  useless  to  those  of  more  advanced 
knowledge,  who  have  not  the  leisure  to  make  the  corrections  for  themselves. 

In  fine,  the  Publishers  venture  to  hope,  that,  while  the  sterling  matter  of  the  original  edition  is  preserved, 
some  Additions  and  Improvements  have  been  made  which  may  be  of  service  not  only  to  the  student  and  working 
man,  but  also  to  the  mature  and  experienced  practitioner;  and  they  flatter  themselves  that  nothing  is  wanting 
to  render  this  work,  as  now  presented  to  the  public,  containing  all  the  improvements  down  to  the  present  day, 
a  Complete  Architectural  Dictionary. 


LIST   OF   PLATES.-VOL.   I, 


To  the  Binder. — The  Plates  may  be  bound  up  in  a  separate  Volume,  in  the  following  order,  for  greater  fnoilify  of  reference.     If,  how- 
ever, it  be  preferred,  that  they  should  be  bound  up  with  the  text,  their  proper  position  is  assigued  to  each  in  tlie  following  List. 


Crystal  Palace,  New  York frontispiece 

Doorway,  East  Cloisters,  Westminster  Abbey,  vignette. 

Details,  Plate  1 1 

Details,  Plate  V.  (Acroteria  &c.) 3 

The  Amphitheatre,  Verona 3 

Details,  Plate  II.  (Arches.)   12 

Balusters 25 

Details,  Plate  III.  (Balcony,  &c.)   26 

Bracketing,  Plate  1 42 

Byzantine  Architecture,  Plate  II 70 

Do.,             Plate  1 73 

Details,  Plate  IV 73 

Carpentry,  Plate  1 83 

Do.,       Plate  II 84 

Do.,       Plate  III 86 

Do.,       Plate  IV 89 

Do.,       Plate  V 90 

Do.,       Plate  VI 91 

Do.,       Plate  VII 92 

Do.,       Plate  VIII 94 

Do.,       Plate  IX 99 

Do.,       Plate  X 100 

Do.,       Plate  XI 101 

Do.,       Plate  XII 102 

Do.,       Plate  Xill 104 

Castle  of  Chillon 110 

Plan  of  Eniilish  Abbey  and  French  Cathedral  Churches.  117 

Centering,  Plate  1 138 

Do.,      Plate  II 139 

Do.,      Plate  III 139 

Centre  of  Waterloo  Bridge 139 

Chinese  Architecture,  Plate  1 147 

Do.,              Plate  II 148 

Do.,              Plate  111 148 

Army  and  Navy  Club  House,  Plan 173 

Do.,                     Elevation 173 

Columns,  Plate  1 181 

Conic  Sections,  Plate  1 190 

Constructive  Carpentry,  Plate  1 194 

Do.,                Plate  II 195 

Corinthian  Order,  Plate  1 204 

Do.,             Plate  II 204 

Do.,             Plate  III 204 

Do.,            Plate  IV 204 

Curb  Eoof 218 

Cylinder,  Plate  1 224 

Details,  Plate  V.  (Letter  d) 227 

Descriptive  Geometry,  Plate  1 244 

Do.,                Plate  II 250 

Do.,                 Plate  III 202 

Do.,                Plate  IV 204 

Dog-legged  Stairs,  Plate  1 274 

Dome,  Plate  1 2S2 

Dome,  Plate  III 2m3 


PAGE 

Do.,    Plate  II 284 

Grecian  Architecture,  Plate  1 303 

Doric  Order,  Plate  II 303 

Do.,         Plate  111 303 

Do.,         Plate  IV 303 

Eddy  stone  Lighthouse,  Plate  1 345 

Do.,               Plate  II.,  No  1 .346 

D...,               Plate  II.,  No  2 346 

Lighthouse,  Plate  III 347 

Do.,       Plate  IV 347 

Do.,      Plate  V .348 

Do.,      Plate  VI .348 

Do.,       Plate  VII 349 

Do.,      Plate  Vlll 350 

Plan   and   Interior  Court  of  the  Egyptian  Temple  at 

Eclfoii 354 

General  view  of  do 354 

Egyptian  Fap.ides  of  Porticos 354 

Egyptian  Interior  of  Temple  at  Ipsambiil,  &c 354 

Exatijples  of  Egyptian  Capitals  of  Columns 356 

Ellipsis,  Plate  r. 300 

Do.,     Piatt'  II ,307 

Do.,    Plate  111 3(i8 

Enibaiikment,  Plate  1 378 

Envelopes  of  Solids,  Plate  I .388 

Envelope,  Plate  II 388 

Details,  Plate  VI 411 

Frets,  Plate  1 434 

Do.,  Plate  II 434 

Geometry,  Plate  1 442 

Do.,      Plate  II 443 

Do.,      Plate  111 446 

Semi-Noiman  and  Early  English  Examples 404 

Gothic  Architecture,  Early  English  Examples 4ti4 

Do.,                Decorated  Examjiles 400 

Do.,                     Do.,       (Buttresses,  &c.) 40" 

Do.,               Perpendicular  Examples 4()V» 

Centering  for  Groins 479 

Ribbing  for  Groins 480 

Handrailing.  Plate  Vlll 489 

Do.,        Plate  1 490 

Do.,        Plate  II 491 

Do.,        Plate  III 491 

Do.,        Plate  IV 491 

Do.,        Plate  V 491 

Do.,        Plate  VI 492 

Do.,        Plate  VII 492 

Hinoing,  Plate  1 495 

Do.',     Plate  II 490 

Hip  Roof  Plate  1 498 

Do.,     Plate  11 498 

Do.,     Plate  111 499 

Do.,     Plate  IV 499 

Private  House,  Pompeii 507 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED  II  PREPARING  THE  PRESENT  EDITION  OF  THE 

ARCHITECTURAL  DICTIONARY. 


Archoeologia,     8vo.,  London. 

Archreological  Journal,     8vo.,  London,  1844. 

Barr's  Anglican  Church  Architecture,  with  some  remarks  on 

Ecclesiastical  Furniture,     Svo.,  Oxford,  1846. 
Barrington's  Plain  Hints  for  understanding  the  Genealogy 

and  Armorial  Bearings  of  Sovereigns  of  England,     8vo., 

London,  1843. 
Barrington's   Chronological  Qiart  of   British   Architecture, 

fol.,  London,  1843. 
Bartholomew's  Specifications,     8vo.,  London,  1846. 
Bentham's    History    of   Gothic   and    Saxon   Architecture, 

fol.,  London,  1798. 
Bintrham's  (J.)  Origines  Ecclesiastics,  or  Antiquities  of  the 

Christian  Church,  and  other  Works,  with  additional  anno- 
tations, revised  and  edited  by  Rev.  R.  Bingham,     8vo., 

London,  1821-9. 
Bloxam's   Glimpse   of  the   Monumental    Architecture   and 

Sculpture  from  earliest  period  to  18th  century,     12mo., 

London,  1834. 
Bloxam's   Principles   of  Gothic  Ecclesiasticiil    Architecture 

elucidated  by  question  and  answer,    I2mo.,  London,  1843. 
Do.,         do.,  9th  Edition,  12mo.,  London,  1849. 
Brande,  W.  T. — Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art, 

8vo.,  London,  1842. 
Brandon,  T.  A. — Parish  Churches,     8vo.,  London,  1848. 
Britton,  J. — The  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Great  Britain, 

4to.,  London,  1801-7. 
Britton,  J. — Dictionary  of  the  Architecture  and  Archaeology 

of  the  Middle  Ages,     4to.,  London,  1838. 
Britton,  J. — The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Cathedral 

Church  of  Salisbury,     fol.,  London,  1814. 
Britton,   J. — Antiquities   of    Winchester    Cathedral,      fol., 
London,  1817 


Britton,  J. — Antiquities   of  Cathedral   Church  of  Norwich, 

fol.,  London,  1816. 
Britton,  J. — The  History  and   Antiquities  of  the  Cathedral 

Church  of  Salisbury,     fol.,  London,  1821. 
Brown. — Sacred  Architecture,     4to.,  London. 
Buck,  G.  W. — Practical   Essay  on  Oblique  Bridges,     4to., 

London,  1839. 
Bucl<ler,  J.   C. — Elevations,  Sections,   and    Details   of   St. 

Peter's  Church,  Wilcote,  Oxon.,     fol.,  Oxford,  1844. 
Buckler,  J.  C. — Views  of  Cathedral  Churches  of  England 

and  Wales,     4to.,  London,  1822. 

Carter,  J. — Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture  and  Ancient 
Buildings  ill  England,     12mo.,  London,  1824. 

Chambers,  Sir  W. — A  Treatise  on  the  Decorative  Part  of 
Civil  Architecture,  edited  by  Jos.  Gwilt,  8vo.,  London, 
1825. 

Chambers,  Sir  W. — Designs  of  Chinese  Buildings,  Furni- 
ture, &c.,     fol.,  London,  1757. 

Coney,  J. — Engravings  of  Ancient  Cathedrals  in  France, 
Holland,  and  Italy,     fol.,  London,  1839. 

Cotman,  J.  S. — Architectural  Anticpiities  of  Normandy, 
fol.,  London,  1822. 

Cotman,  J.  S. — Etchings  Illustrative  of  Architectural  Anti- 
quities of  Norfolk,     fol.,  London,  1818. 

Cranstoun,  E. — Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  Cliapel 
of  St,  Bai'lholoinew,  near  Oxford,  fol.,  Oxford, 
1844. 

Cresy,  E. — Architecture  of  Middle  Ages  in  Italy,  Illustrated 
by  Views,  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of 
Cathedral  of  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  by  E.  Crcsy  and 
G.  L.  Taylor,     fol.,  London,  1829. 

Cresy,    E. — Illustrations    of    Stone     Church,     Kent,     with 
I       Historical  Account,     fol.,  London,  1840. 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED. 


Dallaway,  J. — Discourses  upon  English  Architecture  from 

Norman  Era  to  Elizabeth. 
Duvies,  E. — Celtic  Researches   on  the  Origin,  Traditions, 

and  Language  of  Ancient  Britons,     8vo.,  London,  1804. 
Denisis,  J. — Architectura  Sacra,  8vo.,  Exeter,  1818. 
Denon,  V. — Voyage  dans  la  basse  et  la  haute  Egypte,    foL, 

Paris,  1802. 

Elmes,  J. — A  General  and  Bibliographical  Dictionary  of  the 
Fine  Arts,     8vo.,  London,  1826. 

Fawcett.  J. — Churches  of  York,  by  Mr.  Monkhouse  and 
Mr.  E.  Bedford ;  with  Historical  and  Architectural  Notes 
by  F.  Fawcett,    4to.,  York,  1843. 

Fleury. — Ecclesiastical  History  from  A.D.  400  to  429,  trans- 
lated, with  Notes,  by  J.  H.  Newman,  8vo.,  Oxford, 
1843. 

Gray,  H. — Tour  to  the  Sepulchres  of  Etruria. 

Grose,  F. — Antiquities  of  England  and  Wales,  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1773-6. 

Grose,  F. — Antiquities  of  Ireland,     8vo.,  London,  1791-5. 

Guilhabaud,  J. — Monuments  Auciens  et  Modernes,  Vues 
generales  et  particulieres,  &c. 

Gunn,  W. — An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Influence  of 
Gothic  Architecture,     8vo.,  London,  1819. 

Gwilt,  Jos. — Encyclopedia  of  Architecture,  Historical, 
Theoretical,  and  Practical,     8vo.,  London,  1842. 

Gwilt,  J. — Rudiments  of  Architecture,  Practical  and  Theo- 
retical,    4to.,  London,  1826. 

Habershon,  M. — The  Ancient  Half  timbered  Houses  of  Eng- 
land,    fol.,  London,  1836. 

Hakewill,  J. — An  attempt  to  Determine  the  exact  Charac- 
ter of  Elizabethan  Architecture,     8vo.,  London,  1835. 

Halfpenny,  W. — The  Art  of  Sound  Building,  fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1725. 

Halfpenny,  W. — Practical  Architecture.  12mo.,  London, 
1736. 

Hall,  Sir  J. — Essay  on  Origin  and  Principles  of  Gothic 
Architecture,     4to.,  London,  1813. 

Hawkins,  J.  E. — History  of  Gothic  Architecture,  with  an 
Investigation  of  its  Principles,     8vo.,  London,  1813. 

Hope,  Thomas. — An  Historical  Essay  on  architecture,  Svo., 
London,    1835. 

Hughes,  T.  S. — Travels  in  Sicily,  Greece,  and  Albania, 
8vo.,  London,  1830. 

Hunt,  T.  F. — Examples  of  Tudor  Architecture,  4to.,  Lon- 
don, 1830. 

Inghirami,  F. — Monumenti  Etruschi  o  di  Etrusco  Nome, 
4to.,  Fiesol,  1821-6. 


Kendall. — Gothic  Architecture,     8vo.,  London,  1842. 
Knight  II.  G.— Ecclesiastical    Architecture   of  Italy,     fol., 
London,  1842. 

Lloyd,  11.  E. — Architectural  Beauties  of  Continental  Europe, 
fol.,  London,  1831. 

Mackenzie,  C. — Crosby  Place  described,  8vo.,  London,  1842. 
Mackenzie,  F. — Specimens   of  Gothic  Architecture,     4to., 

London. 
Mant,  R. — Church  Architecture  considered  in  relation  to  the 

Mind  of  the  Church,     8vo.,  Belfast,  1843. 
Moller,   G. — Essay    on    Origin    and    Progress    of    Gothic 

Architecture,     8vo.,  London,  1824. 
Murphy,   J.   C. — The  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain,     fol., 

London,  1813. 

Nash,  J. — Mansions  of  England  in  the  Olden  Time,  Series 

1,  2,3,     fol.,  London,  1839-41. 
Neale,  J.  P. — Views  of  Collegiate  and  Parochial  Churches  in 

Great  Britain,     4to.,  London,  1824-5. 

Parnell,  Sir  H. — A  Treatise  on  Roads. 

Petit,  J.  L. — Remarks  on  Church  Architecture,  8vo.,  Lon- 
don, 1841. 

The  Practical  Builder,     4to.,  Loudon,  1838. 

Pugin,  A.  W. — Apology  for  revival  of  Christian  Architec- 
ture,    4to.,  London,  1843. 

Pugin,  A.  W. — Contrasts,  or  Parallel  between  Edifices  of 
Middle  Ages  and  Present  Day,     8vo.,  London,  1841. 

Pugin,  A.  W. — Glossary  of  Ecclesiastical  Ornament,  4to., 
London,  1844. 

Pugin,  A. — Gothic  Ornaments  selected  from  various  Buildings 
in  England  and  France,     4to.,  London,  1831. 

Pugin,  A. — Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture  from  Ancient 
Edifices  in  England,  4to.,  London,  1821. 

Pugin,  A.  W. — The  True  Principles  of  Pointed,  or  Chris- 
tian Architecture,     4to.,  London,  1841. 

Rich. — Narrative  of  a  Journey  to  Babylon  in  181 1 — Memoir 
on  Ruins — Remarks  on  Topography  of  Ancient  Babylon 
by  Major  Rennell,  &c.,    8vo.,  London,  18.39. 

Richardson,  C.  J. — Architectural  Remains  of  the  Reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.,     fol.,  London,  1838-40. 

Rickman,  T. — An  attempt  to  discriminate  the  Styles  of 
English  Architecture  from  Conquest  to  Reformatiou, 
8vo.,  London,  1820. 

Rickman,  T. — An  Essay  on  Gothic  Architecture,  8vo., 
London,  1825. 

Shaw,  H. — History  and  Antiquities  of  Chapel  at  Luton 
Park,     fol.,  London,  1830. 


LIST   OF   WORKS   CONSULTED. 


Simpson,  r. — Series  of  ancient  Baptismal  Fonts  chronolo- 
gically arranged,     4to. 

Smirke,  (Sir  R.)  Specimens  of  Continental  Architecture, 
foL,  London,  1806. 

Smith. — Paronama  of  Science  and  Art,     8vo.,  London. 

Stuart,  J. — Antiquities  of  Athens,     fol.,  London,  1830. 

Stuart,  R. — Dictionary  of  Architecture,  3  Vols.,  8vo., 
London. 

Stukeley,  W. — Pala;graphia  Britannica,  4to.,  London, 
1743-52. 

Tappen,  G. — Professional  Observations  on  the  Architecture 
of  France  and  Italy,     8vo.,  London,  180G. 

Tredgold. — Elementary  Principles  of  Carpentry,  4to.,  Lon- 
don, 1840. 


Vitruvius. — Civil  Architecture,  by  Gwilt, 
1626. 


4to.,  London, 


Walsh,  R. — An  Essay  on  Ancient  Coins,  Medals,  and  Gems 
illustrating  Progress  of  Christianity  in  Early  Ages.  2nd 
Edition,  enlarged,     12mo.,  London,  1828. 

Warton,  .J. — Essays  on  Gothic  Architecture. 

Weale. — Quarterly  Papers  on  Architecture,  4to.,  London, 
1843-4. 

Weale. — Rudimentary  Treatises,     12mo.,  London,  1851. 

Whewell,  W. — Architectural  Notes  on  German  Churches, 
8vo.,  Cambridge,  1842. 

Whittington,  G.  D. — Historical  Survey  of  Ecclesiastical 
Architecture  of  France,     4to.,  London,  1809. 

Wightwick. — Hints  to  young  Architects,  8vo.,  London, 
1846. 

Wild,  C. — Cathedrals — 12  Specimens  of  Ecclesiastical  Ar- 
chitecture of  Middle  Ages,     fol.,  London. 

Wild,  C. — Twelve  Examples  of  Ecclesiastical  Architecture 
of  France,    fol. 


Wilkinson,  J.  G. — The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 

Egyptians,     8vo.,  1837. 
Wilkins,  H. — Suite  de  rues  pittoresques  des  ruines  de  Pom- 
peii,    fol.,  Rome,  1819. 
Willis,  R. — Remarks  on  Architecture  of  Middle  Ages,  espe. 

ciaJly  of  Italy,     8vo.,  Cambridge,  1835. 
Willis,  B. — A  Survey  of  the  Cathedrals,  4to.,  London,  1727. 
Wood,  J. — Letters  of  an  Architect  from  France,  Italy,  and 

Greece,     4to.,  London,  1828. 
Wood,  R. — Ruins  of  Palmyra,     fol.,  London,  1753. 
Wood,  R. — Ruins  of  Balbec,     fol.,  London,  1757. 
A  fevir  Words  to  Church  Builders,  published   by  Cambridge 

Camden  Society,  with  Appendix,  containing  List  of  Fonts, 

8vo.,  Cambridge,  1841. 
A  few  Words  to  Churchwardens  on  Churches  and  Church 

Ornaments,     8vo.,  Cambridge,  1841. 
Church  Enlargement  and  Church  Arrangement,     8vo.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1843. 
Ecclesiastic,     8vo.,  London,  1846. 
Eccleologist,     8vo.,  Cambridge,  1841-4. 
A  Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Grecian,  Roman,  Italian,  and 

Gothic  Architecture,     8vo.,  London,  1836. 
Gothic  Architecture — A  Chart  of  English,  Ecclesiastical,  or 

GothicArchitecture  from  Commencement  in  Saxon  dynasty 

to  Sixteenth  century,     fol. 
A  Guide  to  the  Architectural  Antiquities  in  Neighbourhood 

of  Oxford,     8vo.,  Oxford,  1844-5. 
Instrumenta  Ecclesiastica,  a  Series  of  Working  Designs  for 

Furniture,  Fittings,  and  Decorations  of  Churches.  Edited 

by  Cambridge  Camden  Society,     4to.,  London,  1844. 
Prospects  of  all  the  Cathedrals  and  Collegiate  Churches  of 

England  and  Wales,     12mo. 
Quarterly  Review,  Vols,  of  1845,     Bvo.,  London,  1845. 
The  Student's  Guide  to  Measuring  and  Valuing  Artificers' 

Work,    8vo.,  London,  1843. 
The  Builder. 


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ARCHITECTURAL    DICTIONARY. 


ABU 

ABACI,  according  to  Vitruvius,  any  flat  tabulated  surface. 
— The  term  is  applied  to  the  panels  of  walls  formed  in  stuc- 
co, of  which  examples  may  be  seen  in  various  remains  of 
antiquity  ;  and  to  certain  decorations  of  the  walls  above  a 
part  of  the  podium,  or  dado. — Newtoiis  Vitruvius,  Chap. 
111.  and  IV.  Book  1. 

ABACUS,  (from  Greek,  apa^.)  the  uppermost  member  of 
the  capital  of  a  column,  consisting  of  a  flat,  rectangular  table 
contaiu'id  between  two  horizontal  planes.  In  all  the  existing 
Doric  buildings,  with  perhaps  one  or  two  exceptions,  it  is  in 
the  form  of  a  parallelo|)iped  of  equal  rectangular  sides. 
The  same  form  is  preserved  in  the  other  orders,  but  the  thick- 
ness is  considerably  diminished.  In  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
pi'sisc.  however,  the  sides  are  of  a  curvilinear  form  in  plan. 
See  Doric,  Io.mic,  Corintiii.\n,  Tuscan,  and  Composite 
Okhebs. 

ABBEY,  a  monastery,  or  religious  house,  governed  by  a 
superior  under  the  title  of  Abbot.  For  a  particular  account 
of  this  species  of  builduig,  and  its  distribution,  see  the  article 

MiiNASTERV. 

ABBREVIATION,  a  kind  of  shorthand,  much  used  by 
surveyors  m  measuring  work,  and  greatly  facilitating  the 
process.     See  Mexscration  of  Artijicers'  Works. 

ABREUV'OIR,  or  Abrevoir,  (from  the  French,)  in  ma- 
sonry the  interstice,  or  joint,  between  two  stones,  to  be  filled 
up  with  mortar  or  cement.     See  Joints. 

ABSTR.ACT,  in  artificers'  works,  is  used  in  a  general  sense, 
to  signify  the  collecting  of  sundry  articles  into  one  sum,  when 
the  same  price  is  affixed  to  equa-1  parts  of  each;  or,  to  ascer- 
tain measure.     See  Mensuration  of  Artijicers^  Works. 

ABUTME.XT,  or  Butment,  that  which  receives  the  end  of, 
and  gives  support  to  anything  having  a  tendency  to  spread  or 
thrust  outwards: — or  it  may  be  defined  as  the  resisting  sur- 
face of  a  body,  on  which  another  body  presses  in  an  oblique 
direction  to  the  horizon,  or  in  a  different  direction  to  the 
height  or  length  of  the  body  pressed  upon  ;  such  are  the 
abutments  of  arches  and  the  joggles  of  truss-posts,  which 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  struts  orbraces.  In  bridge-building 
it  is  the  extreme  pillars  only  of  one  or  a  series  of  arches,  and 
thus  connects  the  bridge  with  the  bank  of  a  river,  &c. 
Abutments  should  be  made  to  resist  a  greater  force  than 
what  is  just  sufficient  to  balance  the  abutting  works,  provided 


AGO 

there  be  no  rocks  to  rest  upon.  The  foundation  of  an  abut- 
ment, raised  upon  a  sloping  bank  of  rock,  gravel,  or  good 
solid  earth,  will  be  a  great  saving  of  materials  and  labour; 
but  if  no  such  natural  advantages  occur,  it  will  add  greatly 
to  the  strength  of  the  abutment  to  lay  the  stones  with  radia- 
ting or  summering  joints,  according  to  the  practice  in  laying 
the  voussoirs,  at  least  as  high  as  the  springing  of  the  arch, 
and  this  disposition  will  present  a  greater  resistance  to  the 
lateral  thrust  of  the  adjacent  arch,  than  if  the  stones  had  been 
laid  on  level  beds  ;  and  instead  of  the  returning  sides  from 
the  side  of  the  aperture  of  the  arch  being  vertical  planes, 
they  would  be  much  stronger  when  reclining,  and  more  par- 
ticularly so  if  curved  in  a  vertical  direction.  See  Bridges 
and  Wall. 

Abutments,  in  carpentry  and  joinery,  are  the  junctions,  or 
meetings,  of  two  pieces  of  timber,  of  which  the  fibres  of 
the  one  run  perpendicular  to  the  joint,  and  those  of  the  other 
parallel  to  it.  M.  Perronet,  the  celebrated  French  architect, 
formed  the  abutments  of  the  timbers,  in  roofing,  in  the  arches 
of  circles,  making  the  centre  in  the  other  extremity.  With 
respect  to  the  tranverse  strain  on  the  various  pieces  of  a 
roof,  the  abutting  joint  is  of  little  importance.  For  farther 
explanation,  see  J  oggle. 

ACADE^MY,  in  antiquity,  a  public  grove  or  villa,  six 
stadia  (half-amile)  distant  from  Athens,  which  it  is  said 
took  its  name  from  one  Academus,  a  citizen  of  Athens,  to 
whom  it  originally  belonged,  and  who  appropriated  it  to 
gymnastic  sports. 

ACANTHUS,  an  ornament  used  in  the  enrichment  of  the 
Corinthian  capital,  and  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
leaves  of  an  acanthaceous  plant.  It  is  also  commonly  em- 
ployed in  sculptural  and  archi'tectural  enrichments  generally  ; 
in  the  enrichment  of  modillions,  of  mouldings,  and  of  vases, 
as  well  as  of  foliated  capitals.  In  the  ancient  Roman  models, 
this  ornament  is  full  and  luxuriant ;  while  m  the  Greek  it 
is  characterized  by  a  graceful  and  restrained  simplicity.  See 
Orders. 

ACCESSES,  the  passages  of  communication  to  the  various 
apartments  of  a  building.     See  Passages. 

ACCIDENTAL  POINT.     See  Vanishing  Point. 

ACCOMP.\NIMENT,  an  ornament  added  to  some  other 
ornament,  for  the  greater  beauty  of  the  work. 


ADY 


AIS 


ACRE,  a  quantity  of  land,  containing  four  square  roods, 
or  100  poles  or  perches.  The  acre  is  in  length  ten  chains, 
and  one  in  breadth;  consequently  contains  ten  square 
chains;  and  as  the  chain  contains  22  yards  in  length,  there 
will  be  4840  sijuare  yards  in  the  acre.  The  proportion 
between  the  English  and  Scottish  acre,  supposing  the  feet 
to  be  alike  in  both,  is  as  1089  to  13G0,  or  nearly  as  four  to 
five  ;  the  English  chain  being  60  feet,  and  the  Scottish  74. 
The  French  acre,  arpent,  contaitis  1:^  English  acre,  or  54,450 
square  feet. 

ACKOLINTHON,  or  Acrolinthos,  a  colossal  statue, 
placed  in  the  temple  of  Mars,  and  situated  in  the  middle  of 
the  citadel  in  the  ancient  town  of  Ilalicarnassus. 

ACROPOLIS,  (from  anpog,  heii/lit^  and  TroXig,  a  ciUj,)  the 
fortress  or  citadel  of  Athens,  which  derived  its  name  from  an 
eminence  on  which  it  stood.  Tiie  summit  is  fortilied  by  a 
wall  built  on  its  extreme  edge,  and  encompassing  the  whole 
upper  surface,  which  is  nearly  level.  The  natural  strength 
of  its  situation  is  said  to  have  induced  the  hrst  inhabitants 
to  settle  there,  and  as  their  number  increased  they  began  to 
build  on  the  adjacent  ground,  till  the  Acropolis,  being  sur- 
roimded  on  every  side,  liecame  the  fortress  of  a  large  and 
populous  city.  It  was  richly  adorned  by  the  Athenians,  in 
the  days  of  their  prosperity,  with  temples,  statues,  paintings, 
and  votive  gifts  to  their  divinities.  Of  this  ancient  place 
there  are  still  many  fine  ruins,  some  of  which  are  very 
entire.  The  remains  of  the  famous  Propylca,  the  little 
temple  of  Victory  without  wings,  the  Doric  temple  of  Mi- 
nerva, called  the  Parthenon,  and  Ilecatompedon,  erected  in 
the  time  of  Pericles,  under  the  direction  of  Phidias,  with  the 
cell  of  Pandrossus,  are  still  to  be  seen.  Its  walls  have  at 
different  times  been  rudely  repaired,  or  rebuilt,  as  little  of 
the  ancient  masonry  remains;  but  numerous  fragments 
of  coiunnis,  cornices,  and  sculptures,  are  seen  in  several 
parts,  and  exhibit  a  ruinous  appearance. 

ACROTERIA,  a  term  applied  to  the  little  pedestals 
placed  on  the  pediment  or  fastigium  ;  one  on  the  apex,  and  one 
on  each  lower  extremity,  serving  to  support  statues.  Accord- 
ing to  Vitruvius,  those  at  the  extremes  ought  to  be  half  the 
height  of  the  tympanum,  and  that  in  the  middle  an  eighth 
part  more.  Acroteria  likewise  signify  figures  placed  as  orna- 
ments or  crownings  on  the  tops  of  temples,  or  other  build- 
ings ;  they  also  denote  the  sharp  pinnacles,  or  spiry  battle- 
ments, which  stand  in  ranges  about  flat  buildings  with  rails 
and  balusters,  and  which  are  sometimes  called  acroteral 
ornaments. 

ACT,  Building.  See  Buildino  Act. 

ACTUS,  in  building,  a  measure  used  by  the  Romans,  and 
equal  to  120  Rnnian  feet.     See  Eoot. 

ACUMLNATED,  ending  in  a  point,  or  sharp-pointed. 

ADIT,  or  Aditus,  (from  adire,  to  go  to,)  in  general,  the 
approach  or  entrance  to  anything  ;  in  which  sense  we  meet 
with  adit  of  a  house,  of  a  circus,  &c.  Adits  of  a  theatre, 
aditus  t/iea/ri,  in  antiquity,  were  doors  on  the  stairs,  whereby 
persons  entered  from  the  oufer  porticus,  and  descended  into 
the  seats.  The  term  is  now  generally  applied  to  denote  the 
opening  by  which  a  mine  is  entered,  and  which  is  usually 
made  in  the  side  of  a  hill. 

ADJACENT,  anything  which  lies  immediately  by  the 
side  of  another. 

ADY  I'UM,  (from  a,  6vi.),)  the  most  retired  place  in  the 
pagan  temples,  into  which  none  but  the  priests  were  ad- 
mitted, and  in  which  the  oracles  were  declared.  The  word 
originally  signifies  iniiccessible,  being  compounded  of  a,  not, 
and  6v(i)  or  (Jiifui,  to  enter.  The  sanctum  sanctaruni.  or  holy 
of  holies,  of  the  tenqile  of  Solomon,  was  of  the  nature  of  the 
pagan    advrov,  or  adytum,  none  but  the  high-priest  being 


admitted  into  it,  and  that  but  once  a  year,  on  the  great  day 
of  expiation. 

ADZE,  an  edged  tool,  the  iron  p.art  of  which  is  called  the 
bhide,  and  is  a  small  portion  of  a  cylindric  surface  on  both 
sides:  it  has  a  piece  of  wood,  called  the  handle,  fixed  into  a 
socket  at  one  extremity  of  it,  in  a  radial  direction  ;  and  the 
other  extremity,  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  and 
consequently  at  right  angles  to  the  handle,  is  edged  with 
steel,  and  groimd  sharp  fVom  the  concave  side.  The  adze  is 
chiefly  used  for  taking  ofl"  thin  chips  of  timber  or  boards, 
and  for  paring  away  certain  irregulaiities  which  the  axe 
cannot  come  at;  and  in  most  joinings  of  carpentry,  paiticu- 
larly  those  which  are  n(jtched  upon  each  other,  scarfings, 
thieknessing  of  flooring  boards  opposite  to  the  joists,  &c.  See 
Tools. 

yEDES,  in  antiquity,  a  chapel,  or  inferior  kind  of  temple, 
as  the  (Kji-nrinm,  or  treasury',  called  yi.\les  Saturni. 

yEDICULA,  otherwise  called  Sacellum,  generally  signi- 
fied a  small  temple,  but  had  various  significations  ;  some- 
times denoting  the  inner  part  of  the  temple,  in  which  the 
altar  and  statue  of  the  deity  were  placed;  at  other  times,  a 
niche  in  the  wall,  for  receiving  a  statue. 

yEDICULUS,  in  Roman  mythology,  the  deity  who  pre- 
sided over  the  construction  and  conservation  of  buildings. 

yEOLUS,  in  mechanics,  a  small  portable  machine,  for 
refreshing  and  changing  the  air  in  rooms  that  are  too 
close. 

AERIAL  PERSPECTIVE,  is  that  which  represents 
bodies  diminished  and  weakened  in  proportion  to  their  dis- 
tance from  the  eye.  Linear  perspective  may  be  considered 
the  material  guide  of  the  artist,  originating  in,  and  governed 
by,  mathematical  science;  but  f/eV«(/  perspective  is  depend- 
ent for  its  application  only  on  the  capacity  and  perceptions 
of  the  artist. 

iESTUARY,  in  the  ancient  bath,  a  secret  passage  from  the 
stove  into  the  chambers. 

tETHERIUS,  an  architect,  who  lived  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century.  He  built  the  edifice  named  Chalcis,  in 
the  palace  of  Constantinople  ;  and  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
structed the  strong  wall  which  extends  from  the  sea  to 
Selimbria,  for  preventing  the  incursions  of  the  Bulgarians 
and  Scythians. 

AGGLUTINATE,  to  unite  one  part  to  another. 

AGORA,  the  forum,  or  market-place,  at  Athens. 

AGYCI,  in  antiquity,  obelisks  sacred  to  Apollo,  and 
placed  ill  the  vestibule  of  houses. 

AISLE,  or  AiLE,  (from  the  French  ai/c,  a  wing,  or  al/ee, 
a  path.)  When  the  breadth  of  a  church  is  divided  into  three 
or  five  parts,  by  two  or  four  rows  of  pillars  parallel  to  the 
sides,  the  church  is  denominated  a  three  or  five  aisled 
fabric.  The  middle  and  principal  compartments  is  called  the 
nave;  the  side  divisions  adjoining,  the  aisles  ;  or,  if  the  term 
be  applied  to  all  the  compartments,  as  it  lawfully  may  be, 
they  are  distinguished  as  the  middle  and  side  aisles. 

In  French,  this  term  is  applied  to  the  outlying  and  return- 
ing ends  of  a  building,  called  by  us  wings;  such  as  I  he 
columned  ends  of  the  front  of  the  General  Post  OlBce, 
London. 

The  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  Great  Britain  are  generally 
tliree-aisle<l  ;  and  no  instance  occurs  of  a  five-aisled  church, 
except  a  building  at  the  west  end  of  Durham  cathedral; 
but  on  the  continent  tliere  are  several ;  the  great  church  at 
Milan  is  one.  Old  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  was  also  a  livc- 
aisled  fabric. 

It  is  rather  remarkalilc,  that  in  Westminster  abbey- 
church,  and  Redclitle  church,  at  Bristol,  the  aisles  are  con- 
tinued on  each  side  of  the  transept,  and  in  Salisbury  cathe- 


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dral  on  one  side  only;  but  in  no  other  church  in  this 
country. 

Other  particulars  in  connection  with  Aisle  will  be  found 
under  the  articles  Church,  Transept,  and  Wing. 

ALABASTKR.     See  Gypsvm. 

ALiE,  two  apartments  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  vesti- 
buluni,  and  separated  from  it  either  by  columns  or  walls. 

A-LA-GKEC,  or  A-la-Grecque.     See  Frets. 

ALBARIUM,  Opus,  in  ancient  buildings,  the  incrusta- 
tion or  covering  of  the  roofs  of  houses  with  white  plaster, 
made  of  mere  lime.  The  workmen  were  called  albini  or 
albarii.  This  is  otherwise  called  opus  album,  and  differs 
from  tectorium,  whicii  is  a  common  name  given  to  all  roofing 
or  ceiling,  including  even  that  formed  of  lime  and  sand,  or 
of  lime  and  marble;  whereas  albarium  was  restricted  to  that 
made  of  lime  alone. 

ALCOVE,  in  a  sleeping  room,  is  a  recess  made  in  the  side 
for  receiving  the  bed,  either  wholly  or  in  part.  Alcoves 
were  formerly  much  in  use  in  bedchambers,  and  were  often 
raised  upon  two  or  three  steps,  with  a  rail  at  the  foot  of  the 
bed  ;  but  now  thej-  are  seldom  employed  e.xcept  to  obtain 
uniformity,  or  a  communication  to  another  apartment.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  alcoba,  and  this  again  from 
the  Arabic  al  kubbeh,  the  place  for  the  bed. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  the  alcoves  were  of  Asiatic  or 
African  origin  ;  for  we  frequently  read  of  them  in  Arabian 
stories  and  descriptions  of  Asiatic  palaces  and  gardens. 
They  were  introduced  into  Spain,  from  Arabia,  by  the 
Saracens  ;  and  by  the  Spaniards  into  France,  Germany,  and 
other  nations.  It  is  remarkable,  that  in  the  designs  of 
Palladio  and  other  contemporary  Italian  writers,  there  are 
no  examples  of  alcoves  ;  whence  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
tha-  they  had  not  become  fashionable  either  in  Rome  or 
Venice.  S\vinl>urn  mentions  two,  yet  remaining,  in  the 
royal  bedchamber  of  the  Moorish  palace  of  Alhambra,  at 
Granada,  which  are  probably  the  oldest  in  Europe.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  a  recess  or  arched  seat  in  a 
garden. 

ALESSI,  a  famous  architect,  born  at  Perugia,  in  1500. 
He  attained  to  such  eminence  m  his  profession,  that  he  was 
applied  to  from  France,  Spain,  and  Germany,  for  plans  of 
public  buildings.  His  plan  for  the  monastery  of  the  church 
of  the  Escurial  was  preferred  to  those  of  the  ablest  archi- 
tects of  Europe.     He  died  in  1572. 

ALHAMBRA,  an  ancient  palace  of  the  Mohammedan 
kings  of  Granada,  situated  on  a  hill  which  runs  out  to  the 
east  of  the  towni,  and  surrounded  by  strong  walls  flanked  by 
square  towers.  These  walls  were  built  of  a  kind  of  cement 
formed  of  red  clay  and  large  pebbles,  which,  being  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  weather,  quickly  acquired  the  solidity  and 
hardness  of  stone. 

The  beauties  of  this  magnificent  specimen  of  Arabian 
taste  and  splendour,  have  been  described  at  great  length  by 
Swinburn  and  other  writers,  who  express  the  highest  admira- 
tion of  the  exquisite  taste  displayed  throughout  the  whole. 

In  visiting  the  Alhambra,  the  traveller  ascends  through 
a  wood  of  lofty  elms,  whose  interlaced  branches  shelter  him 
from  the  sun's  rays,  to  the  Gates  of  Justice,  and  passes 
beneath  its  horse-shoe  arch,  so  characteristic  of  its  Arabian 
arcliitecture,  to  the  Plaza  de  los  Algibes,  or  ■  Square  of 
Cisterns. 

On  the  east  side  of  this  Plaza  is  the  palace  of  Charles  V., 
a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  style  of  the  fifth  century,  by 
Alonzo  Berrequette.  On  the  north  is  the  Mesuar,  or  com- 
mon bathing-court,  150  feet  long  and  56  wide,  paved  with 
white  marble,  and  its  walls  covered  with  arabesques  of  the 
most  admirable  workmanship. 


From  the  Mesuar  the  traveller  passes  to  the  Court  of  the 
Lions,  which  is  also  paved  with  white  marble,  and  measures 
100  feet  by  60.  In  the  centre  is  a  large  basin  of  alabaster 
supported  by  twelve  lions,  from  which  rises  a  smaller  one. 
From  this  a  large  body  of  water  spouts  into  the  air,  and, 
falling  from  one  basin  to  the  other,  is  sent  forth  through  the 
mouth  of  the  lions.  A  gallery,  supported  by  light  and  ele- 
gant columns,  surrounds  the  court ;  and  at  each  end  projects 
a  sort  of  portico  or  gallery,  supported  by  similar  eohiinns. 

The  Sala  de  Comares  was  undoubtediv  the  richest  in  the 
Alhambra.  Its  walls  are  ornamented  with  arabesques  of 
the  most  exquisite  workmanship  ;  its  ceiling  of  cedar-wood, 
inlaid  with  ivory,  silver,  and  Tuother-of-pearl,  while  the 
softened  light,  admitted  by  windows  sunk  in  the  immense 
thickness  of  the  wall,  chastens  the  splendour  of  its  richness, 
and  enhances  its  surprising  beauty  and  magnificence. 

Lost  in  the  contemplation  of  the  charming  objects  which 
surround  him  on  all  sides,  the  traveller  forgets  the  world  and 
its  dry  realities,  and  seems  transported  into  one  of  the 
palaces  described  in  the  '■'Arabian  N'njhls.''' 

ALIPTERION,  {aXu(pii},  to  anoint,)  the  anointing-room 
in  the  bath. 

ALMS-HOUSE,  a  small  hospital,  or  edifice,  endowed 
with  a  revenue  for  the  maintenance  of  a  certain  number  of 
poor,  aged,  or  disabled  people. 

AMBO,  or  Ambon,  in  ancient  churches,  a  kind  of  pulpit 
or  desk,  ascended  by  steps.  The  modern  reading-desks  have 
been  gradually  substituted  for  the  ancient  ambte  :  there  are, 
however,  remains  of  them  in  some  Roman  churches  still  to 
be  seen,  as  in  that  of  St.  John  de  Lateran,  at  Rome,  where 
there  are  two  movable  ambos. 

AMPHIPROSTYLOS  or  Amphiprosttle,  in  ancient 
architecture,  a  temple  with  a  portico  in  front,  and  another  in 
the  rear.  The  term  is  derived  from  ajirp  both,  zrpo  before, 
and  ^Xog  column,  signifying  columns  on  both  fronts.  See 
Temple. 

AMPHITHEATRE,  (from  a/it(/)£,  around  ;  and  Oearpov, 
theatre,')  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  large  edifice,  of  an  elliptic 
form,  with  a  series  of  rising  seats  or  benches  disposed  around 
a  spacious  area,  called  the  arena,  in  which  the  combats  of 
gladiators,  wild  beasts,  and  other  sports,  were  exhibited.  It 
consisted  exteriorly  of  a  wall  pierced  in  its  circumference  by 
two  or  more  ranges  of  arcades,  and  interiorly  of  vaulted 
passages  radiating  from  the  exterior  arcades  towards  the 
arena,  and  several  transverse  vaulted  corridors  opening  a  free 
communication  to  the  stairs  at  the  ends  of  the  passages,  and 
to  every  other  part  of  the  building ;  the  corridors  and  ranges 
of  seats  forming  elliptical  figures  parallel  to  the  boundary 
wall. 

Sometimes,  in  the  middle  of  the  fabric,  there  was  an 
intermediate  corridor,  which,  like  those  on  the  ground-floor, 
surrounded  the  whole,  and  served  as  a  common  landing-place 
to  all  the  staircases  that  led  to  the  higher  galleries ;  as  in  the 
amphitheatre  at  Nisraes :  and  sometimes  each  staircase  had  its 
distinct  landing,  without  any  gallery  of  general  communi- 
cation :  as  in  the  amphitheatre  at  Verona. 

The  four  passages  in  the  direction  of  the  greater  and 
lesser  axes  were  generally  made  wider  than  the  rest,  and, 
by  intersecting  arched  passages,  laid  open  to  the  adjoining 
passages  on  either  side  of  them.  The  principal  entrances, 
through  which  the  emperor,  the  senate,  and  other  distin- 
guished persons  passed,  were  placed  in  the  direction  of  the 
lesser  axes.  The  other  two  led  directly  to  the  arena  by  large 
arched  gateways,  which  were  appropriated  to  the  beasts  and 
gladiators.  Through  the  other  passages,  the  different  orders 
of  people  passed  to  the  staircases,  which  led  to  the  respective 
seats.     Every  arcade  around  the  exterior  was  numbered,  as 


AMP 


AMP 


well  as  the  divisions,  or  wedge-formed  parts,  called  ninei, 
which  separated  the  people  into  ditlercnt  orders. 

The  ariij>iiitheatrc  was  regulated  by  certain  laws,  by  which 
each  person  knew  the  entry  through  which  he  was  to  pass, 
to  his  a[i|)ropriate  seat.  The  door-ways,  which  ojieiied  ti'om 
the  stairs  and  passages,  were  denominated  vomitarin.  The 
benches,  on  which  the  people  sat,  were  about  two  fijet  four 
inches  broad,  and  one  fi)ot  eight  inches  high.  Before  every 
range  of  vomitoria,  a  passage  of  eoninuniication,  called  a 
preciiicfum,  was  formed,  aliout  four  feet  eight  inches  broad, 
and  bounded  on  the  ascending  side  by  a  wall  of  aljout  tln-ee 
feet  four  inches  high.  Suirounding  the  arena  was  a  platform 
called  the  podiian,  which  was  of  greater  breadth  than  the 
precinctum,  and  which  was  defended  on  the  front  by  strong 
netting,  and  rails  of  iron  armed  with  spikes,  and  also  with 
strong  rollers  of  timber,  whicli  turned  vertically,  to  prevent 
the  hunted  animals  from  leaping  over.  The  emperor's 
pavilion,  called  the  sngr/estum,  was  in  the  podium,  at  one 
extremity  of  the  minor  axis  of  the  arena,  highly  decorated, 
and  lined  with  silk.  The  seats  of  the  most  distinguished 
persons  were  also  in  the  podium,  and  covered  with  cushions, 
while  marble  benches  were  in  general  covered  with  boards  ; 
but  as  the  podium  was  not  sufficiently  large  to  contain  all 
the  people  of  high  rank,  other  contigiious  places  were  allotted 
for  that  purpose.  Over  the  spectators,  in  time  of  rain  or 
intense  sunshine,  a  covering  of  woollen  of  different  colours, 
called  the  velum,  was  occasionally  stretched  by  means  of 
puUies  and  cords,  and  drawn  up  or  let  down  at  pleasure. — 
On  the  sides  of  the  passages,  and  under  the  stairs,  on  the 
ground-story,  are  many  cells  and  rooms,  which  were  pro- 
bably prisons  for  criminals  condemned  to  fight  or  to  be 
devoured,  and  in  which  the  beasts  might  be  occasionally 
stabled.  It  was  sometimes  the  practice  to  give  novelty  to  the 
games,  by  erecting  pieces  of  machinery  on  the  arena,  repre- 
senting mountains,  cm  which  real  trees  were  planted,  and 
under  them  hidden  caves  were  formed,  from  whence  the  ani- 
mals rushed  out  to  encounter  the  combatants,  or  to  devour 
their  victims. 

Amphitheatres  are  undoubtedly  of  Roman  invention,  and 
were  at  first  constructed  of  timber;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  Augustus  that  one  of  stone  was  built  by  Statilius 
Taurus,  but  this  does  not  appear  to  have  been  held  in  much 
estimation  as  it  was  very  seldom  resorted  to.  The  Roman 
amphitheatre,  called  the  Coliseum,  or  Colosseitrn,  was  begun 
by  the  emperor  Vespasian,  and  finished  by  his  son  Titus,  and 
is  deservedly  celebrated  as  a  prodigy  among  the  ancients. 
At  the  solemn  games,  when  this  edifice  was  dedicated,  five 
thousand  wild  beasts,  according  to  Eutropius,  and  nine  thou- 
sand, according  to  Dio,  were  destroyed  on  its  arena.  \Vhen 
the  hunting  was  conchided,  the  arena  was  suddenly  filled 
with  water,  in  which  a(|uatio  animals  were  made  to  contend, 
and  then  a  sea-fight  ensued.  According  to  Tappen,  the 
greiiter  axis  of  the  ellipsis  of  this  stupendous  edifice  was 
G27  feet,  and  the  lesser.  .V20.  According  to  Desgodetz.  the 
height  of  the  exterior  wall  was  150  feet,  the  greater  axis  of 
the  arena  about  "204  feet,  and  the  lesser  1 05  feet ;  therefore 
the  medium  breadth  of  the  circuit,  for  seats,  galleries,  and 
wall,  was  about  179  or  ISO  feet. — This  edifice  covered  some- 
thing more  than  five  acres  of  ground. 

The  boundary  wall  was  pierced  by  five  ranges  of  aper- 
tures, of  which  the  three  lower  were  arcades,  having  eighty 
openings  in  each  range,  and  the  upper  two  rectangular  win- 
dows. Its  exterior  side  was  decor.ited  with  orders,  in  four 
ranges,  with  continued  entablatures ;  the  three  lower  were 
colonnades,  and  the  upper  a  pilastrade. 

The  lowest  order  was  Doric,  without  nuitules,  triglyphs, 
and  gutta; ;  but  the  shafts  of  the  columns  terminated  with 


bases:  the  second  was  Ionic,  with  the  Attic  base;  its  volutes 
were  slightly  formed,  and  the  dentil  band  uncut:  the  third 
and  fourth  orders  were  Corinthian,  with  unraffled  leaves. 
The  diameter  of  the  columns,  in  the  several  ranges,  was  two 
feet  eight  inches  and  three  cjuai'tcrs,  as  also  the  breadth 
of  the  pilasters;  the  columns  of  the  lower  range  were 
twenty-six  feet  high,  and  each  of  the  others  twenty-four 
feet  only.  This  makes  the  Doric  columns  higher  than  either 
the  Ionic  or  Corinthian,  and  the  altitude  of  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  equal  to  each  other,  while  all  the  columns  have 
equal  diameters,  and  are  of  the  same  breadth  with  the  pilas- 
ters of  the  upper  range.  The  sima  of  the  cornice  of  the 
lower  Corinthian  was  supported  by  modillions.  without  the 
intervention  of  the  coron.a,  and  the  column  has  a  Tiiscan 
base.  The  upper  Corinthian  had  its  cornice  formed  in  front 
by  three  faces,  and  a  cymatium  like  an  architi'avc,  and  .sup- 
ported by  cantalivers,  prfijeeting  out  of  the  fi-icze ;  or  the 
entablature  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  architrave  cornice,  reck- 
oning the  frieze  and  cantalivers  a  part  of  it.  The  whole 
edifice  was  crowned  with  a  blocking  course. 

The  first  colonnade  was  raised  on  several  steps,  about 
three  feet  two  inches  above  ground,  and  the  bases  of  the 
columns  stood  on  the  uppermost  step,  which  formed  the  pave- 
ment of  the  entrances.  In  the  superior  stories,  the  piers  and 
columns  were  elevated  on  stylobat-T  and  podia,  and  the  second 
and  third  ranges  of  arcades  stood  upon  podia  also.  The 
boundary  wall  was  diminislred  upwards  in  its  thickness  on 
both  sides,  but  more  particularly  from  the  exterior  side  of 
it,  in  each  succeeding  story,  and  the  columns  of  the  two 
lower  ranges  projected  three  quarters  of  their  diameter, 
while  those  of  the  third  range  did  not  project  more  than  the 
half;  and  therefore  the  axes  of  the  columns  of  each  succeed- 
ing range  upwards,  were  more  recessed  than  those  of  the 
inferior  range.  This  recession  is  more  observable  in  the 
upper  range  of  columns  than  in  that  immediately  below  ; 
but  still  more  in  the  pilasters  of  the  third  order.  The  dimi- 
nution of  the  columns  commences  from  the  third  part  of 
their  height.  The  straight  soffits  of  the  fillets  and  other 
horizontal  projections  rise  more  in  the  front  than  in  the  rear. 
The  lower  range  of  the  rectangular  windows  had  one  window 
disposed  in  every  alternate  podium,  below  the  upper  order  ; 
and  had  the  upper  range  of  windows  in  tin-  intcr-pilasters 
above  the  imperforated  podia.  The  cornice  of  the  uppermost 
order  was  pierced  with  square  mortises,  through  which  the 
awning  poles  passed  to  a  range  of  corbels  below,  something 
higher  than  the  middle  of  the  pilasters.  Seventy-six  nf  the 
lower  range  of  arcades  were  about  thirteen  feet  four  inches 
broad,  and  the  four  placed  upon  the  extremities  of  the  axes, 
about  foui'tccn  feet  six  inches.  The  lowest  range  of  arcades 
radiated  vault-wise  towards  the  arena,  in  n  direction  almost 
at  right  angles  to  the  curve  of  the  pliui  of  the  exterior  wall, 
and  intersecting  two  vaulted  corridors,  passed  on  to  the  stair- 
cases in  the  same  direction.  Two  other  corridors  were  pl;iced 
between  these  stairs  and  the  wall  of  the  podium,  and  other 
stairs  between  the  second  and  fourth  corridors.  The  first 
staircases  were  entered  by  the  second  and  third  corridors, 
and  those  next  to  the  arena  by  the  third  corridor  only  ;  this 
corridor  was  lighted  from  above,  by  vertical  square  holes, 
descending  through  the  erfiwn  of  the  vault ;  and,  it  is  pro- 
bable, that  the  fourth  corridor,  adjoining  the  wall  of  the 
podium,  was  lighted  in  the  same  manner.  The  second  story 
had  three  corridors,  laid  open  to  one  another  by  radiating 
passages  :  the  first  two  were  placed  over  the  first  and  second 
eorridm-s  on  the  ground-fioor,  and  be;  ween  the  second  and 
third  were  placed  stairs,  which  ascended  on  the  one  hand  to 
the  second  range  of  vomitoria,  and  on  the  other,  to  another 
high-groined    corridor,    forming    a   mezzanine,    which    was 


AMP 


ANC 


lighted  from  the  floor  of  the  gallery  above,  and  from  which 
the  staii's  ascended  to  the  next  story.  The  third  story  con- 
sisied  of  a  doable  corridor,  from  which  the  stairs  conliniicd 
upwards  to  the  fourth  galleries,  the  interior  wall  of  which 
was  pierced  with  winilows  and  doors,  or  voniitoria,  that 
opened  to  the  uppermost  cunci  of  benches.  On  the  inside 
of  the  exterior  wall  are  vestiges  of  stairs  which  led  to  a 
fifth  callery  ;  this  again  liad  four  staircases,  which  led  to 
a  sixth  gallery ;  and  from  thence  the  stairs  continued  to  the 
top.  The  two  upper  floors  were  contained  in  the  height  of 
the  pilastrade. 

The  stone  employed  in  this  edifice  is  the  produce  of  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and  is  called  Travertine-stone,  of 
which  the  exterior  walls,  the  piers  between  the  two  outer 
corridors,  the  heads  of  the  passages  and  corridors,  and  some 
bendstones,  are  constructed  :  all  the  rest  is  of  brick.  The 
e.\terior  wall  is  cramped  with  ligatures  of  iron,  without 
cement;  some  of  the  internal  walls  have  remains  of  plaster 
ornaments,  and  others  are  lined  with  marble.  The  floors 
of  the  corridors  are  paved  with  flat  bricks,  and  covered  with 
a  hard  incrustation  of  stucco.  This  building  is  supposed  to 
have  contained  100,000  persons;  but  it  will  be  found  that 
by  allowing  two  feet  two  inches  from  seat  to  seat,  and  one 
foot  nine  inches  to  the  breadth  of  each  person,  not  more 
than  80,000  could  be  accommodated,  even  supposing  all  the 
upper  galleries  to  be  filled. 

"  The  proportions  of  this  edifice,"  says  Tappen,  '•  were  in 
such  perfect  harmony  with  each  other,  that  there  was  nothing 
gigantic  in  its  appearance,  although  the  greatness  of  its 
dimensions  never  fails  to  impress  every  mind  with  ideas  of 
its  sublimity." 

A  structnre  of  sucli  dimensions,  and  of  such  contrivance 
and  ingenuity  .as  the  Colosseum,  eclipses  the  most  magnificent 
works  of  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  and  even  those  of  modern 
times.  The  structures  of  Egypt,  such  as  we  may  conjecture 
from  what  now  remains,  have  little  to  recommend  them, 
except  their  magnitude  and  the  enormous  stones  employed 
in  their  construction.  For  beautiful  simplicity,  and  chastity 
of  parts,  the  Greeks  excelled  every  other  people  ;  yet  the 
Romans,  though  licentious  in  the  detail  and  embellishments, 
showed  much  ingenuity,  not  only  in  the  arrangement  of  their 
plans,  but  in  the  construction  of  the  elevated  parts,  both 
with  regard  to  the  solidity  of  the  work,  and  the  end  to  be 
answered  by  the  design.  Our  finest  embellishments  and 
best  proportions  are  of  Greek  origin  ;'  but  the  Romans  have 
set  us  the  e.\ample  in  a  beautiful  diversification  of  plans. 

The  Amphitheatre  at  Verona  consisted,  formerly,  of  three 
stories  of  arcades,  with  pilasters  against  the  piers  of  each 
story,  bearing  continued  entablatures.  The  pilasters  and 
arches  are  all  rusticated  and  unwrought  on  the  face.  The 
orders  which  decorate  the  solid  parts  of  the  masonry  are  of 
no  legitimate  species,  but  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Tuscan 
than  any  of  the  other  three.  The  second  pilastrade  stands 
upon  a  plinth,  and  the  third  upon  a  triple  plinth.  The 
pilasters  of  the.  first  and  second  ranges  are  very  slender, 
particularly  the  second ;  those  of  the  third  range  arc  double 
the  breadth  of  those  of  the  second  range,  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  strength. 

The  arches  forming  the  heads  of  the  first  and  second  arcades 
are  e.xtradossed,  and  project  out  beyond  the  rustics,  which 
form  the  horizontal  courses  above  ;  the  arches  forming  the 
heads  of  the  third  arcades  are  also  extradossed,  but  each  has 
another  concentric  extr.idossed  arch,  springing  on  each  side 
from  the  pilaster,  with  its  face  in  the  same  plane  with  the 
pilasters,  and  its  inner  diameter  equal  to  the  clear  distance 
of  the  jiilasters.  The  edifice  is  finished  with  a  blocking 
course,  resting    upon  the  upper  entablature :    of  the  outer 


wall  only  a  small  part  remains.  From  some  mutilated  courses 
of  rustic  work,  and  the  lower  part  of  two  plain  jiilasters 
which  remain,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  building  had 
also  a  fourth  story.  The  height  of  the  three  existing  stories 
is  about  !)0  English  feet.  This  edifice  was  erected  without 
cement  ;  the  stones  being  nicely  joined  with  cramps  of  iron, 
covered  with  lead.  TTic  greater  axis  of  the  ellipsis  of  the 
pliin,  according  to  Desgodetz,  is  433  feet  8  inches,  and  the 
lesser  333  feet  4  inches  ;  the  greater  axis  of  the  arena  237 
feet,  and  that  of  the  lesser  130  leet  8  inches  ;  the  breadth, 
for  benches  and  wall,  being  100  feet  4  inches;  each  range 
of  arches  were  seventy-two  in  mjmbcr,  which  opening  into 
the  first  range  of  arcades,  radiated  towards  the  arena,  in 
passages  and  staircases,  crossing  a  corridor  surrounding  the 
whole  ;  the  passages,  proceeding  forward,  crossed  two  other 
surrounding  corridors,  between  which  were  other  stairs. 

The  second  story  has  one  corridor  above  the  exterior  lower 
one.  Above  are  forty-six  tiers  of  seats,  rising  by  equal 
degrees  from  the  arena  to  the  wall  upwards.  The  interior 
of  this  edifice  is  entire,  having  been  wholly  reinstated  by 
the  inhabitants,  from  time  to  time,  for  the  purpose  of 
exhibiting  plays,  and  other  diversions. 

The  greatest  diameter  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  Amphitheatre 
at  Nismcs  is  430  feet,  and  the  least  338  feet ;  the  whole 
height  76  feet  6  inches. 

The  elevation  consisted  of  two  stories  of  open  arcades  and 
an  attic.  Each  story  had  si.xty  arcades  in  its  circumference, 
of  which  the  four  placed  upon  the  extremities  of  the  axes 
form  the  grand  entrances,  and  are  decorated  with  pediments. 
Against  the  solid  parts  of  the  masoniy  are  Tuscan  pilasters, 
resting  on  pedestals,  and  supporting  an  entablature  which 
breaks  over  them.  On  the  top  are  short,  hollowed  stone 
corbels,  in  which,  it  is  supposed,  poles  were  placed,  for  bear- 
ing an  awning  over  the  spectators.  Many  of  the  rows  of 
seats  are  entire. 

The  remains  of  the  Amphitheatre  at  Pola,  in  Istria,  consist 
of  an  elliptic  wall,  pierced  around  its  circumference  with  72 
arches ;  containing  two  stories  on  one  side,  and  one  on  the 
other,  being  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill.  Above  the  upper 
arcade  is  an  attic,  pierced  by  72  square-headed  windows, 
which  surround  the  whole  :  through  this  are  grooves  for  the 
poles  that  supported  the  velum.  The  greatest  diameter  of 
the  ellipsis  is  416,  and  the  least  337  feet. 

The  Romans  constructed  Amphitheatres  in  England  ;  one 
at  Dorchester,  and  one  at  Ilchester. 

AMPHITHURA,  (from  the  Greek,  afi<j)i6vpa,  both  doors.) 
in  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  the  veil  or  curtain  which  divided 
the  chancel  from  the  rest  of  the  church ;  so  called  on 
account  of  its  opening  in  the  middle,  after  the  manner  of 
folding  doors. 

ANABATHRUM,  (from  avafiaivo),  I  ascend.)  a  kind  of 
ladder,  or  steps,  by  which  an  eminence  may  be  ascended. 
In  this  sense,  we  read  of  the  anabathra  of  theatres,  pul- 
pits, &c. 

ANAGLYPHICE,  or  Anaglyptice,  (from  ava,  yXv<f>u>, 
to  carve  or  engrave,)  a  species  of  sculpture  wherein  the 
strokes  of  the  figures  are  prominent  or  embossed  :  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Biar/li/phice,  where  the  strokes  are  indented. 

ANAMORPHOSIS,  (ava  nopi)T],)  in  Perspective  and 
Painting,  a  monstrous  projection,  or  a  representation  of  some 
image,  either  on  a  plane  or  curved  surface,  deformed  or  dis- 
torted, but  which,  in  a  certain  point  of  view,  appears  regu- 
lar arid  in  just  proportion. 

ANCHOR,  an  ornament  in  form  of  an  anchor,  or  arrow's 
head,  employed  in  the  echinus,  or  ovolo,  between  the  borders 
which  surround  the  eggs.  This  anchor,  with  its  concomi- 
tants, are  generally  carved  on  the  ovolo  of  the  Ionic  capital ; 


ANG 


6 


ANG 


and  in  the  Grecian,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders,  upon  all 
large  mouldings  of  this  form  :  they  are  not  employed  in  the 
Grecian  Doric,  though  they  are  used  in  the  Trajan  and 
Antonine  columns  of  the  Tuscan  order,  at  Kome. 

ANCONES,  the  trusses  or  consoles  sometimes  employed 
in  the  dressings  of  apertures,  as  an  apparent  support  to  the 
cornice,  uponthe  flanks  of  the  architrave.  In  many  ancient 
doors,  the  aneones  were  narrower  at  the  bottom  than  at  the 
top,  and,  in  some  instances,  were  not  in  contact  with  the 
flanks  of  the  architrave,  but  placed  at  a  small  distance  from 
them  ;  the  aneones  being  further  separated  from  each  other. 
Vitruvius  calls  them  prothyrides. 

•  ANDREA  DE  PISA,  a  sculptor  and  architect,  born  at 
Pisa,  in  1270.  He  built  several  castles,  and  the  church  of 
St.  John,  at  Pistoia ;  but  his  skill  in  architecture  was  prin- 
cipally displayed  at  Florence,  where  he  erected  many  man- 
sions, enlarged  and  fortitied  the  palace  of  the  dnke,  and  sur- 
rounded it  with  magnificent  towers  and  gates.  On  account 
of  these  works,  he  obtained  the  right  of  citizenship.  At  the 
request  of  the  duke  of  Athens,  he  made  a  model  of  a  citadel, 
which  he  intended  to  erect  for  restraining  the  Florentines. 
On  this  account,  they  took  the  alarm,  .ind  expelled  the  duke ; 
but  Andrea  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  Florence, 
cultivating  the  fine  arts,  such  as  painting,  poetry,  and  iiiusic, 
besides  those  which  were  professedly  his  own.  He  died  in 
1345,  aged  75. 

ANDUON,  or  Androna,  (from  arT/p,  a  man,)  in  antiquity, 
an  apartment  in  houses,  assigned  to  the  use  of  men.  It  was 
sometimes  called  andronitis,  in  opposition  to  ffi/necwnm,  the 
apartment  appropriated  to  the  use  of  women.  The  Greeks 
also  gave  their  dining-rooms  the  title  of  andron,  liecause  the 
women  were  not  admitted  to  feasts  in  company  with  the  men. 
Androna,  in  ancient  writers,  denotes  a  public  place  where 
people  met  to  converse  on  business,  such  as  our  exchanges ; 
however,  it  is  more  particularly  used  to  signify  the  space  or 
alley  between  two  houses ;  and  in  this  sense  it  was  used  liy 
the  Greeks,  for  the  passage  between  two  apartments  in  a 
house.  This  word  is  sometimes  written,  andra,  andrion,  or 
andronium,  and  is  of  the  same  import  as  the  Koman  term 
mesaiilce. 

ANGLE,  rectilinear,  (Lat.  anffulus,  the  elbow,)  according 
to  Euclid,   "  the  inclination  of  two  straight  lines  to  one  an- 
other, which  meet,  but  are  not  in  the  same  direction."    This 
definition,  if  indeed  it  may  be  termed  such,  is  so  very  indis- 
tinct, and  even  inaccurate,  that  it  has  been  entirely  discarded 
by   modern    nuithematicians,  who  have    individually  given 
many  suggestions  for  its  improvement,  but  have  not  agreed 
so  far  as  to  adopt  any  as  a  standard  definition.     We  give 
the  following  as  one  of  the  most  correct: — "  An  angle  is  the 
ratio  of  the  plane  surface  bounded  by  two  infinite  right  lines 
which  meet,  to  the  plane  surface  on  all  sides  indefinitely 
extended  about  the  point  where  they  meet."  Thus  the  a  d  c 
is  the  ratio  of  the  plane  surface,  bounded  by  the  straight 
lines  A  B,  D  c  infinitely  extended  to  the  unbounded  plane  of 
the  paper  about  the  point  d.     Objections,  doubtless,  may  be 
urged  against  this,  as  against  all  other  suggestions ;  but  the 
sulyect   is  unquestionably  a  difticult  one,  as  it  necessarily 
involves    the    long-disputed    question    concerning    infinite 
magnitudes.       The      following     description,     though     not 
amounting    in    preciseness    to  a  definition,  aflbrds    a  very 
intelligible  notion  of  the  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed^  by 
the  term,  viz :  the  opening  made  by  two  intersecting  right 
lines. 

Comparison  of  Angles.  As  every  theory  respecting  the 
comparison  of  infinite  spaces  is  attended  with  considerable 
difficulty,  we  shall  leave  the  consideration  of  the  more 
abstruse  points  of  this  subject  to  works  of  a  different  nature, 


and  endeavour  to  explain,  as  clearly  as  possible,  the  method 
of  comparing  angles. 

Let  A  n  c,  D  E  F,  (see  the  plate)  be  two  angles  formed  by 
the  intersection  of  the  straight  lines  A  b,  n  c,  d  e,  e  f,  at  the 
points  B  E,  respectively. 

Apply  the  angle  a  b  c  to  angle  d  e  f  in  such  a  manner,  that 
the  poit"its  B  e,  and  the  lines  b  c,  e  f  coincide,  then  the  posi- 
tion of  E  D  with  respect  to  b  a  is  determined.  Such  being 
the  position  of  the  two  figures,  if  e  d  fall  upon  b  a,  the  two 
opeiiings  coincide,  or,  in  other  words,  the  angle  a  b  c  is 
equal  ^o  the  angle  d  e  f.  If,  however,  e  d  fall  between 
B  c  and  B  A,  the  opening  or  angle  d  e  f  is  less  than  the 
other  A  B  c  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  e  d  fall  without  or 
beyond  b  a,  the  angle  d  e  f  is  said  to  be  greater  than  the 
angle  a  b  c. 

Again,  supposing  the  angles  to  be  applied  as  before,  and 
E  D  to  fall  within  a  b  ;  let  e  d  remain  fixed  in  that  position, 
but  let  E  F  be  turned  about  e  d  as  an  axis,  until  it  fiill_  on 
the  opposite  side  of  it ;  then,  if  e  f  coincide  with  b  a,  it  is 
evident  that  the  angle  a  b  o  is  equal  to  twice  the  angle 
n  E  F.  In  the  same  manner  may  be  explained  the  notion  of 
one  angle  being  three,  four,  or  any  number  of  times  greater 
or  less  than  another. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  magnitude  of  the 
angle  in  no  wise  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  intersecting 
lines ;  for,  if  we  suppose  a  part  d  d  to  be  cut  off  from  the 
side  D  B,  ujion  applying  the  angle  d  e  f  to  angle  a  b  c,  as 
above,  we  shall  find  that  the  line  e  (/  will  still  fall  in  the 
same  position  with  respect  to  a  b,  as  it  did  before  d  d 
was  cut  off";  and  will  do  so,  however  short  e  d  may  become, 
until  the  line,  and  therefore  the  angle,  ceases  to  exist. 

Again,  let  us  suppose  a  line  starting  from  a  certain  station 
A  B,  to  revolve  round  one  of  its  extremities  a  as  a  fixed 
point  or  axis,  and  to  arjive  at  the  situation  a  b,  ;  it  will 
then,  with  its  original  position,  describe  an  angle  b  a  Bi.  Let 
it  now  continue  its  revolution,  until  it  has  passed  over 
another  space  equal  to  the  preceding,  and  in  so  doing  has 
reached  the  position  a  b^  ;  it  will  then  be  readily  understood 
that  the  angle  b  a  b,  equals  twice  the  angle  b  a  b,  and  thus 
we  might  describe  an  angle  any  number  of  times  greater 
than  BAB. 

Euclid's  notion  of  an  angle  has  been  very  much  enlarged 
upon  by  later  mathematicians,  as  we  proceed  to  illustrate 
by  reference  to  the  last  diagram.  Let  us  conceive  the  line 
A  B  to  continue  its  revolution  to  B3,  and  thence  to  B4 ;  we  say 
then  that  a  Bj  forms  with  its  first  position  the  angle  b  a  B4, 
and  thus  fiir  Euclid  allows;  but  if  the  revolution  be  con- 
tinued until  A  B  arrives  in  the  position  a  Bj,  so  as  to  form 
a  straight  line  with  its  first  position— which  event  takes 
place  when  it  has  performed  half  a  revolution— Euclid  no 
longer  recognizes  the  opening  so  formed  as  an  angle.  Such, 
however,  it  is  reckoned  to  be  by  the  moderns,  and  that  not 
without  reason  ;  for  it  will  be  readily  acknowledged  that  the 
opening  formed  by  the  lines  a  b  and  a  Bj,  is  greater  tliaii  that 
formed  by  a  b  and  a  B4,  thus  showing  that  such  opening  is 
liable  to  comparison  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  angle. 
The  same  reasoning  will  apply  to  openings  formed  by  a  whole 
revolution  or  more;  indeed,  the  moderns  do  not  restrict 
the  term  to  any  number  of  revolutions  however  great. 

A  Right  Angle  is  that  traced  out  by  a  b  while  perform- 
ing a  quarter  revolution. 

An  Obtuse  Angle  is  that  which  is  greater  than  one  right 
angle,  and  less  than  two. 

An  Acute  Angle  is  that  which  is  less  than  one  right 
angle.  The  angle  formed  when  a  b  has  completed  one  revo- 
lution and  arrived  at  a  n,  is  described  as  four  right  angles  + 
angle  b  a  b. 


ANG 


ANN 


Measurement  of  Angles.  Referring  again  to  the  last  dia- 
gram, it  will  be  seen  that  the  point  b  in  the  line  a  b,  during 
its  revolution  round  its  axis  a,  describes  a  circle.  Now  the 
cirounift'rcnce  of  any  circle  so  described  is  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees,  each  of  such 
degrees  into  60  minutes,  and  each  minute  into  60  seconds. 
This  division  is  made  use  of  for  the  measurement  of  angles 
in  the  following  manner  : — As  the  angle  traced  out  by  a 
whole  revolution  passes  over  in  its  progress  .360  of  the  larger 
divisions,  it  is  styled  the  angle  of  360  degrees;  similarly,  the 
right  angle,  which  makes  only  a  quarter  revolution,  is  named 
the  angle  of  90  degrees  ;  and  so  on  for  angles  of  any  dimen- 
sions whatsoever. 

The  measure  of  the  arc  is  sometimes  used  indiscriminately 
for  that  of  the  angle ;  but  such  measurement  is,  strictly 
speaking,  incorrect.     See  Arc. 

External  Angle,  in  civil  architecture,  the  same  as  Saliant 
Angle,  which  see. 

Internal  Angle,  in  civil  architecture,  the  same  as  Jie- 
entering  Angle,  which  see. 

Re-entering,  or  Re-entrant  Angle  of  a  solid;  an  angle 
whose  vertex  recedes,  or  is  turned  inwards,  from  a  right 
line  extended  between  any  two  points  in  the  legs ;  or  it  is 
a  cavity  or  void,  formed  by  two  planes  on  the  surface  of  the 
solid.  Artificers  call  all  such  angles,  made  by  walls  or 
partitions.  Internal  Angles. 

Saliant  or  Sortant  Angle  of  a  Solid,  an  angle,  of  which 
the  vertex  is  prominent ;  or  it  is  the  solid  matter  contained 
between  two  planes  inclined  to  each  other  in  an  angle  less 
than  two  right  angles  ;  or,  it  is  such,  that  if  a  point  be  taken 
in  each  plane,  the  straight  line  joining  the  two  points,  will 
pass  through  the  solidity.  Artificers  call  all  such  angles, 
made  by  walls  or  partitions.  External  Angles. 

Solid  Angle,  the  mutual  inclination  of  more  than  two 
plane  rectilineal  angles  meeting  in  a  point,  and  not  contained 
in  the  same  plane. 

Angle  of  a  Wall,  the  angle  contained  by  the  two  ver- 
tical planes  which  form  the  angle  of  a  building.  It  would 
be  bet#r  denominated  the  angle  of  a  building,  a  term  suffi- 
ciently explanatory  of  itself;  but  as  it  is  to  be  found  in  other 
dictionaries  of  this  nature,  it  is  here  inserted.  The  angle  of 
a  wall  is  said  to  be  '•  the  point  where  the  two  sides  meet ;" 
but  it  should  be  tlie  line  where  the  two  sides  meet,  which  is 
commonly  called  by  woi'kmen  the  arris ;  still  the  arris  is  not 
the  angle,  but  the  line  of  concourse  formed  by  the  two  sides, 
or  planes,  containing  the  angle. 

Angle  Bar,  in  joinery.  When  a  projecting  window 
stands  on  a  polygonal  plan,  the  upright  bar  at  the  meeting 
of  any  two  planes  of  the  sides  of  the  window  is  called  an 
angle  bar.  When  there  are  mouldings  on  the  other  bars, 
the  angle  bars  should  be  made  to  mitre  with  the  horizontal 
bars  on  either  side  of  them.  The  manner  of  finding  the 
section  of  an  angle  bar,  is  shown  under  the  term  Raking 
Mouldings. 

Angle  Braces  ;  when  a  quadrangular  frame  has  a  timber 
opposite  each  angle,  fixed  to  each  of  the  two  sides  forming 
the  angle,  and  thereby'  making  the  inside  of  the  frame  of  an 
octagonal  figure,  the  timbers  so  fixed,  are  called  angle-braces, 
or  diagonal  ties,  or  angle  ties  ;  the  angles  of  wall-plates  are  fre- 
quently braced  in  this  manner.  Also  when  a  well-hole,  of  a  cir- 
cular section,  is  made  through  a  roof  or  floor,  tor  a  sky-light, 
&c.,  the  framing  is  first  made  quadrangularly  ;  then  braces 
are  fixed  opposite  to  each  angle,  and  the  aperture  becomes  an 
octagon  ;  and  lastly,  pieces  are  again  fixed  in  each  angle  of 
the  octagon,  meeting  each  other  in  the  middle  of  its  sides, 
so  as  to  transform  the  section  of  the  aperture  into  a  circle, 
and  thus  the  well-hole  is  shaped  as  required. 


Angle  Bracket.     See  Bracketing. 

Angle  Rafter.     See  Hipped  Roof. 

Angle  Rib,  a  curved  piece  of  timber,  placed  between 
those  two  parts  of  a  coved  or  arched  ceiling,  or  vault,  which 
form  an  angle  with  each  other,  so  as  to  range  with  the  com- 
mon ribs  on  each  side,  or  return  part.  Examples  will  be 
seen  under  the  articles  Dome,  Groin,  and  Hipped  Roof. 

Angle-Staffs,  or  Staff-Beads,  vertical  beads,  generally 
of  wood,  fixed  to  exterior  angles,  flush  with  the  intended 
surface  of  the  plaster,  on  both  sides,  for  the  purpose  of 
fortifying  the  angles  against  accident :  they  serve  also  for 
floating  the  plaster.  Their  section  is  about  three-fourths  of 
a  circle,  with  a  projecting  part  from  the  other  quarter,  by 
which  they  are  fastened  to  the  wood  biicks,  plugging, 
or  bond-timbers.  The  section  of  angle-stafls  is  sometimes 
that  of  a  triple  bead,  the  middle  one  being  larger  than  that 
on  either  side  of  it,  and  flush  with  it  and  the  plaster.  Angle- 
beads  of  wood,  around  the  intradosses  of  circular  arches,  are 
difficult  to  bend  without  cutting  or  steaming  them  ;  the  for- 
mer has  a  very  unsightly  appearance,  and  the  latter  is  both 
inconvenient  and  troublesome:  for  this  situation  of  angle- 
beads,  no  other  material  will  finish  better  than  the  plaster 
itself;  and  it  will  be  sufficiently  strong,  as  at  that  height  it 
is  more  out  of  the  reach  of  accident.  Whenever  wooden 
and  plaster  beads  are  employed  in  the  same  margin,  or  angle, 
they  should  never  join  each  other,  but  should  always  have 
an  impost  to  intervene,  as,  otherwise  the  joint  will  show. 
In  grand  finishings  no  comer  beads  are  employed  ;  but  the 
plaster  is  well  gauged,  .and  brought  to  an  arris. 

Angle  Ties.     See  Angle  Braces. 

ANGULAR,  something  relating  to  angle. 

Angular  Capital,  is  generally  applied  to  the  Scam- 
mozzian,  or  modern  Ionic  capital,  which  is  formed  alike  on 
all  the  four  faces,  so  as  to  return  at  the  angles  of  the  build- 
ing, as  in  the  Tenq:>le  of  Concord.  It  is  also  applied  to  those 
capitals  of  Grecian  edifices  which  had  two  fronts  alike  on 
ea  h  angle  of  the  building,  in  order  to  face  the  front  and 
flank  alike,  and  to  correspond  to  the  other  capitals,  upon  the 
columns  ranged  in  the  flank,  as  well  as  in  the  front.  See 
Plate. 

Angular  Chimney,  one  which  stands  in  the  angle  of  an 
apartment,  with  the  plane  of  its  breast  intersecting  the  adja- 
cent walls.  For  the  method  of  measuring  angular  chimneys, 
see  Chimnev. 

Angular  Modillions,  those  which  are  placed  at  the 
return  of  a  cornice,  in  the  diagonal  vertical  plane,  passing 
through  the  angle  or  mitre  of  the  cornice. 

As  angular  modillions  are  not  to  be  traced  among  the  ruins 
•f  Grecian  edifices,  it  may  be  concluded,  that  they  were 
seldom  or  never  used  by  the  Greeks ;  nor  are  they  to  be  found 
among  the  ruined  edifices  of  ancient  Rome ;  it  is  however 
probable,  that  they  may  have  been  used  in  the  decline  of  the 
empire,  since  they  are  to  be  seen  in  the  remains  of  the  palace 
of  the  emperor  Diocletian,  at  Spalatro,  in  the  vestibulum, 
and  in  the  temples  of  Jupiter  and  iEsculapius.  The  ruined 
cities  of  Balbec  and  Palmyra  exhibit  many  specimens,  in  the 
large  porticos,  and  in  the  entablatures  of  doorwaj's. 

Angular  Vault,  a  vault  supported  upon  two  c'rcular 
walls;  such  as  the  temple  of  Bacchus,  at  Rome  ;  the  Temple 
church,  London ;  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  at 
Cambridge,  &c. 

ANNULETS,  (from  the  Latin,  annulus,  a  ring,)  the  annular 
fillets  between  the  hypotrachelion  and  echinus  of  the  Doric 
capital.  In  the  Roman  Doric,  they  are  generally  three  in 
number,  and  of  equal  size,  with  rectangular  sections.  One 
side  of  each  annulet  is  a  horizontal  soffit,  seen  from  below, 
the  other  is  a  vertical  cvlindrical  surface,  having  the  same 


ANT 


8 


AP  A 


axis  with  the  column,  the  projection  of  each  soffit  being  equal 
to  the  height  of  its  respective  vertical  side.  In  the  axisal 
section  of  the  Grecian  Doric,  except  in  the  case  of  tlio  Doric 
portico  at  Athens,  the  number  of  annulets  vary  from  three  to 
five;  the  sinkings  between  each  two  filiow  the  line  of  the 
echinus,  and  the  outer  sides  of  the  tiljets  form  a  curve  parallel 
to  that  of  the  sinliings  ;  the  upper  side  of  each  is  perpendicular 
to  the  curve,  and  the  lower  side  is  concave  towards  the  space 
between  each  two  :  the  concavity  begins  in  a  direction  per- 
pendicular to  the  curve  of  the  moulding  ;  the  flutings  of  the 
shaft  of  the  column  terminate  under  the  lowest  annulets. 
There  are  also  other  names  by  which  an  annulet  is  sometimes 
called,  as  cincture,  fillet,  and  list,  or  listella,  which  are  equally 
applicable  to  rectilineal  members,  and  therefore  should  never 
be  used  but  in  a  general  description,  whore  there  is  some 
common  property  to  be  explained,  as  they  do  not  particularly 
imply  circularity. 

ANNULUS,  a  Cylindrical  Ring,  a  solid  formed  by  the 
resolution  of  a  circle  about  a  straight  line  without  the  cir- 
cumference as  an  axis,  and  in  the  plane  of  the  circle.  For 
the  method  of  measuring  an  annulus,  see  Mensuration. 

ANTjE.  When  the  two  parallel  side-walls  or  flanks  of 
a  temple,  or  other  edifice,  are  protruded  or  lengthened  out 
beyond  the  end  of  the  building,  and  when  each  of  the  two 
projections  is  covered  with  a  vertical  body,  prfijocting  on 
each  side  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  having  a  base,  a  pris- 
matic trunk,  and  a  capital,  similar  to  a  pilaster;  then  these 
bodies,  or  terminations,  are  called  antae.  The  breadth  of 
the  antse  on  the  flanks  of  the  temple  was  always  less  than 
in  the  front ;  and  the  two  edges  of  the  autre  which  faced 
each  other  within,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  '  pronaos,  were 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  columns  placed  between  them, 
while  that  of  the  opposite,  or  outsides  of  the  flanks  of  the 
edifice,  was  much  less.  The  capitals  of  the  antx  never  cor- 
responded with  those  of  the  columns,  though  the  mouldings 
■were  more  or  less  enriched,  as  the  order  had  more  or  fewer 
decorations.  In  the  temple  of  Minerva  Pollias,  and  the  tf  m- 
ple  of  Apollo  Didyma;us,  in  Ionia,  the  capitals  of  the  autre 
have  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  the  columns;  they 
having  also  volutes,  though  not  of  the  same  proportion,  nor 
depending  in  the  same  way  ;  as  these  arc  hung  to  an  upright, 
and  those  to  a  horizontal  hem,  connecting  the  two.  Autre 
differ  from  pilasters,  not  only  in  their  capitals,  but  also  in 
their  situation.  A  portico  is  said  to  be  '"  in  antis"  when 
columns  are  placed  between  the  two  autre.     See  Tkmple. 

ANTECHAMBER,  (from  the  Latin,  ante,  before,  and 
camera,  a  chamber.)  an  outer  chamber,  befiirc  a  principal 
one,  where  servants  wait,  and  strangers  are  detained  till  the 
person  to  be  spoken  with  is  at  leisure. 

ANTEFIXiE,  blocks  with  vertical  faces  placed  at 
regular  intervals  on  the  uppermost  member  of  a  cornice, 
for  the  purpose  of  hiding  tiie  ends  of  the  covering 
or  joint-tiles  of  the  roof.  The  fjices  of  antcfixre  are 
usuail}-  carved  with  some  ornamental  device,  as  a  flower, 
leaf,  &o. 

ANTEMURAL,  (from  ante,  before,  and  nuirtix,  a  w.all,) 
an  outer  wall,  environing  the  works  and  walls  of  a  fortified 
place,  in  order  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  approaching  too 
near.     In  some  writings,  it  signifies  the  same  as  an  outwork. 

ANTEPAGMENTA,  or  Antipagments,  (from  Greek 
avri,  —i]yvvjii,  to  fix,)  in  ancient  architecture,  the  jambs  of  a 
door  moulded  like  an  architrave.  The  lintel  returning  at 
the  ends,  wilh  similar  mouldings,  down  upon  the  .antipag- 
menta,  was  called  the  superciliiim.  Also  carved  ornaments 
of  nu'U.  animals,  (Jcc,  placed  on  the  architrave. 

ANTElvIDES,  in  ancient  architect\irc,  the  buttresses 
erected   to  strengthen   a  wall :    they    are   called    in    Greek, 


epEia^iara,  and  answer  to  what  our  modern  builders  call 
counter-forts,  and  arcltbutants  ;  by  the  Italians  they  are  called 
barhicane,  and  speroni,  or  spurs.  They  are  also  sometimes 
called  antes,  sometimes  crismee. 

ANTE-ROO^I,  a  room  through  which  a  person  m>ist  pass, 
in  order  to  enter  into  another  room,  in  m.any  constructions 
of  houses,  there  is  a  necessity  for  introducing  anterooms, 
from  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  plan  ;  and  in  many 
situations,  besides  being  uset'ul,  they  add  both  grandeur  and 
elegance  to  the  design. 

ANTES.     See  Ant.e. 

ANTHEMIUS,  a  distinguished  architect,  a  native  of 
Tralles,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  emjiloyed  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian in  the  construction  of  various  edifices,  particularly  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  which  he  designed, 
and  also  superintended  10,000  workmen  in  its  execution. 
Anthemius  was  .also  a  sculptor,  a  mathematician,  and  an 
experimental  philosopher. 

ANTICS,  figures  of  men,  beasts,  &c.,  placed  as  ornaments 
to  a  building. 

ANTICUM,  the  porch  before  a  door;  also,  that  part  of 
the  temple  which  is  called  the  outer  temple,  and  lies  between 
the  body  of  the  temple,  and  the  portico. 

ANTIPORTICO,  a  word  sometimes  used  to  denote  a  ves- 
tibule, or  porch,  at  the  entrance  of  an  edifice. 

ANTIQUARIUM,  among  the  ancients,  an  apartment  in 
which  their  antique  monuments  were  preserved. 

ANTIQUE,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  something  an- 
cient ;  but  the  term  is  chiefly  employed  by  architects,  sculp- 
tors, and  painters,  and  applied  to  works,  in  their  respective 
professions,  executed  by  the  Romans,or  others  anterior  to  their 
time  ;  such  as  the  Colosseum  at  Rome,  the  temple  of  Minerva 
at  Athens,  &c. 

ANTIQUES,  a  mixed  composition  of  the  effigies  of  men, 
inferior  animals,  utensils,  and  implements  of  war,  with  foli- 
age, flowers,  and  fanciful  ornaments.  The  ornaments  on  the 
walls  of  the  Vatican,  at  Rome,  painted  by  Raphael,  are  of 
this  kind,  and  were  imitated  from  the  grottos  of  the  baths 
of  Titus,  of  which  there  were  ample  remains  in  his  tlHte.  This 
species  of  decoration  is  frequently  called  arabesque,  or 
grotesque  ;  the  latter  is  the  more  correct  appellation,  as  the 
former  applies  solely  to  Arabian  ornaments,  which  consisted 
of  foliages  and  fruit,  without  any  animal  representations. 

ANTIS.     See  Temples,  Ant.e. 

ANTISTATES,  one  of  the  architects  employed  in  raising 
the  foundation  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Athens. 

ANTONINE  COLUMN,  a  pillar  of  the  Tuscan  order, 
erected  in  Rome,  by  order  of  the  senate,  to  the  memory  of  the 
emperor  Antoninus.  It  is  175  feet  in  height,  viz.,  168  f.'Ct 
above  ground,  and  7  feet  beneath  the  surface ;  and  has 
a  winding  staircase,  with  198  steps  in  the  ascent,  and  50 
windows,  or  loop-holes.  The  sculpture,  and  other  parts,  arc 
similar  to  those  of  Trajan's  column,  but  the  work  is  greatly 
inferior.     See  Column. 

APART,  the  distance  between  the  nearest  surfaces  of  any 
two  bodies.  This  term  is  much  used  in  building,  particu- 
lai'ly  in  the  art  of  carpentry  ;  as,  joists  are  placed  from  eleven 
to  twelve  inches  apart. 

APARTMENT,  any  part  of  a  house  that  is  walled  round, 
.and  that  ma}'  be  entered  through  doors ;  as  kitchen,  vesti- 
bule, saloon,  dining-room,  drawing-room,  chamber,  closet, 
library,  passage,  d:c.  All  the  apartments,  on  the  same  floor, 
taken  collectively,  when  opening  one  into  another,  without  an 
intermediate  passage,  are  called  a  suite  of  apartments. 

The  word  apartment  may  also  denote  a  portion  of  a  large 
house,  wherein  a  person  may  lodge  separately,  having  all 
the  conveniences  requisite  to  make  a  complete  h.abitation. 


APA 


9 


APA 


A  complete  apartment  is  said  to  consist  of  a  hall,  a 
chamber,  an  ante-chamber,  a  closet,  and  a  cabinet,  or 
ward-robe. 

When  an  apartment  has  one  or  more  of  its  sides  contigu- 
ous to  one  or  more  of  the  exterior  -walls,  and  has  no  other 
apartment  above,  it  may  be  lighted  either  through  apertures 
in  the  vertical  sides  of  the  exterior  walls,  or  by  a  skylight,  as 
may  be  found  most  eligible. 

When  an  apartment  is  contiguous  to  one  or  more  sides  of 
the  building,  but  has  one  or  more  apartments  above,  it  be- 
ooiiies  necessary  to  light  it  from  apertures  in  the  external 
walls.  Dining-rooms,  withdrawing-rooms,  and  bed-chambers, 
are  more  conveniently  and  agreeably  lighted  from  the  exte- 
rior walls,  than  from  the  roof. 

When  an  apartment  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  other 
apartments,  but  has  no  other  above,  it  may  be  lighted  by  a 
skylight;  or,  if  its  height  exceed  the  height  of  the  adjoining 
apartments,  it  may  be  lighted  from  windows  in  the  sides, 
above  the  roofs  of  the  surrounding  apartments.  A  saloon, 
a  staircase,  or  a  dome,  is  more  elegantly  lighted  in  this  man- 
ner, than  in  any  other. 

When  several  contiguous  apartments,  above  each  other, 
are  surrounded  on  the  sides,  they  may  either  be  lighted 
horizontally  through  the  sides  by  borrowed  lights,  or  verti- 
cally, through  apertures  in  the  several  ceilings  and  the  roof. 
Sometimes  the  situation  of  passages  renders  it  necessary  to 
light  them  in  the  latter  method,  by  forming  apertures  through 
the  several  ceilings  and  the  roof,  over  each  other,  with  a  sky- 
light at  the  top,  and  rails  round  the  openings  m  the  floor. 
Granaries  and  warehouses,  consisting  of  several  stories,  and 
surrounded  with  buildings,  cannot  be  lighted  in  any  other 
way,  than  from  skylights  in  the  roof,  and  apertures  through 
the  several  floors,  vertically  over  each  other.  To  save  room, 
the  space  allotted  for  the  passages,  upon  each  floor,  may  be 
directed  across  the  openings,  and  the  openings  may  be  rib- 
bed or  latticed  with  strong  bars,  for  walking  upon. 

The  method  of  proportioning  and  finding  the  number  of 
apertures  for  lighting  an  apartment  or  room,  will  be  seen 
under  the  article  Windows  ;  and  the  proportion  of  chimneys 
to  the  cubature  or  sides  of  apartments,  is  shown  under  the 
article  Chimsets. 

What  relates  to  the  ceilings  of  apartments,  will  be  found 
under  the  articles.  Ceilings,  Compartment  Ceilings,  and 
Vaults. 

The  proportions  of  apartments  depend  much  on  their  use. 
The  length  of  rooms  may  be  extended  from  once  to  twice 
the  breadth,  and  galleries  even  to  three  or  four  times.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  observed  in  general,  that  the  greater  the 
cubature  of  the  room,  the  greater  also  must  be  the  ratio  of 
the  dimensions  of  the  plan.  Thus  the  dining-room,  or 
withdrawing-room,  in  a  very  small  house,  may  be  square, 
but  that  in  a  large  edifice  may  be  a  double  square,  or  less, 
according  as  the  disposition  of  the  plan  of  the  building  may 
turn  out ;  the  length  of  the  largest  rooms  should,  however, 
never  be  less  than  once  and  one-third  of  their  breadth.  As 
to  the  height,  it  may  be  three-fourths  of  the  breadth,  when 
the  ceiling  is  flat  and  equal  to  the  breadth,  or  once  and  one- 
fourth  of  the  breadth,  when  the  ceiling  is  covered  or  arched, 
according  to  the  rise  of  the  arch.  It  may  be  thought,  that 
there  might  be  some  ratio  between  the  height  and  length, 
but  this  idea  vanishes  when  it  is  considered,  that  the  eye  can 
only  take  in  a  certain  portion  of  the  length,  and  therefore  the 
comparison  must  be  made  with  the  breadth. 

If  the  apartment  be  a  principal  passage,  its  breadth  may  be 
one-third  of  the  breadth  of  the  principal  room  ;  and  if  it  be  a 
by-passage,  or  that  of  a  very  common  house,  its  breadth 
may  be  one-fourth  of  the  breadth  of  the  principal  room  : 

2 


the  height  is  the  height  of  a  story  ;  but  the  length  is  inde- 
finite. 

With  respect  to  the  staircase  apartment,  the  area  occupied 
by  the  floor  depends  on  the  height  of  the  stvry,  the  rise  and 
tread  of  the  steps,  the  formation  of  the  plan,  the  number  of 
quarter  or  half  paces,  and  the  size  of  the  passage,  or  lobby, 
at  the  beginning  or  lauding;  also  whether  the  stair  be  made 
single  or  double  ;  or  whether  it  consist  of  one  or  two  revo- 
lutions m  the  height  of  the  story.  The  proportion  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  plan  of  the  staircase  depends  on  the  pro- 
portion of  the  individual  dimensions  of  each  apartment,  the 
proportion  of  the  area  of  the  plans  to  one  another,  and  their 
disposition.  A  principal  staircase  should  never  consist  of  two 
revolutions.  The  more  of  an  oblong  the  plan  of  a  staircase 
is,  the  less  room  will  be  required,  provided  the  going  of  the 
steps  be  placed  in  the  breadth,  and  that  each  flight  on  the 
opposite  side  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  steps,  connected 
by  windows,  between  the  flights ;  since  by  such  means  the 
lobby  and  landing  above  are  shortened,  and  also  less  room  is 
occupied  by  the  newal.  What  further  relates  to  staircases, 
will  be  seen  under  the  article  Stairs. 

To  preserve  the  best  possible  proportions  in  a  floor  of 
apartments,  the  principal  rooms  may  have  flat  ceilings  ;  the 
middle-sized  ones  may  have  their  altitudes  reduced  by  intro- 
ducing cove  and  flat  ceilings,  cylindrical  vaults,  domes, 
groins,  &c.,  as  may  be  most  suitable  to  their  heights ;  and 
the  smallest  rooms  may  have  mezzanines  over  them,  wherever 
they  are  accessible  to  back  stairs;  but  when  the  disparity  is 
great  between  the  height  of  the  principal  rooms,  and  those 
of  the  middle  size,  the  whole  of  the  rooms  in  the  suite, 
except  the  principal  ones,  may  have  mezzanines  above  ;  the 
middle-sized  rooms  may  have  flat  ceilings ;  and  the  smaller 
rooms  arched  ceilings.  Mezzanine  apartments  are  not  only 
necessary  on  this  account,  but  they  may  be  employed  wij.h 
great  advantage,  since  they  afford  servants'  lodgings,  baths, 
wardrobes,  &c. 

In  buildings  where  beauty  and  magnificence  are  preferred 
to  economy,  the  halls  and  galleries  may  be  raised  to  the  height 
of  two  stories.  Saloons  are  most  frequently  raised  the  whole 
height  of  the  building,  and  have  galleries  at  the  height  of 
the  stories,  around  their  interior  circumference,  communi- 
cating with  the  various  apartments.  In  general  the  area 
occupied  by  the  saloon,  may  be  half  of  that  occupied  by  the 
dining-room,  drawing-room,  or  principal-room. 

The  walls  of  apartments  may  be  ornamented  with  columns, 
pilasters,  entablatures,  niches,  recesses,  panels,  &c.,  as  also 
with  foliated  and  other  enrichments. 

When  an  apartment  is  adorned  with  an  entire  order,  the 
entablature  may  occupy  from  one-sixth  to  one-seventh  part 
of  the  height  of  the  order,  or  of  the  room  itself,  when  the 
ceiling  is  flat.  If  a  cornice,  frieze,  and  astragal  are  executed, 
instead  of  the  full  entablature,  their  height  may  be  equal  to 
one-tenth.  If  a  cornice  only  is  executed,  its  height  may  be 
one-twentieth  or  one-thirtieth  part  of  the  height  of  the  room. 
In  general,  all  interior  proportions  and  decorations  should  be 
smaller  and  more  delicate  than  those  of  the  exterior  :  pilas- 
ters should  not  project  more  than  one-eighth,  or  one-tenth 
of  their  breadth ;  and  architraves  round  apertures  should, 
in  most  cases,  not  exceed  one-seventh  of  the  openmgs. 
When  the  sides  of  rooms  are  straight,  and  are  adorned  with 
columns  or  pilasters  ranged  the  whole  length  of  each  side, 
the  columns  or  pilasters  may  be  either  single  or  coupled,  as 
the  piers  of  the  windows  may  admit:  if  each  extreme  pier 
be  equal  to,  or  more  than  the  half  of  each  intermediate  pier, 
the  columns  or  pilasters  may  be  placed  single,  or  in  couples, 
as  the  breadth  of  the  intermediate  piers  may  allow  ;  but  if 
each  extreme  pier,  or  one  only  of  them,  be  less  than  the  half 


APE 


10 


APP 


of  each  intermediate  pier,  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  couple 
the  pilasters.  If  one  of  the  extreme  piers  is  greater  than  the 
other,  the  former  may  be  made  equal  by  forming  the  end  of 
the  room  cylindiical ;  if  each  extreme  pier  exceed  tiie  breadth 
of  each  intermediate  pier  considerably,  then  both  ends  may 
be  formed  into  cylindrical  surfaces,  or  otherwise  columns 
may  be  introduced  at  each  end,  and  the  entablature  con- 
tinued over  tiie  columns ;  the  recesses  also  may  be  adorned 
in  a  dilVerent  manner,  or  one  of  the  ends  may  be  made  cylin- 
drical, and  the  other  colonnaded. 

Apartments  of  a  quadrangular  plan  are  either  constructed 
so  as  to  have  the  same  synmietry  on  the  opposite  sides  ;  or 
to  have  no  corresponding  symmetry  whatever,  on  either  pair 
of  these  sides.  When  bows  are  introduced  into  apartments, 
they  are  generally  at  the  ends ;  but  if  upon  one  or  both  sides, 
they  should  be  proportioned  to  the  length.  Sometimes,  in 
very  large  apartments,  with  a  fireplace  at  each  end,  two  bows 
are  introduced. 

In  the  best  houses,  kitchens,  halls,  servants'  rooms,  and 
■water-closets,  are  frequently  wainscoted  to  the  height  of 
about  four  and  a  half  feet,  and  coped  with  a  neat  moulding, 
which  is  generally  a  bead. 

Halls,  passages,  staircases,  and  bedrooms,  have  frequently 
bases  without  dado,  or  surbases.  Principal  rooms  have 
always  complete  pedestals.  Apartments  laid  with  stone- 
pavements,  should  have  stone  plinths,  with  wooden  bases. 

All  further  information  respecting  the  finishing  of  apart- 
ments, will  bo  found  under  the  heads.  Ceilings,  Compart- 
ment Ceilings,  Vaults,  Doors,  Windows;  and  other  par- 
ticulars relating  to  distribution  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Designing. 

APERTURE,  an  opening  through  a  body.  An  aperture 
in  a  wall  has  generally  three  straight  sides,  two  of  which  are 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  the  third  parallel  to  it, 
connecting  the  lower  ends  of  the  vertical  ones.  The  stones 
forming  the  perpendicular  sides  are  called  jambs,  the  level 
side  below  is  called  the  sill,  and  the  upper  part  is  called  the 
head.  The  head  of  an  aperture  is  either  an  arch,  or  a  single 
stone,  or  beam. 

Apertures  are  either  made  for  entrance,  light,  or  orna- 
ment.    See  Door,  Recess,  and  Window. 

A  narrow  aperture  may  be  covered  with  a  single  stone,  to 
such  horizontal  dimensions  as  may  be  found  convenient  to 
raise  from  the  quarry. 

When  the  aperture  is  wide,  stones  in  separate  pieces  may 
be  joggled  together,  in  order  to  form  a  s/rair/ht  arch,  as  it  is 
absui'dl}-  called  by  workmen;  or  the  same  kind  of  arch  may 
be  made  with  radiating  joints  concealed  within  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  and  vertical  joints  on  the  front,  secured  by  strings 
or  cramj)s  of  iron,  if  necessary  ;  when  an  aperture  is  very 
wide,  it  becomes  necessary  to  arch  it  over. 

Too  great  a  variety  of  apertures  in  the  same  front  of  a 
building  destroys  its  uniformity. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  made  the  sides  of  aper- 
tures frequently  incline  toward  each  other  at  the  top. 

Apertures  arc  sometimes  made  quite  circular  or  elliptical; 
'  but  these  forms  are  not  in  general  use.  In  apertures  of 
stone-work,  if  the  jambs  be  of  one  entire  piece,  every  alter- 
nate stone  in  the  height  of  the  aperture,  next  to  the  jambs, 
should  be  bond-stones ;  likewise,  if  the  jambs  consist  of 
several  stones  in  the  height,  every  alternate  jamb-stone 
should  be  a  bond-stone.  See  Stone  Walls  and  Windows, 
in  Masonrv. 

When  the  heads  of  apertures  are  arched,  they  require  to 
be  su[)porled  on  centres  while  building  ;  the  method  of  con- 
structing which  is  shown  under  the  article  Centre. 

APEX,  the  highest  point  or  .summit  of  a  structure. 


APODYTERIUM,  [anodvfiL,  to  put  of,)  an  apartment  at 
the  entrance  of  the  ancient  baths,  wherein  the  bathers 
undressed. 

APOLLODORUS,  a  most  distinguished  architect,  born 
at  Damascus,  who  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  the  emperors 
Trajan  and  Adrian,  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Under  the  former,  he  built  the  stone  bridge  over  the 
Danube,  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  considerable 
undertakings  of  that  prince:  he  also  raised  several  edifices 
round  the  forum  Trajanum,  at  Rome,  among  which  were 
the  sculptured  column  of  Trajan,  still  existing,  and  a 
triumphal  arch. 

Historians  relate,  that  as  Apollodorus  was  once  conversing 
with  Trajan  about  some  architectural  designs,  Adrian  inter- 
fered, and  gave  his  opinion,  which  was  treated  by  the  artist 
with  contempt :  "  Go,"  said  he,  "  and  paint  g(jurds,  (an 
amusement  which  he  knew  Adrian  to  be  fond  of,)  for  you 
are  very  ignorant  of  the  subject  on  which  we  are  convers- 
ing." This  aflront  was  not  easily  to  be  forgiven  or  for- 
gotten ;  accordingly,  when  Adrian  had  succeeded  to  the 
empire,  he  sent  to  Apollodorus  the  plan  of  a  temple  he  pur- 
posed erecting  in  honour  of  Venus,  and  desired  to  have  his 
opinion,  which,  however,  he  did  nol  intend  to  follow,  being 
only  desirous  to  show  that  he  could  do  without  his  services. 
Apollodorus  wrote  his  opinion  freely,  and  pointed  out  such 
essential  faults  in  the  design,  that  the  emperor  could  neither 
deny  nor  remedy  them.  But  instead  of  acknowledging  the 
merit  and  genius  of  the  artist,  Adrian  threw  himself  into  a 
violent  passion,  and  banished  him  ;  and  some  time  after- 
wards, under  pretext  of  some  supposed  crimes,  ordered  him 
to  be  put  to  death. 

APOMECOMETRY,  (from  ano,  from,  firjKog,  distance, 
fXETpecj,  to  measure,)  the  art  of  measuring  things  at  a  dis. 
tance. 

APOPHY'GE,  [aTro<pvyeiv,)  a  concave  quadrantal  mould- 
ing, joining  two  vertical  members  of  different  horizontal 
projections,  and  forming  an  exterior  angle  with  that  which 
has  the  greatest  projection,  and  a  tangent  with  the  other. 
The  apophyge  is  used  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders, 
for  joining  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  to  the  base,  as  well  as 
to  connect  the  top  of  the  shaft  to  the  fillet  under  the  astragal. 
The  word  is  originally  Greek,  and  signifies  fliyltt ;  and 
the  French  call  it  by  a  term  which  implies  esca/ic.  English 
architects  and  builders  also  call  it  the  scape  or  sprinrj  of  the 
column.     See  Column. 

APOTHECA,  (from  a-noriOrfm,  to  lay  aside,)  among  the 
ancients,  a  store-room. 

APOTHESIS.     See  Apopiitgb. 

APPEARANCE,  in  perspective,  the  projection  of  a  figure, 
body,  &c.,  being  the  same  as  the  representation  of  an  original 
object.     See  Perspective. 

APPLICATE,  in  geometry,  a  right  line  dra'wn  within  a 
curve,  and  bisected  by  the  diameter  of  the  curve,  otherwise 
called  an  ordinate. 

APPLICATION,  in  mensuration,  the  art  of  applying 
one  thing  to  another  by  approaching  or  bringing  them 
together ;  thus  any  number  of  magiutudes  of  the  .same 
kind  may  be  compared  together  by  the  succe>sive  application 
of  a  small  magnitude  of  the  same  kind  to  each  of  them. 

Application,  in  geometry,  the  act  or  supposition  of  placing 
one  figure  upon  another,  to  find  whether  they  be  equal  or 
unequal,  which  seems  to  be  the  primary  mode  by  which  the 
mind  first  acquires  both  the  idea  and  proof  of  equality.  In 
this  way  the  first  principles  of  geometry  are  demonstrated. 
Tims,  if  two  triangles  have  two  sides  of  the  one  equal  to  two 
sides  of  the  other,  and  the  angle  included  be  also  equal,  then 
the  two  triangles  are  themselves  equal  in  every   respect: 


ARA 


11 


ARC 


conceive  the  one  triangle  to  be  so  placed  upon  the  other, 
with  the  two  corresponding  equal  sides  upon  each  other,  the 
angles  included  by  these  sides  being  equal,  the  other  sides 
will  also  coincide,  and  the  two  figures  ^\^ll  agree  in  all  re- 
spects.    The  same  may  be  observed  of  other  figures. 

APRON,  iu  plumbing,  the  same  as  Flashixg,  which 
see. 

Apron,  a  platform,  or  flooring  of  plank,  raised  at  the 
entrance  of  a  dock,  against  which  the  gates  shut. 

Apron-Piece,  or  P  itching-Piece,  a  horizontal  piece  of 
timber  in  a  wooden  double-flighted  stair,  for  supporting  the 
carriage  pieces  or  rough  strings,  and  joistings  in  the  half  spaces 
or  landings.  The  apron-pieces  ought  to  be  firmly  wedged 
into  the  wall.     See  Stairs. 

Apuon-Lining,  the  facing  over  the  apron-piece. 

APSIS,  (from  Greek  oVTi  ^"  arch,)  a  term  generally 
applied  to  any  projecting  portion  of  a  building,  having  a 
semicircular  or  polygonal  plan,  and  vaulted  roof  In  eccle- 
siastical structures,  it  signifies  that  part  where  the  altar  is 
situate,  and  which  is  reserved  exclusively  for  the  clergy.  It 
difiers  from  chancel  in  having  the  form  above  described.  See 
Chancel. 

Apsis  Gradata,  a  term  peculiarly  used  for  the  bishop's 
seat  or  throne,  in  ancient  churches,  as  it  was  raised  on  steps, 
above  the  ordinary  stalls.  It  was  also  denominated  exedra, 
and  in  later  times,  tribune. 

APTERAL,  a  building  without  columns  on  its  flanks  or 
sides. 

APYROI,  (from  a,  Tujp,  fire.)  a  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  altars,  on  which  sacrifice  was  offered  without 
fire.  In  this  sense  the  word  is  in  contradistinction  to 
emjjyroi. 

AQUEDUCT,  or  Aqueduct,  (from  Latin  aqua,  water, 
and  duco,  to  lead,)  a  construction  upon  or  through  uneven 
ground,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  level  canal  for  conduct- 
ing water  from  one  place  to  another.  Aqueducts  were 
formed  either  by  erecting  one  or  several  rows  of  arcades 
across  a  valley,  and  making  these  arcades  support  one  or 
more  level  canals,  upon  one  or  each  of  the  ranges,  or  by 
piercing  through  mountains  which  would  have  interrupted 
the  watercourse.  They  were  built  of  stone  or  brick,  and 
covered  with  a  vaulted  roof,  or  with  flat  stones,  to  shelter 
the  water  from  the  sun  and  rain.  Some  aqueducts  were 
paved ;  but  others  convened  the  water  through  a  natural 
channel  of  clay,  to  reservoirs  or  castella  of  lead  or  stone, 
whence  it  was  brought  to  the  houses  by  leaden  pipes. 

Aqueducts  had  also  ponds  disposed  at  certain  distances, 
where  the  sediment  of  the  water  might  be  deposited.  When 
the  water  was  conveyed  under  ground,  there  were  openings 
at  about  every  240  feet.  Some  of  the  Roman  aqueducts 
brought  water  from  the  distance  of  sixty  miles,  through 
rocks  and  mountains,  and  over  valleys,  in  places  more  than 
109  feet  high.  The  inclination  of  the  aqueduct,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  one  inch,  and,  according  to  Vitru\-ius,  half  a  foot 
in  the  hundred.  The  proportions  adopted  by  the  moderns 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  mentioned  by  Pliny.  The  prin- 
cipal aqueducts  now  remaining  are — Aquce  Virginia,  repaired 
by  Pope  Paul  IV. ;  Aquce  Felice,  constructed  by  Pope 
Sextus  V. ;  the  Aqitce  Paulina,  repaired  by  Pope  Paul  V.  in 
the  year  1611;  and  that  built  by  Louis  XIV.  near  Maintenon, 
to  convey  water  from  the  river  Bure  to  Versailles.  This 
latter  is  perhaps  the  largest  aqueduct  in  the  world,  it  being 
7,000  fathoms  long,  is  elevated  2,560  fathoms,  and  contains 
242  arcades. 

ARABESQUE,  or  Moresque,  an  Eastern  style  of  orna- 
ment, consisting  of  a  fantastic  mixture  of  foliage,  flowers, 
fruits,  &c.,  made   use  of  both  in  painting  and   sculpture. 


Sometimes  animal  representations  are  introduced,  but  such 
are  not  strictly  allowable. 

ARABO-TEDESCO  a  style  of  architecture,  exhibiting 
a  mixture  of  the  Moorish,  or  low  Grecian,  with  the  German 
Gothic.  Of  this  style  is  the  Baptistry  at  Pisa,  erected  by 
Dioti  Salvi,  in  1152.  It  is  a  circular  building,  with  an 
arcade  in  the  second  order,  composed  of  pillars  with 
Corinthian  capitals  and  plain  round  arches ;  between  each 
arch  rises  a  Gothic  pinnacle,  and  above  it  is  finished  by 
sharp  pediments,  which  are  enriched  with  foliage  terminating 
in  a  trefoil. 

AREOPAGUS.     See  Areopagus. 

ARjEOSTYLE,  or  Ar-eostylos.  See  Intercolumnia- 
TioN  and  Colonnade. 

AR.EOSYSTYLE.     See  Colonnade. 

ARBOR,  the  principal  part  of  a  machine,  which  serves  to 
sustain  the  rest.  Also  the  axle  or  spindle  on  which  a  machme 
turns. 

ARC  (from  the  Latin  arcus,  a  bow)  in  geometry,  a  part 
of  any  curve  line  which  does  not  consist  of  contrary  curva- 
tures, for  then  two  or  more  arcs  would  be  formed,  though  iii 
contrary  directions. 

Arc  of  a  Circle,  any  part  of  the  circumference  less  than 
the  whole. 

The  line  joining  the  extremities  of  an  arc  is  called  its 
chord. 

Arcs  are  named  after  the  angles  which  they  subtend  or 
are  opposite  to,  and  are  measured  by  such  angles  and  the 
radii  of  the  circles  to  which  they  belong  ; — in  other  words, 
arc  varies  as  angle  X  radius. 

Arcs,  concentric,  are  those  that  have  a  common  centre. 

Arcs,  equal,  such  as  subtend  equal  angles  in  equal 
circlfis. 

Arcs,  similar,  such  as  subtend  equal  angles,  whether  in 
equal  or  unequal  circles. 

ARCADE,  a  range  of  apertures  with  arched  heads,  sup- 
ported upon  square  pillars,  or  other  columns.  Arcades  are 
sometimes  employed  to  form  porticos  instead  of  colonnades  ; 
and  though  they  are  not  so  beautiful,  they  are  stronger,  more 
solid,  and  less  expensive.  In  such  buildings,  the  utmost 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  piers  be  sufliciently  strong  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  arches,  particularly  the  piers  at  the 
extremities,  for  they  alone  support  the  whole. 

The  lateral  pressure  upon  the  extreme  piers  in  the  range, 
will  be  equal  to  that  on  the  piers  of  a  single  arch,  and  all  the 
intermediate  piers  wOl  be  without  such  lateral  pressure  ;  for 
the  lateral  pressures  of  any  two  adjoining  arches  upon  the 
intermediate  piers  are  equal,  and  being  opposite  they  destroy 
each  other's  eficct :  but  the  extreme  pier  having  only  one 
adjoining  arch,  must  be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the 
horizontal  thrust  of  that  arch.  The  greater  the  weight  or 
vertical  pressure  put  upon  the  extreme  piers,  the  more  will 
these  piers  be  able  to  counteract  the  thrust  of  the  adjoining 
arch  ;  consequently,  if  each  extreme  pier  have  to  support  a 
wall,  the  higher  the  wall,  the  less  dimensions  the  pier 
requires.  It  is  upon  this  principle,  that  the  slender  pillars, 
dividing  the  nave  on  either  side  from  the  aisle,  in  churche* 
of  the  Saxon  and  pointed  styles  of  architecture,  are  capable 
of  withstanding  the  horizontal  thrust  of  the  groins  ;  for  if  the 
insisting  wall  were  taken  away,  the  pillars  of  most  of  these 
buildings  would  not  be  able  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the 
arches  for  one  minute. 

Arcades  were  employed  in  triumphal  arches,  theatres, 
amphitheatres,  and  aqueducts  of  the  Romans,  and  frequently 
in  their  temples :  towards  the  decline  of  the  empire,  the 
intereolumns  were  formed  into  arcades  ;  but  what  relates  to 
their  history  will  be  found  under  the  article  Arch. 


Arcades  may  he  used  with  propriety  in  the  gates  of  cities, 
palaces,  gardens,  and  parks :  they  are  much  employed  in  the 
piazzas  or  squares  of  Italian  cities,  and,  in  general,  are  of 
great  use  in  affording  both  shade  and  shelter  in  hot  and  rainy 
climates;  but  they  are  nevertheless  a  great  nuisance  to  the 
inhabitants,  as  they  very  much  darken  their  apartments. 

Lofty  arcades  may  be  employed,  with  great  propriety,  in 
the  courts  of  palaces  and  noblemen's  houses.  There  arc 
various  methods  of  decorating  the  piers  of  arcades,  as  with 
rustics,  columns,  pilastoi's,  caryatides,  persians,  or  terms 
siirmomited  with  appropriate  entablatures.  Sometimes  the 
piers  are  so  broad  as  to  admit  of  niches  between  columns  or 
pilasters.  The  arch  is  either  surrounded  with  rustic  work, 
or  with  an  archivolt,  sometimes  interrupted  at  the  summit 
by  a  key-stone  in  the  form  of  console,  or  mask,  or  some 
other  appropriate  ornament  in  sculpture.  The  archivolt  rises 
sometimes  from  a  plat-band,  or  impost,  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  piers,  and  at  others  from  an  entablature,  supported  by 
columns  on  each  side  of  the  arch.  In  some  instances,  the 
arches  of  arcades  are  supported  entirely  by  single  or  coupled 
columns,  without  the  entablature,  as  in  the  temple  of  Faunus, 
at  Rome.  This  form  is  far  from  being  agreeable  to  the  eye, 
and  it  wants  stability,  as  the  columns  would  be  incapable  of 
resisting  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  arches,  were  they  not 
tied  together  by  a  circular  wall.  In  large  arches,  the  key- 
stone should  never  be  omitted,  and  should  be  carried  to  the 
soffit  of  the  architrave,  where  it  will  be  useful  for  supporting 
the  middle  of  the  entablature,  which  would  otherwise  have 
too  great  a  bearing. 

When  columns  are  detached,  as  in  the  triumphal  arches 
at  Rome,  it  is  necessary  to  break  the  entablatuie,  and  make 
its  projection  in  the  intercolumns  the  same  as  if  pilasters 
had  been  used  instead  of  colunnis,  or  so  much  as  is  just  suf- 
ficient to  relieve  it  from  the  naked  appearance  of  the  wall ; 
this  is  unavoidable  in  all  intercolumns  of  great  width;  but 
should  be  practised  as  little  as  possible,  as  it  destroys  the 
gemiine  use  of  the  entaljlature.  Arcades  should  never  be 
much  more,  nor  much  less,  than  double  their  breadth :  the 
breadth  of  the  pier  should  seldom  exceed  two-thirds,  nor  be 
less  than  one-third  of  that  of  the  arcade  ;  and  the  angular 
pier  should  have  an  addition  of  a  third  or  a  half,  as  the 
nature  of  the  design  may  require.  The  impost  should  not  be 
more  than  one-seventh,  nor  less  than  a  ninth ;  and  the  archi- 
volt not  more  than  one-eighth,  nor  less, than  a  tenth  of  the 
breadth  of  the  arch.  The  breadth  of  the  bottom  of  the  key- 
stone should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  archivolt,  and  its  length 
not  less  than  one  and  a  half  of  its  bottom  breadth,  nor  more 
than  double.  In  porticos,  the  thickness  of  the  piers  depends 
on  the  width  of  the  portico  and  the  superincumbent  building  ; 
but  with  respect  to  the  beauty  of  the  edifice,  it  should  not 
be  less  than  one-quarter,  nor  more  than  a  third  of  the  breadth 
of  the  arcade.  When  the  arcades  form  blank  recesses,  the 
backs  of  which  are  pierced  with  doors,  windows,  or  niches, 
the  recesses  should  be  at  least  so  deep  as  to  keep  the  most 
prominent  part  of  the  dressings  entirely  within  their  sur- 
face. 
*  In  the  upper  stories  of  the  theatres  and  amphitheatres  of 
the  Romans,  the  arcades  stood  upon  the  podiunis  or  inter- 
pedestals  of  the  columns,  perhaps  as  nuieh  for  the  purpose 
of  proportioning  the  apertures,  as  to  form  a  proper  parapet 
for  leaning  over. 

In  Got/lie  Architecture — arcades,  whether  detached  or 
engaged,  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence ;  more  especially 
in  the  Transition  and  early  English  styles.  Engaged  arcades 
are  very  common  indeed,  and  may  be  found  frequently 
running  round  the  interior  walls  of  a  building,  as  at  West- 
minster  Abbey,   the   Chapter-House,   Canterbury,  and    in 


innumerable  other  instances ;  in  the  conventual  buildings 
at  Canterbury  is  a  very  fine  specimen  of  a  detached  arcade. 
The  engaged  form  came  into  very  extensive  use  with  the 
intersection  of  the  semicircular  arch,  and  was  employed  in 
almost  every  situation  both  cai  the  interior  and  exti-rior  of 
buildings,  as  well  as  in  the  decoration  of  their  furniture,  such 
as  fonts,  &c.  The  arcade  indeed  was  a  very  prominent,  if 
not  the  principal  feature  in  all  Gothic  architecture,  and  is 
that  which  adds  so  greatly  to  the  solemn  grandeur  of  our 
noble  cathedrals. 

This  term  is  also  applied  to  any  arched  covered  way,  more 
particularly  to  the  close  passages  recently  introduced,  such 
as  the  Burlmgton  and  Lowther  arcades,  which  are  used  as 
promenades,  as  well  as  for  purposes  of  trade. 

ARaBOUTANTS,  (from  the  French,  arc,  an  arch,  and 
bouter,  to  abut.)     See  Buttress. 

ARCH.  A  structure  composed  of  separate  inelastic 
bodies,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  their  lower  surface 
shall  form  the  arc  of  a  curve,  being  supported  at  its  two 
extremities. 

History.  The  invention  of  the  arali  has  been  assigned  by 
different  writers  respectively  to  Babylonians,  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Etrurians. 

The  claim  made  for  the  Babylonians  rests  principally  on 
a  passage  found  in  Strabo,  wherein  he  states,  that  the  Hang- 
ing-Gardens were  formed  by  means  of  arches  :  a  passage  of 
Herodotus  is  also  quoted,  as  favouring  the  supposition. 
This  historian,  speaking  of  the  great  gates  in  the  city-wall, 
relates,  that  Nitocris  was  buried  in  a  chamber  above  one  of 
them,  and  it  is  urged  by  the  supporters  of  this  opinion, 
that  so  heavy  a  superstructure  could  not  have  been  supported 
over  an  aperture  of  such  dimensions  by  mere  beams,  (jt 
indeed  by  any  other  contrivance  than  that  of  the  arch.  On 
the  other  side  it  is  argued,  that  Nitocris  would  have  made 
use  of  the  arch  in  the  erection  of  her  bridge,  had  the  prin- 
ciples of  its  construction  been  understood,  instead  of  the 
awkward  application  of  horizontal  timber  beams  ;  and  with 
respect  to  the  gateways,  it  is  stated,  that  Herodotus,  in  this 
instance,  speaks  of  jambs  and  lintels,  and  makes  not  the 
slightest  mention  of  an  arch.  Besides,  it  is  argued,  if 
the  arch  was  used  to  any  extent,  we  should  certainly  find 
some  vestiges  of  it  in  the  ruins  of  that  city,  whereas  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  all  travellers  goes  to  prove  that 
none  such  exist,  while  lihtelling  has  been  found  in  several 
instances,  where  the  arch  might  have  been  applied  with 
advantage. 

In  favour  of  the  Egyptian  title  to  this  distinction,  we  are 
referred  to  specimens  of  arched  work  still  to  be  found  in 
the  remains  of  Egyptian  temples.  The  first  specimen  pro- 
duced is  from  Abydos,  where  the  roof  is  certainly  of  an 
arched  form,  but  on  inspection  proves  to  be  constructed 
of  three  horizontal  stones;  the  centre  one,  which  is  the 
largest,  overlapping  the  two  side-ones.  The  under  surface 
of  these  stones  is  cut  out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
a  semicircular  arch.  The  other  specimens  adduced,  are 
without  doubt  true  arches,  and  if  their  antiquity  be  allowed, 
the  question  is  at  once  set  at  rest.  These  arches  are  found 
at  Thebes,  and  are  formed  of  four  courses  of  bricks  arranged 
in  a  semicircle.  If  the  fact  of  their  antiquity,  however,  be 
admitted,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  arch  should 
not  have  been  more  generally  employed. 

The  same  reasoning  may  be  applied  in  the  case  of  the 
Greeks,  for,  although  it  is  said  that  true  arelies  are  found 
in  their  works,  yet  it  seems  probable  that  they  were  not  in 
use  previous  to  the  second  or  third  century  before  the 
Christian  era,  as,  if  so,  we  should  naturally  expect  to  find 
them  employed  in  many  cases  where  they  would  have  proved 


most  useful.  The  general  arrangement  of  their  buildings 
would  scarcely  have  been  such  as  it  is,  if  they  had  been 
acquainted  with  the  principles  of  the  art. 

Tiie  first  example  of  any  arched  construction  to  be  found 
among  the  Konians,  is  that  of  the  cloaca  maxima,  or  public 
sewer,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Tarquin.  The  identity 
of  the  existing  remains  with  the  original  structure  has  been 
doubted,  but  in  fact  this  is  of  no  great  importance,  as  there 
is  no  scarcity  of  examples  of  this  kind,  although  of  somewhat 
later  date  than  the  reign  of  Tarquin.  There  are  some  who 
assign  the  mt^t  of  the  introduction  of  the  arch  among  the 
Romans  to  the  Etrusci,  and  who  are  not  entirely  without 
reasons  for  this  assumption.  They  say  that  Tarquin  brought 
this  knowledge  with  him  from  Etruria,  his  native  country, 
and  that  Etrurians  were  employed  bj-  him  in  the  construe^ 
tion  of  the  sewer;  others,  however,  refer  the  actual  con- 
struction to  Greeks.  It  is  possible  indeed  that  the  Etrurians 
may  have  introduced  this  form  of  building,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  that  people  had  arrived  at  some  excellence  in 
the  arts  at  an  early  period,  and  also  were  in  close  commu- 
nication with  the  Remits  ;  be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  we  are  principally  indebted  to  the 
latter  people  for  the  full  development  of  the  power  and 
utility  of  the  arch ;  whoever  it  may  have  been  who  first 
became  acquainted  with  the  principles,  whether  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  or  Etrurians,  there  never  was  any  doubt 
as  to  the  people  who  carried  its  knowledge  into  execution. 
As  far  as  the  Greeks  or  their  predecessors  are  concerned, 
we  might  have  remained  in  utter  ignorance  as  to  the  utility 
of  this  style  of  building.  It  is  to  the  Romans  we  owe  our 
practical  knowledge  on  the  subject ;  they  it  was  who  made 
a  worthy  application  of  their  knowledge,  and  put  their 
theories  into  extensive  execution  ;  and  although  they  em- 
i  ployed  this  foiin  to  a  greater  extent  than  perhaps  good  taste 
might  sanction  ;  yet  this  we  judge  to  be  the  natural  pro- 
cedure of  any  people  upon  first  becoming  acquainted  with 
a  principle  of  so  peculiar  a  character  and  such  unlimited 
usefulness. 

Although  the  Romans  employed  arches  in  the  construction 
of  their  edifices,  to  a  very  great  extent,  yet  they  always 
confined  them  to  one  form,  namely  the  semicircular.  It  is 
to  the  architects  of  the  middle  ages  we  are  indebted  for  the 
great  variety  of  figure  employed  in  this  kind  of  construction  ; 
among  others  we  may  especially  notice  the  pointed  arch, — but 
for  further  information  on  this  subject,  we  beg  to  refer  the 
reader  to  that  particular  style  of  architecture. 

Of  the  forms,  dbc.  of  arches.  Arches  are  named  accordmg 
to  the  curve  assumed  by  them,  as  circular,  elliptical,  cycloidal, 
parabolical,  hyperbolical,  catenarian,  &c. :  circular  arches 
are  again  subdivided  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  circum- 
ference described  by  them,  such  as  semicircular,  segmental 
■r  surbased,  containing  less  than  the  semicircumference, 
surmounted,  horse-shoe  or  Moorish,  containing  more  than 
the  semicircumference.  Arches  are  also  denominated  accord- 
ing to  the  method  adopted  in  describing  the  curve,  as  two, 
three,  or  four-centred  arches  ;  also  by  the  nature  of  the  angle 
formed  at  tiie  apex,  thus,  pointed  arches  are  distinguished 
by  the  appellation  of  lancet,  equilateral,  and  depressed. 
Further,  there  are  arches  of  equilibration  and  of  discharge ; 
askew  and  reversed  arches. 

The  sepai-ate  masses  or  stones,  of  which  the  arch  is  com- 
posed, are  called  voussoirs  or  arch  slones,  the  central  or 
uppermost  of  which  is  called  the  key-stone,  the  lowermost, 
or  those  nearest  the  supports,  springers.  The  highest 
point  in  an  arch  is  termed  the  vertex,  or  crown,  the  lowest 
luie  the  springing  line,  and  the  spaces  between  the  crown 
and  springing  line  on  either  side,  the  haunches,  or  flanks. 


The  under  or  concave  surface  is  denominated  the  intrados, 
the  upper  or  convex  the  extrados.  The  supports  of  an  arch 
are  called  piers,  abutments,  springing  walls  or  reins.  Piers 
are  distinguished  from  abutments,  the  former  term  being 
applied  to  a  support  to  resist  a  vertical  pressure,  the  latter 
an  horizontal  thrust.  The  upjicr  parts  of  the  supports  on 
which  the  arch  rests,  or  from  which  it  is  said  to  spring,  are 
named  imjjosts.  The  span  of  an  arch  is  the  width  between 
the  points,  where  the  intrados  meets  the  imposts  on  either 
side,  which  in  the  case  of  circular  arches  coincides  with  the 
chord  of  the  arc :  the  rise  is  the  height  of  the  highest  point 
in  the  intrados  above  the  springing  or  spanningline. 

Arches  which  have  the  curves  of  both  intrados  and 
extrados  concentric  or  parallel,  ai-e  said  to  be  extradossed ; 
and  such  as  rise  from  supports  at  unequal  heights,  are  called 
ramj)ant  arches.  There  are  other  kinds  of  arches,  but  these 
are  more  applicable  to  Vaulting,  under  which  head  they 
will  be  treated  of. 

In  order  to  avoid  farther  extending  this  article,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  for  the  theory  of  the  Arch,  to  Stone 
Bridge. 

Arch,  Triumphal  ;  an  edifice  erected  by  the  Romans 
in  various  situations,  but  more  especially  at  the  entrances 
of  their  cities,  in  honour  of  victorious  generals,  and  in  later 
times  of  the  emperors.  These  structures  were  originally 
built  of  brick,  but  afterwards  of  stone,  or  marble  ;  their 
form  was  that  of  a  parallelopipedon,  having  one,  and  often 
three,  arched  apertures  in  the  longer  side,  decorated  with 
columns,  sculpture,  and  other  embellishments ;  the  whole 
being  surmounted  with  a  heavy  attic.  When  three  arches 
were  employed,  they  were  situate  so  as  to  have  one  large 
one  in  the  centre  with  a  smaller  one  on  each  side  of  it. 

Under  the  emperors,  triumphal  arches  became  very 
numerous,  and  were  made  of  costly  materials  richly  orna- 
mented. The  oldest  of  such  structures  remaining  in  Rome 
is  that  of  Titus,  enriched  with  sculptures  representing  the 
triumph  of  that  emperor.  Two  other  arches  erected  in 
honour  of  Trajan  are  still  in  existence,  the  one  at  Aneona, 
the  other  at  Benevento ;  the  former  is  of  white  marble  of 
chaste  ornamentation,  consisting  in  part  of  bronze  statues  ; 
the  latter  has  several  fine  relievos,  and  is  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation.  The  above  are  single-arched ;  several,  however, 
were  constructed  of  three  arches,  amongst  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  are  those  of  Constantine  and  Septimius 
Severus ;  that  of  Constantine  has  been  cleared  of  the  soil 
which  had  accumulated  to  some  height  round  its  base,  and 
is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and  complete  of  any  at  Rome, 
but  manifests  some  discrepancies  of  parts,  as  it  was  built 
partially  of  old  materials  from  an  earlier  monument  of 
Trajan  ;  that  of  Severus  is  a  noble  structure,  but  is  much 
more  dilapidated  ;  it  is  sixty-one  feet  in  height,  seventy -one 
in  length,  and  twenty-two  in  depth,  the  central  archway  is 
twenty-two  feet  wide,  and  thirtv-six  high,  the  side  ones  ten 
feet  wide,  and  twenty-two  feet  high. 

But  few  structures  of  this  kind  have  been  erected  by  the 
moderns  ;  amongst  them,  however,  we  may  notice  one  triple 
arch  of  Bonaparte  on  the  Place  du  Carrousel,  and  a  much  ■ 
finer  one  at  Milan. 

ARCHEION,  the  treasury,  and  most  secret  and  retired 
place  in  Grecian  temples,  where  not  only  the  richest  trea- 
sures appertaining  to  the  deifies  were  deposited,  but  also 
other  valuable  articles,  which  they  were  desirous  of  keeping 
secure.  The  practice  of  the  Romans  was  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  Greeks,  but  they  confined  the  deposition  of  their 
public  treasure  to  the  temple  of  Saturn. 

ARCHITECT,  (Greek  apxo^  tektuv,  the  chief  fabricator.) 
In  considering  the  correct  application  of  this  word,  we  shall 


not  confine  ourselves  to  any  one  period  of  time,  as  the  word 
has  been  variously  applied  under  different  circumstances. 
We  find  the  word  apxt'^xriov  employed  by  Herodotus,  and 
also  by  Hocner,  in  tiieir  respective  works,  who  seem  to  have 
given  to  it  a  very  extensive  signification.  In  one  and  the 
same  passage,  (iii.  60,)  Herodotus  uses  the  term  in  two  dif- 
ferent senses,  for  he  speaks  of  the  "  architect"  of  a  tunnel 
for  supplying  water,  as  well  as  of  the  "architect"  of  the 
great  temple  of  Samos.  Homer  uses  the  same  term  to  sig- 
nify a  carpenter,  a  house-builder,  and  also  a  ship-builder.  It 
seems  probable,  then,  that  in  these  early  ages,  the  word 
"  architect"  was  not  restricted  to  any  one  signification,  but 
was  applied  as  circumstances  required.  In  succeeding  ages, 
however,  when  the  more  perfect  civilization  of  mankind 
required  structures  not  only  more  numerous  and  more  ele- 
gant, but  also  in  greater  variety,  and  suited  to  multifivrious 
uses,  it  was  found  inconvenient,  if  not  utterly  impracticable, 
for  any  single  individual  to  qualify  himself  to  superintend 
the  construction  of  so  great  a  variety  of  buildings.  Thus 
resulted  a  division  of  labour  :  the  duties  of  the  "  architect" 
were  alleviated  by  allotting  to  several  the  task  originally 
undertaken  by  one.  Thus  arose  the  distinct  duties  of  archi- 
tect and  engineer,  which  are  again  subject  to  several  subdi- 
visions, distinct  departments  of  one  grand  and  comprehensive 
whole. 

ARCHITEOrOGRAPHIA,  the  description  of  ancient 
buildings,  as  temples,  theatres,  amphitheatres,  triumphal 
arches,  baths,  pvramids,  tombs,  mausoleums,  aqueducts,  &e. 

ARCHITECTURE,  the  art  of  building.  Did  we  apply 
to  this  word  the  signification  derivable  from  the  original 
Greek,  we  should  have  before  us  a  very  extensive  field  for 
investigation.  Custom,  however,  has  limited  the  application 
of  the  term  to  the  science  of  erecting  artificial  structures. 

The  origin  of  this  department  of  science  is  involved  in 
impenetrable  obscurity.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  man, 
a  being  of  acute  feelings,  should  soon  have  sought  out  some 
method  of  protecting  himself  against  the  inconveniences  to 
which  his  physical  conformation  rendered  him  obnoxious. 
Exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  and  the  variations 
of  temperature,  he  must,  at  a  very  early  period,  have  dis- 
covered some  means  of  shelter  and  security  ;  the  method, 
however,  which  he  adopted  for  effecting  this  object  is  left 
entirely  to  conjecture.  Various  speculative  opinions  have 
been  hazarded  on  the  subject,  remarkable  for  the  most  part 
not  more  for  the  inventive  imaginations  of  their  authors, 
than  for  the  crudeness  and  absurdity  of  the  speculations 
themselves.  Vitruvius,  the  first  writer  on  the  subject,  has 
given  a  very  elaborate,  if  not  very  correct  account  of  the 
contrivances  of  our  primeval  ancestors  in  the  way  of  house- 
building; this  account,  strange  to  say,  has  been  transmitted 
as  an  authority  from  time  to  time  almost  down  to  our  own 
age,  gathering  in  its  progress  additional  strength  from  the 
names  of  those  who  have  given  credence  to  its  manifold 
absurdities. 

In  considering  the  subject,  we  must  not  forget  that  man- 
kind originally  inhabited  a  warm  climate,  where  the  incle- 
mency of  the  weather  was  comparatively  but  little  felt,  and 
wiiere  consequently  there  was  no  need  of  such  defences  as  in 
a  colder  region.  The  chief  inconvenience  arose  probably 
from  the  extreme  heat,  a  natural  retreat  from  which  was 
found  in  the  shelter  afforded  by  the  luxuriant  foliage  of  the 
trees.  We  might  reasonably  suppose  that,  as  there  was  no 
necessity  for  a  very  substantial  edifice,  tents  formed  of  th<i 
skins  of  beasts  offered  in  sacrifice,  or  of  other  convenient 
substance,  would  have  formed  the  primitive  dwellings  of 
mankind  ;  this,  however,  there  is  some  reason  to  suppose, 
was  not  the  case,  as  we  read  that  Jabal  was  the  father 


of  such  as  dwelt  in  tents,  whereas  Cain  had  built  a  city 
sometime  before  Jabal's  birth.  What  this  city  was,  we  have 
no  means  of  judging  ;  of  its  materials  and  its  form  we  are 
alike  ignorant.  The  next  mention  made  of  a  city  in  the 
sacred  writings  is  that  of  Babylon,  which  was  built  by 
Nimrod  ;  here  it  was  that  the  famous  tower  of  Babel  was 
commenced,  in  the  building  of  which,  it  is  stated,  burnt 
bricks  and  slime  (bitumen)  were  made  use  of.  The  same 
Nimrod  is  related  to  have  built  Nineveh  and  three  other 
cities.  Whether  the  above  were  the  first  cities  that  were 
built  after  the  flood  is  left  doubtful,  for  we  find  no  mention 
in  the  sacred  history  of  any  Egyptian  cities,  yet  doubtless 
such  must  have  existed  at  a  very  early  period  ;  we  cannot, 
therefore,  say  for  certain  whether  the  sons  of  Cush  or 
Mizraim  took  the  precedence  in  such  works  ;  nor  can  we 
tell  whether  the  buildings  seen  by  Herodotus  and  other 
pagan  historians  were  in  any  part  the  same  as  those  whose 
erection  is  mentioned  by  Moses.  These,  as  well  as  all  other 
subjects  connected  with  the  early  ages  of  mankind,  must 
ever  remain  matters  of  mere  conjecture  ;  yet  with  respect  to 
the  latter  question,  it  does  appear  souiewhat  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, that  Herodotus  relates  having  visited,  situate  in  the 
midst  of  Babylon,  a  tower  of  vast  dimensions  and  unusual 
height ;  the  coincidence  of  the  two  accounts  is,  to  say  the 
least,  remarkable.  If  we  allow  the  towers  spoken  of  by  the 
two  historians  to  be  identical,  and  also  that  the  separation  of 
mankind  did  not  take  place,  at  least  to  any  extent,  before 
the  confusion  of  languages,  we  shall  have  no  difficulty  in 
accounting  for  the  remarkable  aflinity  of  the  Persian,  Hin- 
doo, and  Egyptian  architecture,  especially  with  reference  to 
the  pyramidal  form  of  their  structures  :  we  shall  also  be 
enabled  to  form  some  notion  of  the  progress  of  mankind  in 
this  art,  as  well  as  of  the  nature  and  method  of  building  at 
the  period. 

We  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  first  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  architecture  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  ;  we 
must  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  some  people  in  later  ages 
have,  by  some  means  or  other,  lost  all  traces  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  their  ancestors.  This  fact  may  appear  strange,  but 
it  is  not  our  part  to  account  for  it  in  this  place  ;  the  fact  is 
before  us,  startling  perhaps,  but  undeniable  notwithstanding. 
We  intend  here  briefly  to  consider,  how  those  people,  after 
having  lost  all  their  previous  knowledge  of  architectural 
science,  set  about  to  regain  it.  And  here  we  might  intro- 
duce the  theory  of  Vitruvius,  but  not,  as  he  does,  in  the  shape 
of  a  general  fixed  rule ;  for  although  it  may  be  true,  even  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  that  the  first  rude  attempts  in  the 
erection  of  dwellings  have  been,  as  he  states,  of  a  conical 
form,  yet  this  was  by  no  means  universally  the  case.  The 
fact  is,  the  method  of  building  so  much  depended  upon  the 
character  of  the  people,  the  nature  of  the  locality  inhabited 
by  them,  as  well  as  that  of  its  productions,  upon  the  materials 
and  resources  for  building,  and  lastly,  upon  the  examples 
which  nature  more  prominently  set  before  them  ;  that  it  is 
utterly  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rule  as  that  by  which 
mankind  have  been  universally  governed  in  the  erection  of 
their  first  structures. 

Although  Architecture  had  its  rise  doubtless  in  the  con- 
struction of  buildings  for  the  purposes  of  shelter  and  defence, 
yet  it  is  no  less  certain  that  it  is  indebted  for  its  rapid 
advancement,  and  its  ultimate  perfection,  to  the  religious 
feelings  of  mankind.  It  is  in  the  temples  we  look  for  beauty 
of  design,  forappropriatenessof  embellishment,  for  grandeur, 
ideality,  and  magnificence.  Had  it  not  been  for  religion, 
architecture  would  never  have  risen  to  that  eminence  which 
it  so  early  attained  in  the  sacred  edifices  of  the  ancients; 
and  which  have  attracted  such  universal  admiration.     It  is 


ARC 


15 


ARC 


to  temples,  then,  we  must  look  for  the  progress  of  a  people 
in  this  gi-eat  art ;  by  them  must  we  compare  nations  as  to 
their  advancement  in  skill,  taste,  and  science,  as  well  as  in 
the  general  progress  of  civilization. 

Having  thus  far  considered  the  origin  of  Architecture  as  a 
science,  we  shall  now  give  a  very  concise  sketch  of  its  pro- 
gress in  diflerent  countries. 

Our  very  first  steps  in  entering  upon  the  history  of 
Architecture  are  greatly  impeded  for  want  of  trustworthy 
infoiination  on  the  subject.  We  are  left  in  the  dark  as  to 
what  style  may  justly  claim  precedence  in  point  of  time. 
Following 'the  account  of  the  creation  and  civilization  of 
mankind,  as  given  by  Moses,  we  should  naturally  enough 
look  towards  the  East  for  the  first  origin  of  this,  as  of  all 
other  arts,  and  this  supposition  is  confirmed  as  well  by  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  history,  as  by  the  investigation  of 
the  remains  of  Eastern  edifices.  But  although  we  may, 
without  hesitation,  yield  the  priority  to  the  ancient  Eastern 
edifices  as  a  whole,  we  still  meet  with  difficulties  in  assign- 
ing its  proper  position  to  each  separate  style.  We  should 
prefer  to  place  the  Babylonish  or  Persian  architecture  first 
on  the  list,  as  well  for  the  reason  previously  assigned,  as 
that,  as  far  as  we  are  enabled  to  judge  from  the  specimens 
that  remain  to  us  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  the  buildings  of 
this  style  appear  to  be  of  ruder  construction  than  those 
either  of  India  or  Egypt.  For  this  latter  cause,  we  should 
give  to  Egypt  the  next  place,  as  we  find  the  sculptures  of 
India  of  more  loundcd  form,  and  more  elaborate  workmanship 
than  the  Egyptian. 

In  endeavouring  to  give  to  each  style  its  relative  chrono- 
logical position,  we  do  not  mean  to  deny  that  they  were 
equally  indebted  to  each  other  for  various  improvements  at 
different  periods.  We  would  especially  instance  the  case  of 
Persepolis,  the  principal  specimen  of  Persian  architecture 
remaining  to  us:  here  we  find  truly  a  great  advance  upon 
the  arcl^tecture  of  Babylon,  and  we  can  have  no  doubt 
respecting  the  introduction  of  some  peculiarities  of  the 
Egyptian  style.  Whatever  doubts,  however,  there  may 
remain  concerning  the  relations  of  the  above  styles,  sepa- 
rately, in  respect  of  age,  there  can  be  none  as  to  their 
general  resemblance  and  aflinity,  or  as  to  their  position, 
taken  as  a  whole,  in  the  chronology  of  Architecture. 

Ne.xt  in  the  order  of  age  comes  Grecian  Architecture. 
Here  again  Vitruvius  has  given  us  some  very  fanciful  sug- 
gestions respecting  the  prototype  of  the  entire  edifice,  as  well 
as  the  origin  of  its  varied  details  ;  nothing,  however,  can  be 
more  absurd  than  his  notions  respecting  the  latter ;  and  as  to 
the  former,  he  gives  the  Greeks  credit  for  inventive  genius, 
which  certainly  cannot  lawfully  be  claimed  for  them.  We 
may,  with  equally  the  same  justice,  yield  to  them  their 
boasted  title  of  avroxOsve^,  as  their  claims  to  originality  in 
their  style  of  building.  Obscure  as  are  the  traditions  respect- 
ing the  colonization  of  Greece,  we  have  ample  evidence  to 
show  that  it  was  indebted  to  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East,  for  the  majority  of  its  inhabitants  ;  add  to 
this  the  similarity  existing  between  the  earlier  styles  of 
Grecian  architecture,  and  those  of  Egypt  and  Persepolis,  and 
there  can,  we  think,  remain  no  hesitation  in  assigning  to  the 
latter  the  origin  of  Grecian  art.  While,  however,  we  refuse 
the  claims  of  Greece-  to  originality,  we  cannot  forget  how 
much  we  are  indebted  to  her  for  the  introduction  of  so 
many  and  valuable  improvements.  In  her  hands  this 
department  of  art  arrived  at  its  greatest  excellence,  insomuch 
as  to  form  a  new  era  which  for  purity  and  chaste  gran- 
deur has  never  been  surpassed. 

The  great  distinction  between  the  last  mentioned  and  the 
Roman  style  is  in  the  employment  of  the  arch.     The  use  of 


the  arch  gave  the  Romans  great  advantage  ovei'  all  previous 
nations,  and  permitted  of  great  variety  in  the  construction  of 
their  buildings.  This  people  aimed  rather  at  utility  than 
ornament ;  and  although  many  of  their  buildings  are  well 
worthy  of  admiration  on  account  of  their  appropriateness  to 
the  purposes  for  which  they  were  intended,  and  even  of  some 
degree  of  beauty,  yet  they  may  not  be  compared  with  the 
purity  and  grandeur  of  Grecian  taste.  The  Greeks  were 
lovers  of  art  for  its  own  sake,  the  Romans  for  the  sake 
of  the  benefits  it  afforded  them.  We  must  not,  however, 
consider  the  Romans  as  devoid  of  taste  or  original  concep- 
tion, for  they  may  claim  the  Corinthian  order  almost  entirely 
as  their  own,  and  this  says  not  a  little  for  their  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful.  They  had  this  advantage  also  over  the 
Greeks,  that  whereas  the  latter  were  confined  to  one  plan, 
the  parallelogrammic,  which  gave  their  structures  a  mo- 
notonous appearance,  they,  on  the  contrary,  could  vary  the 
form  in  any  way  they  deemed  suitable ;  and  this  intro- 
duced the  practice  of  grouping,  or  composition,  as  it  is  called. 
The  introduction  of  another  practice  we  owe  to  the  Romans, 
namely,  that  of  internal  decoration.  Thus,  while  the  Greeks 
may  claim  the  palm  for  purity  of  taste,  the  Romans  take 
precedence  in  utility  and  variety  of  construction. 

Having  thus  considered  the  history  of  our  subject  from  its 
earliest  commencement  to  the  perfect  development  of  the 
great  principles  of  construction,  we  deem  it  advisable  to 
postpone  the  consideration  of  the  later  styles  to  their  respec- 
tive heads.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  grand  model  of  all 
future  eras,  and  to  which  all  modern  styles  owe  their  origin. 
The  Romans,  owing  to  their  wide-spread  dominion,  have 
introduced  their  knowledge  of  the  arts  throughout  almost  the 
entire  world,  and  so  their  architecture  has  been  the  grand 
prototype  of  all  succeeding  ages.  For  although  the  variation 
of  different  styles  from  each  other,  and  also  from  their  com- 
mon pattern,  be  considerable,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to 
the  source  from  whence  they  all  had  their  origin.  It  is  true 
that,  at  first  sight,  the  elaborate  edifices  of  the  style  known 
under  the  name  of  Perpendicular,  seem  to  have  but  little 
affinity  to  the  heavy  Norman  structure ;  and  yet  when  the 
intermediate  links  are  added  to  the  chain  by  which  they  are 
connected,  few  persons  will  be  found  to  question  their  imme- 
diate relation;  and  certainly  the  step  between  the  Norman 
and  late  Roman  requires  but  little  explanation.  Considering, 
therefore,  the  Roman  as  the  foundation  upon  which  medi- 
eval, as  well  as  modern  architecture  was  erected,  we  leave 
each  style  to  be  considered  under  its  separate  title. 

It  is  our  intention  to  enter  into  a  more  minute  investiga- 
tion of  this  subject  under  the  following  heads  : — Babylonian 
Architecture,  Byzantine,  Celtic,  Chinese,  Egyptian, 
English,  Etruscan,  Gothic,  Greek,  Hindoo,  Italian, 
Mexican,  Moorish,  Norman,  JPelasglan,  Persian,  Pointed, 
and  Roman. 

ARCHITRAVE,  (from  apxoc,  chief,  and  irabs,  a  beam,) 
that  division  of  the  entablature  which  rests  upon  the 
columns,  and  which  may  perhaps  represent  the  linteling 
beam  placed  over  the  columns,  and  over  the  intercolumns, 
for  supporting  the  cross  beams,  in  the  roof  of  the  primitive 
wooden  structure. 

In  the  remains  of  ancient  Grecian  structures,  the  archi- 
trave is  of  very  great  height,  being  nearly  equal  to  the 
superior  diameter  of  the  column,  and  in  some  instances 
even  more,  as  in  the  Doric  temples  of  Theseus  at  Athens, 
Corinth,  near  the  ancient  city  of  that  name,  Ptestura  in  Italy, 
and  in  the  Ionic  temple  on  the  river  Ilissus  at  Athens  ;  but 
there  are  few  or  no  instances  where  it  is  so  high  as  to  be 
equal  to  the  inferior  diameter.  Examples  in  which  the  low- 
est  architraves  are  to  be  found  are  the  portico  of  Philip,  king 


of  Macedon,  and  the  Doric  portico  at  Athens ;  the  altitude 
of  the  former  being  only  thirty-eight  minutes,  and  that  of 
the  latter  forty-five  minutes,  or  two-thirds  of  the  bottom  dia- 
meter. In  the  remains  of  Koman  buildings,  the  architraves 
are  low,  being  in  most  cases  between  two-thirds  and  three- 
fourths  of  a  diameter.  Tlie  lowest  architrave  in  these 
remains  is  that  of  the  theatre  of  Marccllus  at  Home,  which 
is  only  half  a  diameter.  This  proportion  has  been  generally 
followed  in  the  Doric  order  b)'  the  modern  restorers  of  an- 
cient architecture.  What  relates  particularly  to  the  forms 
and  parts  of  the  architrave  of  each  particular  order  will  be 
seen  under  the  heads  of  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
and  Roman  orders. 

The  soffits  of  the  architraves  of  Grecian  buildings  are 
always  found  to  exceed  the  upper  diameter  of  the  columns ; 
but  in  the  Roman  they  are  equal. 

In  the  Saxon  and  early  Norman  styles  of  architecture, 
arches  rise  from  the  capitals  of  the  pillars,  instead  of  being 
linteled  by  the  architrave  as  in  the  Egyptian,  Grecian,  and 
Roman  buildings  :  this  is  one  of  the  most  striking  diflerences 
between  ancient  architecture  and  the  styles  afterwards  prac- 
tised in  the  middle  ages. 

Architrave  of  a  Door,  a  collection  of  members  surround- 
ing the  aperture,  of  a  section  similar  to  the  architraves  of 
the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Roman  orders.  The  head  or 
lintel  is  called  the  traverse,  and  the  sides  the  jambs.  Vitru- 
vius  calls  the  jambs  anlepar/menla,  and  the  head  or  traverse 
superciliinii.  In  the  remains  of  the  edifices  at  Balbee  and 
Palmyra,  and  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro,  the 
architrave  jambs  are  often  flanked  with  consoles,  which  gives 
an  apparent  support  to  the  cornice,  and  the  cornice  frequent- 
ly rests  upon  the  traverse,  without  the  intervention  of  the 
frieze  ;  but  the  flank  pilasters  under  the  consoles  are  scarce- 
ly to  be  met  with  among  ancient  ruins,  though  practised  by 
the  modern  Italians,  and  represented  in  their  works.  This 
is  however  an  improvement,  as  it  diminishes  the  apparent 
weight  of  the  top,  by  spreading  out  the  lower  part.  The 
proportion  of  the  architrave  to  the  aperture,  in  ancient  edi- 
fices, varies  greatly :  the  usual  proportions  given  by  the 
moderns  is  from  one-seventh,  to  one-sixth  part  of  the  open- 
ing. When  the  architrave  jambs  are  flanked  with  pilasters 
and  consoles,  the  breadth  may  be  one-seventh  of  that  of  the 
aperture,  and  the  breadth  of  the  pilasters  two-thirds  of  that 
of  the  architrave  ;  but  when  it  is  unaccompanied  with  these 
ornaments,  it  ought  not  to  be  less  than  a  sixth  part  of  the 
breadth  of  the  aperture. 

In  the  ruins  of  Roman  and  Grecian  buildings  the  archi- 
trave rests  upon  the  floor,  and  has  no  flanking  consoles;  but 
in  the  ruins  of  Balbee  they  are  supported  by  plinths. 

When  there  is  too  much  surface  of  naked  wall  on  each 
side  of  the  architrave  jambs,  the  sides  of  the  architrave  may 
be  flanked  with  pilasters  and  consoles,  in  order  to  reduce  the 
naked,  and  proportion  it  to  the  dressings  of  the  front.  The 
dressing  of  an  aperture  may  be  heightened  by  adding  a  cor- 
nice, or  a  cornice  and  frieze,  as  the  space  above  will  admit  ; 
and  if  the  spac«  above  requires  further  diminution,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  dressing  may  be  still  further  increased,  by  sur- 
mounting the  cornice  with  a  pediment.  When  the  material 
of  the  architrave  is  stone,  the  jambs  are  either  built  in 
heights  corresponding  to  the  courses  of  the  naked  of  the 
wall,  or  if  stones  can  be  procured,  each  jamb  is  made  of  one 
entire  piece,  or  sometimes  in  two  or  three,  according  to  the 
difficulty  of  raising  them  from  the  quarry. 

When  they  are  coursed  with  the  work  every  alternate 
stone  should  be  a  bond-stone,  and,  if  the  jambs  are  in  one 
height,  or  not  coursed,  every  alternate  stone  in  the  altitude 
of  the  naked,  adjoining  each  architrave  jamb,  should  be  a 


bond-stone :  the  fewer  pieces  the  architrave  jamb  consists 
of,  the  more  beautiful  will  the  work  appear,  therefore  one  is 
preferable  to  several. 

In  the  arched  apertures  of  ancient  buildings,  the  jambs  are 
seldom  or  never  moulded  as  an  architrave,  but  the  arch  is 
frequently  ornamented  with  members  of  an  architrave  sec- 
tion ;  these  members  are  called  the  archivolt,  which  always 
rests  upon  imposts.  The  imposts  project  in  most  cases  from 
the  naked  of  the  wall,  and  in  a  few  cases  form  the  capital  of 
pilasters  upon  the  jambs. 

Architrave,  in  joinery,  is  one  const-ructed  of  wood. 
Architraves  may  be  wrought  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  wood ; 
this,  however,  would  be  attended  with  a  waste  of  both 
stuff  and  time.  The  best  method  is  to  glue  it  up  in  two  or 
more  longitudinal  pieces,  as  may  be  judged  proper  from  the 
combination  of  its  parts.  For  a  full  description  of  this 
method,  see  Joinery. 

Architrave  Cornice,  is  an  entablature  which  consists  of 
an  architraye  crowned  with  a  cornice,  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  frieze.  There  are  few  ancient  examples  where 
an  architrave  cornice  is  supported  by  columns  or  pilasters  : 
the  only  ones  which  we  can  recollect  are,  that  on  the  inside 
of  the  portico  of  the  Pantheon,  and  the  entablature  of  the 
third  order  of  the  Colosseum  at  Rome  (if  it  may  be  so  called) 
and  that  supported  by  the  caryatides  of  the  temple  of  Pan- 
drosus  at  Athens:  the  imposts  of  the  arch  of  Septimius 
Severus  are  also  formed  like  an  architrave  cornice.  The 
remains  of  antiquity  exhibit  many  instances  where  the 
dressings  of  rectangular  apertures  are  finished  with  archi- 
trave cornices,  as  in  the  temples  of  Erechlheus  at  Athens, 
Vesta  at  Rome,  and  in  other  ruins  exhibited  in  Adam's 
Spalatra,  and  in  Wood's  Balbee  and  Palmyra. 

Architrave  Jambs.     See  Architrave  of  a  Door. 

ARCTIIVAULT.     See  Archivolt. 

ARCHIVE,  an  ^artment  wherein  the  records  or  charters 
of  a  state  or  community  are  preserved,  in  order  to  be  con- 
sulted occasionally. 

The  word  eomes  from  the  Greek  apxaiov,  which  signifies 
that  part  of  their  temples  in  which  the  public  treasury  was 
deposited.  Colleges  and  monasteries  had  all  their  archives ; 
but  that  of  the  Romans  was  restricted  to  the  temple  of 
Saturn  in  particular. 

ARCHIVOLT,  a  collection  of  members  on  the  face 
of  an  arch,  adjacent  to,  and  concentric  with  the  intrados, 
supported  upon  the  imposts.  Tlie  word  is  derived  from 
the  Erench  archivolte,  which  signifies  the  same  thing  as 
arcus  vohitus. 

The  archivolts  in  Roman  and  Grecian  edifices  are  formed 
upon  the  fiice  of  the  arch  with  their  section  perpendicular 
to  the  curve  of  the  intrados  and  the  wall,  and  similar  in 
figure  to  that  wrought  on  the  face  of  an  architrave  ;  the 
intrados  being,  in  most  cases,  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and, 
in  some  few  cases,  that  of  a  cone.  In  the  latter  ages  of  the 
Roman  empire,  arches  with  archivolts  were  substituted 
instead  of  the  horizontal  entablature,  by  supporting  the 
arches  upon  the  capitals  of  columns  as  imposts.  This  inno- 
vation gave  birth  to  that  style  of  building  most  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  Gothic,  and  forms  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  this  style  of  building.  The  archi- 
volts of  Saxon  edifices  were  at  first  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  Romans,  but  in  process  of  time,  the  pillars  became 
clustered  with  small  columns,  and  each  shaft  of  the  clustered 
pillar  had  its  separate  capital  ;  therefore,  in  order  to  make 
the  bottom  extremities  of  the  arch  bear  equally  on  the  tops 
of  the  pillars,  it  became  necessary  to  form  the  archivolt  in 
deep  recession  from  the  soffit,  rather  in  a  conical  than  a 
cylindrical  surface.     The  archivolt  was  separated  into  several 


I 


ASH 


17 


AST 


similar   divisions,    each    one   consisting    of  a  collection   of 
mi>ulJin£;s,  with  deep  sinkings  between. 

ARCS  DOUBI.EIJX,  the  soffits  of  arches. 

AREA,  in  architecture,  is  the  surface  of  the  giound  of 
a  court,  or  the  bottom  of  the  part  of  an  excavation  sunk 
below  the  general  surface  of  the  ground,  before  the  basement 
story  of  a  Ijuilding,  and  level  with  its  floor. 

Akea,  in  geometry,  is  the  quantity  of  surface  on  a  body, 
or  the  superficial  extent  of  any  figure. 

ARENA,  the  plain  space  in  the  middle  of  the  Roman 
amphitheatre,  where  the  gladiators  fought :  the  same  term 
was  also  used  by  the  Romans  to  denote  the  amphitheatre 
itself.  This  term  is  further  applied  to  the  body  of  a  temple, 
including  the  whole  space  between  the  anta;  and  extreme 
wall. 

AKENATUM,  a  word  used  bj'  Vitruvius  to  signify  a 
kind  of  plaster  :  mortar  made  up  of  lime  and  sand. 

AREOPAGUS,  a  place  near  Athens,  where  the  Athenians 
held  their  court  of  justice. 

ARONADE,  Embattled,  a  conjunction  of  several  lines, 
forming  indentations  like  the  boundary  of  an  embattled  wall, 
except  that  the  middle  of  every  raised  part  is  terminated  by 
the  convex  arch  of  a  circle,  which  arch  does  not  extend  to 
the  length  of  that  part. 

ARRIS,  the  intersection,  or  line,  on  which  two  surfaces 
of  a  body  forming  an  exterior  angle  meet  each  other.  This 
term  is  much  used  by  all  workmen  concerned  in  building, 
as  the  arris  of  a  stone,  of  a  piece  jof  wood,  or  of  any  other 
material.  Though  the  edge  of  a  body  conveys  the  same 
meaning  in  general  language  as  arris,  yet,  in  building,  the 
word  edge  is  restrained  to  those  two  surfaces  of  a  rectangular 
parallelopipedal  body,  on  which  the  length  and  thickness 
may  be  measured,  as  in  boards,  planks,  doors,  shutters,  and 
other  framed  joinery. 

Arris  Fillet,  a  slight  piece  of  timber  of  a  triangular 
section,  used  in  raising  the  slates  against  chimney  shafts, 
or  against  a  wall  that  cuts  ^obliquely  across  the  roof,  and  in 
forming  gutters  at  the  upper  ends  and  sides  of  those  kinds 
of  skylights  that  have  their  plane  coinciding  with  that  of 
the  roof. 

When  the  arris  fillet  is  used  in  raising  the  slates  at  the 
eaves  of  a  building,  it  is  then  called  the  eaves-board,  eaves- 
lath,  or  eaves-catch. 

Arris  Gutter.     See  Gottering. 

ARSENi\L,  a  public  store-house  for  depositing  arms  or 
warlike  ammunition. 

ASAROTUM,  a  kind  of  painted  pavement,  used  by  the 
Romans  before  the  invention  of  Mosaic  work.  The  most 
celebrated  was  that  painted  by  Sesus  at  Pergamus,  which 
exhibited  the  appearance  of  crumbs,  as  if  the  floor  had  not 
been  swept  after  dinner. 

ASHLAR,  among  builders,  signifies  common  or  free- 
stones, as  they  come  from  the  quarry,  of  various  sizes. 

Ashlar,  the  facing  of  squared  stones  on  the  front  of 
a  building.  When  the  work  is  smoothed  or  rubbed,  so  as 
to  take  (jut  the  marks  of  the  tools  by  which  the  stones  were 
cut,  it  is  called  jAane  ashlar.  Tooled  ashlar  is  understood 
lo  be  that,  the  surface  of  which  is  WTOught  in  a  regular 
manner  like  parallel  flutes,  and  placed  perpendicularly  in  the 
building ;  but  when  the  sui-faces  of  the  stones  are  cut  with 
a  broad  tool,  without  care  or  regularity,  the  work  is  said  to 
be  random- tooled:  when  wrought  with  a  narrow  tool,  it  is 
said  to  be  chiselled,  or  boasted :  and  when  the  surfaces  of 
the  stones  are  cut  with  very  narrow  tools,  the  ashlar  is  said 
to  be  pointed.  When  the  stones  project  from  the  joints, 
the  ashlar  is  said  to  be  rusticated:  in  this  kind,  the  faces 
may  either    have  a   smooth    or   broken    surface.     Neither 


pointed,  chiselled,  nor  random-tooled  ashlar  are  employed 
in  good  work:  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  herring-bone 
ashlar,  and  herring-bone  random-tooled  ashlar  arc  used. 

ASIlL.\RiiNG,  is  the  act  of  setting  an  ashlar  facing. 

ASIILERING,  in  carpentry,  is  the  fixing  of  short  upright 
quarterings  between  the  rafters  and  the  floor  in  garrets,  in 
order  to  make  more  convenient  rooms  by  cutting  off  the 
acute  angles  at  the  bottom.  The  triangular  spaces  on  the 
sides  are  either  left  unoccupied,  or  formed  into  cupboards  or 
closets. 

ASIMINTHOS,  a  large  vessel  used  by  the  Greeks  for 
batliing  in. 

ASPIIALTUM,  a  kind  of  bituminous  substance,  found 
sometimes  in  a  solid,  sometimes  in  a  soft  or  liquid  state,  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  A  species  of  it  discovered  in 
Neufchatel,  has  been  used  with  great  success,  as  a  cement 
for  walls  and  pavements  ;  it  is  very  durable  in  air,  and 
impenetrable  by  water.  Of  late  years,  various  combinations 
of  Asphaltum  with  other  materials  have  been  employed 
under  the  name  of  Asphalte,  or  Asphaltic  Cement,  for  cover- 
mrr  roofs,  floors,  &c.,  and  for  other  useful  purposes.  The  best  of 
these  "  Asphaltes "  is  that  known  as  "  Claridge's  Asphiilte 
of  Sei/ssel,'"  which  has  a  deserved  reputation  as  an  excellent 
pavement,  and  valuable  material  for  the  different  purposes 
above  named.    . 

ASSEMBLAGE,  the  joining  or  uniting  of  several  things 
together,  or  the  things  themselves  so  united.  Carpenters 
and  joiners  have  various  kinds  of  assemblages,  as  by  mortise 
and  tenon,  dove-tailing,  &c. 

Assemblage  of  the  Orders,  the  placing  of  the  columns 
upon  one  another  in  the  several  ranges,  so  that  their  axis 
shall  be  in  the  same  straight  line. 

ASSERS,  in  ancient  carpentry,  were  the  laths  which 
supported  the  tiles  of  the  roof:  from  the  projecting  ends  of 
these  the  denticulated  cornice  is  supposed  to  have  originated  : 
they  were  not  disposed  horizontally,  but  according  to  the 
inclination  of  the  roof;  and  hence  Vitruvius  forbids  the  use 
of  dentils  in  pediments. 

Ass'Ers  were  also  the  ribs  of  brackets  of  an  arched 
ceiling. 

ASTRAGAL,  (from  ag-payaXog,  the  heel-bone,)  a  mould- 
ing of  a  semicircular  section,  projecting  from  a  vertical  dia- 
meter. It  is  remarkable  that  Vitruvius  does  not  mention 
any  astragal  between  the  shaft  and  the  hypotrachelion  of  the 
Doric  and  Tuscan  columns,  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  Doric  of 
the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  at  Rome;  so  that  it  is  probable,  the 
hypotrachelion  might  be  formed  without  anj' mouldings  what- 
ever, by  making  it  recede  in  a  small  degree  within  the  shaft, 
or  by  fluting  it,  as  in  the  column  of  Trajan.  This  doctrine 
is  also  very  conformable  to  all  the  Grecian  examples  of  the 
Doric  order ;  for  the  hypotrachelion  is  separated  from  the 
shaft  by  one,  two,  or  three  annular  channels,  without  any 
projecting  moulding,  and  the  flutes  are  continued  upwards 
through  the  hypotrachelion,  to  meet  the  under  side  of  the 
annulets.  In  the  lonio  order  of  the  temple  of  Erechtheus, 
at  Athens,  the  hypotrachelion  is  however  separated  from  the 
shaft  by  an  astragal ;  and  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias, 
at  the  same  place,  they  are  separated  by  a  plain  fillet. 

In  all  the  other  numerous  Grecian  examples  of  this  order 
there  is  no  hypotrachelion:  the  astragal  is  placed  imme- 
diately below  the  echinus.  The  same  is  to  be  found  in  the 
few  remaining  Roman  examples  of  this  order.  In  the  Corin- 
thian and  Composite  orders,  the  astragal  is  never  omitted 
between  the  imder  row  of  leaves  and  the  shaft,  except  in  the 
Corinthian  of  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  at  Athens,  which 
is  one  of  the  oldest  examples  of  this  order  ;  where,  instead 
of  the  astragal,  there  is  an  annular  groove,  from  which,  and 


ATR 


18 


ATT 


from  the  beauty  and  flolicaoy  of  tliis  cxaiiiplc,  it  seems  pro- 
bable lliat  tlio  astragal  niiglit  be  originally  formed  of  a  metal 
ring. 

The  astragal  is  a  moulding  of  very  frequent  applieation, 
not  only  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  shafts  of  columns,  but  also 
in  tlieir  basics  and  entablatures.  It  is  the  simpilcst  of  all 
mouldings,  and  the  only  one  which  can  stand  alone  by  itself, 
and  project  from  a  plane  surface  without  the  aid  of  a  "fillet  or 
straight  part. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  frequently  cut  their  astraijals 
into  beads,  formed  alternately  of  oblate  and  prolate  sphe- 
roids, or,  instead  of  prolate  spheroids,  figures  consisting  of 
double  cones,  with  cylindrical  parts  between,  are  intro- 
duced :  this  practice  is  followed  by  the  moderns  with  various 
innovations. 

In  the  Egyptian  architecture,  we  meet  freqnentlv  with 
clusters  of  astjagals,  eireuniscribing  the  shafts  <if  the  colunms ; 
in  various  places  dividing  them  into  several  compartnients, 
of  which  some  of  them  are  frequently  receded  vertieallv  with 
astragals.  The  capitals  often  join  upon  the  tops  of  the  shafts, 
without  any  horizontal  moulding  between  them. 

The  astragal  and  torus  are  e.xactly  similar  figures :  the 
only  distinction  is,  that  when  they  are  con)parcd  with  the 
other,  in  the  same  piece  of  work,  the  torus  is  large,  and 
the  astragal  small,  perhaps  not  exceeding  one-third  part 
of  the  diameter  of  the  torus:  but  in  most  cases  any  propor- 
tion less,  so  that  it  may  be  sufficiently  distinct. 

ASUL.'E.  marble  chips. 

Aisy^lPTOTE,  a  straight  line,  which  continually  ap- 
proaches to  a  curve  without  meeting  it. 

ATIIENEUM,  or  Athkn.bum,  the  name  applied  in 
ancient  times  to  public  buildings  erected  for  rehearsals  and 
lectures.  In  modern  times,  the  title  of  Athenasuni  has  been 
fre<iuently  given  to  establishments  connected  with  literature 
and  art,  |)ublic  reading-rooms,  &c.  ;  a  celebrated  club-house 
in  London  is  called  the  Athena;uiu. 

ATLANTES,  Atlantidks,  or  Atlas,  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  figures  or  statues  of  men  used  to  sup- 
port entablatures  with  mntnles  insti^ad  of  pilasters  or  columns. 
They  were  also  called  Zklamones  and  Persians. 

In  the  architecture  of  the  modern  Italians,  the  Atlantes 
are  often  found  supporting  the  entablature  over  an  entrance 
to  a  paUire  or  garden.  At  Milan  there  is  a  colossal  example 
of  the  former  ;  and  the  rustic  gate  to  the  Farnese  Gardens  at 
Rome  is  a  specimen  of  the  latter. 

ATUIUM,  a  court  or  hall  in  the  interior  of  the  Roman 
noMemen's  houses,  of  an  oblong  plan.  Three  sides  of  the 
atrium  were  supported  on  columns,  the  materials  of  which, 
in  later  times,  were  marble.  The  side  opposite  to  the  gale 
was  called  tahUniim^  and  the  other  two  sides  (dec  The 
tabliuum  was  filled  with  books,  and  the  records  of  what  any 
one  had  done  in  his  magistracy.  It  was  in  the  atrium  where 
the  nuptial  couch  was  erected,  where  anciently  the  family 
useil  to  sup,  where  the  mistress  and  maid-servants  wrought 
at  spinning  and  weaving,  and  where  the  clients  used  to  wait 
on  their  jjatrous.  The  atrium  was  adorned  with  pictures, 
with  statues  of  their  ancestors,  .and  with  plate  ;  and  was 
usually  the  most  splendid  and  important  part  of  a  Roman 
house. 

In  later  times,  the  atrium  seems  to  have  been  divided  into 
dilTcrent  parts,  separated  from  one  another  by  hangings, 
into  which  persons  were  admitted,  according  tft  their  diU'erent 
degrees  of  liivour.  The  atrium  was  frequently  in  ancient 
times  confounded  with  ves/i/juliir/t,  which  was  only  a  recess 
on  the  exterior  side  of  the  building,  and  what  is  now  called 
by  the  Italians  liif/rfia. 

Even  Vitruvius,  in  chap,  iii.,  book  vi.,  confounds  it  with  | 


cnvrri/iinn,  which  was  an  enclosure  still  further  within  the 
interior.  This  author  assigns  three  dillerent  proportions  to 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  atrium :  the  first  is  5  to  3, 
the  second  3  to  2,  and  the  third  is  the  ratio  which  the  dia- 
gonal of  a  square  has  to  its  side.  Their  height  to  the 
under  side  of  the  ceiling  is  equal  to  their  length,  wanting  a 
fourth  part.  The  difference  between  the  atrium  of  a  city 
and  country  residence  was  this,  that  in  the  former  it  was 
placed  near  the  entrance,  and  in  the  latter,  the  peristylium 
was  placed  betwt^en  the  atrium  and  the  gate. 

The  Greeks  had  no  atrium  in  their  houses.  In  some  tem- 
ples an  atrium  was  to  be  found. 

Atrium,  in  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  a  large  open  court 
before  a  church,  making  part  of  what  was  called  the  nartliex, 
or  ank-temple ;  it  was  surrounded  with  a  cloister  or  portico. 
In  this  apartment  the  penitents  stood  to  beg  the  prayers  of 
the  faithful,  as  they  went  into  the  church ;  and  here  those 
remained  who  were  not  suffered  to  go  further  into  the 
church. 

ATTIC,  is  a  part  of  a  building  standing  on  the  cornice, 
similar  in  form  to  that  of  a  pedestal,  and  is  either  broken  or 
continued.  It  is  so  named  from  its  being  supposed  to  have 
lieen  first  used  in  Attica.  The  use  of  an  attic  is  to  conceal 
the  roof,  and  give  greater  dignity  to  the  design.  The 
Romans  employed  attics  in  their  edifices,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  remains  of  the  trium|ihal  arches,  and  in  the  forum  of 
Nerva.  In  the  arch  of  Constantine,  pedestals  arc  raised 
over  the  columns  as  liigh  as  the  base  of  the  attic,  and  these 
pedestals  are  again  surmounted  with  insulated  statues.  In 
the  ruins  of  Athens  there  are  no  attics  to  be  found  ;  except 
one  over  a  Corinthian  colonnade  at  Thcssalonica,  with 
breaks  forming  dwarf  pilasters  over  the  columns,  and  with 
statues  placed  in  front  of  the  pilasters,  as  in  the  arch  of 
Constantine.  The  attic  carried  round  the  two  courts  of  the 
great  temple  of  Balbee,  is  also  broken  into  dwarf  pilasters 
over  the  columns  and  pilasters  of  the  oi-der  ;  and  the  dwarf 
pilasters  have  blocking  courses  over  them,  on  which  statues 
are  supposed  to  have  been  placed.  Attics  are  very  dispro- 
portional  in  the  ruins  of  these  ancient  edifices,  some  of  them 
being  nearly  one  half  of  the  height  of  the  order.  The 
moderns  make  their  height  equal  to  that  of  the  eiitalil.iture : 
as  to  the  proportion  of  the  height  of  the  members,  it  may  be 
the  same  as  that  fiir  pedestals. 

The  pilasters  employed  in  attics  are  sometimes  plain,  and 
at  other  times  panelled  ;  they  have  no  diminution,  nor  any 
regular  base  and  capital.  Attics  are  much  used  by  the 
moderns,  particularly  by  Italian  architects;  and  when 
applied  to  modern  houses,  they  have  frequently  windows  in 
the  podium  or  dado. 

Amongst  the  liest  examples  of  the  use  of  the  attic  in 
modern  public  buildings,  may  be  adduced  Somerset  House, 
in  the  view  towards  the  street. 

Attic  Bask,  is  that  which  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower 
torus,  a  scotia,  and  fillets  between  them.  It  is  described  by 
Vitruvius  as  follows: — "The  bases  are  fi.xed  in  their  [ilaccs, 
and  so  proportioned,  that,  including  their  plinth,  they  have 
in  height  half  the  thickness  of  the  column  ;  and  iy  projection 
what  the  (irecks  call  tKtpopav,  ekphoran,  a  quarter:  so  that 
the  breadth  and  length  will  be  once  and  a  half  the  thickness 
of  the  column.  Their  height,  if  they  are  to  be  attic,  must 
be  so  dividi-d,  that  the  upper  part  is  one-third  of  the  thickness 
of  the  column,  and  the  remainder  is  left  for  the  plinth.  The 
plinth  being  excluded,  the  remaining  part  is  divided  into 
four  equal  parts,  and  the  upper  torus  has  one-fourth  :  the 
remaining  three  are  equally  halved  :  one-half  makes  the  lower 
torus,  and  the  other  the  seotia,  which  the  Greeks  call  rpo;^(Aoi', 
trochitoH,  with  its  squares." 


AUG 


19 


AXI 


■  In  many  examples,  both  Grecian  and  Ivoman,  the  fillet 
over  the  troohilus  projects  as  far  as  the  most  prominent  part 
of  the  upper  torus,  and  leaves  a  deep  recess  between  the 
upper  surface  of  the  fillet  and  lower  side  of  the  torus. 
This  base  seems  to  be  as  much  a  favourite  of  the  moderns 
as  it  was  of  the  ancients. 

Attic  Door.     See  Door. 

Attic  Order,  a  term  improperly  used  to  denote  the  pilasters 
which  are  frequently  employed  in  the  decoration  of  an  attic. 

Attic  Stort,  a  term  frequently  applied  to  an  upper 
story  of  a  house. 

ATTITUDE,  in  painting  and  sculpture,  the  posture  or 
action. in  which  a  figure  or  statue  is  placed. 

ATTRIBUTES,  in  painting  and  sculpture,  are  symbols 
gi\XMi  to  figures. 

AUDITUliY,  in  ancient  churches,  the  nave,  where  the 
people  stood  to  be  instructed  in  the  gospel. 

AUGER,  a  carpenter's  and  joiner's  tool,  for  boring  large 
holes  with,  and  formed  of  a  wooden  handle,  and  iron  spindle, 


terminated  at  the  bottom  with  steel.  The  modern  augers 
are  pointed  and  sharpened  like  a  centre-bit,  the  extremity 
of  one  of  the  edges  being  made  to  cut  the  wood  clean  at  the 
circumference,  and  the  other  to  cut  and  take  away  the  core, 
the  whole  length  of  the  i-adius. 

AULA,  a  court  or  hall  in  the  ancient  Roman  houses. 

AXE,  a  tool  with  a  long  wooden  handle,  and  a  cutting 
edge  in  a  plane  passing  longitudinally  through  the  handle. 
Its  use  is  for  hewing  timber,  by  cutting  it  vertically  :  the 
adze  being  employed  iu  forming  horizontal  surfaces.  The  axfe 
dillers  from  the  hatchet  in  being  much  larger,  and  by  its 
being  used  with  both  hands ;  while  the  hatchet  is  used  with 
one  hand  only.  Axes  are  also  used  by  stone-cutters  and 
bricklayers,  the  particular  forms  of  which  depend  upon  the 
quality  of  the  materials.      See  Tools. 

AXIS,  of  a  rotative  fignre,  is  the  straight  line  passing 
through  the  centres  of  the  circular  sections  at  right  angles 
to  them.  In  a  sphere,  any  right  line  passing  through  its 
centre  may  be  the  axis. 


B. 


BAB 


BAB 


BABEL,  a  city  and  tower  built  by  Noah's  posterity  in  the 
plain  of  Shinar.  Its  precise  situation  is  not  ascertained.  It 
was  however  within  the  province  of  Shinar,  and,  probably, 
the  ancient  Babylon  was  but  an  enlargement  of  it.  Its 
situation  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  north-west  of 
Bagdad,  on  an  extensive  plain,  between  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris ;  as  an  extensive,  insulated,  shapeless  heap  of 
ruins  is  there  to  be  seen,  called  the  tower  of  Nimrod. 

In  sacred  Scripture  we  are  informed,  that  the  materials  of 
which  this  tower  was  constructed  were  burnt  brick,  and 
slime  for  mortar.  The  slime  was  of  a  pitchy  substance, 
similar  probably  to  bitumen.     See  Architecture. 

BABYLONIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  In  commencing 
this  article,  we  must  premise  that  we  cannot  pretend  to  any 
detailed  description,  as  the  materials  for  such  an  undertaking 
are  almost  entirely  wanting.  An  account  of  this  style  of 
architecture  must  needs  be  very  imperfect,  when  the  very 
situation  of  the  ancient  Babylon  remains-  uncertain.  This 
once  vast  city,  the  metropolis  of  one  of  the  great  empires 
of  the  world,  is  now  but  one  mass  of  undistinguishable 
ruins. 

Owing  to  the  interest  belonging  to  so  ancient  and  power- 
ful an  empire,  much  pains  have  been  taken  in  the  examination 
of  the  remains  of  the  city,  but  so  great  is  the  confusion, 
that  it  has  hitherto  baffled  the  exertions  of  travellers  to 
determine  with  certainty  the  situation  and  extent  of  any  of 
the  buildings  mentioned  by  ancient  authors :  among  the 
more  successful  of  our  modern  travellers,  we  may  especially 
mention  the  names  of  Rich  and  Ker  Porter ;  and  among 
the  ancients,  those  of  Herodotus,  Strabo,  and  Diodorus. 
We  shall  proceed  to  give  an  account  of  the  city  as  described 
by  the  latter  class  of  writers. 

Herodotus  in  his  usual  circumstantial  manner,  gives  us 
a  very  exact  and  lengthened  description.  According  to  his 
account,  the  city  was  of  a  quadrangular  form,  four  hundred 
and  eighty  stadia  in  circuit,  divided  into  two  districts  by  the 
river  Euphrates:  it  was  defended  on  all  four  sides  by  a 
deep  trench  and  wall,  of  which  the  following  is  the  method 
of  construction.  In  the  first  place,  the  earth  was  excavated 
to  form  the  trench,  and,  as  it  was  dug  up,  was  carried  iu 


masses  of  convenient  size  for  bricks  to  the  furnace,  and 
there  burnt;  when  this  process  was  complete,  the  bricks 
were  employed  in  lining  the  sides  of  the  ditch,  and  erecting 
the  superincumbent  wall :  the  work  was  cemented  together 
by  bitumen,  and  bonded  at  every  thirtieth  course  by  layers 
of  reeds.  The  wall  on  each  side  was  a  hundred  and  twenty 
stadia  in  length,  fifty  royal  cubits  in  thickness,  and  two 
hundred  in  height ;  on  the  top,  and  on  each  side  of  it,  was 
erected  a  row  of  houses  of  one  story  in  luMght,  fiicing  each 
other,  and  leaving  a  space  or  roadway  between  them,  wide 
enough  to  allow  four  horses  to  be  driven  along  it  abreast. 
Where  the  outer  walls  met  the  river,  a  return  wall  was 
carried  along  each  opposite  bank  to  fortify  the  city  against 
attacks  from  this  quarter,  and  behind  this  again  another, 
but  of  smaller  dimensions.  In  the  four  walls  surrounding 
the  city,  were  a  hundred  apertures  or  entrances  closed  by 
means  of  brazen  gates,  from  each  of  which  was  con- 
tinued a  street  to  the  corresponding  ones  on  the  opposite 
side,  intersecting  the  roads  which  led  from  the  transverse 
walls  at  right  angles.  Where  the  streets  met  the  return 
wall  along  the  banks,  an  opening  was  made  down  to  the 
river,  pro\ided  with  brazen  gates.  The  city  w-as  filled  with 
houses  of  three  and  tour  stories  in  height;  and  among  the 
most  remarkable  buildings,  were  the  temple  of  Belus  and" 
the  palace,  one  in  each  of  the  principal  divisions  on  either 
side  of  the  Euphrates.  The  former  is  a  very  remarkable 
binlding  on  account  of  its  supposed  connection  with  the 
tow'er  of  Babel  mentioned  in  the  Mosaical  account  of  the 
colonization  of  the  earth.  Herodotus  gives  the  following 
description  : — The  tower  was  of  a  square  plan,  surrounded 
by  a  wall  of  similar  form,  having  each  of  its  sides  two  stadia 
in  length ;  the  sides  of  the  structure  itself  were  only  half 
this  length,  or  one  stadium.  Our  author  does  not  give  the 
height,  but  he  states  that  the  tower  consisted  of  eight  tiers, 
which  gave  to  it  the  appearance  of  being  composed  of  eight 
towers,  placed  one  above  the  other;  but  this  in  reality  was 
not  the  case;  such  resemblance  being  occasioned  by  an 
inclined  platform  winding  round  outside  the  building,  and 
"thereby  making  eight  revolutions  :  this  platform  formed  the 
only  means  of  ascent.     About  halfway  up  the  incline,  was 


a  resting-place,  and  at  the  higliest  extremity  a  large  temple 
dedicated  to  the  god  Bel,  or  pcrliaps  Baal :  there  was 
another  chapel  in  this  building,  containing  an  image  of  the 
god,  of  which  we  have  no  particular  description. 

Our  histoiian  further  relates,  that  Nitocris  having  tem- 
porarily diverted  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  by  a  course 
outside  the  city,  embanked  a  part  of  the  river,  and  made 
a  descent  into  it  from  each  of  the  gates  in  the  return  wall. 
This  embankment  was  constructed  of  baked  bricks  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  walls ;  a  different  material,  however, 
vas  used  by  this  queen  in  the  construction  of  a  stone  bridge, 
or  perhaps  we  should  more  correctly  say  piers  of  a  bridge, 
as  the  roadway  was  formed  of  horizontal  timbers,  laid,  as 
seems  probable,  from  pier  to  pier.  The  beams  were  taken 
up  at  night,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  draw-bridge.  In  the 
piers,  hewn  stones  were  employed,  which  were  securely 
connected  together  with  iron  and  lead.  Another  remarkable 
work  of  this  reign,  was  the  erection  of  a  building  over  the 
principal  gates,  to  be  used  as  a  place  of  sepulture. 

Thus  far  Herodotus;  later  authors  differ  from  him  in 
several  particuhirs,  still  however  preserving  the  same  general 
account.  Diodorus  considerably  diminishes  the  size  of  the 
outer  wall,  both  in  length  and  height,  but  the  difierence  in 
the  latter  is  easily  accounted  lor,  as  he  relates  their  condition 
as  they  appeared  after  the  time  of  Darius  Ilystaspes,  who 
reduced  the  height  to  fifty  cubits.  Strabo  also  gives  the 
circuit  of  the  wall  at  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  stadia. 
Diodorus  further  makes  mention  of  two  palaces,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  river,  and  connected  by  means  of  a  bridge 
above  and  a  tunnel  below ;  he  gives  the  circuit  of  the  new 
palace  as  si.xty  stadia,  that  of  the  old  thirty  stadia ;  the  new 
palace  was  surrounded  by  circular  walls,  enriched  with 
decorations  of  sculptured  animals,  painted  in  colours  on  the 
bricks,  and  afterwards  burnt  in.  The  connecting  tunnel 
our  author  states  to  have  been  vaulted,  being  twelve  feet  in 
height,  and  fifteen  broad.  This  palace  also  contained  the 
hanging  gardens  said  to  have  been  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
for  his  wife  the  Jledian  Amytis.  The  gardens,  occupying 
a  space  of  ground  four  hundred  feet  square,  consisted  of 
terraces  built  one  above  the  other  until  they  reached  a  height 
equal  to  that  of  the  outer  walls  of  the  city  ;  the  terraces 
being  supported  on  piers  and  arches,  as  stated  by  Strabo, 
over  which  were  laid  large  flat  stones,  sixteen  feet  long  by 
four  in  breadth,  and  above  those  a  layer  of  reeds  mixed  with 
bitumen,  covered  with  two  courses  of^  bricks  in  cement.  The 
extreme  covering  consisted  of  thick  sheets  of  lead,  on  which 
was  placed  the  mould  for  the  garden.  The  spaces  between 
the  terraces  were  formed  into  magnificent  apartments,  and 
on  the  highest  tcri-ace  was  a  pump,  by  means  of  which  a 
supply  of  water  was  raised  from  the  Euphrates  to  irrigate 
the  gardens.  The  ascent  to  tiie  top  was  by  steps  ten  feet 
in  width.  Strabo  gives  us  one  additional  particular  resjiect- 
ing  the  tower  belonging  to  the  temjilc  of  Belus,  namely,  the 
height,  which  he  states  to  be  one  furlong ;  according  to 
Wesseling's  reading,  however,  this  particular  is  given  by 
Herodotus. 

Such  is  the  description  afforded  by  the  ancients;  let  us 
now  turn  to  the  investigations  on  this  subject  by  modern 
travellers,  and  in  doing  so  we  shall  take  the  libei-ty  of  laying 
before  our  readers  the  acco\nit  given  by  Mr.  Kich,  who  has 
examined  the  ruins  of  this  city  with  perhaps  greater  care 
than  any  other  person.  We  must  premise,  that  the  site  of 
the  ancient  city  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  is  allowed  to  be 
situate  somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hillah  and 
Mohawill.  This  position  has  been  determined  upon  on  account 
of  the  mounds  and  heaps  of  ruins  whicli  are  found  dispersed 
about  this  quarter,  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates. 


"  The  ruins  of  the  eastern  quarter,"  says  Mr.  Rich, 
"  commence  about  two  miles  above  Hillah,  and  consist  of 
two  large  masses  or  mounds  connected  with  and  lying  north 
and  south  of  each  other,  and  several  smaller  ones  which 
cross  the  plain  at  different  entervals.  These  ruins  are  termi- 
nated on  the  north  by  the  remains  of  a  very  extensive  liuild- 
ing  called  the  Mujelibc,  from  the  south-east  angle  of  which 
proceeds  a  narrow  ridge  or  mound  of  earth  wearing  the 
appearance  of  having  been  a  boundary  wall.  This  ridge 
f^jrms  a  kind  of  circular  enclosure,  and  joins  the  south-east 
point  of  the  most  southerly  of  the  two  grand  masses.  The 
river-bank,  on  the  south-west  of  the  tomb  of  Amram,  is 
skirted  by  a  ruin  extending  nearly  eight  hundred  yartls ;  it 
is  for  three  hundred  yards  forty  feet  perpendicular;  a  little 
above  this  is  a  piece  of  ground  formerly  the  bed  of  a  river ; 
here  earthen  vases  with  bones  were  found.  From  the 
east  angle  of  the  ruin  on  the  river  bank,  commences 
another  mound  similar  to  that  first  mentioned,  but 
broader  and  flatter ;  this  mound  is  the  most  southerly 
of  all  the  ruins. 

"  On  taking  a  view  of  the  ruins  from  south  to  north,  the 
first  object  that  attracts  attention  is  the  low  mound  connected 
with  the  ruin  on  the  south-west  of  the  tomb  of  Amram  :  on 
it  are  two  small  walls  close  together,  and  only  a  few  fcct  in 
height  and  breadth.  This  ruin,  which  is  called  Jumjuma, 
and  formed  part  of  a  Alohammedan  orator^-,  gives  its  name 
to  a  village  a  little  to  the  left  of  it.  To  this  succeeds  the 
first  grand  mass  of  ruins,  which  is  1100  yards  in  length,  and 
800  in  its  greatest  liroadth ;  its  figure  nearly  resembles  that 
of  a  quadrant;  its  height  is  irregular;  but  the  most  elevated 
part  may  be  about  fifty  or  sixt_y  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
plain,  and  it  has  been  dug  into  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
ijricks.  Just  below  the  highest  part  of  it  is  a  small  dome 
in  an  oblong  enclosure  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Amran 
Ibn  AH.  On  the  north  is  a  valley  of  550  yards  in  length, 
the  area  of  which  is  covered  with  tussocks  of  rank  grass, 
and  crossed  by  a  line  of  ruins  of  very  little  elevatiim.  To 
this  succeeds  the  second  grand  mass  of  ruins,  the  shape  of 
which  is  nearly  a  square  of  700  yards  length  and  breadth, 
and  its  south-west  angle  is  connected  with  the  north-west 
angle  of  the  mounds  of  Amran  by  a  ridge  of  considerable 
height,  and  nearly  100  yards  in  breadth. 

"  Not  more  than  200  yards  from  the  northern  extremity 
of  this  mound  is  a  ra\ine,  hollowed  out  by  those  who  dig  tor 
bricks,  in  length  100  yards,  and  10  feet  wide  by  40  or  50 
deep.  On  one  side  of  it  a  few  yards  of  wall  remain  standing, 
the  tace  of  which  is  very  clean  and  perfect,  and  ap]icars  to 
have  been  the  front  of  some  building.  Under  the  foundations, 
at  the  southern  end,  an  opening  is  made,  which  discovers  a 
subterranean  passage,  floored  and  walled  with  large  bricks 
laid  in  bitumen,  and  covered  over  with  pieces  of  sandstone 
a  yard  thick  and  several  yards  long;  the  weight  above  has 
been  so  great  as  to  have  given  a  considerable  degree  of 
obliquity  to  the  side-walls  of  the  passage ;  the  opening  is 
nearly  seven  feet  in  height,  and  its  course  is  to  the  south. 
The  superstructure  over  the  passage  is  cemented  wiTh  bitu- 
men, other  parts  of  the  ravine  with  mortar,  and  the  bricks 
have  all  writing  upon  them."  Tlie  souterrain  widens  consid- 
erably as  you  j)roceed  farther.  This  passage  seems  to  ft)rm 
part  of  the  kasr,  or  palace,  and  may  have  been  perhaps  the 
tunnel  alluded  to  by  ancient  authors.  The  principal  portion 
of  this  ruin,  to  which  alone  the  term  kasr  is  applied  at  pre- 
sent by  the  natives,  is  situate  a  little  to  the  west  of  the 
ravine,  and  presents  a  remarkably  fresh  appearance,  inso- 
much so,  that  Mr.  Rich  was  not  willing,  until  after  a  very 
close  inspection,  to  allow  its  claims  to  being  considered  au 
original  Babylonian  remain.     "  It  consists,"  says  he,   "  of 


BAB 


21 


BAB 


several  walls  and  piers,  which  face  the  cardinal  points,  eight 
fcct  ill  thiclincss;  in  some  places  ornamented  with  niches, 
and  in  others  strengthened  by  pilasters  and  buttresses,  built 
of  fine  burnt  briclc  still  perfectly  clean  and  sharp,  laid  in 
lime  cement,  of  such  tenacity  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
extract  a  brick  whole.  The  tops  tjf  these  walls  are  broken, 
and  may  have  been  muchliigher;  on  the  outside  they  have 
in  some  places  been  cleared  nearly  to  the  foundations;  but 
the  internal  spaces  formed  by  them  are  yet  filled  with  ndi- 
bish,  in  some  parts  almost  to  the  sinnmit.  (_)no  part  of  the 
wall  has  been  split  into  three  parts,  and  overthrown  as  if  by 
an  earthipiake  ;  some  detached  walls  of  the  same  kind,  stand- 
ing at  ditl'ei'ent  distances,  show  what  remains  to  have  been 
only  a'  small  part  of  the  original  fabric;  indeed,  it  appears 
that  the  passage  in  the  ravine,  together  with  a  wall  which 
crosses  its  upper  end,  were  connected  with  it. 

"  A  mile  to  the  north  of  the  kasr,  or  palace,  five  miles 
from  Ilillah,  and  950  jards  from  the  river-bank,  is  a  ruin 
called  tiie  Afiijetitie,  meaning  the  overturned ;  its  shape  is 
oblong,  and  its  height,  as  well  as  the  measurements  of  its 
sides,  irregular.  The  sides  face  the  cardinal  points;  the 
northern  is  200,  the  southern  210,  the  eastern  183,  and 
the  western  186  yards  in  length ;  and  the  elevation  of  the 
south-east,  or  highest  angle,  is  141  feet.  The  western  face, 
which  is  the  least  elevated,  is  the  most  interesting,  on 
account  of  the  appearance  of  building  it  presents.  Near 
the  summit  of  it  appears  a  low  wall,  with  interruptions, 
built  of  unburnt  bricks  mixed  up  with  chopped  straw,  or 
reeds,  and  cemented  with  clay-mortar  of  great  thickness, 
having  between  every  layer  a  layer  of  reeds;  and  on  the 
north  side  are  also  some  vestiges  of  a  similar  construction. 
The  south-west  angle  is  crowned  b\^  something  like  a  turret, 
or  lantern :  the  other  angles  are  in  a  less  perfect  state,  Ijut 
may  oiiginally  have  been  ornamented  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  western  foce  is  lowest  and  easiest  of  ascent ;  the  noi-thern 
the  most  difHcult.  -All  are  worn  into  furrows  by  the  wea- 
ther ;  and  in  some  places,  where  several  .streams  of  rain- 
water have  united  together,  these  furrows  are  of  great 
depth,  and  penetrate  a  considerable  way  into  the  mound. 
The  summit  is  covered  with  heaps  of  rubbish,  in  digging 
into  some  of  which,  layers  of  broken  burnt  brick,  cemented 
with  mortar,  were  discovered,  and  whole  bricks  with  inscrip- 
tions are  sometimes  found.  The  whole  is  covered  with 
innumerable  fragments  of  pottery,  brick,  bitumen,  pebbles, 
vitrified  brick,  or  scoria,  and  even  shells,  bits  of  glass  and 
mother-of-pearl.  In  the  northern  face  of  the  Mujelibe,  near 
the  summit,  is  a  niche,  or  recess,  high  enough  for  a  man  to 
stand  upright  in,  at  the  back  of  which  is  a  low  aperture 
leading  to  a  small  cavity ;  whence  a  passage  branches  off  to 
the  right,  sloping  upwards  in  a  westerly  direction  till  it 
loses  itself  in  the  rubbish."  Eeceiving  intimation  that 
human  remains  had  been  discovered  near  this  spot,  our 
traveller  commenced  a  strict  investigation,  and  after  exca- 
vating to  some  depth  through  a  hollow  pier,  formed  of  fine 
bricks  laid  in  bitumen,  and  in  size  sixty  feet  square,  he  met 
with  several  antiques,  amongst  which  were  a  number  of 
earthen  vessels,  some  thin  and  highly  glazed.  Prosecuting 
his  labours  still  further,  another  passage  was  laid  open  ;  this 
cavity  was  narrow,  about  ten  feet  high,  composed  of  both 
burnt  and  unburnt  bricks,  the  latter  with  a  layer  of  reeds 
between  every  course,  except  the  two  lowest,  where  they 
were  laid  in  bitumen.  In  this  passage  Mr.  Rich  discovered 
a  wooden  coftin  containing  human  remains,  which  presented 
the  appearance  of  being  of  great  antiquity.  To  the  north 
and  west  of  this  mass  of  ruins,  and  at  about  70  yards  dis- 
tant from  it,  runs  a  low  mound,  which  may  have  formed  an 
enclosure  round  the  whole. 


The  only  ruin  of  any  consequence  to  be  found  on  tlie 
western  side  of  the  Euphrates  is  tliat  which  is  termed  l)y 
the  Arabs  the  Birs  Nemrond,  and  by  the  Jews  Nehuclmd- 
nezzar's  Prison ;  it  is  situate  about  six  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Hillah,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
the  ruins.  Mr.  liich  gives  us  the  following  description  : — 
"  The  Birs  Nemroud  is  a  mound  of  an  oblong  form,  the 
total  circumference  of  which  is  T62  yards.  At  the  eastern 
side  it  is  cloven  by  a  deep  furrow,  and  is  not  more  than  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  high;  but  at  the  western  side  it  rises  in  a  conical 
figure  to  the  elevation  of  198  feet,  and  on  its  summit  is 
a  solid  pile  of  brick,  thirty-seven  feet  high  by  twenty-eight 
in  breadth,  diminishing  in  thickness  to  the  top,  which  is 
liroken  and  irregular,  and  rent  by  a  large  fissure  extending 
through  a  third  of  its  height.  It  is  perforated  by  small  square 
holes  disposed  in  rhomboids.  The  fine  burnt  bricks  of  which 
it  is  built  have  inscriptions  on  them  ;  and  so  excellent  is  the 
cement,  which  appears  to  be  lime-mortar,  that  it  is  nearly 
impossible  to  extract  one  whole.  The  other  parts  of  the 
summit  of  this  hill  are  occupied  by  immense  fragments  of 
brickwork  of  no  determinate  figure,  tumbled  together  and 
converted  into  solid  vitrified  masses,  the  layers  of  brick 
being  perfectly  disceinible.  These  ruins  stand  on  a  pro- 
digious mound,  the  whole  of  which  is  itself  a  ruin,  chan- 
nelled by  the  weather,  and  strewed  with  fragments  of  black 
stone,  sandstone,  and  marble.  In  the  eastern  part,  layers  of 
unburnt  brick,  but  no  reeds,  are  to  be  seen.  In  the  north 
'side  may  be  seen  traces  of  building  exactly  similar  to  the 
brick  pile.  At  the  foot  of  the  mound  a  step  may  be  traced 
scarcely  elevated  above  the  plain,  exceeding  in  extent,  by 
several  feet  each  way,  the  true  or  measured  base ;  and  there 
is  a  quadrangular  enclosure  round  the  whole,  as  at  the 
Mujelibe,  but  much  more  perfect,  and  of  greater  dimensions. 
At  a  trifling  distance,  and  parallel  with  its  eastern  fiice,  is 
a  mound  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  kasr  in  elevation,  but 
much  longer  than  broad;  on  the  top  of  it  are  two  koithbes,  or 
oratories  :  round  the  Birs  are  traces  of  ruins  to  a  considerable 
extent." 

Having  thus  given  a  description  of  the  ruins  as  they  now 
exist,  it  remains  to  determine  the  identity  between  them,  and 
the  buildings  mentioned  by  ancient  authors.  On  this  sub- 
ject great  diflerences  of  opinion  exist;  the  chief  diflieulty 
arising  from  the  almost  entire  absence  of  any  vestiges  of 
building  on  the  western  side  of  the  Euphrates :  this  it  has 
been  attempted  to  obviate  in  various  ways.  Major  Tiennell, 
the  author  of  a  "Geography  of  Herodotus,"  is  of  opinion 
that  the  river  has  left  its  original  bed,  and  formed  a  new 
channel  fijr  itself,  which,  he  says,  is  a  common  occurrence  in 
alluvial  tracts  of  land,  such  as  that  upon  which  Babylon  was 
situate ;  he  supposes  the  ancient  course  of  the  river  to  have 
been  between  the  Kasr  and  Mujelibe.  In  fijvour  of  this 
supposition,  he  quotes  the  words  of  Mr.  Rich,  where  he  says 
that  the  valley  on  the  north  of  the  Amran  Ibn  All  is  covered 
with  tussocks  of  rank  grass; — this,  Major  Rennell  conjec- 
tures to  have  been  the  bed  of  the  river.  In  opposition  to 
this  opinion,  Mr.  Rich  states,  that  there  are  no  sufficient 
grounds  for  supposing  the  river  to  have  taken  this  course, 
but  rather  that  the  buildings  seem  entirely  to  preclude  such 
idea ;  besides,  he  adds,  every  occasion  was  made  use  of  to 
prevent  the  alteration  in  the  course  of  the  Euphrates  in  this 
neighbourhood  ;  the  possibility  of  such  an  occurrence  was 
obviated  by  the  artificial  canals  and  cuts  which  were  so 
numerous  in  this  part  of  the  country.  He  further  accounts 
for  the  existence  of  the  tussocks  of  rank  grass,  by  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  river  occasionally  dvei  flowing  its  banks,  and 
on  its  subsidence,  leaving  some  portion  of  its  waters  in  the 
hollows ;   this  appears,  we  must  confess,  in  some  degree  to 


BAB 


22 


BAB 


invalidate  his  former  argument;  it  docs  seem,  liowever,  some- 
what premature  to  suggest  any  material  alteration  in  ihe 
course  of  tlie  Euphrates,  if  difhcultieH  can  I)e  accounted  for 
by  any  other  method;  if  any  altiTation  is  allowed  to  have 
taken  place,  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  the  original 
^course  to  have  been  through  the  ravine  to  the  west  of  the 
ruins,  especially  as  a  number  of  hones  have  hecn  found  at 
this  spot.  The  difficulty  respecting  tiie  position  of  the  river, 
however,  is  principally  owing  to  Major  Kennell's  considerably 
contracting  the  dimensions  of  the  city:  he  considers  the 
statements  of  ancient  authors  respecting  its  magnitude  as 
merely  fabulous ;  but  seemingly  without  any  other  reason 
than  their  improbability,  or  rather  inaptitude,  to  our  present 
notions  of  a  city.  If,  however,  present  experience  were  to 
be  universally  applied,  we  should,  with  equal  justice,  deny 
the  existence  of  many  erections  of  which  we  have  ocular 
demonstration,  for  instance,  of  the  Pyramids  and  Sphinxes  of 
Egypt.  It  is  true  that  the  circuit  of  Babylon,  as  given  by 
ancient  authors,  is  immense,  hut  it  is  not  entirely  unaccounted 
for;  for  Quintus  Curtius  tells  us,  that  nearly  one-half  of  the 
city  was  occupied  in  gardens  and  other  cultivated  lauds,  and 
not,  as  modern  cities,  composed  almost  entirely  of  houses. 
Internal  evidence  also  respecting  the  truth  of  his  statement, 
is  furnished  by  Herodotus,  when  he  relates  that,  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior 
parts  were  not  aware  of  what  was  taking  place  until  some 
time  after  the  circumstances  occurred.  "  If  we  allow  the 
account  of  the  ancients  to  be  correct  in  this  respect — and 
indeed  we  see  little  reason  to  the  contrary — our  difficulty  in 
determining  the  localities  of  the  ancient  city  will  be  consider- 
ably dimini^hud  ;  as  we  shall  then  be  able  to  discover  at  least 
some  remains  on  both  sides  the  Euphrates,  though  not  so 
great  a  number  on  the  western  side  as  we  may  have  been  led 
to  expect. 

Another  mistake  which,  in  our  opinion,  Major  Rcnnell  has 
been  led  to  make,  is  the  determining,  at  the  very  commence- 
ment of  his  inquiry,  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Belus.  Whether 
the  position  he  has  assigned  it  be  the  correct  one,  is  another 
question;  all  that  we  suggest  at  present  is,  that  such  allocii- 
tion  is,  in  this  case,  premature;  it  at  once  puts  a  limit  to  free 
inquiry,  as  it  determines  what  must  be  the  relative  position 
of  every  other  edifice.  Mr.  Rich,  on  the  other  hand,  com- 
mencing the  subject  entirely  afresh,  and  taking  a  more 
comprehensive  view  of  the  matter,  arrives  at  a  different  con- 
clusion; he  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  Birs  Nemroud 
has  the  better  claims  to  be  considered  as  the  ancient  tower. 
In  favour  of  this  opinion  it  may  be  observed,  that  it  would 
at  once  obviate  the  difficulty  we  have  in  reconciling  the  state- 
ment of  the  ancients,  respecting  the  location  of  thepalace  and 
tem|)le  of  Belus  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river,  with  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  m.  iderns.  But,  it  may  be  objected,  Herodotus 
states  that  these  edilicos  wpre  in  the  centre  of  either  division 
of  the  city  :  now  the  word  used  by  that  author  is  iv  j^ieatj, 
which,  we  think,  may  be  translated  literally  enough  by  in 
the  midxt,  or  even  by  the  preposition  wilhiii,  and  certainly 
more  correctly  so  than  by  In  the  centre.  Should,  however, 
any  objection  be  made  to  this  translation,  we  would  argue 
that  in  so  large  a  space,  our  author  may  bo  allowed  a  little 
latitude  in  cursorily  describing  the  position  of  principal  build- 
ings in  the  plan  of  so  vast  a  city.  Moreover,  we  have  furtlier 
evidence  in  favour  of  this  assumption,  in  the  I'emarkable 
similarity  of  the  remains  to  the  descriptions  we  have  of  the 
old  edifice.  Before  proceeding  further,  we  may  as  well  get 
rid  of  one  objection  which  may  be  urged  in  opposition  to  the 
statements  we  are  about  to  make:  the  plan  of  the  remains 
is  an  oblong,  and  not  a  square,  as  stated  by  Herodotus;  now, 
•we  must  remind  our  readers  that,  although  the  more  common 


reading  states  the  building  to  have  been  of  a  square  plan,  yet 
that  this  reading  has  been  with  good  reason  objected  to.  and 
has  been  altered  by  Wesseling  in  his  edition;  wc  do  not 
think,  therefore,  that  this  objection  ought  to  have  much 
weight.  To  return  : — The  ruins  present  the  appearance  of  a 
building  of  76'i  yards  periphery,  surrounded  by  an  outi'r  wall ; 
the  present  height  of  the  building  is  2o.5  feet,  in  which  space 
Mr.  liich  discovered  traces  of  three  different  stages,  similar 
to  those  described  by  Herodotus ;  and  Mr.  Buckingham,  a 
later  traveller,  in  the  same  s[>ace,  thinks  four  stages  clearly 
discernible.  Now,  if  we  add  the  same  height  for  other  four 
stages  to  complete  the  number  of  eight  as  given  by  Herodo- 
tus, we  shall  find  the  total  height  of  the  building  equal  to 
470  feet,  or  about  a  stadium,  the  height  given  by  the  ancients. 
This  we  think  amounts  to  almost  conclusive  evidence  for  the 
supposition  of  Mr.  Rich;  further,  however,  the  appearance 
of  the  kasr  answers  very  well  to  the  description  of  the 
ancient  palace,  and  one  jiart  is  especially  to  be  noted  for  its 
resemblance  to  the  hanging-gardens:  the  hollow  shaft  men- 
tioned amongst  the  discoveries  of  Mr.  Rich,  is  very  similar 
to  the  hollow  piers  supporting  the  terraces  as  described  by 
Strabo.  The  author,  from  whose  narrative  we  have  so 
copiously  extracted,  supposes  the  whole  of  that  mass  of 
ruins  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river,  enclosed  by  circular 
walls,  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  ancient  palace,  for,  says 
he,  it  is  manifest  that  the  palace  was  not  merely  a  single 
edifice,  but  consisted  of  a  number  of  buildings,.surrounded 
probably  by  an  outer  wall ;  and  this  supposition  appears  very 
probable,  especiall}-  as  it  related  that  the  hanging-gardens 
were  within  its  precincts.  Major  Rennell,  however,  while 
he  assigns  the  kasr  especially  to  the  palace,  and  the  Mujelibe 
to  the  temple  of  Belus,  considers  the  circular  rampart  which 
encloses  them  as  an  erection  of  modern  date.  In  opposition 
to  this  notion,  Mr,  Rich  suggests  that  we  have  no  accounts 
of  any  later  erection  on  this  spot,  whereas  Diodorus  expressly 
states  that  the  palace  was  .surrounded  by  circular  walls. 
Besides  this,  he  brings  forward  what  he  considers  a  con- 
vincing proof  of  its  antiquity,  which  is  this — that  wherever 
bricks  engraved  with  the  arrow-headed  characters  are  here 
found,  they  are  all  placed  with  the  engraved  sides  downwards. 
Iliis  circumstance  he  considers  sutficieut  evidence  of  the 
walls  having  been  erected  at  a  very  early  period;  for  during 
his  extensive  researches,  he  observed  that  in  the  old  build- 
ings the  bricks  were  invariably  laid  in  this  particular  posi- 
tion;  in  later  erections,  where  the  old  mateiials  had  been 
made  use  of,  this  peculiarity  had  not  been  attended  to. 

The  question  respecting  the  identification  of  the  remains 
with  the  ancient  buildings,  has  elicited  considerable  informa- 
tion on  the  subject,  and  has  been  very  ably  treated  by  many 
learned  men.  A  variety  of  opinions  has  arisen  in  conse- 
quence of  the  difficulties  with  w-hicli  the  subject  is  attended, 
none  of  which,  however,  have  been  liroached  without  good 
reason:  we  are  inclined  to  give  the  preference  to  Mr.  Kicli's 
suggestions,  but  at  the  same  time  we  must  confess  that  the 
other  views  taken  of  this  case  are  worthy  of  most  careful 
consideration. 

Wc  have  extended  the  present  article  to  so  great  a  length, 
on  account  of  the  interest  which  must  necessarily  appertain 
to  a  style  of  building  of  such  early  date.  Much  as  the  origi- 
nality of  the  various  modes  of  architecture  has  been  discussed, 
and  altlKjugh  many  weighty  reasons  have  been  alleged  in 
proof  of  the  superior  antiquity  of  some  few  of  the  other  styles, 
of,  for  instance,  the  (lyclopean,  the  Egyptian,  and  the  Indian  ; 
yet  it  seems  to  us  that  the  Babylonian  has  a  greater  claim  to 
originality  than  any  other.  As  far  as  we  can  discover  from 
historical  records,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  first  great 
empire  established  in  the  world  was  that  of  Babylon.     The 


BAB 


23 


BAB 


account  given  in  the  sacred  history,  and  which  is  confirmed, 
as  far  as  may  he,  by  all  other  historical  records,  tells  us  that 
the  first  great  kingdom  was  fomidcd,  and  the  first  city  built, 
by  Nimrod,  a  name  which  has  been  preserved  by  tradition 
even  up  to  the  present  time,  and  is  still  held  in  especial 
reverence;  thus  proving,  at  least,  the  existence  of  such  a 
person,  and  his  pre-eminent  usefulness  to  the  city  and  people 
of  Babylon.  It  may  be  said,  wo  are  well  aware,  that  this  is 
mere  tradition;  yet  we  cannot  allow  that  tradition,  even 
when  it  appears  in  its  most  absurd  colouring,  is  entirely  to 
be  despised  :  we  cannot  account  for  the  promulgation  of  any 
legend  that  has  absolutely  no  origin,  such  an  idea  is  indeed 
absurd ;  every  traditional  storj'  must  have  some  real,  tangi- 
ble source,  and  reality  cannot  but  be  truth ;  such  stories 
may  have  been  embellished,  or,  if  you  please,  disfigured 
by  fiction,  but  they  must  have  their  foundation  at  least  in 
fact. 

Many  persons,  we  know,  are  very  unwilling  to  assign 
much  credit  to  the  Mosaical  nari-ative ;  but  we  think  we  are 
fully  entitled  to  claim  for  it  eijual  authority  with  that  of  most 
of  the  other  historians  who  make  any  reference  to  the  occur- 
rences of  so  earl)'  a  date,  especially  as  its  author  is  allowed  to 
be  the  earliest  historian,  and  for  this  reason  must  have  lived 
closer  to,  and  have  been,  we  should  suppose,  more  competent 
to  relate  .the  occurrences  of,  the  times  to  which  he  refers. 
Claiming  so  much  authority,  then,  for  our  author,  we  would 
beg  our  readers  to  allow  a  fair  modicum  of  credit  for  his 
sketch  of  the  early  history  of  Babylon  ;  we  say  sketch,  for 
it  has  no  higher  pretensions,  nor  could  we  naturally  expect 
any  detailed  history  from  an  historian  living  eight  hundred 
years  posterior  to  the  period  whose  history  he  is  relating. 
We  may  here  apply  a  very  sensible  remark  made  by  Rollin 
In  speaking  of  the  history  of  this  empire  :  "  where,"  he  says, 
"  certainty  is  not  to  be.had,  I  suppose  a  reasonable  person  will 
be  satisfied  with  probability."  It  is  true  that  Moses  does 
not  expressly  state  that  Babylon  was  the  first  city,  but  we 
have  every  reason  short  of  certainty  to  believe  that  he 
intended  to  imply  as  much.  In  giving  the  genealogy  of 
Noah's  descendants,  he  stops  at  the  name  of  Nimrod,  to  tell 
us  that  "  he  began  to  be  a  mighty  one  in  the  earth  ;"  which 
expression,  if  it  does  not  indeed  say  in  so  many  words  that 
he  was  the  first  one  who  obtained  superiority,  ma}",  at  least, 
when  taken  in  connection  with  all  other  attendant  circum- 
stances, imply  quite  as  much ;  and  it  is  further  told  us,  that 
"  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babel."  Further  on  in 
the  narrative,  we  are  told  where  and  what  this  Babel  was, 
as  well  as  when  its  erection  took  place,  namely,  in  the  time 
of  Peleg,  the  fifth  from  Noah,  probably  at  some  particular 
period  of  his  life  ;  perhaps  shortly  after  his  birth — for,  '■  in 
his  days  was  the  earth  divided  :"  the  causes  of  this  division, 
and  the  particulars  of  the  building  of  Babel,  are  related  as 
follows  :  "  The  whole  earth  was  of  one  language,  and  of 
one  speech  ;  and  it  came  to  pass,  as  they  journeyed  from  the 
east,  that  they  found  a  plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar  ;  and  they 
dwelt  there.  And  they  said,  Go  to,  let  us  build  us  a  city, 
and  a  tower  whose  top  may  reach  unto  heaven  ;  and  let  us 
make  us  a  name,  lest  we  be  scattered  abroad  upon  the  face  of 
the  whole  earth.  And  the  Lord  came  down  to  see  the  city 
and  the  tower  which  the  children  of  men  builded.  And  the 
Lord  said.  Behold,  the  people  is  one,  and  they  have  all 
one  language ;  and  this  they  begin  to  do  :  and  now  nothing 
will  be  restrained  from  them,  which  they  have  imagined  to 
do.  Go  to,  let  us  go  down,  and  there  confound  their 
language,  that  they  may  not  understand  one  another's 
speech.  So  the  Lord  scattered  them  abroad  from  thence 
upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth  :  and  they  left  off  to  build  the 
city  ;  therefore  is  the  name  of  it  called  Babel."     To  any  one 


reading  this  account,  there  can,  wo  think,  be  little  doubt,  that 
it  was  the  writer's  intention  to  signify,  that  liahcl  was  the 
first  permanent  erection  of  any  significance,  that  it  was  the 
joint  erection  of  all  men  then  in  existence,  and  also  that  it 
was  the  origin  of  the  city  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of 
Babylon. 

It  now  rests  with  us  to  shew  the  identity  of  the  existing 
remains,  and  of  the  city  erected  by  Nimrod,  and  in  this  case 
again  we  must  rest  content  with  prob.ibility.  Now  it  seems 
universally  allowed  that  some  part  of  the  mounds  are  identi- 
cal with  the  ruins  described  by  Herodotus;  how  large  a 
portion  this  may  be  we  do  not  pretend  to  assert,  but  we  have 
already  stated  that  Mr.  Rich  includes  a  large  proportion  of 
the  existing  remains.  We  have  only  in  continuation  to  give 
our  reasons  for  considering  the  buildings  described  by  Hero- 
dotus as  identical  with  those  refeiTed  to  by  Moses.  In  the 
first  place,  then,  the  former  writer  seems  to  speak  of  Babylon  as 
a  very  ancient  city  in  his  time,  and  mentions  it  as  a  remark- 
able occurrence  that  the  tower  of  Belus  was  then  standing  ; 
he  speaks  of  a  long  line  of  kings,  and  relates  that  Semiramis 
made  some  improvements  in  the  city,  thus  implying  that  the 
cit}'  had  been  erected  some  considerable  period  before  her 
reign.  This  queen  is  supposed  to  have  lived  from  twelve 
hundred  to  two  thousand  years  before  our  era,  thus  bringing 
the  erection  of  the  city  close  upon  that  of  Babel,  as  recorded 
in  the  Scriptures.  Another  proof  of  identity  is  seen  in  the 
nature  of  the  materials  used  in  the  buildings,  and  in  the 
manner  of  their  erection,  and  in  these  matters  the  two 
accounts  perfectly  coincide.  jMoses,  in  that  part  of  his  nar- 
rative already  quoted,  sa^-s, — "  And  they  said  one  to  another. 
Go  to,  let  us  make  brick,  and  burn  them  thoroughly  ;  and 
they  had  brick  for  stone,  and  slime  (bitumen)  had  they  for 
mortar."  The  account  of  Herodotus,  although  of  a  more 
detailed  description,  agrees  in  every  particular  with  that  just 
given ; — we  need  not  refer  to  it  here,  as  it  has  already  been 
given  in  full.  Again,  is  there  not  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  tower  of  Babel  and  that  of  Belus  are  one, and  the 
same  edifice?  Herodotus  evidently  looks  upon  the  tower  as 
of  very  remote  origin,  as  the  oldest  building  in  Babylon ; 
indeed,  it  .seems  to  be  a  building  remarkable  on  many 
accounts,  standing  out  distinct  from  all  suirounding  edifices, 
as  well  by  its  great  height,  as  by  its  unusual  construction  ;  it 
is  apparently  looked  upon  by  all  those  who  have  seen  it  with 
a  kind  of  awe,  as  though  its  erection,  and  every  other  thing 
connected  with  it,  was  entirely  beyond  their  comprehen- 
sion. 

Taking  all  these  circumstances  into  consideration,  we 
venture  to  assert  there  will  be  considered  suflicient  evidence 
to  satisfy  any  reasonable  person  of  at  least  the  probable 
identity  between  the  buildings  referred  to  in  the  Mosaical 
narrative,  and  the  ruins  now  in  existence,  as  described  by 
recent  travellers. 

The  remains  of  this  great  citj-  do  not  afford  us  an  oppor- 
tunity of  stating,  with  any  preciseness,  the  st3"le,  so  to  speak, 
adopted  in  its  architecture.  The  buildings  generally  are 
rude,  and  show  but  little  evidence  of  constructive  science ; 
they  are  of  gigantic  proportions,  and  very  massive,  on  which 
quality  they  rely  chiefly  for  their  strength  ;  their  construc- 
tion is  indicative  of  greater  antiquity  than  that  of  the  Indian 
or  Egyptian  styles,  for,  whereas,  in  the  latter,  we  find 
detached  columns,  in  the  Babylonian  we  see  no  traces  of 
them;  iideed,  the  .construction  is  altogether  much  heavier 
and  of  more  barbarous  appearance.  The  edifices  were  almost 
universally  composed  of  Viricks,  of  which  there  were  various 
qualities,  some  dried  in  the  sun,  others  baked  in  a  kiln  ;  there 
was  also  a  finer  sort,  the  clay  of  which,  previous  to  being 
burned,  was  mixed  up  with  chopped  straw  or  reeds,  and  these 


B  AB 


24 


BAD 


last  seem  to  have  been  used  for  facing  vails  built  of  the 
coininoner  sort  of  brick  ;  there  is  one  peculiarity  aljout  them, 
however,  which  may  not  bo  ovci-lookcd,  and  this  is  the  inden- 
tation on  their  surface  of  certain  marks  arranged  in  [larallel 
lines,  terined  arrow  or  nail-headed  characters.  These  marks 
are  supposed  to  represent  letters,  or  words;  but,  altho\igh 
much  learned  labour  has  been  given  to  the  task,  their  signi- 
fication has  not  been  discovered,  nor,  indeed,  the  iriethod  of 
deci))hering  them  determined  upon :  similar  inscriptions 
have  been  found  at  Persepolis  and  Susa,  also  on  some  rocks 
near  Argish,  in  Armenia,  and  sometimes,  but  very  rarelv,  in 
Egypt.  To  return  : — The  bricks  were  cemented  together  with 
hot  Ijitumen,  but  were  sometimes  laid  in  clay,  and  at  others 
in  lime-mortar,  and  bonded  together  by  straw,  or  reeds.  'J'he 
■walls,  as  we  have  previously  mentioned,  were  of  great  thick- 
ness, strengthened  at  intervals  by  pilasters,  or  buttresses, 
which  were  sometimes  adorned  with  niches.  Columns  were 
not  made  use  of,  the  nearest  approach  to  the  idea  being  found 
in  the  large  hollow  piers  which  supported  the  hanging- 
gardens.  The  principle  of  the  arch  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  understood,  although  some  authors  have  stated  a  con- 
trary opinion ;  no  examples  of  its  application  have  been 
found,  and  the  fact  of  inconveniently  large  masses  of  sand- 
stone having  been  made  use  of  in  places  where  the  arch 
would  have  been  most  applicable,  as  in  the  case  of  the  passage 
described  by  Mr.  Rich,  is,  we  think,  a  conclusive  argument 
that  the  principle  was  not  known.  (For  further  information 
on  this  subject  we  refer  to  the  article  on  Arch.)  The  work- 
ing of  metals  seems  to  have  been  in  extensive  practice,  as 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  all  the  gates  were  made  of  brass. 

Altiiough  externally  their  buildings  were  of  this  rude 
description,  the  Babylonians  evinced  some  taste  in  the 
interior  decorations.  Among  other  modes  of  ornamentation, 
they  made  use  of  coloured  briclis.  These  bricks  were 
painted  while  in  a  moist  state,  and  the  colours  afterwards 
burnt  in  ;  the  subjects  represented  were  usually  animals, 
standing  out  in  relief  from  the  general  surface,  and  richly 
painted  in  their  natural  coloms.  Statues  likewise  formed  a 
very  usual  mode  of  decoration 

AVe  have  now  only  to  notice  that  peculiar  building,  the 
Birs  Nemroud,  of  which  we  have  elsewhere  given  a  descrip- 
tion ;  it  will,  therefore,  be  unnecessary  to  enter  into  detail 
here;  wc  would  only  bog  of  our  readers  to  notice  its  pecidiar 
form,  that  of  a  pyramid,  and  remark,  that  if  this  tower  bo 
allowed  to  be  the  first  erection  of  importance,  it  will  very 
readily  account  for  the  circumstance  of  that  form  lieing  so 
universal  in  other  styles  of  very  early  date.  This  kind  of 
erection  is  fimnd,  not  oidy  in  Egy[itian  and  Indian  architec- 
ture, but  also  in  other  styles,  whose  connection  with  the 
Babylonian  is  not  so  easily  accounted  for  ;  and  Humboldt,  in 
speaking  of  a  [lyramidal  mass  of  ancient  Mexico,  says, — "It 
is  impossible  to  read  the  descriptions  which  Herodotus  and 
Diodorus  Sicuhis  have  loft  us  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Belus,  without  being  struck  with  the  resemldancc  of  that 
Babylonian  monument  to  the  teocallis  of  Anahuac."  It  is 
true  that  the  pyramidal  is  that  firm  which  would  most 
naturally  suggest  itself  to  men  unacquainted  with  the  con- 
trivances of  art,  but  wc  venture  to  think,  that  the  suggestion 
we  have  above  thrown  out,  is  not  entirely  unworthy  of  the 
attention  and  consideration  of  the  curious. 

Having  at  length  arrived  at  the  conclusion  of  this  article, 
we  W(nild  apologize  for  having  extended  it  to  a  length 
which  some  m.ay  be  inclined  to  think  unreasonable  ;  when, 
however,  the  interest  attaching  to  such  ancient  renuiins,  and 
the  comparatively  slight  attention  the  subject  has  hitherto 
obtained,  arc  considered,  we  feel  confident  of  receiving  the 
pardon  of  our  readers. 


BACK,  the  side  opposite  to  the  face,  or  breast.  In  a 
recess,  upon  a  quadrangular  plan,  the  face  is  that  surface 
from  which  the  recess  is  made :  therefore  the  back  is  the 
surface  which  has  the  two  adjacent  planes,  called  the  sides, 
elbows,  or  gables.  When  a  piece  of  timber  is  fixed  in  a 
level  or  inclined  position,  the  upper  side  is  called  the  back, 
and  the  lower,  the  breast :  thus  the  upper  side  of  the  hand- 
rail of  a  stair  is  called  the  back.  The  same  is  to  be  under, 
stood  with  regard  to  the  curved  ribs  of  ceilings,  and  the 
rafters  of  a  roof:  their  upper  edges  are  always  called  the 
backs. 

BACK  OF  A  Chimney.     Sec  Chimnet. 

Back  of  a  Hand-Uail,  is  the  upper  side  of  it.  Its  for- 
mation is  shown  under  the  articles  Stairs  and  Hand- 
Railing. 

Back  of  a  Hit-Rafter.      See  Hip-Roof. 

Back  Lining  of  a  Sash-Frame.    See  SashFrame. 

Back  of  a  Rafter,  is  the  upper  side  of  it,  in  the  sloping 
plane  of  the  one  side  of  a  roof  The  manner  of  forming  the 
back  is    shown  under    Rafter.     See    also    Roof,    in    Car- 

PENTKY. 

Back-Shutters,  or  Back-Flaps,  are  additional  breadths 
hinged  to  the  front  shutters,  necessary  in  closing  the  aperture 
completely,  when  the  window  is  required  to  be  shut.  When 
the  aperture  is  open,  or  when  light  is  required,  the  back- 
shutters  are  concealed  in  the  boxing  by  the  front-shutters. 
Back-shutters  are  generally  made  thinner  than  fi'ont-shutters, 
and  framed  with  bead  and  butt. 

Back  of  a  Stone,  the  side  opposite  to  the  face,  which 
is  generally  rough. 

Back  of  a  Window,  in  joinery,  is  the  board,  or  wain- 
scoting, between  the  sash-frame  and  the  door,  joining  upon 
the  two  elbows,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  finish  of  the  room 
in  which  it  is  placed.  It  is  in  general  parallel  to  the  face  of 
the  wall,  or  to  the  glass,  or  sash-frame,  and,  when  framed,  it 
has  commonly  a  single  panel  with  mouldings  on  the  framing, 
corresponding  to  the  doors,  shutters,  elbows,  soffits,  &c.,  in 
the  same  apartment  in  which  it  is  placed.  I'he  framing  of 
the  back  and  the  skirting  arc  generally  in  the  same  plane,  or 
flush,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  skirling  is  wrought  with  a 
bead,  which  conceals  the  joint  between  the  lower  edge  of  the 
rail,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  skirting  below  it.  The  top 
edge  of  the  upper  rail  is  generally  capped  with  a  slip  of  tim- 
ber, level  on  the  top,  beaded  on  the  front  edge,  and  tongued 
into  the  sash-frame.  The  capping  bead  is  returned  upon  the 
two  elbows,  and  has  the  most  [irominent  part  of  the  con- 
vexity flush  with  the  framing  of  the  elbows,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  back.  F>amed  backs  and  elbows  for  good  houses  are 
generally  finished  at  one  and  onc-eiuhth  inch  thick. 

Backing  of  a  Rafter,  or  Rin,  the  formation  of  an  upper 
or  outer  surface,  so  as  to  range  with  the  edges  of  the  ribs  or 
rafters,  on  either  side  of  it.     See  also  Ranging,  or  Edging. 

The  formation  of  the  inner  edges  of  the  ribs  for  lath-and- 
plaster  ceiling,  is  sometimes  improperly  called  backing. 

Backing  of  a  Wall,  is  the  building  which  forms  the 
inner  face  of  the  wall,  or,  the  act  of  building  the  inner  face. 
This  term  is  opposed  to  facing,  which  is  the  outside  of  the 
wall.  In  stone  walls  the  backing  is  generally  rubble,  though 
the  fiicing  be  ashlar. 

BADIGEON,  a  mixture  of  plaster  and  free-stone,  well 
sifted, 'and  ground  together:  it  is  used  by  statuaries  to  fill  up 
the  small  holes,  and  repair  the  defects  in  stones  of  which 
their  work  is  made.  The  term  is  also  used  by  joiners,  for  a 
composition  of  saw-dust  and  strong  glue,  with  which  the 
chasms  of  their  work  arc  filled,  .loiners  likewise  use  for 
this  purpose,  a  mixture  of  whiting  and  glue.  W'hen  this  is 
used,  the  filling-in  should  remain  till  quite  hard,  otherwise, 


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when  it  is  plained  or  smoothed  oil",  it  will  shrink  below  the 
surface. 

BAGNIO,  a  bath.  The  word  is  applied  by  us  to  houses 
which  have  conveniences  Cor  bathing,  sweating,  and  other- 
wise cleansing  the  body.  Bagnio,  in  Tuikey,  is  a  general 
name  for  the  prisons  whore  their  slaves  are  kept.  So  called 
from  tlie  baths  they  contain. 

BAGL'ETTE,  a  small  astragal  moulding,  sometimes  carved 
and  enriched  with  pearls,  ribbands,  laurels,  &c.  When  the 
baguette  is  enriched,  it  is  called  chaplct,  and  when  unorna- 
niented,  bead. 

BALBEC,  or  Baalrec,  a  famous  city  of  Syria,  celebrated 
by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  under  the  name  of  Ileliopolis,  the 
city  of  the  sun,  or  Baal.  It  was  sunounded  with  walls, 
which  were  flanked  with  towers  at  regular  intervals.  The 
principal  remains  consist  of  the  great  temple,  a  smaller 
one,  called  by  JMr.  Wood  the  most  entire  temple,  a  circular 
temple  of  a  singular  construction,  and  a  Doric  column  stand- 
ing alone.  The  longitudinal  direction  of  the  great  and  most 
entire  temples  is  east  and  west.  Before  the  entry  to  the 
great  temple  are  two  courts  and  a  portico,  which  face  east- 
wards. After  passing  the  portico,  we  come  to  an  hexagonal 
court,  surrounded  with  columns  and  apartments;  we  thence 
enter  a  quadrangular  court,  the  area  of  which  is  also  sur- 
rounded with  columns :  on  the  north  or  south  side  of  this 
court  are  seven  apartments,  or  e.xhedra; ;  five  are  rectangular 
on  the  plan,  one  stands  in  the  middle,  having  a  semicircular 
exhedra  on  each  side  of  it.  These  were  probably  lodging 
rooms  for  the  priests.  At  the  other  extremity  of  this  court, 
upon  the  south,  are  columns  of  a  colossal  magnitude,  being 
the  remains  of  the  peristyle  of  the  temple.  The  shafts  are 
twenty -one  feet  eight  inches  in  circumference  ;  and  the  entire 
height  of  the  columns  fifty-eight  feet. 

The  columns  are  all  joined  with  iron  cramps,  and  without 
cement,  which  is  nowhere  used  in  these  edifices,  but  the 
surfaces  are  so  close  that  there  is  hardly  room  for  the  blade 
of  a  knife  to  be  inserted  between  them.  The  stones  which 
compose  the  sloping  wall  are  of  enormous  size.  On  the  west 
the  second  course  is  of  stones  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty- 
five  feet  long,  and  nine  feet  in  height :  and  at  the  north 
angle,  over  this  course,  are  three  stones,  which  occupy  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  seven  inches.  The  shafts  of 
the  columns  of  the  great  temple  consist  each  of  three  pieces 
which  are  joined  with  iron  pins  about  one  foot  long,  and  one 
foot  diameter.  Most  of  the  bases  had  two  sockets,  one  cir- 
cular, and  the  other  square.  Greek  and  Roman  authors  arc 
entirely  silent  as  to  these  astonishing  ruins. — {Ruins  of  Bal- 

•,  bij  Wood  and  Dawkins.) 

BALCONY,  (from  the  French  balcon,)  an  open  gallery 
projecting  from  the  front  of  a  building,  surrounded  with  a 
rail  or  balustrade,  of  various  devices,  and  supported  by  can- 
talivers,  brackets,  or  columns.  It  is  made  of  wood,  stone, 
sometimes  of  cast-iron,  and  sometimes  also  of  bar-iron 
fashioned  into  crail-work,  of.  various  fancitul  figures. 

Balconies  are  generally  made  on  a  level  with  the  sills  of 
the  windows  of  the  first  floor;  sometimes  every  window  in 
the  range  has  a  separate  balcony,  each  of  which  is  convex  to 
the  street.  When  there  is  but  one,  it  is  generally  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  front,  or  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  front.  Sometimes  a  portico  or  porch  is  sur- 
mounted with  a  balcony ;  in  this  case  the  balustrade  may  be 
of  stone,  as  well  as  of  iron,  or  wood.  When  balconies  are 
used,  the  windows  are  generally  brought  down  to  the  floor, 
without  adding  any  additional  breadth  to  the  aperture.  See 
Balustrade. 

BALDACHIN,  (from  the  Italian  baldacchino.)  a  piece  of 
architecture  in  the  form  of  a  canopy,  supported  with  columns, 

4 


and  serving  as  a  covering  to  an  altar.  The  baldachin  sup- 
planted the  ciboreum,  which  was  of  the  same  nature;  but 
whereas  the  former  was  a  canf)py,  the  latter  was  in  form 
similar  to  the  monoptral  temple  described  by  Vitruvius. 

The  baldachin  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  is  of  bronze,  and 
was  made  by  Bernini.  The  dais,  or  covering,  is  supported 
on  four  large  twisted  columns  of  the  Composite  order,  on 
pedestals  of  black  marble.  Above  the  columns  are  four 
figures  of  angels;  at  the  top  of  the  covering  there  is  a  cross, 
and  below  the  entablature  the  fringe  of  the  banner-like  cloth 
of  the  portable  baldachin  has  been  imitated.  The  height  is 
125  feet  3  inches  from  the  floor  of  the  churih  to  the  summit 
of  the  cross,  and  the  whole  work  is  in  the  highest  degree 
elegant  and  graceful. 

BALECTION   MOULDINGS.     See  Belection  Mould- 

INGS. 

BALKS,  large  pieces  of  timber  brought  from  abroad  in 
floats :  their  scantling  being  from  five  to  twelve  inches 
square.  Balks,  in  some  parts  of  England,  are  used  for  the 
summer-beams  of  a  building,  also  for  the  poles  or  rafters  laid 
over  out-houses,  or  barns. 

BALLOON,  (from  the  French  ballon,)  a  crowning  of  a 
globular  form,  used  by  way  of  an  acroter  to  a  pediment,  pillar, 
or  the  like.  That  on  the  top  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  is  of 
brass,  about  eight  feet  diameter,  and  placed  at  the  height  of 
sixty-seven  fiithoms. 

BALL-FLOWER,  an  ornament  resembling  a  ball  placed 
in  a  circular  flower,  the  three  petals  forming  a  cup  round  it ; 
much  used  as  an  enrichment  to  mouldings,  and  otherwise  in 
the  decorated  style  of  Gothic  architecture. 

BALLIUM,  the  space  immediately  within  the  outer  walls 
of  an  ancient  castle. 

BALTIIEI,  bands,  or  girdles.  This  word  is  used  by 
Vitruvius  for  some  part  of  the  Ionic  volute.  The  balthei  are 
supposed  to  be  the  mouldings  which  encompass  the  bolsters 
of  the  volutes. 

B.\LrSTER,  sometimes  corruptly  called  Banister,  a 
small  kind  of  column  or  pillar  belonging  to  a  Bali'strade, 
(which  see.)  The  various  forms  of  Balusters  given  in  the 
accompanying  plate,  are  selected  chiefly  from  Sir  William 
Chambers,  who  has  appropriated  some  of  them  to  the  orders 
of  architecture,  as  their  names  express.  The  two  last,  deno- 
minated Corinthian  and  Doric,  were  designed  by  Mr.  Nichol- 
son, and  their  curve  is  found  by  an  algebraic  equation  as  in 
Oval.  Their  general  fijrm  is  graceful,  and  their  elegance 
may  be  preserved  in  any  proportion ;  thus,  suppose  it  were 
wished  to  have  a  very  slender  baluster  made  fiom  the  very 
stout  one,  here  called  Doric;  divide  the  length  of  the  balus- 
ter required  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  the  given  baluster  into 
the  same  number ;  draw  lines  on  both,  as  ordinates ;  pl.ice 
the  ordinates  of  the  given  baluster  upon  the  respective  lines 
of  the  one  required,  and  through  the  extremities  draw  a 
curve,  which  will  complete  the  baluster  sought  for. 

Balusters  of  the  Ionic  Capital,  the  two  lateral  parts 
contained  between  e.ach  front  and  rear  volute,  called  by 
Vitruvius,  pnlvinata. 

BALUSTRADE,  a  range  of  small  columns  called  balus- 
ters supporting  a  cornice,  used  as  a  parapet,  or  as  a  screen,  to 
conceal  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  roof  It  is  also  sometimes 
used  as  a  decoration  for  terminating  the  building.  Balus 
trades  are  employed  in  parapets,  on  the  margins  of  stairs, 
before  windows,  to  enclose  terraces,  or  balconies,  by  way 
of  security,  or  sometimes  to  separate  one  place  from 
another.  In  the  theatres  and  amphitheatres  of  the  Romans, 
the  pedestals  of  the  upper  orders  were  always  continued 
through  the  arcades,  to  serve  as  a  parapet  for  the  spectators 
to  lean  over ;  the  lowermost  seats  next  to  the  arena  in  the 


BAN 


26 


BAP 


amphitheatres,  and  those  next  to  the  orchestra  in  the  theatres, 
were  guarded  by  a  parajiet,  or  podium.  The  walls  of  ancient 
buildings  generally  terniinatod  with  the  cornice  itself,  but 
often  with  a  blocking  course,  or  attic,  hi  tiie  monument  of 
Lysierates  at  Athens,  the  top  is  finished  with  fuiials  com- 
posed of  honeysuckles,  solid  behind,  and  open  between  each 
pair  of  finials;  each  plant  or  finial  is  liordered  with  a  curved 
head,  and  the  bottom  of  each  interval  with  an  inverted  curve. 
Perhajis  terminations  of  this  nature  might  have  been  em- 
ployed in  many  other  Grecian  buildings,  as  some  coins  seem 
to  indicate;  but  this  is  the  only  example  of  the  kind.  The 
temples  in  (Jreece  are  mostly  finished  with  the  cornice  itself; 
which  was  also  the  case  with  many  of  the  Ronum  temples;  and 
as  there  were  no  remains  of  balustrades  in  ancient  buildings, 
their  antiquity  may  be  doubted  :  thoy  are,  however,  repre- 
sented in  tile  Works  of  the  earliest  Italian  writer.s,  who,  per- 
liaps,  ma}'  have  seen  them  in  the  ruins  of  IJoman  edifices. 

When  a  balustrade  finishes  a  building,  and  crowns  an 
order,  its  ln;ight  should  be  proportioned  to  the  architecture 
it  accompanies,  making  it  never  more  than  four-fifths,  nor 
less  than  two-thirds,  of  the  height  of  the  order,  not 
reckoning  the  plinth  on  which  it  is  raised  ;  as  the  balustrade 
itself  should  be  completely  seen  at  a  proper  point  of  view. 
Balustrades  designed  for  use  should  always  be  of  the  height 
of  the  parapet  walls,  as  they  answer  the  same  purpose,  being 
nothing  else  than  an  ornamented  parapet ;  this  height  should 
not  exceed  three  feet  and  a  half,  nor  be  less  than  three  feet. 
In  the  balusters,  the  plinth  of  the  base,  the  most  prominent 
part  t>f  the  swell,  and  the  abacus  of  their  capital,  are  gene- 
rally in  the  same  straight  line:  their  distance  should  not 
exceed  half  the  breadth  of  the  abacus,  or  plinths,  nor  be  less 
than  one-third  of  this  measure.  On  stairs,  or  inclined  planes, 
the  same  proportions  are  to  be  observed  as  on  horizontal  ones. 
It  was  fiM-nieriy  customary  to  make  the  mouldings  of  the 
balusters  follow  the  inclination  of  the  plane  ;  but  this  is  dif- 
ficult to  execute,  and,  when  done,  not  very  pleasant  to  the 
eye ;  though  in  ornamental  iron  work,  where  it  is  confined 
to  a  general  surface  passing  perpendicularly  by  the  ends  of 
the  steps,  it  has  a  very  handsome  appearance.  The  breadth 
of  pedestals,  when  placed  over  an  order,  is  regulated  by  the 
top  of  the  shaft,  the  die  being  always  equal  thereto.  When 
balustrades  are  placed  upon  the  entablature  of  an  order,  over 
the  intercolumns,  or  interpilasters,  and  the  base  and  cornice 
of  the  balustrade  continued,  so  as  to  break  out  and  form 
pedestals  over  the  columns,  or  pilasters,  the  breadth  of  the 
die  of  the  pedestals  should  be  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  top 
of  tile  shafts;  and  when  there  is  no  order,  the  breadth  of 
the  die  never  more  than  its  height,  and  very  seldom  nar- 
rower: the  dies  of  the  pilasters  may  be  flanked  with  half 
dies,  particularly  when  the  range  of  balusters  is  long. 

B.\N1),  a  narrow  flat  surface,  having  its  face  in  a  vertical 
plane,  as  the  band  of  the  Doric  architrave,  and  the  dentil 
liand,  which  is  the  sipiare  out  of  which  the  dentils  are  cut. 
'I'he  word  facia,  or  plat  band,  is  generally  applied  to  broad 
members,  as  the  facia  of  an  architrave  ;  and  band,  to  narrow 
ones  wider  than  fillets.  Band  is  also  the  cincture  around 
the  shaft  of  a  rusticated  column. 

Bandkd  Column,  is  that  which  is  encircled  with  bands,  or 
annular  rustics. 

BANDELET,  or  Band,  any  flat  moulding,  or  fillet.  See 
Band. 

BANKEIJ,  the  stone-bench  on  which  masons  cut  and 
square  their  work. 

B.\.\'Ql'ETlXG-ROO^r,  an  apartment  for  entertainment, 
tised  among  the  Romans  in  the  latter  ages  of  the  empire.  In 
ancient  limes  they  su|)ped  in  the  atrium  of  their  houses,  but 
in  after-times,  magnificent  saloons,  or  banqueting-roonis,  were 


built  for  the  more  commodious  entertainment  of  their  guests. 
Lucullus,  we  are  informed  by  Plutanh,  had  several  very 
grand  banqueting-rooms,  and  the  Emjieror  Claudius  had  a 
very  elegant  one,  named  Mercury  ;  but  everything  of  this 
kind  was  i)Utdone  by  the  lustre  of  the  still  more  celebrated 
banqueting  house  of  Nero,  called  damns  aiirea,  the  house  of 
gold,  which,  by  the  circular  motion  of  its  ceilings  and  parti- 
tions, imitated  the  revolution  of-  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
represented  the  ditTerent  seasons  of  the  year,  which  changed 
at  every  service,  and  showered  do\Mi  flowers,  essences,  and 
perfumes  on  the  guests. 

BAPTISTERY,  (from  Panri^o,  to  wash,)  a  building,  or 
apartment,  designed  for  the  administration  of  baptism. 

In  ancient  times,  baptism  was  performed  by  immersion, 
and  the  place  for  the  purpose  wa^  a  pond  or  stream;  but 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  distinct  or  insulated 
houses  were,  erected  for  the  purpose.  In  496,  they  M-ere 
attached  to  the  exterior  sides  of  the  church;  and  in  the  sixth 
century,  they  were  brought  within  the  church ;  but  though 
there  might  have  been  two  or  more  churches  in  one  city,  yet, 
in  general,  there  was  only  one  baptistery  ;  and  when  it  be- 
came fashionable  to  dedicate  the  churches,  that  to  which  the 
baptistery  belonged  was  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Bapti-st. 
The  baptismal  churches  in  Italy  were  usually  built  near 
rivers  and  waters.  In  later  times,  the  bishop  of  baptismal 
churches  granted  licenses  to  other  churches  to  erect  bap- 
tisteries, taking  care  at  the  same  time  to  maintain  his  own 
jurisdiction  over  the  people. 

The  baptistery  was  an  octagon  building,  covered  with  a 
cupola  roof,  adjacent  to  the  church,  but  not  forming  a  part 
of  it. 

In  the  interior  was  a  hall,  suflicicnt  to  contain  a  great 
number  of  people,  on  the  sides  of  which  was  a  number 
of  apartments ;  sometimes,  instead  of  these  apartments,  rooms 
were  added  on  the  outside,  in  the  manner  of  cloisters:  in  the 
middle  of  the  hall  was  an  octagon  bath,  which,  strictly  speak- 
ing, was  the  baptistery,  nnd  from  which  the  whole  builduig 
derived  its  appellation. 

The  most  celebrated  baptisteries  are  those  of  Rome,  Flo- 
rence, and  Pisa ;  the  most  ancient  is  that  of  S.  Giovanni  in 
Fonte  at  Rome,  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Constantino  tiie 
Great.  The  plan  of  this  building  is  octangular ;  the  roof  is 
supported  by  eight  large  polygonal  pillars  of  porphyry  under 
the  cupola;  in  the  centre  of  the  floor  is  the  bath,  lined  with 
marble,  with  three  steps  for  descending  into  it :  its  depth  is 
about  thirty-seven  inches  and  a  half  1"he  baptistery  an- 
nexed to  the  splendid  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Con-^tantinople, 
resembled  the  convocation-room  of  a  cathedral ;  and  was 
called  illuminatory.  In  the  middle  was  the  bath,  and  around 
it  were  outer  rooms  fir  all  concerned  in  the  immersion. 

ITie  Baptistery  of  Florence  stands  opposite  to  the  principal 
entrance  of  the  cathedral.  It  is  octangular  in  form,  with  a 
diameter  of  about  one  hundred  feet.  In  the  interior  is  a 
gallery,  supported  by  sixteen  hirge  granite  columns ;  the 
vaulting  is  decorated  with  mosaics,  and  on  the  pavement  is  a 
large  circle  of  copper,  with  numerical  figures,  and  the  signs 
of  the  zodiac  on  it.  The  external  fayades  are  built  of  bliick 
and  white  marble,  and  the  three  great  broiize  doors  are  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  their  bas-reliefs,  and  for  the  marble 
and  bronze  figures  above  them. 

'Die  Baptistery  of  Pisa  is  circular;  its  diameter  is  116 
feet ;  the  walls  are  eight  feet  high,  and  the  building  is  raised 
on  three  steps,  and  surmoiuitcd  by  a  dome  in  the  .shape  of 
a  pear.  This  dome,  which  is  <-overed  wilh  lead,  is  intersected 
by  long  lines  of  very  prominent  fretwork,  terminating  in 
another  dome,  above  which  is  a  statue  of  St.  John.  The 
proportions    of  the    interior  arc   admirable;    eight  granite 


UETA' 


-7  Jf"  7S  Boss 


I 


BAR 


27 


BAR 


columns,  placed  hetweuii  four  piers,  decorated  witii  pilasters, 
arc  arranged  round  the  basement  story ;  these  support  a 
second  order  of  piei's,  similarly  arranged,  on  which  I'ests  the 
dome.  In  the  middle  of  tiie  liaptistcry,  is  a  large  octagonal 
basin  of  marble  raised  on  three  steps.     See  Font. 

BAR,  a  piece  of  wood,  or  iron,  for  fastening  any  kind  of 
closure,  as  a  door,  or  shutter.  It  is  used  as  an  additional 
fastening  to  a  door,  attaciicd  to  the  side,  and  movable  to 
and  fro  upon  the  surface,  so  as  to  be  inserted,  or 
drawn  out  of  the  jamb,  head,  or  sill,  at  pleasure ;  and  is 
most  commonly  placed  on  the  vertical  edge  of  the  door. 
Doors  and  shutters  have  sometimes  bars  so  long  as  to  be 
equal  to  the  whole  breadth  of  the  aperture,  or  something 
more  ;  and  frequently  made  to  turn  upon  a  centre  on  the  side 
of  the  door  or  shutter. 

B.VRS  FOR  TUB  Shutters  OF  WiNDOws,  are  frequently 
made  with  one  or  more  joints,  according  to  the  number  of 
shutters  in  the  breadth  of  the  window,  and  are  fastened  by 
means  of  bolts  and  fore-locks. 

Bars  of  a  Boarded  Door,  are  pieces  placed  on  the  back, 
to  which  the  boards  are  fastened  ;  bars  of  this  nature  are 
more  commonly  called  ledges. 

Bars  of  a  Sash,  are  those  slight  pieces  of  wood  or  metal 
which  divide  the  sash-light  into  two  or  more  compartments, 
so  as  to  reduce  the  large  opening  into  smaller  ones  of  con- 
venient dimensions,  suitable  to  the  size  of  the  panes  of 
glass. 

Those  bars  which  stand  in  the  intersection  of  two  vertical 
planes,  are  called  angle-bars.     See  Angle-Bars. 

Bar-Iron.     See  Iron. 

Bar-I'osts,  are  those  which  are  fastened  into  the  ground, 
forming  the  sides  of  a  field  gate,  and  are  mortised  so  as  to 
admit  of  horizontal  pieces,  called  bars,  which  may  be  inserted 
easily  or  taken  out  at  pleasure. 

BARBi\CAN,  or  Barbican,  in  ancient  fortifications,  was 
an  advanced  work,  which  frequently  covered  the  draw-bridge 
at  ttie  entrance  of  a  castle.  The  term  is  likewise  applied 
to  the  aperture  in  walls,  called  embrasures.  See  E.mdra- 
sures. 

Barbacan,  in  architecture,  is  a  long  narrow  canal,  or 
opening,  left  in  the  walls  for  water  to  come  in  and  go  out 
by,  when  edifices  are  placed  so  as  to  be  liable  to  be  overflown ; 
or  to  drain  off  the  water  from  a  terrace  or  the  like. 

BAllGE-BOARDS,  two  boards  attached  to  the  gable 
ends  of  a  roof,  fixed  near  the  extremity  of  the  barge-course, 
and  following  the  inclination  of  the  roof,  used  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  the  under  or  stuccoed  side  of  the  barge-course 
from  the  weather.  They  are  found  most  usually  in  old 
English  houses,  and  being  carved  in  most  rich  and  elaborate 
patterns,  add  great  beauty  and  picturesque  eftect  to  the 
buildings.  They  have  been  of  late  applied  in  many  instances, 
where  their  utility  seems  to  have  been  entirely  misunder- 
stood, and  where,  instead  of  protecting,  they  only  serve  as  a 
dead  weight  to  the  building.  The  word  is  probably  derived 
from  an  old  Saxon  term  signifying  to  shade  or  cover. 

Barge-Couples,  two  beams  mortised  and  tenoned  to- 
gether, for  strengthening  the  building.  The  term  is  not 
much  used. 

Barge-Course,  that  part  of  the  tiling  which  projects 
over  the  gable  of  a  building,  and  is  made  up  below  with 
mortar. 

BARN,  a  covered  building,  for  laying  up  and  preserving 
all  sorts  of  grain,  hay,  straw,  &c.  The  situation  of  a  barn 
should  bo  dry  and  rather  elevated,  and  on  the  north  or  north- 
east side  of  a  farm-yard  ;  but  neither  contiguous  to  the  house, 
nor  to  any  offices  connected  with  it.  Barns  may  be  con- 
structed of  either  stone,  brick,  or  timber,  which  last  may  be 


wooden  framing,  covered  with  wenther  boarding;  but  which- 
soever of  these  materials  is  used,  holes  .should  be  left  in  the 
walls  at  intervals,  or  the  doors  and  windows  shcnild  have 
proper  air-flights,  so  as  to  admit  the  ingress  and  egress  of 
air  freely.  The  gable-ends  are  best  formed  of  brick  or  stone, 
on  account  of  their  solidity  ;  the  covering  may  either  be 
thatch  or  tiles.  In  the  walls  of  the  front  and  rear  of  the 
building  should  be  two  large  folding  doors,  for  the  con- 
venience of  carrying  in  and  out  a  cart  or  waggon  load  of 
corn  in  sheaves,  or  any  other  bulky  Jiroduce:  these  doors 
should  be  of  the  same  breadth  with  the  threshing-floor,  to 
give  more  light  to  the  threshers,  and  admit  more  air  for  win- 
nowing the  grain.  Over  the  threshing-floor,  and  a  little 
above  the  reach  of  the  flail-poles,  be.ims  are  often  laid  across, 
in  order  to  forna  a  kind  of  upper-floor,  upon  which  the 
thresher  may  throw  the  straw  or  haulm  ;  and  on  the  out-side, 
over  the  great  doors,  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  large  pent- 
house made,  projecting  sufliciently,  so  as  to  cover  a  load  of 
corn,  or  hay,  in  case  a  sudden  storm  should  come  on  before  it 
can  be  housed,  and  also  to  shelter  the  pt)ultry  in  the  farm-vard 
from  bad  weather,  or  too  great  heat.  The  hay-barns  should 
usually  be  constructed  of  wood,  and  not  too  close :  they 
are  sometimes  formed  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  be  cup;iblc  of 
being  moved  to  different  places  by  wheels  or  rollers.  In 
grazing- farms,  which  do  not  afford  a  supply  of  straw  for 
thatching,  the  stacks  with  movable  roofs,  erected  on  strong 
upright  posts  of  wood,  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  Dutch 
barns,  may  be  useful,  as  they  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at 
pleasure  bj-  screws  and  levers,  so  as  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  the  quantity  of  hay,  either  in  proportion  to  the  crop 
or  its  consumption,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  are  cheaper, 
more  airy,  and  less  troublesome  than  close  barns,  in  case  of 
heating.  The  under-pinning  of  barns  is  best  of  stone  or 
brick,  which  may  be  built  to  the  height  of  about  two  feet  above 
ground ;  the  sides  should  be  Ijoarded,  and  the  roof  covered  with 
straw  or  reeds  ;  but  those  of  the  stables  on  its  sides,  with  slate 
or  gl.azed  tile  ;  because,  as  they  must  be  more  flat,  the  water 
which  runs  from  the  roof  of  the  barn  would  injure  most 
other  coverings.  At  each  end  of  the  barn,  and  over  the  back- 
door, small  doors,  four  feet  high,  should  be  fixed  at  the 
height  of  twelve  feet  from  the  ground  :  the  two  former  for 
putting  in  corn  at  the  ends,  and  the  latter  for  filling  the 
middle  of  the  barn  after  the  bays  arc  full.  All  the  bays 
should  have  a  floor  of  clay  or  marl,  and  the  threshing-floor 
should  belaid  with  hard  bricks,  which  will  be  suitalile  for  all 
sorts  of  grain,  except  wheat  or  rye  :  for  threshing  these,  it  will 
be  advisable  to  have  planks  of  oak  or  red  deal  well  fitted 
together,  and  numbered,  to  be  laid  down  occasionally,  and 
confined  by  a  frame  at  their  ends. 

Barns  should  be  placed  upon  a  declivity,  as  by  this  means 
they  are  rendered  more  durable,  less  subject  to  vermin,  and 
the  grain  can  be  kept  more  sweet  and  dry  than  on  level 
ground  :  this  situation  also  aftbrds  a  commodious  range  of 
stalls  for  cattle. 

The  invention  of  the  threshing  machine  h.is,  in  a  great 
measure,  altered  the  construction  of  barns,  as,  where  they  are 
made  use  of,  they  should  be  contrived  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
the  distribution  of  straw  ;  the  machines  being  built  in  the 
centre,  with  the  grain-stacks  adjoining  them,  in  such  a  man 
ner,  that  they  may  be  supplied  without  the  assistance  of  carts 
or  horses.  The  barns,  in  these  cases,  need  not  to  be  so 
large,  but  they  should  have  granaries  provided  in  them, 
which  may  perhaps  be  most  conveniently  placed  over  the 
floors. 

BARREL  DRAIN,  one  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  hol- 
low cylinder.     See  Drain. 

BARROW,  or  Tumulus,   a  hillock  or  mound  of  earth. 


B  AS 


28 


BAS 


anciently  raised  over  the  body  of  a  distinguished  person. 
Banows  are  considered  as  the  most  ancient  sepulcliral  monu- 
ments in  the  worl<i. 

BAS-liELIEF.     See  Basso  Relievo. 

BASALT,  a  hard  dark-coloured  rook,  of  igneous  origin, 
formed  of  columnar  or  stratified  parts,  very  useful  in  building, 
paving,  &c.  Basalt,  when  calcined  and  pulverized,  is  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  puzzolana,  in  the  composition  of  mortar : 
by  undergoing  these  operations,  it  acquires  the  property  of 
hardening  under  water. 

BASE,  in  architecture,  is  the  lowermost  part  of  a  body, 
consisting  of  one,  or  an  assemblage  of  parts,  taken  in  its 
altitude,  being  separated  from  its  upper  part,  which  is  a  naked 
or  plain  surlace. 

Base  of  a  Room,  is  the  lower  projecting  part,  consisting 
of  two  portions,  the  lower  of  which  is  a  plain  board  adjoining 
the  floor,  called  the  plinth,  and  the  upper  consists  of  one  or 
more  mouldings,  which,  taken  collectively,  are  called  the 
base-mouldings.  The  plinth  in  the  best  work  is  tongaed 
into  a  groove  in  the  floor,  by  which  means,  the  diminution 
of  breadth  in  the  shrinking  never  shows  anv  ajierture,  or 
cavity,  between  its  under  edge  and  the  floor ;  and  the  upper 
edge  of  the  plinth  is  rebated  upon  the  base.  Bedrooms, 
lobbies,  passages,  and  staircases,  are  often  finished  without 
the  dado  and  surbase,  as  also  sometimes  vestibules  and  halls. 
Rooms  which  have  pavement  floors,  have  their  bases,  in 
general,  consisting  of  stone  plinths,  and  wooden  base-mould- 
ings, which  are  not  so  liable  to  be  broken  as  stone 
mouldings. 

BASEMENT,  the  lowest  story  of  a  building,  on  which 
an  order  is  placed,  consisting  of  a  base,  die,  and  cornice. 
The  choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates  is  a  beautiful  example 
of  an  antique  basement.  In  modern  buildings,  the  height 
of  the  basement  will  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the 
edifice  :  it  is  proper,  however,  to  make  the  basement  no 
higher  than  the  order  of  the  next  story,  for  this  would  be 
making  the  base  of  more  importance  in  the  composition  than 
the  body  to  be  supported.  If  the  cellar  story  is  the  base- 
ment, and  if  the  height  does  not  exceed  five  or  six  feet  at 
the  most,  it  may  be  plain,  or  with  rustics,  or  formed  into  a 
continued  pedestal;  but  if  the  basement  is  on  the  ground 
story,  the  usual  manner  of  decorating  it  is  with  rustics,  sup- 
ported on  a  base  and  surmounted  with  a  crowning  string 
course :  the  base  may  be  cither  a  plain  or  moulded 
plinth;  and  the  cornice  may  either  have  a  plat-band  or 
mouldings  under  it,  or  may  form  a  cornice  of  small 
projection.  The  rustics  are  either  of  a  rectangular  or 
triangular  section,  supposing  one  of  the  sides  of  these 
sections  to  be  a  line  extending  across  the  front  of  the  joints. 
The  joints  of  the  rustics  may  be  from  one-eighth  to  a  tenth 
part  of  their  height ;  the  depth  of  the  triangular  joints  may 
be  half  their  breadth ;  that  is,  making  the  two  planes  by 
which  they  are  formed  a  right  angle;  and  the  depth  of  the 
rectangular  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  their  breadth. 
The  ancients  alwavs  marked  both  directions  of  the  joints 
of  the  rustics,  whereas  the  moderns  employ  not  only  the 
ancient  nuunier,  but  sometimes  make  them  with  horizontal 
joints  alone  ;  the  latter,  however,  represent  rather  a  boarded 
surface  than  that  of  a  stone  wall,  which  must  have  two  direc- 
tions of  joints. 

The  height  of  the  string  course  should  not  exceed  the 
height  of  a  rustic  with  its  joints ;  nor  the  ]>linth,  or 
zocholo,  be  less  than  the  height  of  the  string  course. 
When  the  basement  is  perforated  with  arcades,  the  imposts 
of  the  arches  may  be  a  plat-band,  which  may  be  equal  to 
the  height  of  a  rustic,  exclusive  of  the  joint.  When  the 
string  course   is   a   cornice,   the    base   may   be   moulded, 


the  projection  of  the  cornice  being  two-thirds  of  its  heiirht, 
so  as  to  be  less  prominent  than  that  which  finishes  the 
building.  The  height  of  the  cornice  maj-  be  about  one- 
eighteenth  part  of  the  height  of  the  basement,  and  that  of 
the  base,  about  twice  as  nmch,  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which 
the  lower  five-sixths  form  the  plinths,  and  the  upper  sixth 
the  mouldings. 

BASIL,  among  carpenters  and  joiners,  the  iron  side  of 
the  angle  of  a  tool,  ground  so  as  to  bring  the  end  of  the  tool 
to  a  cutting  edge.  \f  the  angle  be  very  thin,  the  tool  will 
cut  more  freely,  but  is  in  danger  of  breaking  into  notches, 
if  not  duly  tempered :  to  remedy  this,  it  is  sometimes  found 
necessary  to  grind  it  thicker. 

BASILICA,  (from  (iamXevc,  Mng,  and  oiko<;,  house,  signi- 
f\"ing  royal  liouse,)  a  building  originally  used  as  a  court  of 
justice.  Among  the  Romans,  it  was  a  large  hall  adjoining 
the  forum,  where  the  magistrates  judged  the  people  tnider 
cover,  which  distinguished  it  from  the  fora,  where  they  held 
their  sittings  in  the  open  air.  Basilicas  were  in  plan 
parallclogrammic,  divided  lengthwise  into  three  or  more 
aisles,  the  centre  one  of  which  was  called  the  testudo,  and 
those  at  the  sides  porticos.  The  testudo  was  covered  by  a 
roof  supported  on  two  rows  of  columns,  situate  on  either 
side  between  it  and  the  adjoining  porticos.  These  porticos 
were  divided  vertically  by  two  galleries,  one  above  the  other, 
which  ran  round  three  sides  of  the  building,  and  were  cov- 
ered by  a  lean-to  roof,  meeting  the  above-named  eoliunns 
below  their  capitals,  so  as  to  leave  an  open  space  between 
the  roofs  of  the  porticos  and  the  testudo,  for  the  admission 
of  light.  At  that  end  of  the  testudo  where  the  gallery  was 
discontinued,  stood  a  raised  platform,  on  which  was  placed 
the  tribunal  for  the  magistrate.  The  above  is  as  clearly  as 
can  be  discovered,  a  correct  description  of  the  ancient 
basilica,  and  agrees  in  all  its  principal  features  with  a  build- 
ing which  has  been  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii. 

The  proportions  of  these  edifices  are  given  by  Vitruvius 
as  follows : — "  The  breadth,"  he  says,  "  is  not  to  be  less 
than  a  third,  nor  more  than  the  half  of  the  length,  unless 
the  nature  of  the  place  opposes  the  proportion,  and  obliges 
the  synmietry  to  be  ditTerent  ;  but  if  the  basilica  has  too 
much  length,  chalcidica:  (supposed  to  be  apartments 
on  the  sides  of  the  tribunal,  separated  from  the  body  by 
a  partition)  are  taken  off  the  ends,  as  in  the  basilica  of  Julia 
Aquiliana.  The  columns  of  the  basilica  are  made  as  high 
as  the  portions  is  broad  ;  which  again  is  equal  to  the  third  part 
of  the  space  in  the  middle.  The  upper  columns  are  less  than 
the  lower,  as  above  written.  The  pluleum  (a  kind  of  podium 
or  continued  pedestal)  which  is  between  the  upper  columns, 
should  also  be  made  a  fourth  part  less  than  the  saine  colunms, 
that  those  who  walk  on  the  floor  above,  may  not  be  seen  by 
the  negotiators  below.  The  epixli/liiim,  zojihnrus,  and  coroitce 
below,  are  proportioned  to  the  columns,  as  in  my  third 
book. 

"Nor  will  basilicas  such  as  that  at  the  colony  of  Julia  of 
Fanuni,  which  I  designed  and  executed,  have  less  dignity 
and  beauty,  the  proportions  and  symmetry  of  which  are  as 
follows  :  The  middle  testudo,  between  the  columns,  is  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  long,  and  sixty  feet  broad.  The 
portieus  around  the  testudo,  between  the  walls  and  columns, 
is  twentv  feet  broad.  The  height  of  the  continued  columns, 
including  their  capitals,  is  fifty  feet,  and  the  thickness  five, 
having  behind  them  parastatre  (attached  pilasters)  twenty 
feet  high,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  one  foot  and  a  half 
thick,  which  sustain  the  beams  that  bear  the  floors  of  the 
portieus.  Above  these  are  other  parastatas,  eighteen  feet 
iiigh,  two  feet  broad,  and  a  foot  thick,  which  also  receive 
beams  sustaining  the  canthers  of  the  portieus,  which  are  laid 


BAS 


29 


BAS 


below  the  roof  of  the  testudo  :  the  remaining  space  that  is 
left  between  the  beams  which  lie  over  the  parastataj,  and 
those  over  the  columns,  is  left  open  in  the  inter-colunuis, 
in  order  to  give  light.  The  columns  in  the  breadth  of  the 
testudo,  inchiding  those  of  the  angles  to  the  right  and 
left,  are  four  ;  and  in  the  length,  on  that  side  which  is  next 
the  forum,  including  the  same  angle  columns,  eight.  On  the 
otiior  side,  there  are  but  six  columns,  including  those  of  the 
angles,  but  the  middle  two  on  this  side  are  omitted,  that 
tlK'v  mav  not  obstruct  the  \iew  of  the  pronaos  of  the  Temple 
of  Augustus,  which  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  side-wall 
of  the  basilica,  looking  toward  the  centre  of  the  forum  and 
Temple  of  Jupiter.  The  tribunal,  in  this  building,  is  formed 
in  the  figure  of  a  hemicycle :  the  extent  of  this  hemicvele, 
in  front,  is  firty-six  feet,  and  the  recess  of  the  curvature 
inward,  fifteen  feet,  so  that  those  wlio  attend  the  magistrate 
obstruct  not  the  negotiants  in  the  basilica. 

"  Upon  thecolumns,  the  compacted  beams,  made  from  three 
timbers  of  two  feet,  are  disposed  ;  and  these  are  returned 
from  the  third  columns,  which  are  in  the  interior  part,  to 
the  ant;B  that  project  from  the  pronaos,  and  on  the  right  and 
left  touch  the  hemicycle. 

"  Upon  the  beams,  perpendicularly  to  the  capitals,  the  pila; 
(a  kind  of  blocking  for  supporting  the  plates)  are  placed, 
three  feet  high,  and  four  feet  broad,  on  every  side.  Over 
these,  other  beams,  well  wrought  from  two  timbers  of  two 
feet,  are  placed  ;  upon  which  the  transtrase  and  capareols 
being  fixed  coincident  with  the  zophorus,  antfe,  and 
walls  of  the  pronaos,  sustain  the  culmen  the  whole  length 
of  the  basilica,  and  another  transversely  from  the  middle 
over  the  pronaos  of  the  temple  :  so  that  it  causes  a  double 
disposition  of  the  fastigiuni,  and  gives  a  handsome  appear- 
ance to  the  roof  on  the  outside,  and  to  the  lofty  testudo 
within.  The  omission  of  the  ornaments  of  the  epistylium, 
and  of  the  upper  columns  and  plutei,  diminishes  the  labour 
of  the  work,  and  saves  great  part  of  the  expense.  The 
Columns  likewise  being  carried  in  one  continued  height  up  to 
the  beams  of  the  testudo,  increase  the  magnificence  and 
dignity  of  the  work."' 

In  the  foreg(jing  description,  the  proportion  which  Vitru- 
vins  assigns  to  basilicas  in  general,  does  not  agree  with  that 
which  he  executed  at  the  colony  of  Julia  of  Fanum,  which 
appears  to  be  of  a  different  construction  from  the  common 
form ;  as,  in  the  ft)rmer,  the  ranges  of  columns  which  form 
the  porticos,  appear  to  have  been  disposed  in  two  heights, 
with  a  gallery  between  ;  whereas,  in  the  latter,  the  columns 
were  disposed  in  one  range  in  the  height,  with  attached 
pilasters  behind,  in  two  rows,  one  above  the  other,  and  the 
galleries  between  the  pilasters  nearly  against  the  middle  of 
the  columns,  resting  upon  the  lower  range.  Nor  are  the 
proportions  the  same :  for  in  the  former,  the  breadth  is 
specified  not  to  be  less  than  a  third  part  of  the  length,  nor 
more  llian  half,  "  unless  the  nature  of  the  place  opposes  the 
proportion  ;"  the  breadth  of  the  latter  is,  however,  more  than 
the  halt',  for  the  length  of  the  nave  is  one  hundi-ed  and 
twenty  feet,  and  the  breadth  sixty  feet ;  now,  adding  forty 
feet  to  each,  the  breadth  of  the  two  opposite  porticos,  will 
make  the  whole  length  of  the  building  one  hundred  and 
sixty  feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  same  one  hundred  feet, 
which  is  more  than  the  half  of  one  hundred  and  sixty.  In 
the  general  construction,  no  columns  are  mentioned  at  the 
ends,  unless  the  chalcidEB  (which  are  introduced  in  order  to 
proportionate  the  building)  are  comparted  by  columns,  but 
in  the  basilica  c(jnstructed  by  Vitruvius,  porticos  are  clearly 
understood  in  the  breadth,  as  well  as  in  the  length ;  for  he 
says,  "The  columns  in  the  breadth  of  the  testudo,  including 
those  of  the  angles  to  the  right  and  left,  are  four ;  and  in  the 


length,  on  that  side  which  is  next  the  forum,  including 
the  same  columns,  eight ;  on  the  other  side  there  are  but  six 
columns,  including  those  of  the  angles  ;  because  the  middle 
two  on  this  side  are  omitted,  that  they  may  not  obstruct  the 
view  of  the  pronaos  of  the  temple  of  Augustus."  When 
Vitruvius  speaks  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  basilica, 
it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  these  were  the  dimensions 
within  the  walls ;  but  whether  ancient  edifices  of  this 
description  had  walls,  or  were  supported  upon  columns,  is 
a  desideratum  which  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  in  the  disco- 
veries of  ancient  edifices,  which  are  perhaps,  as  yet,  embo- 
somed in  the  earth  ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted,  that,  thou<;h 
some  buildings  of  a  similar  descri|ition  have  been  discovered, 
they  are  by  no  means  decided,  neither  in  their  proportion  nor 
construction.  Fragments  of  the  plan  of  Rome,  taken  under 
Severus,  which  still  exists,  show  a  part  of  the  basilica 
iEmiliana,  exhibiting  two  rows  of  columns  on  each  side, 
without  an  exterior  wall,  which  renders  it  doubtful  whether 
they  ever  were  enclosed  or  not;  perhaps  the  warmth  of  the 
climate  of  Italy  did  not  require  it. 

"  It  is  to  Constantine,  that  the  first  Christian  churches, 
known  by  the  name  of  basilicas,  are  to  be  referred.  This 
prince  signalized  his  zeal  by  the  erection  of  monuments, 
which  announced  the  triumph  of  the  religion  which  he  had 
embraced.  He  gave  his  own  palace  on  the  Cojlian  mount,  to 
construct  on  its  site  a  church,  which  is  recognized  for  the 
most  ancient  Christian  basilica.  A  modern  building  has 
so  masked  and  disfigured  the  ancient,  that  only  the  situation 
and  plan  of  this  monument  can  be  discovered. 

"  Soon  after,  he  erected  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  of  the 
Vatican.  This  magnificent  edifice  was  constructed  about 
the  year  324,  upon  the  site  of  the  circus  of  Nero,  and  the 
temples  of  Apollo  and  Mars,  which  were  destroyed  for  that 
purpose.  It  was  divided  internally  into  five  aisles  from  east 
to  west,  which  terminated  at  the  end  in  another  aisle  from 
north  to  south,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  large  niche  or 
tribunal  giving  the  whole  the  form  of  a  cross.  The  larger 
aisle  was  enclosed  by  forty-eight  columns  of  precious  marble, 
and  the  lateral  aisles  had  likewise  forty-eight  columns  of 
smaller  dimensions  ;  two  columns  were  placed  on  each  wing 
of  the  terminating  aisle.  The  whole  was  covered  w'ith  a  flat 
ceiling,  composed  of  immense  beams,  which  were  cased  with 
gilt  metal  and  Corinthian  brass,  taken  from  the  temples  of 
Romulus  and  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  A  hundred  smaller 
columns  ornamented  the  shrines  and  chapels.  The  walls  were 
covered  with  paintings  of  religious  subjects,  and  the  tribunal 
was  enriched  with  elalwrate  mosaics.  An  incredible  number 
of  lamps  illuminated  this  temple  ;  in  the  greater  solemnities 
2.400  were  reckoned,  of  which  one  enormous  candelabrum 
contained  1,3(50.  The  tombs  of  pontifts,  kings,  cardinals,  and 
princes,  were  reared  against  the  walls,  or  uisulated  in  the 
ample  porticos. 

"  This  superb  temple  was  respected  by  Alaric  and  Totila, 
and  remained  uninjured  in  the  various  fortunes  of  Rome 
during  the  lapse  of  twelve  centuries  ;  but  crumbling  with  age, 
it  was  at  last  pulled  down  by  Julius  II.,  and  upon  its  site 
has  arisen  the  famous  basilica,  the  pride  of  modern  Rome. 

"The  third  great  basilica  built  by  Constantine,  that  of 
St.  Paul,  on  the  road  to  Ostia,  still  exists.  The  interior 
of  this  building  resembles  precisely  that  of  St.  Peter,  which 
has  ju.st  been  described.  Of  the  forty  columns  enclosing  the 
great  aisle,  twentv-four  are  supposed  to  have  been  taken  from 
the  mausoleum  of  Adrian  ;  they  are  Corinthian,  about  three 
feet  diameter,  fluted  their  whole  length,  and  calded  to  one- 
third  :  the  columns  are  of  blue-and-white  marble,  and  anti- 
quity presents  nothing  in  this  kind  more  precious  for  the 
materials  and  workmanship.     But  these  beautiful  remains 


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seem  only  to  be  placed  there  to  the  disgrace  of  the  rest  of 
the  construction,  which  is  of  the  age  of  Ci>nstantine  and 
Theodosius,  and  which  most  strikingly  exemplifies  the  rapid 
decline  of  the  arts. 

"  The  churches  we  have  hitherto  described,  bear  a  very 
complete  resemblance  to  the  antiipie  basilica  in  plan  and  pro- 
portion. The  only  remarkable  dillerence  is,  that  the  superior 
galleries  are  suppressed,  in  the  place  of  which  a  wall  is 
raised  upon  the  columns  of  the  great  aisle,  which  is  pierced 
■with  windows,  and  supports  the  roof 

"The  church  of  St.  Agnes  out  of  the  walls,  though  not 
one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Rome  which  retain  the  title,  is 
however  a  perfect  imitation  of  the  antique  basilica.  This 
resemblance  is  so  complete,  that  without  the  testimony  of 
writers,  who  inform  us  that  it  was  built  by  Constantine,  at 
the  request  of  Constantia,  his  sister  or  daughter,  and  without 
the  details  of  its  architecture,  which  forbid  us  to  date  it 
higher,  it  might  be  taken  rather  for  an  ancient  tribunal  of 
justice,  than  a  modern  church.  It  forms  an  oblong  internally, 
three  sides  of  which  are  surrounded  with  columns  forming 
the  porticos;  the  fourth  side  opposite  the  entrance  is  recessed 
in  a  semicircle  ;  this  is  the  tribmial.  The  first  order  of 
columns  carries  a  second,  forming  an  upper  gallery,  above 
■which  begins  the  ceiling  of  the  edifice.  The  shortening  of 
the  columns  recommended  by  Vitruvius,  is  observed  in  the 
upper  order. 

"  We  have  hitherto  observed  in  the  Christian  basilicas, 
but  small  variations  from  the  antique  construction  :  they  were 
still  simple  quadrilateral  halls,  divided  into  three  or  five 
aisles,  the  numerous  columns  of  which  supported  the  flat  ceil- 
ing; but  the  cross-form,  the  emblem  of  Christianity,  which 
began  to  be  adopted  in  these  buildings,  operated  the  most 
essential  changes  in  their  shape.  The  intersection  of  the 
crossing  aisles  produced  a  centre,  which  it  ■was  natural  to 
enlarge  and  make  principal  in  the  composition  ;  and  the 
invention  of  domes,  supported  on  pendentives,  enabled  the 
architects  to  give  size  and  dignity  to  the  centre,  without 
interrupting  the  vista  of  the  aisles.  The  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  was  the  first  example  of  this 
form. 

"The  seat  of  the  Roman  empire  being  transferred  to  Con- 
stantinople, it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  disposition  of  the 
ancient  St.  Peter's  of  Rome,  esteemed  at  that  time  the  most 
magnificent  church  in  the  world,  was  imitated  in  that  which 
Constantine  erected  for  his  new  capital,  under  the  name  of 
St.  Sophia.  This  last  did  not  exist  long  :  Constantius,  the 
son  of  Constantine,  raised  a  new  one,  which  experienced 
many  disasters.  Destroyed  in  part,  and  rebuilt  under  the 
reign  of  Arcadius,  it  was  burnt  under  Honorius,  and  re- 
established by  Theodosius  the  younger;  but  a  furious  sedition 
having  arisen  under  .Justinian,  it  was  reduced  to  ashes.  This 
emperor  having  appeased  the  tumult,  and  wishing  to  immor- 
talize his  name  by  the  edifice  he  was  about  to  erect,  asscm- 
bledf  rom  various  parts  the  most  famous  architects.  Anthe- 
mius  of  Trulles,  and  Isidore  of  Miletus,  were  chosen;  and 
as  they  had  the  boldness  to  attempt  a  novel  construction,  they 
experienced  many  difficulties  and  disasters;  but  at  last  they 
had  the  glory  of  finishing  their  design. 

"The  plan  of  this  basilica  is  a  square  of  about  two 
hundred  aiid  fifty  feet.  The  interior  forms  a  Greek  cross, 
that  is,  a  cross  with  equal  arms ;  the  aisles  are  terminated 
at  two  ends  by  semicircles,  and  at  the  other  two  by  square 
recesses,  in  which  are  placed  two  ranges  of  tribunals.  The 
aisles  are  vaulted,  and  the  centre,  where  they  intersect,  forms 
a  long  square,  upon  which  is  raised  the  dome,  of  about  one 
hundred  and  ten  feet  diameter.  The  dome,  therefore,  is 
supported  upon  the  four  arches  of  the  naves  and  the  penden- 


tives, or  spandrel,    which  connect  the    square  plan  of  the 
centre  with  the  circle  of  the  dome. 

"  The  general  etlcct  of  the  interior  is  grand  ;  but  whatever 
praises  the  bold  invention  of  this  immense  dome  nuiy  merit, 
it  must  be  confessed,  that  there  are  times  in  which  princes, 
however  great  and  liberal,  can  only  produce  imperfect  monu- 
ments, of  which  this  edifice  is  a  striking  example.  All  the 
details  of  its  architecture  are  defective  and  barbarous. 

"  However,  from  the  communication  established  between 
Greece  and  Italy,  at  the  revival  of  letters,  this  basilica,  the 
last,  as  well  as  the  most  magnificent  of  the  lower  empire, 
was  that  which  influenced  most  the  form  and  architecture  of 
the  new  temples.  The  Venetians,  in  the  tenth  century, 
copied  with  success  the  best  points  in  the  disposition  of 
St.  Sophia,  in  the  church  of  St.  Mark.  This  is  the  first 
in  Italy  which  was  constructed  with  a  dome  supported  on 
pendentives;  and  it  is  also  this  which  first  gave  the  idea, 
which  has  been  imitated  in  St.  Peter's,  of  the  Vatican,  of 
accompanying  the  great  dome  of  a  church  with  smaller  and 
lower  domes,  to  give  it  a  pyramidal  effect. 

"  From  this  time  to  the  erection  of  the  basilica  of  St. 
Peter's,  we  find  the  churches  approach,  more  or  less,  to  the 
form  of  the  ancient  basilica  or  the  new  construction.  The 
church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  of  Florence,  from  the 
magnitude  of  its  dome,  and  the  skill  •which  Bnmelleschi 
displayed  in  its  construction,  acquired  a  celebrity  which  made 
the  .system  of  domes  prevail ;  and  this  system  was  finally 
established  in  the  noble  basilica  of  the  Vatican,  which  has 
become  the  type  and  example  of  later  ones.  The  form  of 
the  antique  basilica  was  entirely  lost,  and  the  name,  which 
has  been  retained,  is  the  only  remain  of  their  ancient 
resemblance. 

"In  the  pontificate  of  Julius  IF.,  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's  was  begun  from 
the  designs  of  Bramante.  This  great  man  formed  the  idea 
of  suspending,  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  a  circular 
temple,  as  large  as  the  Pantheon,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  to 
raise  the  Pantheon  on  the  temple  of  peace  ;  and,  in  fact,  we 
find  great  resemblance  in  size  and  disposition  between  these 
two  edifices  and  the  project  of  Bramante.  He  was  succeeded 
in  his  office  by  San  Gallo,  who  almost  entirely  lost  sight  of 
the  original  plan  ;  but  Michael  Angelo,  to  whom  at  his  death 
the  undertaking  was  committed,  concentered  the  discordant 
parts.  Michael  Angelo  died  1564,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
erecting  the  dome  ;  but  he  left  plans  and  models,  which  were 
strictly  adhered  to  by  his  successors,  Vignola,  J.  del  Porte, 
and  Fontana,  who  terminated  the  dome.  The  building  was 
carried  on  under  many  succeeding  pontiffs  ;  and  at  last,  by 
lengthening  the  longitudinal  nave,  it  acquired  the  form  of 
the  Latin  cross  ;  in  that  particular,  approaching  to  the  oi  iginal 
design  of  Bramante. 

"  The  general  form  of  this  edifice,  externally,  is  an  oblong, 
with  circular  projections  in  three  of  the  sides ;  the  plan  of 
the  interior  consists  of  a  Latin  cross,  the  intersection  of  the 
arms  of  which  is  enlarged  and  formed  into  an  octagon  ;  the 
head  of  the  long  aisles,  and  the  ends  of  the  cross-aisles,  are 
terminated  in  hemicyclcs,  and  the  great  naves  are  accornpa- 
nied  with  lateral  aisles,  and  with  several  enclosed  chapels. 
The  octasion  centre  supports  a  circular  wall,  enriched  with 
pilasters  "and  pierced  with  windows,  above  which  rises  the 
magnificent  dome. 

"Thus  we  have  traced  the  progress  of  the  basilica 
from  the  quadrilateral  hall  of  the  ancients,  with  its  single 
roof  and  flat  ceiling,  supported  on  ranges  of  columns,  to 
the  cross-shaped  plan,  central  dome,  and  vaulted  aisles, 
supported  on  massy  piers,  of  the  modern  cathedral.  It 
only  remains  to  treat  of  the — 


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"  Miideni  Basilica.  Wc  give  this  name,  with  Palladio, 
to  the  civil  eilifu'os  which  arc  (oiiiid  in  many  Italian  cities, 
and  the  destination  ot"  whicli  is  entirely  similar  to  the  antique 
basilica. 

"In  imitation  of  the  ancients,  (says  this  celeliratcd  archi- 
tect.) the  cities  of  Italy  construct  public  halls,  which  may 
I'ijjlitly  be  called  husilicax,  as  they  f  >rm  part  of  the  haljitation 
of  the  supreme  magistrate,  and  in  them  the  judges  administer 
justice.  The  basilicas  of  our  time  (he  continues)  differ  in 
this  from  the  ancient — that  those  were  level  with  the  ground, 
while  ours  are  raised  upon  arches,  in  which  are  shops  for 
various  arts,  and  the  merchandise  of  the  city.  There  the 
prisons  are  also  placed,  and  other  buildings  belonging  to  the 
public  business.  Another  difference  is,  that  the  modern 
basilicas  have  the  porticos  on  the  outside,  while  in  the 
ancient  they  were  only  iu  the  interior.  Of  these  halls,  there 
is  a  very  noble  one  at  Padua ;  and  another  at  Brescia, 
reniarhable  for  its  size  and  ornaments. 

"But  the  most  celebrated  is  that  of  Vicenza;  the  exterior 
part  of  which  was  built  by  Palladio,  and  the  whole  so  much 
altered  that  it  may  pass  for  his  work.  The  body  of  the 
building  is  of  much  greater  antiquity,  though  the  date  of  it 
is  unknown. 

"Time  and  various  accidents  had  reduced  this  edifice  to 
such  a  state  of  decay,  that  it  was  necessary  to  think  seriously 
of  preventing  its  total  ruin:  for  this  purpose,  the  most 
eminent  architects  were  consulted,  and  the  design  of  Palladio 
was  approved.  He  removed  the  ancient  loggias,  and  substi- 
tuted new  porticos,  of  a  very  beautiful  invention.  These 
form  two  galleries  in  height,  the  lower  order  of  which  is 
ornamented  with  Doric  engaged  columns,  at  very  wide 
intervals,  to  answer  to  the  internal  pillars  of  the  old  building; 
the  space  between  each  column  is  occupied  by  an  arch,  rest- 
ing on  two  small  columns  of  the  same  order,  and  a  pilaster 
at  each  side  against  tiie  large  columns,  which  leaves  a  space 
between  it  and  the  small  columns,  of  two  diameters.  The 
upper  portico  of  Ionic  columns,  is  disposed  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  a  balustrade  is  placed  in  the  archways.  The  enta- 
blature of  the  large  orders  is  profiled  over  each  column. 

"This  edifice  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  and 
sixty  feet  broad ;  the  hall  is  raised  above  the  ground  twenty- 
six  feet ;  it  is  formed  by  vaults  supported  on  pillars,  and  the 
whole  is  covered  with  a  wooden  dome." — Mees's  Cijclopadia. 

B.\SKET,  a  kind  of  vase  in  the  form  of  a  basket,  filled 
with  (lowers,  or  fruits,  or  both,  used  for  terminating  a 
decoration. 

B.\SS&COUR,  a  court  separated  from  the  principal 
one  and  destined  for  the  stables,  coach-horses,  and  livery- 
serx'ants.  in  a  country  place,  it  denotes  the  yard  where 
the  cattle,  fowls,  &c.,  are  kept :  it  is  called  by  the  French 
mciiaqerie. 

B.\SSO  -  RELIEVO,  (LaUan  ;  Bas-relief,  French,)  in 
sculpture,  is  the  representation  of  figures  projecting  from  a 
back  ground,  so  as  to  give  relief  It  is  a  general  term,  com- 
prehending three  distinct  species  of  sculpture.  Low  relief, 
sometimes  also  called  basso-relievo,  is  that  in  which  no  part 
of  the  sculpture  is  detached  from  the  back  ground  :  high- 
relief,  or  alto-relievo,  is  that  in  which  the  grosser  parts  are 
only  attached,  while  the  smaller  parts  are  free:  mean-relief, 
or  mezzo-relievo,  is  a  term  which  some  use  for  a  kind  of 
sculpture  between  the  two.  Mezzo-relievo  is  distinguished 
from  alto  by  having  no  part  entirely  discoiuiected  from  the 
plane  surface,  and  from  basso-relievo  in  having  the  parts 
most  remote  from  the  back  ground,  most  relieved,  whereas 
the  latter  has  such  parts  least  relieved.  In  the  former  the 
outline  is  less,  in  the  latter  more  apparent  than  the  forms 
witliin  it. 


These  terms  are  of  modern  date,  and  probably  invented  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  Greeks  denominated 
relievo,  or  low-relitf,  by  the  term  nmKihjiita  (Pliny,  lib.  3:5, 
c.  11,)  and  alto-relievo  was  distinguished  by  the  word 
toreuliceu,  or  rounded,  (Pliny,  lib.  34,  c.  8,)  although  this 
term  was  occasionally  applied  to  any  kind  of  relief.  As 
architecture  is  highly  indebted  to  sculpture  for  some  of  its 
most  elegant  decorations,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  some 
account  in  this  place  of  the  basso-relievos  of  the  ancients. 

In  point  of  antiqm'ty,  the  Egyptian  stands  first :  a  know- 
ledge of  their  sculpture  will  be  best  obtained  from  the  writ- 
ings of  those  who  have  actually  visited  and  surveyed  their 
ruined  edifices;  in  conformitj-  with  this,  the  following 
description  from  Denon  will,  perhaps,  be  acceptable: — "The 
hieroglvphics,  which  are  executed  in  three  different  manners, 
are  also  of  three  species,  and  may  take  their  date  from  as 
many  periods.  From  the  examination  of  the  ditfeient 
edifices  which  have  fallen  under  my  eye,  I  imagine  that  the 
most  ancient  of  these  characters  are  only  simple  outlines,  cut 
in  without  relief,  and  very  deep ;  the  next  in  point  of  age, 
and  which  produce  the  least  effect,  are  simply  in  a  very 
shallow  relief;  and  the  third,  which  seem  to  belong  to  a  more 
improved  age,  and  are  executed  at  Tentyra  more  perfectly 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Egypt,  are  in  relief  below  the  level 
of  the  outline.  By  the  side  of  the  figures  which  compose 
these  tabular  pieces  of  sculpture,  there  are  some  hieroglyphics 
which  appear  to  be  only  the  explanation  of  the  subjects  at 
large,  and  in  which  the  forms  are  more  simplified,  so  as  to 
give  a  inore  rapid  inscription,  or  a  kind  of  short-hand,  if  we 
may  apply  the  term  to  sculpture. 

"A  fourth  kind  of  hieroglyphics  appears  to  be  devoted 
simply  to  ornament:  we  have  improperly  termed  it,  I  know 
not  why,  the  arabesque.  It  was  adopted  by  the  Greeks, 
and,  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  was  introduced  among  the 
Romans ;  and  in  the  fifieenth  century,  during  the  restoration 
of  the  arts,  it  was  transmitted  b\-  them  to  us,  as  a  fantastic 
decoration,  the  peculiar  taste  of  which  formed  all  its  merit. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  who  employed  these  ornaments  with 
equal  taste,  every  object  had  a  meaning  or  moral,  and  at  the 
same  time  formed  the  decoration  of  the  friezes,  cornices,  and 
surbasements  of  their  architecture.  I  have  discovered  at 
Tentyra  the  representations  of  the  peristyles  of  temples  in 
caryatides,  which  are  executed  in  painting  at  the  baths  of 
Titus,  and  have  been  copied  by  Raphael,  and  which  we  con- 
stantly ape  in  our  rooms,  without  suspecting  that  the 
Egyptians  have  given  us  the  first  models  of  thein."  Again, 
in  describing  the  temple  of  Latopolis,  Denon  says,  "  The 
hieroglyphics  in  relief,  with  which  it  is  covered  within  and 
without,  are  executed  with  great  care;  they  contain,  among 
other  subjects,  a  zodiac,  and  large  figures  of  men  with  croco- 
diles'heads:  the  capitals,  though  all  different,  have  a  very 
fine  effect;  and  as  an  additional  proof  that  the  Egyptians 
borrowed  nothing  from  other  people,  we  may  remark,  that 
they  have  taken  all  the  ornaments,  of  which  those  capitals 
are  composed,  from  the  productions  of  their  own  country, 
such  as  the  lotus,  the  palm-tree,  the  vine,  the  rush,  ice,  &c." 
The  most  ancient  and  most  simple  kind  of  basso-relievos, 
used  by  the  Egyptians,  were  cut  l)y  recessing  the  grounds  as 
much  as  the  projection  of  the  figures,  so  that  the  surround- 
ing surfaces,  by  forming  a  kind  of  border,  botli  threw  a  shade 
upon  the  figures  and  dcteiidcd  them  from  injury,  which  they 
were  liable  to,  as  the  granite  out  of  which  they  were  cut  was 
of  a  very  brittle  nature ;  by  this  means  much  labour  was 
saved  in  the  execution. 

The  Egyptians  also  employed  basso-relievo  without  any 
surro-anding  border,  all  the  figures  being  raised  from  the 
same   naked,   such  as   in  the  palace  of  Karnac,  and  those 


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descriliefl  in  tlic  Bird's  Well,  of  which  there  is  a  specijnen  in 
the  liall  of  the  British  ^fiiscum.  The  material  is  soft  cal- 
careous stone,  in  verj-  low  relief.  The  outlines  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  arc  ungraceful,  and  the  execution  shows  a  want  of 
the  knowledge  of  anatomy :  it  may  bo  remarked  as  somewhat 
singular,  that  (juadrupeds  are  more  accurately  represented 
in  their  sculpture  than  h\nnan  figures. 

The  basso-relievos  found  in  the  excavations  of  the  Indian 
temples  bear  a  strong  resendjianee  to  those  of  the  Egyptians, 
tut  are  inferior  in  jioint  of  proportion;  the  heads  ai'c  too 
large.  Whether  the  Indian  or  Egyptian  sculpture  is  the  most 
ancient  is  not  known;  but  if  simplicity  is  to  be  our 
criterion,  we  would  say  the  latter.     See  DanielTs  Ant. 

The  Persians  employed  basso-relievos  in  their  architec- 
tural decorations,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  palace  of  Persepolis, 
and  in  the  royal  tombs.  The  figures  are  arranged  in  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  lines,  and  resemble  the  later  hieroglyphics 
of  Egypt,  though  the  dress  is  very  difterent :  those  ofthe 
Egyptians  being  particularly  distinguished  by  the  hair  arti- 
ficially curled,  the  hood,  the  mitre,  the  close  tunic,  and  apron 
of  papyrus;  the  Hindoos,  by  the  necklaces,  bracelets,  and 
anklets;  the  Persians,  by  long  beards,  and  hair  ending  in 
small  curls,  caps,  and  full  tunics,  with  regular  folds  and  large 
sleeves ;  the  Medes,  by  close  tunics.  The  drapery  of  the 
Persian  figures  is  more  natural  than  that  of  the  Egyptians ; 
but  it  cannot  be  uiferred  from  this,  that  the  figures  themselves 
are  of  better  sculpture,  as  instances  may  be  shown  to  the 
contrary,  in  the  obelisk  of  Scsostris,  in  the  palace  of  Karnae, 
and  in  the  Theban  tombs,  where  the  execution  is  not  only 
more  perfect,  but  the  positions  of  the  human  figures  more 
varied.     See  Denoti's  Eijijpi^  and  Le  Bnnjii's  Travels. 

The  Grecians  excelled  all  contemporary  nations  in  the  art 
of  sculpture,  as  well  as  in  architecture  and  geometry  ;  the 
numerous  remains  of  their  edifices  show  the  perfection  which 
they  had  attained  in  exquisite  workmanship,  beautiful  pro- 
jjortion,  and  easy  and  graceful  attitudes.  They  profess  to 
have  had  their  first  rudiments  from  Egypt,  and  this  is  com- 
pletely verified  in  their  lirst  productions,  which  were  similar 
to  those  of  the  Egyptians;  however,  the  art  did  not  long 
remain  stationary ;  from  daily  observation,  and  a  strict  adhe- 
rence to  nature,  they  advanced  rapidly  in  the  science,  and  at 
last,  by  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  it  was  brought  to  such 
a  degree  of  perfection,  that  their  remaining  sculptures  have 
become  the  very  standard  of  excellence,  a  criterion  which 
the  moderns  have  never  surpassed,  and  but  seldom  equalled. 
Who  can  behold  the  sculpture  in  the  pediments  and  friezes 
of  the  Parthenon,  and  other  remains  of  Athenian  grandeur, 
without  astonishment  ? 

The  pediments  of  this  temple  were  adorned  with  entire 
and  separate  statues,  although  from  their  situation,  and  the 
deep  shadows  cast  by  thenr  on  the  tympanum,  they  must 
have  had  the  appearance  of  figures  in  high  relief.  The 
figures  in  the  metopes  were  in  alto,  whilst  those  in  the  cella 
were  in  basso-relievo.  This  arrangement  leads  us  to  notice 
the  great  judgment  which  the  Greeks  exeivised  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  different  kinds  of  sculpture,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  situation  they  were  intended  to  occupy.  We 
find  that  they  almost  invariably  placed  separate  statues,  and 
sculpt\n-cs  in  high  relief,  on  the  exterior  of  their  buildings,  or 
in  such  places  as  had  the  advantage  of  the  open  light;  while, 
on  the  contrary,  they  rescr\-ed  those  in  basso-relievo  for 
interiors,  where  the  light  was  not  freely  admitted;  and  this 
they  did  evidently  for  this  reason,  viz.  that  in  all  situations, 
and  umler  all  cireuuistanoes,  their  sculptures  might  bo  distinct 
and  intelligilile.  It  needs  no  argument  to  prove  that  figures 
in  high  relief  are  more  readily  diseerniVilc,  when  the  light  is 
permitted  to  play  equally  on  all  sides  of  them.     Were  such 


figures  placed  in  an  imperfectly  lighted  situation,  the}'  would 
be  almost  unintelligilile,  from  the  shadows  which  they  would 
throw  upon  each  other.  On  the  other  h;nid,  the  flatness  of 
basso-relievo,  while  it  obviated  the  projection  of  shadows 
beyond  its  own  surface,  ensured  the  distinctness  of  the  out- 
lines, and  gave  to  the  figures  an  appearance  of  rotundity. 
Mezzo-relievo  is  only  adapted  for  near  inspection.  The 
temples  of  Theseus  and  Phigaleia,  as  well  as  that  (jf  Minerva, 
were  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  sculptures. 

The  basso-relievos  of  the  lioinans  were,  perhaps,  at  first, 
confined  to  their  tombs.  They  never  attained  a  just 
knowledge,  or  taste,  of  the  art  of  sculpture.  Their  best 
works  were  executed  by  Grecian  artists,  and  are  chiefly  to 
be  found  in  the  triumphal  arches,  which  are  richly  charged 
with  basso-relievos.  The  art  attained  its  gi-eatest  perfection 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  was  greatly  on  the  decline  in 
the  time  of  Constantine.  In  more  modem  times,  the  Italians 
and  Florentines  are  the  o\\\y  people  who  arrived  at  any 
degree  of  excellence  in  sculptures  of  this  kind ;  and  even 
they  departed  from  the  original  purity  of  the  Greeks,  by 
attempting  to  express  in  their  works  the  eflect  of  perspective. 
We  are  indebted  to  Flaxman  for  the  introduction  of  a  purer 
taste  into  this  country ;  his  style  may  be  considered  as  a 
nearer  approach  to  the  simplicity  of  the  ancients,  than  that 
of  either  the  Italians  or  the  Florentines. 

BASTION,  or  Batoox.     Sec  Torus. 

BAT,  a  part  of  a  bi'ick. 

BATH,  a  house  with  accommodation  for  bathing.  The 
ancient  baths  at  Konie  were  very  spacious  and  magnificent 
structures,  and  contained  hot  and  cold  baths,  gymnasia, 
ambulatoi-ies,  and  even  libraries.  Tlie  most  remarkable  are 
those  of  Agrippa,  Titus,  Diocletian,  and  Caracalla. 

The  practice  of  bathing  having  lieen  more  generally  adopted 
in  this  comitry  within  the  last  few  years,  has  caused  various 
structures  to  be  erected  for  the  purpose.  These,  however, 
are  but  of  small  dimensions,  and  have  little  pretensions  to 
architectural  embellishment. 

BATTEN,  a  scantling  of  stuff,  from  two  to  six  inches 
broad,  and  from  five-eighths  to  two  inches  thick.  Battens 
are  employed  in  the  boarding  of  floors,  and  also  upon  walls, 
in  order  to  secure  the  laths  on  which  the  plaster  is  laid. 

Battes-Door.     See  Door. 

Batten-Floor.     See  Boarded-Floors. 

BATTENING,  the  act  of  fixing  battens  to  walls,  in  order 
to  secure  the  laths  over  which  the  plaster  is  laid ;  or,  the 
battens  in  the  state  of  being  fixed  for  that  purpose.  The 
battens  employed  are  generally  aliout  two  inches  broad,  and 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick;  they  may,  however,  be  of 
various  thicknesses,  according  to  the  distances  the  several 
fixed  points  in  their  length  arc  from  each  other.  Their 
distance  in  the  clear  is  from  eleven  inches  to  one  fiiot. 
Previous  to  the  fixing  of  battens,  either  equidistant  bond- 
timbers  should  be  built  in  the  wall,  or  the  wall  should  be 
plugged  equidistantly,  and  the  plugs  cut  oft"  flush  with  its 
surface.  In  London,  plugs  are  generally  placed  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  foot  or  fourteen  inches  from  centre  to  centre  in 
the  length  of  the  batten.  Battens  upon  exterior  walls, 
quarters  in  partition  walls,  the  ceiling  and  bridging  j<iists 
of  a  naked  floor,  also  the  common  joists  for  supporting  the 
boarding  of  a  floor,  are  fixed  at  the  same  distance,  viz.  f^i-om 
eleven  to  twelve  inches  in  the  clear.  When  battens  arc  fixed 
against  flues,  iron  holdfasts  are  necessarily  employed  instead 
of  bond-timbers  or  plugs.  When  battens  are  attached  to 
a  wall,  they  are  generally  fixed  in  vertical  lines ;  and  when 
fixed  to  the  surface  of  a  brick  or  stone  vault,  the  intrados 
of  which  may  be  generated  by  a  jdanc  revolving  about  an 
axis,  they  ought  to  be  placed  in  pianos  tending  to  the  axis; 


as,  in  this  position,  they  have  only  to  be  fixed  in  straight 
lines,  in  cases  where  tlie  intrados  is  straight  towards  the 
axis :  such  cases  occur  when  the  vault  is  a  portion  of  a  cone 
or  cylinder.  When  the  intrados  is  curved  towards  the  axis, 
the  battens  will  bend  very  readily.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  regulate  the  faces  of  the  battens,  so  as  to  be  as 
nearly  equidistant  as  possible  from  the  intended  surtace  of 
the  piaster.  Though  battens  are  employed  in  floors,  neither 
the  act  of  laving  them,  nor  the  floor  formed  of  them  after- 
wards, is  called  battening ;  they  are  more  commonly  called 
boarding.  Every  piece  of  masonry  or  brick-work,  which  is 
not  sufficiently  dry.  should  be  battened  for  lath  and  plaster ; 
particularly  that  which  is  executed  in  a  wet  season.  When 
the  windows  are  boarded,  and  the  walls  of  a  room,  not  sufti- 
ciently  thick  to  contain  the  shutters,  the  surface  of  the 
plastering  is  brought  out  so  as  to  give  the  architrave  a 
proper  projection,  and  quarterings  are  used  for  supporting 
the  lath  and  plaster,  instead  of  battens.  The  like  practice 
is  observed,  when  the  breast  of  a  chimney  projects  into  the 
room,  in  order  to  cover  the  recesses,  and  make  the  whole 
side  flush,  or  in  the  same  surface  with  the  breast. 

BA'Fl'ER,  the  declension  of  a  wall  from  the  perpen- 
dicular :  if  a  plummet  be  freely  suspended  from  any  part  of 
a  wall  by  a  plumb-rule,  the  line  coinciding  with  the  draught, 
and  the  bottom  part  of  the  rule  only  touching  the  wall,  then 
the  wall  is  said  to  batter.  This  property  applies  both  to 
straight  and  circular  walls.  A  wall  may  be  made  to  batter 
in  any  degree,  by  using  a  battering-rule,  instead  of  a  plumb- 
rule  ;  that  is,  a  rule  which  has  the  plummet  diaught .oblique 
to  the  edge  of  the  rule  which  is  to  be  applied  to  the  wall. 
This  obliquity  is  be.st  calculated  by  the  rule  of  proportion,  viz. 
if  the  whole  height  of  the  building  batters  at  a  given  distance, 
what  will  a  given  length  of  rule  batter  ?  This  distance  being 
found,  the  top  of  the  rule  must  be  so  much  broader  than  the 
bottom,  that  is,  reckoning  from  the  draught  to  the  edge  applied 
to  the  wall,  for  the  direction  of  the  other  edge  is  of  no  conse- 
quence. Upon  this  principle,  even  a  body  with  a  curved 
vertical  section  may  be  built  ;  but  in  this  case  the  rule  will 
not  shift ;  if  the  building  stands  on  a  circular  plan,  it  can  only 
be  applied  at  the  same  altitude  all  round ;  and  to  carry  the 
building  to  the  summit,  a  new  rule  must  be  made  at  convenient 
portions  of  each  successive  altitude. 

BAlTLED-EMBArrLED,  is  when  the  top  of  a  wall 
has  a  double  row  of  battlements,  formed  of  a  conjunction  of 
straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  both  embrasures 
and  rising  parts  being  double ;  the  lower  part  of  each 
embrasure  less  than  the  upper,  and  consequently  the  lower 
part  of  each  riser  broader  than  the  upper. 

BATTLEMENTS,  indentations  on  the  top  of  a  wall, 
parapet,  or  other  building.  They  were  first  used  in  ancient 
fortifications,  and  were  afterwards  applied  to  churches  and 
other  buildings,  as  mere  ornaments.  Their  outline  is  generally 
a  conjunction  of  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other; 
each  indentation  having  two  interior  right  angles,  and  each 
raised  part  two  exterior  right  angles.  Sometimes  the  hori- 
zontal section  of  the  rising  part  is  a  rectangle,  while  the 
bottom  of  the  battlement,  and  top  of  the  projecting  part, 
slope  downward,  so  as  to  form  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  face 
of  the  wall ;  occasionally,  however,  the  plans  of  the  upright 
sides  of  the  battlements  form  the  same  obtuse  angle  as  the  bot- 
tom and  top  of  the  rising  part.  At  other  times  both  vertical 
and  horizontal  sections  are  right  angles,  ornamented  equally 
all  round  with  mouldings,  or  with  a  small  square  projecture: 
when  the  vertical  sides  of  the  embrasures  are  perpendicular 
to  the  face,  the  sloping  cope  generally  terminates  with  a 
torus  or  large  astragal.  In  process  of  time  battlements  were 
not  confined  to  crown  the  principal  walls  of  the  building ; 

5 


but  were  employed  in  the  finish  of  subordinate  parts  :  they 
are  to  be  found  in  the  decorations  of  the  transoms  of  windows, 
as  in  those  of  King  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel,  at  West- 
minster. In  this,  and  in  every  other  case,  they  are  propor- 
tioned to  the  architecture  they  accompany.  The  battlements 
employed  in  the  florid  style,  were  perforated  in  a  most 
beautiful  manner,  with  openings  variously  formed  in  sym- 
metrical figures :  such  arc  the  latticed  battlements,  and  those 
formed  of  polyfoils,  &c.  The  battlements  used  in  this  style 
of  building,  have  not  always  their  parts  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  but  frequently  the  standing  parts,  or  those  which 
form  the  sides  of  the  openings,  are  raised  in  the  manner  of 
a  pediment. 

BAULK,  a  piece  of  timber,  from  four  to  ten  inches 
square. 

B.\ULK-RooFiNG,  is  when  the  framing  is  constructed  of 
baulk-timber. 

BAY,  the  open  space  in  a  window  included  between 
the  mullions,  otherwise  called  a  day  or  light.  Also  the 
quadrangular  space  between  the  principal  ribs  of  a  groined 
roof,  across  which  the  diagonal  ribs  are  extended  ;  or  the 
spaces  between  the  principal  divisions  of  a  timber  roof. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  that  part  of  a  building  situated 
between  two  buttresses. 

Bay  of  a  Barn,  that  part  situate  between  the  threshing 
floor  and  the  end  of  the  building,  used  for  depositing  the 
refuse  hay  or  the  corn  previous  to  threshing. 

Bay  OIF  Joists,  the  joisting  between  two  binding  joists, 
or  between  two  girders,  when  there  are  no  binding  joists. 

Bay  W'ikdow,  a  projecting  window  of  a  polygonal  plan, 
and  rising  from  the  ground  or  the  basement  of  the  building. 
See  Bow  AND  Oriel  Windows. 

BAZAR,  or  Bazaar,  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  an 
exchange,  where  the  finest  stutTs  and  wares  are  sold.  S(jme 
are  open  like  market-places,  others  are  covered  with  lofty 
ceilings,  with  pierced  domes  to  give  light.  In  these,  jewellers, 
goldsmiths,  and  other  dealers  in  the  richest  wares,  have  their 
shops. 

BEAD,  in  joinery,  a  moulding  of  a  circular  section,  stuck 
on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  stufT,  by  a  plane  of  the  same  name. 
Beads  are  of  two  kinds,  one  of  which  is  flush  with  the  sur- 
face, and  the  other  raised  :  the  former  is  called  a  quirk-bead, 
and  the  latter  a  cock-bead. 

Bead  and  Bctt  Work,  in  joinery,  a  piece  of  framing 
having  the  panels  flush  with  the  framing,  and  stuck  or  run 
upon  the  two  edges,  which  have  the  grain  of  the  wood  in 
their  direction. 

Bead  and  Quirk,  is  when  a  bead  is  stuck  on  the  edge  of 
a  piece  of  stuflT,  flush  with  the  surfiice,  with  one  quirk  only, 
or  without  being  returned  on  the  other  surface. 

Bead  and  Double  Quirk.     See  Return  Bead. 

Bead  and  Flush  Work,  in  joinery,  a  piece  of  framed 
work,  having  a  bead  run  upon  every  edge  of  the  framing 
which  adjoins  to  each  edge  of  the  included  panel. 

Bead,  Butt,  and  Square  AVork,  a  piece  of  framing, 
having  bead  and  butt  upon  one  side,  and  square  on  the  other. 
Bead,  butt,  and  square  work  is  chiefly  used  in  doors. 

Bead,  Flush,  and  Square,  a  piece  of  framing,  having 
bead  and  flush  on  one  side,  and  nothing  but  square  work  on 
the  other ;  chiefly  used  in  doors. 

BEAK,  a  little  pendent  fillet,  left  on  the  edge  of  the 
larmier,  which  forms  a  canal  behind,  for  preventing  the 
water  from  running  down  the  lower  bed  of  the  cornice. 
Sometimes  the  beak  is  formed  by  a  channel  or  groove,  re- 
cessed on  the  sofiit  of  the  larmier  upwards.  In  the  Ionic 
temple  on  the  Ilyssus,  at  Athens,  the  canal  occupies  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  soflit,  and  so  deeply  recessed,  that  the 


BE  A 


34 


BED 


lower  bed  of  the  cornice  is  wrought  almost  out  of  the  height 
of  the  recess. 

Bkak-head  MouLniNG,  a  moulding  used  very  commonly 
in  N"riii;ui  architecture,  consisting  of  ornaments  of  a 
peculiar  diaracter,  placed  at  regular  intervals  on  a  simple 
moulding.  The  ornaments  may  be  described  as  grotesque 
heads,  some  apparently  of  animals,  and  some  approaching 
the  human  form,  but  all  invariably  terminating  in  a  pointed 
month,  or  beak  as  it  were,  whence  their  name.  Although 
such  ornaments  were  very  frequent,  they  were  of  very 
various  designs,  two  similar  ones  being  seldom  found  in  the 
same  moulding. 

Bearing  Joint,  in  carpentry,  is  when  the  heading  joints 
of  the  boards  of  a  floor  fall  in  the  same  straight  line.  This 
word  is  not  used  in  London. 

BEA]\I,  Avhen  used  in  a  building,  is  a  piece  of  timber,  or 
sometimes  of  metal,  for  sustaining  a  weight,  or  counteracting 
two  equal  and  opposite  forces,  either  drawing  or  compressing  it 
to  the  direction  of  its  length  :  when  it  is  employed  as  a  lintel, 
it  supports  a  weight;  when  as  a  tie-beam,  it  is  drawn  or 
extended  ;  and  when  as  a  collar-beam,  it  is  compressed.  The 
word  beam  is  most  frequently  subjoined  to  another  word, 
used  adjectively,  or  in  apposition,  which  shows  the  use,  situa- 
tion, or  form  of  the  beam  :  as  tie-beam,  collar-beam,  dragon- 
beam,  straining-beam,  camber-beam,  hammer-beam,  binding- 
beam,  girding-beam,  truss-beam,  summer-beam,  &c.  Some 
of  these  are  also  used  simply,  as,  collar,  instead  of  collar- 
beam  ;  lintel,  instead  of  lintel-beam  ;  girder,  instead  of  gird- 
ing-beam ;  summer,  instead  of  summer-beam.  Lintels  and 
girders  are  almost  constantly  used  alone,  and  bressummers 
and  joists  are  never  used  in  composition.  What  is  here  called 
collar-beam,  is,  in  old  writers,  termed  wind-beain,  strut-beam, 
or  titriitdiif/heam. 

A  beam  is  either  lengthened  by  building  it  in  thicknesses, 
or  by  la|iping  or  splicing  the  ends  upon  each  other,  and 
bolting  them  through.  See  Building  of  Beams  and 
Scarfing.  For  the  manner  of  strengthening  beams,  see 
Tkuss-Bkams. 

Beam-Comi'Ass,  an  instrument,  consisting  of  wood  or 
metal,  with  sliding  sockets,  carrying  steel  or  pencil  points, 
used  for  describing  large  circles,  beyond  the  reach  of  common 
compasses. 

Beam-killing,  the  building  of  masonry,  or  brick-work, 
from  the  level  of  the  under  edges  of  the  beams,  to  that  of 
their  upper  edges.  Beam-tilling  occurs  either  between 
joists,  or  tloor-beams,  or  in  filling  up  the  triangular  space 
between  the  top  of  the  wall-plate  of  the  roof,  and  the  lower 
edges  of  the  rafters,  or  even  to  the  under  surface  of  the 
boarding  or  lath,  for  slates,  tiles,  or  thatehing.  This  opera- 
tion is  necessary  in  garret-rooms,  where  the  walls  form  sides 
of  a])artments ;  where  the  tie-beams  arc  placed  above  the 
bottom  of  the  rafters,  and  where  the  sides  of  the  apartments 
are  not  to  be  battened  and  lathed  for  plaster,  in  order  to 
straight  the  walls.  Even  in  all  other  cases  it  is  preferable, 
for  the  sake  of  comfort,  to  beam-fill  the  spaces. 

BF.AHl^ll,  a  i)rop,  or  anything  that  supports  a  body 
in  any  jilace ;  as  a  wall,  post,  strut,  &e.  In  guttering, 
bearers  are  short  pieces  of  timber  for  supporting  the  board- 
ing. 

Bearing  of  a  Piece  of  Timiier,  the  unsupported  distance 
between  the  two  points  or  projis  from  which  it  is  suspended  ; 
or  the  distance  between  two  props  where  there  is  no  inter- 
vening support. 

A  piece  of  timber,  having  any  number  of  supports,  one 
being  placed  at  each  c.vlreme,  will  have  as  many  bearings, 
wanting  one.  as  there  are  supports  :  thus,  a  piece  of  timber 
extended  in  length  over  two  rooms  as  joists,  will  have  three 


supports  and  two  bearings  :  here  the  bearers  are  the  two  most 
distant  walls  and  the  partition. 

Bearing,  at  the  ends  of  a  piece  of  timber,  in  building  is 
the  distance  which  the  ends  of  that  piece  are  inserted  in  the 
walls  or  piers;  as  joists  are  inserted  at  least  nine  inches  in 
walls,  and  the  lintel  or  lintels  of  an  aperture,  nine  inches  at 
least  into  each  pier. 

1$earing  Wall,  or  Partition,  in  a  building,  is  a  wall 
which  rests  upon  the  solid,  and  which  supports  some  part  of 
the  building,  as  another  wall  or  partition,  either  transversely, 
i>r  in  the  same  direction.  When  thcr  supporting  wall,  and  the 
wall  supported,  arc  both  in  the  same  direction,  the  wall  sup- 
ported is  said  to  have  a  solid  bearing  ;  but  if  a  wall,  or  parti- 
tion, is  not  supported  below  throughout  its  length,  it  is  said 
to  have  a  fahe  bearing,  or  as  many  false  bearings  as  there  are 
intervals  below  the  wall  or  partition. 

BEATER,  an  implement  in  plastering,  used  by  the 
labourers,  for  tempering  or  incorporating  the  lime,  sand,  and 
hair  together;  which  make  the  composition  called  lime  and 
hair,  used  in  first  and  second  coatings,  and  sometimes,  in 
ordinary  rooms,  even  for  finishing  coats. 

BED-CIIAMBEUS,  or  Bed-Booms,  are  those  in  which 
beds  are  placed  ;  when  very  small,  they  are  called  bed- 
closets. 

Beds  of  a  Stone,  the  two  surfaces  which  generally  inter- 
sect the  fice  of  the  work  in  horizontal  lines,  or  in  lines  nearly 
so  :  the  higher  surface  is  called  the  npper-lied,  and  the  lower 
the  under-bed.  In  the  general  run  of  walling,  they  are  the 
two  surfaces  which  are  placed  level  in  the  building.  In  the 
parapets  of  bridges  they  intersect  the  feeing,  most  fre^ 
quently  in  lines  parallel  to  the  road-way,  but  are  level  in  the 
thickness.  In  every  species  of  vaulting,  where  all  the  sec- 
tions of  the  intrados  of  a  vault  are  similar  fiiiures,  or  parallel 
straight  lines,  the  beds  are  those  surfaces  which  intersect  the 
intrados  in  horizontal  lines.  Of  this  class  are  the  heads 
of  circular  domes,  which  have  spherical  or  spheroidal  intra- 
dosses ;  vaults  with  conic  intradosses,  and  vertical  axes; 
and  vaults  with  cylindrical  intradosses  and  horizontal 
axes,  <kc. 

Beds  of  a  Stone,  in  cylindrical  vaulting,  are  those  two 
surfaces  which  intersect  the  intrados  of  the  vault,  in  lines 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Beds  of  a  Stone,  in  conic  \anlting  with  a  horizontal  axis, 
are  those  two  surfaces  which,  if  produced,  would  intersect  the 
axis  of  the  cone.  Tlie  beds  of  stones,  in  spherical  vaulting, 
are,  or  should  be,  parts  of  the  surfaces  of  so  many  cones, 
ending  in  a  common  vertex,  as  there  are  courses  of  stone. 
If  the  vault  be  a  hemisphere,  the  under  beds  of  all  the  stones 
in  the  lowest  course  or  planes,  and  the  upper  beds,  form  part 
of  the  surface  of  a  very  obtuse-angled  cone.  In  every  course  of 
stones,  the  conic  surfece  formed  by  the  lower  beds  is  that 
of  a  cone,  with  a  more  obtuse  angle  than  the  surface  formed 
by  the  upper  beds  of  the  same  course  ;  hence  the  cones  of 
every  successive  joint  upwards,  have  their  vertical  angles 
continually  less,  so  as  to  end  at  last  with  the  axis  itself.  In 
vaulting  with  a  conic  intrados  and  vertical  tixis,  the  joints 
form  the  surfaces  of  so  many  distinct  cones,  which  have 
their  vertex  in  the  axis,  and  which  have  equal  vertical  angles, 
and  their  surfaces  equidistant.  In  cylindrical,  or  conic  vault- 
ini;,  with  a  horizontal  axis,  the  beds  of  the  stones  arc  in 
planes  tending  to  the  axis. 

In  arching,  the  beds  are  called  summerings  ;  but  more  pro- 
perlv,  radiations,  or  radiated  joints. 

Bed  of  a  Slate,  the  lower  side  placed  in  contiguity  with 
the  boarding  or  the  rafters. 

Bed  Moilding,  that  portion  of  a  cornice  which  is  situated 
immediately  below  the  corona. 


_J 


BEN 


35 


BER 


BEETLE,  a  large  nialkt  lor  driving  piles,  and  cleaving 
wood. 

UELECTIOX  MOULDINGS,  in  joinery,  are  those  which 
suri-ound  liie  panels,  and  project  without  the  surface  of  the 
framing  in  doors,  or  other  panelled  framing.  Belection 
mouldings  are  never  stuck  on  the  framing,  which  is  frequently 
the  case  with  those  which  are  within  or  below  the  surface. 
Thev  are  used  in  the  best  woik  of  grand  finishings. 

15ELF1IY,  that  part  of  a  steeple  wherein  the  bells  are 
huuT.  This  is  sometimes  called,  by  writers  of  the  middle 
a."e,  campanile.  Bells  are  generally  suspended  by  moans  of 
frame- work,  which  is  supported  on  stone  corbels  ;  sometimes 
however,  the  framing  is  made  to  bear  on  a  recess  formed  in 
the  wall,  which  is  the  better  method,  as  the  vibration  caused 
by  ringing  has  less  power  to  disturb  the  masonry.  Bells  for 
the  same  reason  should  be  hung  as  low  as  practicable. 

Belfry,  is  more  particularly  applied  to  the  timber-work, 
by  which  the  bells  arc  supported. 

BELL,  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  capitals,  is  the 
vase  or  tambour  concealed  beneath  the  acanthus  leaves,  or 
other  ornament:  its  horizontal  section  is  everywhere  a  cii'cle ; 
the  bottom  part  rises  vertically  from  the  top  of  the  shaft,  and 
proceeds  upwards  in  a  straight  line  to  a  considerable  distance ; 
from  thence  it  changes  into  a  concavity,  which  terminates 
with  the  fillet,  in  the  manner  of  the  scape  or  apophyge. 

BELL-COT,  Bell-Gable,  or  Bell-Turret.  A  small 
open  turret  situate  on  the  apex  of  the  gable  of  small  Gothic 
churches,  generally  at  the  east  or  west  end  of  the  nave,  for 
the  purpose  of  sustaining  one  or  tw^o  bells.  It  is  sometimes 
of  an  hexagonal  or  multangular  plan,  covered  with  a  pyra- 
midal roof,  or  spire,  of  which  kind  there  is  a  beautiful  specimen 
at  Corston  Church,  Wiltshire ;  it  most  generally,  however, 
consists  of  a  continuation  of  a  certain  width  of  the  gable 
wall  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  apex,  the  part  above 
which  is  perforated  with  one  or  more  arched  apertures  in 
which  the  bells  are  hung ;  above  this  again  the  roof  is  finished 
in  the  form  of  a  gable,  and  the  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  fniial 
or  cross.  Examples  of  such  gables  frequently  occur;  we  may 
instance  an  elegant  one  at  Skelton,  near  York.  Plain  timber 
bell-cots  of  square  plan  and  low  pyramidal  roof,  ai'e  very 
common  in  Essex. 

Bell-gables  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  nave  were 
generalfy  appropriated  to  the  sanetus  or  sacringe  bells,  which 
was  rung  when  the  priest  pronounced  the  Ter-sanctus,  as 
also  at  the  elevation  of  the  host. 

Bell-Roof,  that  of  which  the  vertical  section  perpendi- 
cular to  the  wall,  or  to  its  springing  line,  is  a  curve  of  con- 
trary flexure  ;  it  being  concave  at  the  bottom,  and  convex  at 
the  top.  A  bell-roof  is  of  that  kind  of  ogee-roofs,  called  the 
slnia  recta  roitf. 

BELT,  in  masonry,  a  course  of  stones  projecting  from  the 
naked,  either  moulded,  plain,  fluted,  or  em-iched  with  pateras 
at  rei;ular  intervals,  which  again  may  be  either  plain  or  fluted. 

BELVEDERE,  or  Look-Out,  is  a  turret,  or  some  part  of 
an  edifice  raised  above  the  roof,  for  the  purpose  of  aiibrding 
a  view  of  surrounding  scenery.  This  term  is  also  applied  to 
single  edifices  or  temples,  sometimes  erected  in  gardens  and 
pleasure-gri)unds,  used  for  the  above  purpose,  as  well  as  to 
beautify  the  landscape.  Belvederes  are  very  common  in  Italy 
and  France,  and  some  of  them  are  very  magnificent :  the 
most  celebrated  is  that  built  by  Bramante  in  the  Vatican. 

BENCH,  the  table  on  which  joinery  for  the  use  of  build- 
ing is  prepared.     See  Joinery. 

Bench-IIook,  a  movable  pin,  passing  through  a  mortise 
in  the  top  of  the  bench,  for  preventing  tlie  stuff"  wrought  by 
the  plane  from  sliding. 

BEND.     See  Bending. 


BENDA.     See  Fascia. 

BENDING,  the  act  of  the  incurvation  of  a  body  from  a 
straight  to  a  crooked  form.  A  piece  of  timber,  such  as 
a  plank,  may  be  very  conveniently  bent,  by  placing  it  within  a 
long  hollow  prismatic  trunk,  o|)encd  only  at  one  end  for  its 
insertion;  the  end  through  which  it  is  introduced  is  then 
shut  close,  and  the  one  extremity  of  a  steam-pipe  having  been 
inserted  in  a  hole  in  one  of  the  sides  or  ends  of  the  trunk, 
all  the  crevices  are  shut,  and  the  steam  is  admitted. 

When  the  plank  has  remained  for  a  certain  time,  it  may  be 
taken  out,  and  should  be  immediately  bent  round  the  convex 
surface  of  an  inflexible  body,  made  on  purpose ;  when  it  has 
been  properly  fixed  to  the  body,  it  is  to  remain  till  it  is  quite 
cold,  or  properly  stifl",  and  it  will  retain  its  form:  after  this, 
it  may  Ije  taken  oft'  and  dressed,  and  lastly  fixed  in  its 
intended  situation.  The  practice  of  ship-building  proves 
that  plank-wood,  of  almost  any  thickness,  may  be  brought 
to  any  degree  of  curvature,  by  the  effect  of  heat,  which 
seems  to  mollify  the  cementing  matter,  so  as  to  perndl  the 
fibres  to  slide  overone  another.  This  may  be  cHectcd  either 
by  boiling  or  heating;  but  by  heating,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
introduce  a  uniform  temperature  throughout  the  parts  of  the 
body  to  be  bent.  For  thick  planks  a  sand-stove,  similar  to 
the  sand  bath  used  in  chemical  operations,  is  employed  ;  but 
for  thin  planks,  a  vapour-stove. 

BERNINI,  GIOVANNI  LORENZO,  born  1598,  died 
1680.  His  father,  Pietro  Bernini,  a  Florentine,  was  a  painter 
and  sculptor  of  more  than  common  talents.  Giovanni's  first 
work  in  architecture  was  the  great  central  altar  of  St.  Peter's, 
remarkable  for  its  twisted  columns;  its  novelty,  singularity, 
and  the  difficulty  of  its  execution  siu-prised,  and  had  many 
imitators.  B}'  desire  of  the  pope,  he  adorned  with  niches 
the  four  great  piers  which  support  the  cupola  of  St.  Peter's. 
He  was  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  palace  Barberini, 
particularly  in  that  of  the  stairs,  the  great  hall,  and  the 
principal  front.  The  front  has  on  the  lower  floor  a  Doric, 
very  well  understood  ;  but  the  application  of  so  many  cor- 
nices, and  the  great  arched  windows,  do  not  add  to  the 
beauty  of  the  structure.  The  front  of  the  Propaganda  Fide  is 
also  the  work  of  Bernini :  that  building  threatened  ruin, 
to  prevent  which  he  erected  a  battering  basement,  which 
increased  at  the  same  time  both  the  beauty  and  strength  of 
the  structure.  Urban  VIII.  wishing  to  complete  the  front 
of  St.  Peter's,  which,  according  to  the  design  of  Maderno, 
required,  at  its  extremities,  two  steeples,  gave  the  commission 
to  Bernini.  He  designed  and  executed  the  fine  fountain  of 
the  Piazza  Navona.  For  Prince  Ludovisi,  he  begun  a  great 
palace,  which  in  its  principal  front  presented  five  faces ;  this 
edifice  was  afterwards  converted  into  a  great  law-court, 
called  Curia  Innocenziana,  one  of  the  finest  palaces  in 
Rome.  Alexander  VIL  gave  him  many  works  to  execute, 
among  which  is  tlie  piazza  before  St.  Peter's.  By  order  of 
this  pope,  he  planned  m:my  buildings,  among  which  is 
remarkable,  the  palace  of  Santi  Apostoli.  The  very  elegant 
church,  of  an  elliptic  figure,  of  the  Novitiate  of  the  Jesuits, 
is  likewise  his.  Louis  XIV.  and  Colbert  his  minister,  both 
admirers  of  the  fine  arts,  ordered  Bernini  to  make  drawings 
for  the  palace  of  the  Louvre,  for  which  building  the  first 
architects  were  stimulated  ;  these  drawings  pleased  so  much, 
that  the  monarch  sent  him  his  portrait  set  in  gems,  and 
wrote  very  engaging  letters  to  the  pope,  and  to  Bernini  him- 
self, that  he  might  go  to  France  to  execute  them.  In  conse- 
quence of  which,  though  an  old  man,  he  left  Rome,  and  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  as  if  the  only  man  worthy 
to  work  for  Louis  XIV.  When  Bernini  had  seen  the  front  of 
the  Louvre,  by  Perault,  he  said  publicly,  that  his  coming  to 
France  was  useless,  where  there  were  architects  of  the  first 


BIT 


36 


BLO 


class.  This  trait  does  more  honour  to  Bernini,  than  all  his 
abilities  as  an  architect.  In  fact,  with  regard  to  architecture, 
which  he  was  sent  principally  for  to  France,  he  did  nothing. 
lie  made  the  king's  bust,  and  during  the  eight  months  he 
staid  in  France,  he  was  paid  at  the  rate  of  five  pounds  a  day  ; 
and  received  at  last  a  gift  of  50,000  crowns,  and  an  annual 
pension  of  2000,  and  a  pension  for  his  son,  whom  he  took 
with  him,  of  500.  When  he  returned  to  France,  in  gratitude 
to  his  majesty,  he  made  an  equestrian  statue,  which  was 
placed  in  ^'crsailles.  Under  Pope  Clement  IX.  he  embellished 
the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo  with  an  elegant  iron  balustrade. 

BEVEL,  the  oblique  angle  which  the  two  surfaces  of  a 
body  make  with  one  another;  the  name  also  of  an  instrument 
for  taking  oblique  angles.  That  which  is  most  commonly 
used,  has  the  stock  mortised  to  receive  the  blade,  which  is 
fixed  to  the  stock  by  a  pin,  and  made  to  form  any  angle  by 
that  means:  this  is  particularly  useful  when  one  or  a  few 
angles  are  to  be  taken.  In  some  places,  for  the  want  of  space, 
this  bevel  cannot  be  applied  :  to  accommodate  this  circum- 
stance, the  blade  is  made  to  shift  in  the  stock ;  so  that  either 
part  from  tlie  pin  may  be  of  any  given  length.  The  blade 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  pin  by  a  longitudinal  mortise, 
and  fixed  fast  to  the  stock  by  means  of  a  screw,  after  setting 
it  to  the  angle  When  many  things  are  to  be  wrought  to  the 
same  angle,  an  immovable  bevel  should  be  used,  particularly 
when  the  blade,  or  stock,  or  both,  arc  incurvated  :  when  the 
interior  angle  is  used,  this  bevel  is  called  a  joint-hook.  In 
working  the  intradosses,  and  radiating  beds  of  stone  arches, 
a  joint-hook  should  be  employed  ;  one  of  the  sides  is  incur- 
vated to  the  arch,  and  the  other  straight  side  is  a  part  of  the 
radius  produced  :  the  workman  must  here  observe,  that  this 
hook  will  apply,  whatever  be  the  thickness  of  the  stones. 

BILLET  ^lOULDLNG,  a  moulding  peculiar  to  Norman 
architecture,  consisting  of  small  cylinders  placed  lengthwise 
at  regular  distances  in  a  concave  semicircular  moulding.  The 
entire  moulding  consisted  generally  of  two  rows  or  tiers;  the 
cylinders  in  each  tier  ranged  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
cylinder  should  not  come  immediately  above  or  below  another, 
but  they  were  placed  alternately  so  that  a  space  was  always 
opposed  to  a  cylinder,  and  vice  versa.  A  square  billet,  called 
also  corbel-bole,  is  likewise  found.  This  difiers  from  the  above, 
inasmuch  as  the  billets  arc  cubes  instead  of  cylinders,  and 
are  placed  on  a  flat  band,  or  on  the  naked  walling,  their 
usual  oflice  being  to  support  a  blocking  course. 

I5IXD1N(t  Joists,  those  beams  in  a  floor,  which  support 
transversely  the  bridgings  above,  and  the  ceiling  joists  below. 
See  Bridging  Flooks. 

When  binding  joists  are  placed  parallel  to  the  chimney- 
side  of  a  room,  the  extreme  one  on  this  side  ought  never  to 
be  placed  close  to  the  breast,  but  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  the  slab,  in  order  to  allow  for  the  throwing  of  the 
brick  trimmer  for  the  support  of  the  hearth. 

Binuiso-Kafters,  the  same  as  PiuLixs. 

BUJD'S-MOUTII,  an  interior  angle  cut  on  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  timber,  in  order  to  rest  firmly  upon  an  exterior 
angle  of  another  piece. 

BIT,  a  boring  instrument,  so  constructed  as  to  be  inserted 
or  taken  out  of  a  handle,  called  a  s/ork.  by  means  of  a  spring. 
The  general  form  of  the  handle  is  divided  into  five  parts,  all 
in  till!  same  plane,  the  middle  and  two  extreme  parts  being 
parallel.  The  two  extreme  parts  are  in  the  same  straight 
line,  one  of  them  has  a  brass  end,  with  a  socket  for  contain- 
ing the  bit,  which  when  fi.xed  falls  into  the  same  straight 
line  with  the  other  end  of  the  stock ;  the  farther  end  has 
a  knob  so  attached  as  to  remain  stationary ;  while  all  the 
Other  parts  of  tlie  apparatus  may  be  turned  round  by  means 
of  the  projecting  part  of  the  handle. 


Bits  arc  of  various  kinds,  depending  on  their  use  : 

Shell  Bits  are  used  for  boring  wood,  and  have  an  interior 
cylindric  concavity  for  containing  the  core. 

Centre  Bits,  are  those  which  run  upon  a  centre  in  the 
middle  of  the  breadth  ;  one  extremity  is  formed  into  a  cutting 
edge,  which  cuts  the  wood  across  the  grain  around  the  cir- 
cumference, and  the  radius  on  tlie  other  side  of  the  centre 
contains  a  cutting  edge,  the  whole  length  of  this  radius,  and 
projects  forward  from  the  face  of  the  bit,  so  as  to  take  out 
the  core,  which  in  the  act  of  boring  forms  a  spiral. 

The  use  of  the  centre-bit,  is  to  form  a  large  cylindric  hole 
or  excavation,  having  the  upper  point  of  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder  given  on  the  surface  of  the  wood.  The  centre  of 
the  bit  is  fixed  into  this  point,  then  placing  the  axis  of  the 
stock  and  bit  in  the  intended  direction,  the  head  being  placed 
against  the  breast,  turn  it  swiftly  round  by  the  handle,  and 
the  core  will  be  discharged  by-  rising  upwards.  Centre  bits 
are  of  different  diameters. 

Countersinks,  are  bits  for  widening  the  upper  part  of  a 
hole,  in  wood  or  iron,  to  take  in  the  head  of  a  screw  or  pin, 
so  as  not  to  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  wood.  Counter- 
sinks have  from  two  to  twelve  cutters  around  the  surfiice  of 
a  cone,  which  contains  a  vertical  angle  of  ninety  degrees. 
Countersinks  for  iron  have  two  cutting  edges,  and  those  for 
wood  and  brass,  the  greatest  number. 

Rimers,  are  bits  for  widening  holes,  and  for  this  purpose 
are  of  a  pyramidal  structure,  having  their  vertical  angle 
about  3^  degrees.  In  the  use  of  rimers,  the  hole  must  lie 
first  pierced  by  means  of  a  drill  or  punch.  The  operation 
of  a  rimer  is  rather  scraping  than  boring.  Rimers  for  boring 
brass,  have  their  horizontal  sections  of  a  semicircular  figure, 
and  those  for  iron,  polygonal. 

Taper  Shell  Bits,  are  conical  within  and  without,  with 
their  horizontal  sections  crescent-formed.  The  use  of  shell- 
bits  is  to  widen  holes  in  wood. 

Besides  the  above  bits,  some  stocks  are  provided  with 
a  screwdriver,  for  sinking  small  screws  into  wood  with 
greater  rapidity  that  could  be  done  by  hand. 

BITUMEN,  a  tenacious  matter,  used  in  early  Eastern 
structures,  instead  of  mortar.  The  walls  of  Babylon,  we  are 
informed,  were  cemented  with  this  matter.    See  Asph.vltl.m. 

BLANK  Door,  is  that  which  is  either  shut  to  prevent 
passage,  or  placed  in  the  back  of  a  recess,  where  there  is  no 
entrance,  so  as  to  appear  like  a  real  door. 

Blank  Window,  is  that  which  is  made  to  appear  like 
a  real  window;  but  is  only  formed  in  the  recess  of  a  w.all. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  blank  windows,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  symmetry,  it  is  much  better  to  build  the 
apertures  as  the  other  real  windows,  provided  that  flues  or 
funnels  does  not  interfere,  and  instead  of  representing  the 
sashes  with  paint,  real  sashes  should  be  introduced  :  the 
panes  of  glass  may  be  painted  on  the  back. 

BLINDS,  screens  forming  an  appendage  to  a  w  indow,  for 
the  purpose  either  of  excluding  light,  or  of  preventing  persons 
outside  from  seeing  into  the  interior  of  an  apartment.  Blinds 
are  made  of  various  materials,  and  of  forms  too  numerous 
and  too  well  known  to  need  description  in  this  work. 

BLOCKl\<J-('UUl!SE,  or  simply  Blocking,  in  masonry, 
a  course  of  stones  laid  on  the  top  of  the  cornice,  crowning 
the  walls.  The  blocking-courses  were  used  by  the  ancients 
to  terminate  the  walls  of  a  building,  as  well  as  attics.  The 
pilastradc  of  the  arch  of  the  Goldsmiths,  at  Rome,  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  blocking-course,  the  height  of  which  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  pilasters.  The  height 
of  that  on  the  Colosseum  is  nearly  once  and  a  half  of  the 
pilasters,  or  nearly  equal  to  the  cornice  and  frieze  taken 
together :    the  same  may  be  said    of  the   amphitheatre  at 


BOA 


37 


BOA 


Verona.  The  blocking-course  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  at 
Spalatro,  is  in  height  something  less  that  the  upper  diameter 
of  llie  column. 

IJi.ocKixfis,  in  joinery,  are  small  pieces  of  timber  fitted 
in,  and  glued  or  fixed  to  the  interior  angle  of  two  boards,  or 
other  [lieees,  in  order  to  give  additional  strength  to  the  joint. 
In  gluing  up  columns,  the  staves  are  all  successively  glued, 
and  strengthened  wilh  blockings;  also  the  risers  and  treads 
of  stairs,  and  ail  other  joinings  that  require  more  additional 
strength  than  what  their  own  joints  will  give.  Blockings 
are  alwavs  concealed  from  the  sight. 

BLONDEL,  John-  Francis,  died  1773,  at  Metz.  lie 
constructed  the  royal  abbey  of  St.  Louis,  with  a  square  and 
street,  leading  directly  opposite  to  the  cathedral  ;  he  erected 
also  the  town-house,  with  a  building  opposite,  and  farther 
on  barracks,  with  magazines  over  them.  The  fine  front  of 
the  parliament-house,  and  the  sumptuous  palace  of  the 
bishop,  are  also  his  works.  He  showed  no  less  ability  at 
Strasburg,  where,  in  1768,  he  took  the  plan  of  that  city,  and 
built  there  barracks  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  a  hall  or 
amphitheatre,  with  three  tiers  of  boxes,  a  royal  square,  a 
senate-house,  a  market,  and  various  stone  bridges.  This 
celebrated  architect,  besides  other  works  executed  at  Paris 
and  elsewhere,  furni>hed  the  plates  of  the  last  edition  of 
D"Avilen  on  French  architecture,  in  three  volumes,  wilh  six 
hundred  plates  of  the  principal  edifices  in  France.  These 
three  volumes  were  to  have  been  followed  by  five  others. 
lie  established  an  architectural  school  at  Paris,  in  1744. 
In  the  middle  of  all  this  work,  he  became  a  writer  for  the 
French  Encyclopedia ;  but  his  great  work,  of  universal 
utility,  is  the  Course  of  Arc/iilectiire,  the  result,  as  he  says, 
of  forty  years'  experience  and  researches.  The  work  is 
divided  into  three  parts  ;  the  first  regards  beauty  or  decora- 
tion, and  is  comprised  in  two  volumes  in  octavo,  with  the 
volume  of  figures  ;  the  second  treats  of  convenience  or  dis- 
tribution, and  contains  the  like  number  of  volumes ;  the 
third  part,  on  the  solidity  of  building,  the  author  did  not  live 
to  eoniplete. 

BOAliD,  a  piece  of  timber,  of  an  oblong  or  trapezoidal 
section,  and  of  anj'  length.  All  timbers  less  than  two  inches 
and  a  half  in  thickness,  and  more  than  four  inches  broad, 
may  be  called  boards. 

When  boards  are  of  a  trapezoidal  section,  that  is,  thinner 
on  one  edge  than  the  other,  they  are  called  fealher-eihjed 
boari/s.  Boards  broader  than  nine  inches,  are  called  planks. 
Fir  boards  are  called  deala ;  these  are  generally  imported 
into  England  ready  sawed,  because  they  are  prepared  cheaper 
abroad,  by  means  of  saw-mills.  Fir  boards,  one  inch  and  a 
quarter  thick,  are  called  iv/iole-deal ;  and  those  full  half  an 
inch  thick,  are  called  slit-deal. 

BtJAUDED  FLOORS,  are  those  covered  with  boards. 
The  operation  of  boarding  floors  may  cominence  as  soon  as 
the  windows  are  in,  and  the  plaster  dry.  The  preparations 
of  the  boards  for  this  purpose  are  as  follow.  They  should 
be  planed  on  their  best  face,  and  set  out  to  season  till  the 
natm-al  sap  has  been  quite  expelled.  See  Seasoning  of 
Wood.  They  may  next  be  planed  smooth,  shot  and  squared 
upon  one  edge;  the  opposite  edges  are  brought  to  a  breadth, 
by  drawing  a  line  on  the  tiice  parallel  to  theother  edge  with 
a  flooring  guage  ;  they  are  then  guaged  to  a  thickness  with 
a  common  guage,  and  rebated  down  ou  the  back  to  the  lines 
drawn  by  the  guage.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  try 
the  joists,  whether  they  be  level  or  not;  if  they  are  found 
to  be  depressed  in  the  middle,  they  must  be  furred  up ;  and 
if  found  to  be  protuberant,  nuist  be  reduced  by  the  adze : 
the  former  is  more  generally  the  case.  The  boards  employed 
in  flooring  are  either  battens,  or  deals  of  greater  breadth. 


With  reference  to  quality,  battens  are  divided  into  three 
classes ;  the  best  kind  is  that  free  from  knots,  shakes,  sap- 
wood,  or  cross-grained  stufl",  and  well  matched,  that  is, 
selected  with  the  greatest  care  ;  the  second  best  is  that 
in  which  only  small  but  sound  knote  are  permitted,  and 
free  from  shakes  and  sapwood ;  the  most  common  kind 
is  that  which  is  left  after  taking  away  the  best  and  second- 
best. 

With  regard  to  the  joints  of  flooring-boards,  they  arc 
either  quite  square,  plowed  and  tongucd,  rebated,  or  doweled  : 
in  fixing  them  they  are  nailed  either  upon  one  or  both  edties. 
They  are  always  necessarily  nailed  on  both  edges  when  the 
joints  are  plain  or  square,  without  dowels,  "When  thry  are 
doweled,  they  may  be  nailed  on  one  or  both  edges  ;  but  in 
the  best  doweled  work,  the  outer  edge  only  is  nailed,  by 
driving  the  brad  obliquely  through  that  edge,  without  pierc- 
ing the  surface  of  the  boards,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  floor, 
when  cleaned  oflT,  appears  without  blemish.  In  laying  boarded 
floors,  the  boards  are  sometimes  laid  after  one  another  ;  or 
otherwise,  one  is  first  laid,  then  another,  leaving  an  interval 
something  less  than  the  breadth  of  three,  four,  or  five  boards 
in  contact;  so  that  if  the  first  and  sixth  boards  are  laid,  there 
will  be  an  interval  something  less  than  the  breadth  of  four 
boards.  Now  place  the  four  intermediate  boards  in  contact 
with  each  other,  and  the  two  outer  edges  in  contact  with 
the  edges  of  the  first  and  sixth  boards  already  laid.  The  space 
left,  as  above  mentioned,  being  somewhat  less  than  the  width 
of  four  boards,  will  not  allow  this  number  to  lie  flat,  butw^ll 
cause  them  to  assume  the  form  of  an  arch,  having  the  under 
parts  of  the  edges  in  close  contact,  while  the  upper  parts  will 
remain  open.  \n  order,  therefore,  to  bring  them  to  a  level 
and  the  joints  close,  two  or  more  workmen  must  jump  upon 
the  ridges  till  they  have  brought  the  under  sides  of  the 
boards  close  to  the  joists,  when  they  are  fixed  in  their  places 
with  brads.  In  this  last  method  the  boards  are  said  to  be 
folded.  Tliis  mode  is  only  adopted  when  the  boards  are  not 
sufficiently  seasoned,  or  suspected  to  be  so.  In  order  to 
make  close  work,  it  is  obvious  that  the  two  edges,  forming 
each  of  the  three  joists  of  the  second  and  third,  third  and 
fourth,  fourth  and  fifth  boards,  must  form  angles  with  the 
faces,  each  less  than  a  right  angle.  The  eleventh  board  is 
fixed  as  the  sixth,  and  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth, 
are  inserted  as  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth;  and  so  on 
till  the  completion.  The  headings  are  either  sq\iare,  splayed, 
or  plowed  and  tongued.  When  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
heading  in  the  length  of  the  floor,  it  should  always  be  upon 
a  joist,  and  one  heading  should  never  meet  another.  When 
floors  are  doweled,  it  is  more  necessary  to  place  dowels  over 
the  middle  of  the  inter-joist  than  over  the  joists,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  edge  of  the  one  board  from  passing  that  of  the 
other.  When  the  boards  are  only  bradded  upon  one  edge, 
the  brads  are  most  frequently  concealed,  by  driving  flooring- 
brads  slantingly  through  the  outer  edge  of  every  .successive 
board  without  piercing  the  upper  surface. 

In  adzing  away  the  under-sides  of  the  boards  opposite  to 
the  joists  in  order  to  equalize  their  thickness,  the  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  to  chip  them  straight,  and  exactly  down 
to  the  rebates,  as  the  soundness  of  the  floor  depends  on  this. 
Boards  employed  in  flooring  houses  are  from  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  thick.  The  best  floors  are  those  that  are  laid 
with  the  best  battens. 

BOARDIXG-JOISTS,  are  those  joists  in  naked  flooring 
to  which  the  boards  are  fixed. 

Boarding,  Liijfer.  See  Luffer-Boards,  and  Lever- 
Boards. 

Boarding  for  Pugging  or  Deafening.  See  Sound- 
Boarding. 


BOL 


38 


BON 


BoARDixr,  FOR  Slatixg,  are  boards  nailed  to  the  rafters 
for  fixing  the  shites.  They  are  in  general  about  three- 
quarters  or  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thiel<,  the  sides  an; 
most  commonly  rough,  the  edges  either  rough,  shot,  plowed 
and  tongued,  or  rebated,  and  sometimes  sprung,  that  is, 
beveled,  so  as  to  prevent  the  rain  from  running  through 
the  joists.  Boarding  for  slates  may  be  made  so  as  to  take 
away  the  lateral  pressure  from  the  walls,  by  disposing  the 
boards  in  the  form  of  a  truss.  Upon  the  lower  edge  of 
the  boarding  must  be  fixed  the  caves-lath  or  board,  and  also 
against  all  walls  that  are  either  at  right  angles  to,  or  forming 
an  acute  angle  with  the  ridge,  or  a  right  or  obtuse  angle 
with  the  wall-jilate.  The  eaves-lath  at  the  bottom  is  for 
raising  the  lower  ends  of  the  under  row  of  slates  which  form 
the  cave.  Those  placed  against  walls  in  the  positions  now 
mentioned  are  for  raising  the  slates,  in  order  to  make  the 
water  run  off  from  the  wall,  as  otherwise  it  would  make  its 
way  below  the  lead  and  down  the  jtiint,  between  the  end  of 
the  slates  and  the  wall.  Boarding  for  slates  should  be  yellow 
deal  without  sap,  which,  as  well  as  weather-boarding,  is 
measured  by  the  superficial  f^jot,  and  valued  in  the  bill  by 
the  square  of  one  hundred  superficial  feet. 

BoAiiuiNG  FOR  Leaden  Platforms  and  Gutters,  is  sel- 
dom less  than  one  and  one  eiglith,  or  one  and  one-quarter 
inch  thick,  most  frequently  with  rough  joints  onl}-. 

Boarding  for  Lining  Walls,  is  commonly  about  five- 
eighths  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  plowed  and  tongued 
together. 

Boa « ding  for  outside  Walls.    See  Weather-Boarding. 
B<-).\lvDS,  Listed,  are  those  reduced  in  their  breadth  by 
taking  away  the  sap-wood. 

Boards,  Lever,  are  those  placed  in  the  opening  of  an  aper- 
ture made  to  turn  on  centres  at  the  ends,  in  one  movement, 
so  as  to  admit  or  exclude  the  air  at  pleasure. 

Boards  for  the  Valleys  of  a  Roof.  See  Valley- 
Boards. 

BOASTER,  or  Boasting-Tool,  in  masonry.  See  Masonic 
Tools. 

BOASTING,  in  stone-cutting,  is  pairing  the  stone  with  a 
broad  chisel  and  mallet,  but  not  in  uniform  linos. 

Boasting,  in  carving,  is  the  rough  cutting  round  the  orna- 
ments, so  as  to  reduce  them  to  tlieir  contours  or  outlines, 
before  the  incisions  are  made  for  forming  the  raffels  or 
minute  parts. 

BODY  OF  A  Niche,  is  that  part  of  the  recess  which  has 
its  superficies  vertical.  If  the  lower  part  is  cylindrical,  and 
the  upper  part  spherical,  the  lower  part  is  the  body,  and  the 
upper  part  is  called  the  head.     See  Niche. 

Body  of  a  Room  :  whei-e  there  are  recesses  in  the  ends  or 
sides,  the  principal  ]iait,  from  which  the  recesses  are  made, 
is  called  the  body. 

Body  Range  of  a  Groin.  When  two  openings  inter- 
sect each  other,  the  widest  is  called  the  bodi/  range.  See 
Groin. 

BOFFRAND,  Germain,  an  anhilect  born  at  Nantes,  in 
1C()7,  and  died  at  Paris,  aged  eiglity -seven.  He  built  seve- 
ral grand  edifices,  and  executed  a  number  of  bridges,  canals, 
&c.  He  also  wrote  on  the  principles  of  architecture. — 
JjWrfienville  Du  Fresno}/. 

B(3LSTERS.     See  Balusters  of  the  Ionic  Capital. 
BOLT,  in  joinery,  an  iron  fastening  for  a  door,  moved  by 
the  hand,  and  catching  in  a  staple  or  notch  to  receive  it. 

Bolts  are  of  various  kinds  :  plate,  spring,  nwljlusk  bolts, 
are  for  fastening  doors  and  windows. 

There  are  also  round  bolts  of  various  sizes,  for  large  doors 
and  gates,  and  some  curious  brass  bolts  for  folding-doors, 
which  have  plates  set  on  the  edge  of  the  door,  extending  the 


whole  length,  so  that  by  a  turn  of  the  knob-handle  in  the  centre 
of  the  door,  the  liolts  shut  up  and  down  at  the  .same  time  ; 
and  by  turning  the  contrary  way  the  bolts  are  relieved,  and 
both  doors  open  at  once,  without  further  trouble  ;  these  arc 
mostly  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  lay  two  rooms  into  one. 
As  these  bolts  are  expensive,  there  are  others  nearly  on  the 
same  |)rinciple,  denominated  spring-latch  bolts,  about  thirteen 
inches  long,  with  a  stout  plate:  two  of  these  are  requiivd  to 
a  pair  of  doors,  one  at  the  top,  and  the  other  at  the  bottom  : 
each  bolt  is  shut  hy  a  spring,  against  which  the  right  hand 
presses,  and  being  shut,  both  are  secured. 

Bolt  of  a  I..ock,  the  iron  part  by  which  it  is  fastened  into 
the  jamb,  in  the  act  of  turning  it  by  the  key.  Of  these  there 
are  two  kinds :  one,  which,  in  the  closing  of  the  door,  shuts 
of  itself,  and  is  called  a  spring-bnlt ;  the  other,  which  is  shut 
by  the  key,  is  called  a  dormant-bolt. 

Bolts,  are  also  large  iron  cylindrical  pins,  with  round 
knobs  at  one  end  of  a  greater  diameter,  and  a  slit  at  the 
other  end,  through  which  a  pin  or  flire-lock  passes,  for  mak- 
ing fast  the  bar  of  a  door,  window-shutter,  or  the  like.  These 
are  particularly  called  ronnd-bolts,  or  window-bolts. 

Bolts  of  Iron,  in  carpentry,  are  those  square  or  cylin- 
drical pins  which  pass  through  two  or  more  pieces  of  timber, 
with  a  broad  knob  at  one  end,  and  a  nut  screwed  to  the 
other,  for  securing  them  together.  Bolts  of  this  description 
must  always  be  proportioned  to  the  size  and  stress  of  the 
timbers  so  connected. 

BOMON,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  an  altar  to  a  god. 
BONANNO,  an  architect  who  flourished  about  1 174.     lie 
built  the  famous  tower  at  Pisa,  in  conjunction  with  Guillauinc, 
a  German. — Felehien. 

BONARROITI,  Buonaroti,  or  Bonarota,  Michael 
Angelo,  a  celebrated  painter,  sc^ulptor,  itnd  architect,  l)orn 
at  Chiusi,  in  Tuscany,  in  the  year  1474.  His  talents  were  so 
early  developed,  that  he  is  figuratively  said  to  have  l)een  born 
a  painter;  and  his  parents,  observing  the  turn  of  his  genius, 
put  him  under  the  tuition  of  Dominico  Ghirlandaio.  whom  he 
soon  surpassed ;  for  at  the  ago  of  sixteen  he  executed  some 
pieces  rivaling  even  those  of  antiquit}'.  Under  the  auspices 
of  that  great  patron  of  the  arts,  Lorenzo  di  Medicis,  he  estab- 
lished an  academy  for  painting  and  sculpture  at  Florence  ; 
which  on  account  of  the  troubles  of  the  house  of  Medici,  he 
afterwards  removed  to  Bologna.  At  the  age  of  twent\-nine, 
he  was  employed  l)y  Pope  Julius  II.  to  construct  a  giand 
mausoleum  ;  but  before  it  was  finished,  he  returned  to  Flo- 
rence in  disgust,  on  account  of  some  pecuniary  matters.  From 
Florence  he  would  have  gone  to  Gnstantinople,  whither  he 
had  been  invited  by  the  grand  signor,  to  build  a  bridge  from 
that  city  to  Pera,  had  he  not  been  prevailed  upon  to  return 
to  Rome  by  Soderini,  the  gonfalonier,  or  holy  standard- 
bearer.  This  officer  recommended  him  to  his  brother,  ('ardinal 
Soderini,  wIkj  introduced  him  to  the  pope,  at  Bologna.  Here 
he  met  with  an  envious  c<jnipetitor,  in  the  person  of  Lazzari 
Bramante  d'Urbino,  who  had  been  employed  by  the  pope, 
and  was  unwilling  to  sh.are  his  honours  and  profits  with 
another.  He  endeavoured  to  excite  a  spirit  of  discontent  in 
Bonarrotti,  by  insinuating  that  the  pope  w.as  too  much  offended 
at  his  former  conduct,  to  permit  him  to  resume  the  building 
of  the  mausoleum  ;  and  to  the  pope  he  represented,  that  as 
Bonarrotti  was  a  jiainter,  he  might  be  more  advantageously 
employed  in  jxiiiiting  the  arch  of  the  Sextine  chapel,  at  Rome, 
than  in  any  other  work.  It  slujuld  seem  from  this,  that 
Bou.arrotti  had  not  yet  displayed  those  talents  as  a  painter, 
with  which  he  afterwards  fascinated  the  world  ;  for  it  is  cer- 
tain that  Bramante,  considering  him  as  a  dangerous  riv.al, 
meant  nothing  less  than  his  complete  disgrace.  Bonarrotti, 
however,  though  contrary  to  his  inclination,  painted  the  arch, 


BON 


39 


BON 


6()  much  to  the  pope's  satisfaction,  that  he  was  taken  into 
grealer  favour  tiian  ever. 

Pope  Leo  X.  ordered  him  to  make  a  design  for  the  front  of 
thecliiireh  of  St.  Laurence,  at  Florence,  for  which  also  seve- 
ral other  architects  had  given  a  drawing,  but  Bonarrotti's 
being  preferred,  he  was  sent  to  Florence  to  superintend  the 
building;  the  vestry  of  wiiich  is  reckoned  among  his  best 
pi  oductliins.  hi  this  city  lie  also  built  the  Medicean  Library, 
the  niches  and  staircase  of  which  are  of  very  curious  con- 
struction. 

On  the  death  of  Sangallo,  in  1546,  the  pope,  Paul  III., 
appointed  Hoiiarrotti  architect  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  an 
appointment  which  he  at  first  declined;  but  being  vested 
wlih  unlimited  powers  for  carrying  on  the  work,  he  not  only 
accepted  it,  but  even  refused  any  remuneration  for  his 
labours.  Sangallo  had  left  a  model  for  finishing  the  build- 
ing, which  had  cost41.S4  Roman  crowns,  and  occupied  some 
years  in  making;  according  to  which  the  edifice  itself  could 
not  have  been  completed  in  fifty  years  and  upwards.  The 
first  use  Bonarrutii  made  of  his  extensive  commission  was  to 
set  this  model  aside  ;  and  in  fifteen  days  he  produced  another, 
for  the  small  cost  of  twenty-five  crowns,  by  which  he  pro- 
posed to  raise  that  venerable  pile  with  far  greater  facility  and 
expedition,  and  with  more  majestic  grandeur,  than  the  plans 
of  any  of  his  predecessors  could  have  given  it.  The  four 
great  piers,  by  which  the  cupola  was  to  be  supported,  had 
been  erected  Ijy  Braniante,  Imt  they  were  so  very  weak,  that 
succeeding  architects  had  found  it  necessary  to  strengthen 
thcni.  Bot]arrotti  thinking  them  still  insufficient  for  the 
purpose,  he  enlarged  them  to  their  present  gigantic  size,  and 
contrived  to  leave  voids,  like  wells,  in  them,  probably  fiir  the 
purjiose  of  keeping  them  dry.  Similar  vacuities  he  left 
in  the  principal  walls,  through  which  he  carried  a  winding 
staircase,  so  wide,  and  upon  so  gentle  an  ascent,  that  he  was 
enabled  to  convey  materials  to  the  height  of  the  level  of  the 
arches  on  beasts  of  burden.  The  great  cornice  over  the 
arches  ditTers  from  the  common  cornice,  in  having  less  pro- 
jection and  fewerniembers;  and  the  imposts  of  the  pilasters 
have  a  greater  jmjection.  In  each  of  the  two  curved  extre- 
mities of  the  transept,  it  had  been  intended  by  former  archi- 
tects to  place  eight  tabernacles,  or  altars;  but  Bonarrotti 
reduced  their  number  to  three,  and  threw  an  arch  over  them, 
subdivided  into  a  few  well-proportioned  compartments;  and 
to  prevent  any  alteration  in  his  design  by  future  architects, 
ho  built  the  whole  so  solid  that  it  could  not  conveniently 
be  changed.  He  lived,  however,  to  see  the  building  carried 
to  the  height  of  the  tambour  on  which  the  cupola  was  to  be 
laid,  when,  on  account  of  his  age,  his  friends  urged  him  to 
frame  a  model  of  the  dome,  lest  what  he  had  already  done 
should  be  s[>oiled  by  the  incapacity  or  whim  of  a  succeeding 
architect.  With  this  request  he  complied,  and  formed  one 
of  clay,  which  he  afterwards  caused  to  be  made  of  more 
durable  materials,  by  Giovanni  Farnese.  This  model  was 
universally  approved,  and  finally  executed  in  the  pontificate 
of  Sextus  V.  While  Bonarrotti  was  engaged  in  the  build- 
ing of  St.  Peter's,  the  officers  called  conservators,  in  the 
I  time  of  Paul  111.,  resolved  to  reduce  the  Capitol  to  a  useful 
and  convenient  shape,  for  which  purpose  they  applied  to 
Bonarrotti.  He  accordingly  began  the  Senators'  Palace,  in 
the  centre,  ascended  from  without  by  a  doulde  flight  of  steps, 
landing  on  a  level  introduced  between  the  two  flights.  The 
wing,  denominated  the  Conservtitorium,  is  entirely  from  his 
design.  The  ground-floor  consists  of  an  external  and  an 
internal  portico,  supported  by  sixty-eight  columns  of  the 
Ionic  order,  surmounted  with  that  elegant  capital,  the  inven- 
tion of  which  is  attributed  to  himself.  There  is,  however, 
a  great  blemish  ui  this  part  of  the  building ;  for,  in  order  to 


give  a  due  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  portico,  the  columns 
are  niched  into  the  wall,  an  expedient  never  productive  of 
beautiful  effect.  About  this  time,  he  also  finished  the  Far- 
nesian  Palace,  which  hail  been  begun  by  Sangallo.  He 
likewise  designed  ami  executed  the  gate,  called  Porta  Pia, 
the  architecture  of  which  is  not  very  regular  ;  of  many  other 
gates  designed  by  him,  it  is  uncertain  whether  any  of  them 
were  ever  constructed,  but  they  are  all  of  the  s.ime  irregular 
taste.  The  great  central  hall  of  the  Dioclesian  baths  was 
converted  into  a  church  from  a  design  of  his;  as  were  the 
chapel  of  the  Strozzi  fiimily  at  Florence,  and  the  college  of 
the  Sapienza,  except  the  part  where  the  church  is  situated; 
it  is  upon  the  whole  a  very  fine  edifice. 

Old  age  having  at  length  rendered  this  great  architect 
incapable  of  personal  exertions,  Nanni  Bigio  was  .secretly 
commissioned  bv  the  pope  to  superintend  the  building  of  St. 
Peter's,  but  with  strict  orders  to  adhere  minutely  to  the  |)lans 
and  model  of  Bonarrotti,  who  died  in  loG4,  in  his  90th  year, 
before  the  dome  was  completed.  His  body  was  transported 
to  Florence  by  order  ofComes  de  Mcdicis,  where  it  received 
the  most  splendid  funeral  honours,  and  a  superb  mausoleum 
was  erected  to  his  memory,  at  the  expense  of  the  grand  duke. 

BOND,  in  building,  in  a  general  sense,  is  the  manner  of 
making  two  or  more  liodies  fast  together. 

Bond,  in  niasonr}',  or  brickwork,  is  the  disposition  of  stones 
or  bricks  in  building.  It  is  a  principle  in  every  kind  of  bond 
to  prevent  vertical  joints  falling  upon  one  another.  When  a 
course  of  masonry  has  any  number  of  stones  placed  at  regular 
intervals  in  the  length  of  that  course,  and  the  lengths  of  the 
stone  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  when  there  are 
two  or  more  intermediate  stones  in  the  same  course,  with 
their  lengths  placed  horizontally  on  the  facing  or  surface, 
between  each  two  of  the  former  stones :  this  kind  of  bond  is 
called  header  and  stretcher.  The  stones  which  have  their 
length  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  are  called  headers, 
and  those  which  have  their  longest  horizontal  dimensions 
placed  in  the  exterior,  or  front,  are  called  stretchers. 

Where  masonry  consists  of  rubble-work,  and  where  the 
stones  are  not  disposed  in  courses,  the  jambs  of  apertures, 
should  there  be  any,  are  generally  built  with  ashlar;  every 
second  stone  in  the  height  of  each  jam  is  inserted  so  as  to 
pass  through  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall ;  and  the  hori- 
zontal dimension  on  the  facing  of  every  intermediate  stone  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  those  which  are  inserted  the  whole 
thickness.  The  stones  that  are  inserted  the  whole  thickness 
of  the  wall  are  called  headin;/  jambs,  and  the  intermediate 
stones  which  have  their  length  placed  horizontally  in  the  face, 
are  called  strelchinrf  Jamhs. 

Bond,  Heart,  in  masonry,  is,  when  two  stones  which 
appear  in  the  front  and  rear  of  a  wall  meet  in  the  centre  of 
it,  and  when  a  third  stone  is  placed  over  the  joint,  in  order 
to  bind  the  facing  and  backing  together,  where  otherwise  it 
would  be  expensive  to  insert  stones  the  whole  thickness  of 
the  wall. 

Bond-Stones,  are  those  used  in  uncoursed  rubble  walling, 
that  have  their  longest  horizontal  dimensions  placed  in  the 
thickness  of  the  work  :  these  should  be  placed  at  regular 
intervals,  both  altitudinally  and  horizontally,  so  that  every 
stone  of  one  row  may  fall  lietween  every  two  of  each  adjacent 
row.  Bond-stones  that  are  inserted  the  whole  thickness  of 
masonry  arc  called  perpends  or  perpend-stones.  Bond-stones 
only  difier  from  headers  in  this,  that  bond-stones  are  used 
to  bind  rubble  and  brickwork,  and  headers  are  laid  in  regular 
courses,  with  an  equal  number  of  headers  between  every  two 
stretchers. 

Bond,  English,  is,  when  every  two  courses  of  bricks  with 
the  length  of  the  bricks  inserted  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 


BON 


40 


BOR 


has  one  course  between  them,  with  their  lengths  placed 
horizontally  in  the  fjont  of  the  wall  :  the  conrses  in  which 
the  length  of  the  bricks  is  ])laced  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
are  called  head>ti(j-courses ;  and  those  which  have  the  length 
of  the  bricks  placed  horizontally  in  the  face  of  the  work,  are 
called  strctchiitfi-courses. 

Bond,  Flemish,  in  brickwork,  is  that  which  has  one  header 
between  every  two  stretchers,  and  one  stretcher  between  every 
two  headers  throughout  the  same  course. 

This  is  considered  the  neatest  and  most  beautiful ;  but  is 
attended  with  great  inconvenience  in  the  execution,  and  in 
most  cases  does  not  unite  the  parts  of  a  wall  with  the  same 
degree  of  firmness  as.the  English  bond. 

Those  who  are  desirous  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  the 
comparative  merits  of  these  two  species  of  Bond,  will  be 
gratified  in  the  perusal  of  Mr.  G.  Saunders'  Tract  on  Brick- 
bond ;  it  is  sufficient  in  this  place  to  observe  generally,  that 
whatever  advantages  are  gained  by  the  Flemish  Bond  in  tying 
a  wall  together  in  its  thickness,  are  lost  in  the  longitudinal 
bond;  and  vice  versa.  To  remove  this  inconvenience,  in 
thick  walls,  some  builders  place  the  bricks  in  the  core  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  called  lierring-hone,  parallel  to 
each  other  throughout  the  length  of  every  course,  but  reversed 
in  the  alternate  courses ;  so  that  the  bricks  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles.  But  even  here,  though  the  bricks  in  the 
core  have  sufficient  bond,  the  sides  are  very  imperfectly  tied 
to  the  core,  on  account  of  the  triangular  interstices  formed  by 
the  oblique  direction  of  the  internal  bricks  against  the  flat 
edges  of  those  on  the  outside. 

With  res|)ect  to  English  bond,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  as 
the  longitudinal  extent  of  a  brick  is  nine  inches,  and  its 
breadth  four  and  a  half;  it  is  usual — to  prevent  two  vertical 
joints  from  running  over  each  other  at  the  end  of  the 
first  stretcher  from  the  corner,  after  placing  the  return 
corner  stretcher,  which  becomes  a  header  in  the  face  that 
the  stretcher  is  in  below,  and  occupies  half  the  length  of  this 
stretcher — to  place  a  quarter  brick  on  the  side,  so  that  the  tw'o 
together  extend  six  inches  and  three-quarters,  leaving  a  lap 
of  two  inches  and  a  half  for  the  next  header.  Tiie  hat  thus 
introduced  is  called  a  closer,  A  similar  effect  might  be 
obtained  by  introducing  a  three-quarter  hat  ai  the  corner  of 
the  stretching  course,  and  then  the  corner  header  being  laid 
over  it,  a  lap  of  two  inches  and  a  half  will  be  left  at  the  end 
of  the  stretchers  below,  for  the  next  header,  which  being 
laid,  the  joint  below  the  stretchers  will  coincide  with  its 
nnddle. 

BoKD-TiMHERS,  are  those  horizontal  pieces,  built  in  stone 
or  brick  walls,  for  strengthening  the  building,  and  securing 
the  battening,  lath,  and  plaster :  also  the  horizontal  mould- 
ings, or  finishings  of  wooil. 

Bond-timbers  disposed  in  tires,  at  altitudes  corresponding 
to  those  of  the  horizontal  mouldings,  in  the  finishing  of  apart- 
ments, as  behind  skirtings,  bases,  and  surbases,  are  called 
common-hand  ;  the  scantling  of  which  is  generally  four  inches 
broad  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  two  inches  and  a  half 
thick  in  tlie  altitude  of  the  wall,  so  as  to  be  equal  in  thick- 
ness to  a  course  of  bricks.  Bond-timbers  placed  in  or  near  the 
middle  of  the  story,  of  eight  inches  wide  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  and  five  inches  and  a  half  deep  (or  abo\it  the  length 
and  thickness  of  two  bricks)  in  the  altitude  of  the  w.all,  are 
called  chdin-timbers,  or  chain-bond.  In  brick  buildings,  when 
the  lintels  of  a  range  of  windows  are  considerably  below  the 
ceiling,  the  lintels  may  be  continued  through  the  walls  as 
bond-timbers:  in  this  case  the  thickness  of  the  bond-timbers 
should  be  regulated  by  the  necessary  thickness  of  the  lintels. 
When  bond-tinibeis  arc  also  the  wall-plates  of  floors  or 
roofs,  their  scantling  is  generally  the  same  as  that  of  the 


chain-bond.  The  whole  of  the  plate  and  chain-bond  should 
be  continued  on  one  side  of  each  internal  wall,  where  the 
funnels  or  flues  permit,  as  well  as  on  the  inside  of  the  external 
walls,  and  propcily  notched  and  fastened  at  the  angles.  Bond- 
limbers  will,  in  most  cases,  prevent  a  building  from  cracking, 
where  the  foundation  is  infirm  :  they  are  easily  exccute<l  in 
brickwork,  or  in  coursed  stone-work  ;  but  in  rubble-stone  it  is 
dilficult,  as  the  work  must  be  leveled  at  every  height  in 
which  they  are  disposed;  for  which  reason  plugging  is  pre- 
ferable in  such  work.  Plugging  has  one  very  material 
advantage  over  bond-timbers,  that  in  case  of  fire,  the  wails 
are  less  liable  to  tumble  or  warp,  for  they  are  not  leduced  in 
their  thickness  ;  but  this  mu.*t  be  the  case  where  bond-timbers 
are  employed,  as  they  fi>rm  a  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  walls 
themselves.  Bond-timbers  should  bo  avoided  in  damp  situa- 
tions, such  as  basements  of  houses,  as  they  are  liable  to  rot 
and  thus  render  the  buildings  insecure. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  a  practice  has  arisen  of  intro- 
ducing iron-hoop  in  place  of  bond-timber.  Several  strips  or 
lengths  of  hoop  arc  laid  on  at  every  four  or  five  courses 
of  bricks,  and  worked  in  as  bond-timbers  are — sometimes 
they  are  placed  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  feet  in  the  height 
of  walls.  It  is  {iretended  that  great  advantages,  as  regards 
danger  from  fire,  result  from  this  practice,  but  we  are 
strongly  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  whatever  good  may 
arise  from  the  incombustible  nature  of  the  material,  is  more 
than  counterbalanceil  by  the  absence  of  the  same  strength 
as  that  given  by  timber-bond. 

Bonds,  are  all  the  timbers  disposed  in  the  walls  of  a  house, 
such  as  bond-timbers,  lintels,  and  wall-pl.ates.  See  Fir,  in  Bond. 
Boning,  in  carpentry  and  masonry,  is  the  act  of  making 
a  plane  surface  by  the  direction  of  the  eye.  It  is  by  boning 
with  two  straight  edges  that  joiners  try  up  their  work, 
whether  it  be  in  or  out  of  winding,  that  is,  whether  the 
surface  be  twisted  or  a  plane.  Itlany  country  masons  and 
bricklayers  level  the  tops  of  their  walls  without  an  instru- 
ment, iiy  boning  them  with  the  contour  of  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  where  it  is  not  apparently  terminated  with  land  on  the 
other  side.  This  mode  comes  so  near  the  truth,  even  though 
the  building  be  raised  a  considerable  distance  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  that  the  difierence  cannot  be  perceived 
upon  the  common  levels. 

BONOMI,  Joseph,  an  architect,  born  in  Italy,  and  died 
in  1808.  He  was  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
London.  He  built  several  mansions  and  villas,  and  was 
esteemed  an  artist  of  superior  ability. 
BOOTH,  a  temporary  wooden  building. 
BORDERS,  are  three  pieces  of  wood  which  are  generally 
mitered  together  round  the  slab  of  a  chimney,  flush  with 
the  surface  of  the  floor. 

BORING,  the  act  of  perforating  a  solid.  For  the  purpose 
of  boring  wood,  joiners  use  a  centre-bit,  nose-bit,  shell-bit, 
and  auger-bit,  each  kind  of  which  is  of  many  sizes.  See  Bit. 
BORROMINI,  Fr.\ncisco,  born  in  1599,  in  Bissonc, 
diocese  of  Como.  His  father  was  an  architect,  and  much 
employed  by  the  Casa,  or  family  of  Visconti.  Francisco 
was  sent,  at  an  early  age,  to  Milan,  to  study  sculpture ;  and, 
at  seventeen  yetirs  of  age,  he  went  to  Rome  to  be  instructed 
in  architecture,  by  his  relation,  Carlo  T^Iaderno,  who  also 
had  him  instructed  in  geometry.  Maderno  set  him  to  take 
fair  copies  of  his  drawings,  and  made  him  execute  the  che- 
rubim on  cither  side  of  the  small  doors  of  St.  Peter's,  which, 
with  the  drapery  and  festoons  over  the  arches,  are  the  only 
works  of  Borromini's  chisel.  He  delighted  in  painting,  and 
some  of  his  pictures  are  very  good,  among  which  is  one  of 
the  fathers  della  Chicsa  Nuova,  in  Rome.  On  IMaderno's 
death,    Borroniini  was  made  architect  of  St.   Peter's    .and 


remained  a  little  while  under  the  direction  of  Bernini  ;  hut 
becoming  first  emulous  of  him,  then  envious,  and  finally  his 
enemy,  he  endeavoured  to  get  more  commissions  for  work, 
and  in  fact  was  employed  in  a  vast  number  of  buildings, 
where,  trying  to  surpass  Bernini  in  novelties,  he  laid  aside 
the  common  rules,  and  bewildered  his  imagination  and  talents 
in  a  labyrinth  of  extravagances.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
court  of'  the  Sapienza,  he  built  a  church  w  ith  a  concave 
front,  on  a  polygonal  plan,  with  its  sides  alternately  concave 
and  convex ;  the  exterior  of  the  cupola,  which  is  surrounded 
above  bv  a  bakistrade,  has  a  similar  figure ;  the  convex  part 
being  formed  into  steps,  interrupted  by  buttresses.  But  the 
lantern  is  still  more  whimsical,  having  its  vase  in  a  zig-zag 
form,  on  which  is  erected  a  spiral  staircase,  sustaining  a 
crown  of  metal  with  a  ball  and  cross  at  top.  However,  the 
greatest  delirium  of  Borromini,  is  the  style  of  the  church  of 
San  Carlino  alle  Quattro  Fontane.  So  man_v  right,  concave, 
and  convex  lines,  so  many  columns  upon  columns  of  different 
proportions,  with  windows,  niches,  and  sculpturesi,  in  so 
small  a  front,  cannot  but  excite  pity  for  the  derangement 
of  the  mind  by  which  they  were  projected.  The  oratory  of 
the  fethers  della  Chiesa  Nuova,  has  likewise  its  front  com- 
posed of  orbiculated  and  right  lines  ;  where  everything  is 
deranged  and  out  of  order :  undulating  coronoe,  which, 
instead  of  helping  the  discharge  of  the  water,  retain  it ; 
delicate  mouldings  under  great  weights;  mouldings  of  a 
strange  and  new  form ;  breaks  only  in  the  architrave  of  the 
entablature ;  prominences,  contortions,  and  every  kind  of 
absurdity.  There  appears,  nevertheless,  in  this  building 
a  something  harmonious  and  handsome,  but  better  adapted 
(as  Bernini  said)  to  a  country-house  or  villa,  than  to  the 
second  edifice  of  a  city.  The  flat  arch  of  the  oratory  is 
rather  wonderful,  being  of  a  much  larger  size  than  that  of 
Santa  Martina,  made  by  Cortona.  Though  it  supports  above 
it  the  weight  of  the  great  library,  the  wall  of  one  of  its  larger 
sides  is  not  flanked  with  counterforts,  but  stands  insulated, 
fronting  the  street.  The  habitation  of  these  fathers  of  the 
oratory,  is  one  of  the  best  buildings  of  Borromini,  yet  it  is 
not  without  its  whimsicalities,  in  the  porticos  and  loggias  of 
the  cloisters,  supported  by  a  single  Composite  pilaster :  the 
tower  of  the  clock  is  likewise  mixtilinear.  The  best  work 
of  Borromini,  is  the  fiont  of  St.  Agnes,  in  the  Piazza  Xavona. 
ITie  king  of  Spain,  wishing  to  modernize  and  enlarge  his 
palace  at  Home,  Borromini  was  commissioned  to  do  it ;  for 
which  purpose  he  made  a  drawing,  and  though  it  was  never 
executed,  it  gave  such  satisfiiction,  that  the  monarch  honoured 
the  author  with  the  cross  of  St.  James,  and  made  him  a 
present  of  1000  dollars.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  likewise  created 
aim  knight  of  Christ,  gave  him  3000  dollars,  and  settled  an 
annual  pension  on  him.  Part  of  the  palace  Barberini ;  the 
whole  of  the  monastery  and  church  of  the  Madonna  de'  Sctte 
Dolori,  at  the  foot  of  San  Pietro  Moutorio  •,  and  the  palace 
of  Rufina,  at  Frescati,  were  built  by  this  architect ;  he  also 
modernized  the  palace  Falconnier,  and  embellished  that  of 
Spada.  Besides  these,  he  executed  many  other  works,  and  sent 
to  various  countries  designs  of  buildings,  which  produced  him 
fame  and  riches.  Borromini  was  one  of  the  first  men  of  his 
age  for  the  elevation  of  his  genius,  and  one  of  the  last  for 
the  ridiculous  use  he  made  of  it.  The  frenzy  which  he  had 
displayed  in  scientific  pursuits,  extended,  as  he  advanced  in 
years,  to  moral  objects  ;  and  he  at  length  died,  a  lunatic,  by 
his  own  hands,  in  1667. 

BOSS,  a  projecting  ornament  placed  on  the  intersections 
of  groins,  usually  carved  in  the  form  of  a  leaf  or  other  orna- 
mental foliage,  or,  in  the  later  periods  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture, richly  sculptured  with  armorial  bearings.  Bosses  were 
employed  in  vaulting,  not  for  mere  ornament,  but  formed  an 

6 


essential  feature  in  the  construction,  as  they  tended  by  their 
weight  to  retain  the  voussoirs  in  their  respective  positions, 
and  to  confine  the  arches,  so  as  to  counteract  any  tendency 
to  upward  motion  ;  they  formed,  in  fact,  the  kcj'-stones  of 
the  vault,  binding  the  whole  work  firmly  together. — Bosses 
are  used  in  other  situations  as  ornaments  to  mouldings,  &c. 

Boss,  among  bricklayers,  a  wooden  vessel  in  which  the 
labourers  put  the  mortar  to  be  used  in  tiling.  It  has  an  iron 
hook,  with  which  it  is  hung  on  the  laths  or  on  a  ladder. 

BOSSAGE,  the  projection  of  stones  laid  rough  in  a  build- 
ing, to  be  afterwards  carved  into  mouldings  or  ornaments. 
Bossages  are  also  projecting  rustic  quoins  in  a  building,  with 
indentures  or  channels  at  the  joints.  The  channels  are  some- 
times square,  sometimes  chamfered,  or  beveled,  and  some- 
times circular. 

BOULANGER,  Nicholas  Anthony,  an  architect,  born 
at  Paris,  1722,  and  died  in  1759,  aged  thirty-seven.  He 
became  so  eminent  in  architecture  and  mathematics,  though 
entirely  of  his  own  study,  that  he  was  made  engineer  to  the 
baron  of  Thiers,  and  afterwards  appointed  superintendent  of 
the  highways  and  bridges.  He  was  author  of  some  articles 
in  the  Encvclopedia.  and  several  other  works. 

BOULDER  WALLS,  are  those  built  of  round  flints,  or 
pebbles,  laid  in  strong  mortar,  used  where  the  sea  has  a  beach 
cast  up,  or  where  there  are  plenty  of  flints. 

BOUND  MASONRY.     See  Stone  Walls. 

BOUNDARY  COLUMN.     See  Column. 

BOW,  a  part  of  some  buildings  projecting  forward  from 
the  face  of  the  wall,  and  raised  from  a  plan  generally  on  the 
arc  of  a  circle,  so  as  to  form  the  segment  of  a  cylinder.  It 
is  sometimes,  however,  raised  from  a  plan  consisting  of  three 
sides,  two  external  obtuse  angles,  formed  by  each  two  conti- 
guous sides,  and  two  internal  obtuse  angles,  formed  by  the 
wall  and  the  sides  which  adjoin  thereto.  A  bow,  raised  from 
a  polygonal  plan,  with  three,  four,  or  five  vertical  sides ;  or  a 
prism  so  disposed,  is  termed  a  canted  or  jiolyrjoita I  bow.  In 
some  buildings  the  bow  is  carried  to  the  whole  height,  in 
others,  only  to  one  or  two  stories. 

Bow,  among  draughtsmen,  denotes  a  beam  of  wood  or 
brass,  with  three  long  screws  that  direct  a  lath  of  wood 
or  steel  to  an  arch,  used  in  drawing  flat  arches,  or  in  pro- 
jections of  the  sphere. 

BOW-WINDOW,  a  window  projecting  from  the  general 
face  of  a  building  on  a  curvilinear  plan,  and  rising  from  the 
ground  or  basement.     See  Bay  and  Oriel  Windows. 

BOX,  in  its  most  general  acceptation,  denotes  a  case  for 
holding  anything. 

Box  OF  A  Bid-Saw,  two  thin  iron  plates  fixed  to  a  handle. 
In  one  of  the  iron  plates  is  an  opening  to  receive  a  wedge, 
by  which  it  is  fixed  to  the  saw. 

Box  for  Mitering.     See  Mitre-Box. 

Box  of  a  Theatre,  one  of  the  compartments  of  a  gallery. 

Boxings  of  a  Window,  are  the  two  cases,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  window,  into  which  each  of  the  adjacent  shutters 
is  folded,  when  light  is  require  in  the  room.  The  leaves 
which  appear  in  the  front  of  each  boxing,  are  denominated 
front  shutters ;  and  those  in  the  back,  are  called  back  flaps. 
In  order  to  estimate  the  breadth  of  flaps,  and  the  depth  of 
boxing-room ;  suppose  each  boxing  to  be  filled  w  ith  the 
shutters  which  are  to  cover  half  the  breadth  of  the  opening  : 
add  the  thicknesses  of  all  the  folds  together,  with  as  many 
one-sixteenths  of  an  inch  as  there  are  breadths,  and  the  sum 
is  the  depth  of  the  boxing.  Thus,  suppose  a  window  to  be 
four  feet  wide,  placed  in  a  brick  wall  eighteen  inches  thick, 
let  the  sash-frame  be  six  inches  thick,  and  placed  four  inches 
and  a  half  from  the  face  of  the  wall,  or  the  breadth  of  a 
brick ;  this  will  reduce  the  wall  to  seven   inches  and  a  hal. 


BRA 


42 


BRA 


thick  ;  to  this  add  the  necessary  thiekiicss  for  lath  and  plaster, 
about  two  inches,  gives  nine  inches  and  a  half  for  the  breadth 
of  the  shutter  :  nine  inches  and  a  half  will  be  contained  in 
twenty-four  inches,  or  the  half  of  four  feet,  twice,  with  a 
remainder ;  therefore  there  must  be  three  leaves  or  folds  in 
a  shutter,  viz.,  a  front  leaf,  and  two  back  flaps.  The  front 
leaf  should  be  necessarily  the  whole  breadth  of  the  boxing, 
or  nine  inches  and  a  half;  and  the  two  back  flaps  between 
them,  the  remainder  between  nine  inches  and  a  half  and 
twenty-four  int+es,  that  is,  fourteen  inches  and  a  half.  The 
back  flap  should  always  be  the  least,  in  order  that  the  shutters 
may  go  freely  into  the  boxing ;  the  middle  one,  therefore,  may 
be  eight  inciies,  and  the  back  one  six  inches  and  a  half,  for 
9A-+8+C^  =24  ;  but  if  the  flaps  arc  rebated  into  one  another, 
which  is  most  commonly  the  case,  whatever  be  the  breadth 
of  the  rebate  and  the  number  of  them,  then  so  much  more 
ought  to  be  added  to  the  whole  breadth,  hi  the  present 
example,  tiie  three  folds  will  require  two  rebates  ;  let  each 
rebate  be  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  then,  instead  of  reckoning 
twenty-foui",  it  must  be  twenty-tour  inches  and  a  half,  and  as 
no  alteration  can  be  made  on  the  front  flap,  it  must  be  added 
to  one  of  the  back  flaps;  the  three  flaps  nuiy  therefore  stand 
thus,  9^  +  8i-  +  6^=24J.  Besides  this  allowance  in  breadth, 
there  is  another  lor  the  rebate  at  the  meeting  in  the  middle 
of  the  window  of  the  two  back  flaps ;  if  this  rebate  be  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  also,  it  may  be  added  to  the  shutters  on 
either  side  of  the  window,  or  it  may  be  divided  in  any  pro- 
portion between;  let  it  be  equally  divided,  then  the  breadth 
of  the  flaps  may  stand  thus,  9i  +  8A  +  Cf  =  24|.  To  find 
the  ihickncss,  suppose  the  front  flap  to  be  one  inch  and  a 
half,  the  two  back  flaps  each  one  inch  and  a  quarter,  then 
H+l|-+l;f  +  f'fi  =  4/g-,  forthe  depth  of  the  boxing-room.  If 
there  is  a  back  lining,  that  must  he  taken  also  into  the  account. 
When  shutters  are  in  many  folds,  they  are  troublesome  to 
shut,  and  this  must  always  be  the  case  in  thin  walls,  or  with 
wide  windows.  To  remedy  this,  the  architraves  are  either 
made  to  project  considerably  before  the  plaster,  or  the  lath 
and  plaster  are  brought  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
rough  wall. 

BOYLIi,  liicnABD,  Earl  of  Burlington.  Never  was  pro- 
tection and  great  wealth  more  generously  and  more  judi- 
ciously dilTused  than  by  this  great  person,  who  had  every 
quality  of  a  genius  and  an  artist,  except  envy.  He  spent 
great  sums  in  contributing  to  public  works,  and  was  known 
to  choose,  that  the  expense  should  fall  upon  himself,  rather 
than  that  his  country  should  be  deprived  of  some  beautiful 
edifices.  His  enthusiasm  for  the  works  of  Inigo  Jones  was 
so  active,  that  he  repaired  the  church  of  Covent-Gardcn, 
because  it  was  the  prcxiuetion  of  that  great  master.  With  the 
same  zeal  for  pure  architecture,  he  assisted  Kent  in  publish- 
ing the  designs  for  Whitehall,  and  gave  a  beautiful  edition  of 
the  Pnhlic  Baths,  from  the  drawings  of  Palladio,  whose 
papers  he  procured  with  great  cost.  Besides  the  works  on  his 
own  estate  at  Lonsborough,  in  Yorkshire,  he  new-fronted 
his  house  in  Piccadilly,  built  by  his  father,  and  added  the 
grand  colonnade  within  the  court.  The  other  works  designed 
by  Lord  Burlington,  were  the  dormitory  of  Westminster 
school  ;  the  .\s3enibly-Uoom  at  York  ;  Lord  Harrington's  at 
Petersham  ;  the  Duke  of  Richmond's  house  at  Whitehall  ; 
and  (jeneral  Wade's  in  Cork  street. 

BRAC.'I'].     See  Tkuss,  and  Angle-Braces. 

BU.\CKEr,  a  small  support  fixed  against  a  wall  to  sustain 
anything.  Brackets  are  composed  out  of  various  materials — 
wood,  stone,  metal,  &c.,  and  may  be  made  susceptible  of  any 
ornamentation. 

Bracket  for  Shelves.  When  the  shelves  are  broad, 
the  brackets  are  small  trusses,  consisting  of  a  vertical  piece, 


a  horizontal  piece,  and  a  strut ;  but  when  the  shelves  are 
small,  the  brackets  are  solid  pieces  of  boards,  most  com- 
monly with  an  ogee  figure  on  their  outer  side. 

Brackets  in  Gothic  architecture  are  usually  of  very  ele- 
gant design,  and  are  mostly  sculptured  to  represent  angels, 
heads,  foliage,  and  many  other  beautiful  devices.  They  arc 
used  to  support  statues  under  niches,  pillars  which  have 
their  basis  on  a  height  above  the  ground,  and  for  various 
other  purposes. 

Brackets  for  Stairs,  are  sometimes  used  under  the  ends 
of  wooden  steps,  next  to  the  well-hole,  by  way  of  ornament, 
for  they  have  only  the  appear.ance  of  suppc>rt. 

BRACKETING,  a  disposition  of  small  pieces  of  1)oard, 
equidistantly  placed  in  the  angles  formed  by  the  ceiling  and 
the  walls  of  an  apartment,  with  their  planes  at  right  angles 
to  the  common  intersection,  so  as  to  be  partly  upon  the  ceil- 
ing and  partly  upon  the  walls ;  their  faces  or  hedges  being  so 
arranged,  as  to  touch  any  level  line  that  is  everywhere  equally 
distant  from  the  wall  or  walls  which  may  form  the  perimeter 
or  circumference  of  the  apartment.  The  level  line  equi- 
distant from,  or  parallel  to  the  walls,  will  either  be  a  straight 
line  or  curve,  according  as  the  walls  are  carried  upwards 
from  a  straight  or  circular  plan. 

Bracketing  is  necessary  in  supporting  the  lath  and  plaster 
of  cornices  and  coves.  The  edges  of  the  brackets  to  which 
the  lath  is  fixed,  are  so  farmed  as  to  be  as  nearly  equidistant 
from  the  surface  of  the  intended  cornice  or  cove  as  possible, 
and  may  be  placed  about  an  inch  within  the  said  surface. 
Their  common  distance  from  middle  to  middle  maybe  about 
a  foot  or  fourteen  inches.  Small  cornices  require  no  brackets ; 
but  in  large  cornices,  and  particularly  in  coves,  they  are 
indispensably  necessary,  to  save  the  plaster.  In  apartments 
formed  bj'  walls  with  plain  surfiices,  besides  the  brackets 
which  are  arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  lino  of  concourse 
of  the  ceilings  and  the  walls,  there  are  other  1)rackets  placed, 
one  in  each  angle,  in  a  vertical  plane,  liisecting  the  angle 
formed  by  each  two  adjacent  sides  of  the  room,  at  the  mitre 
of  the  cornice,  denominated  ainile-brarlets. 

Let  Fig.  1  be  the  plan  of  the  end  of  the  room,  the  internal 
side  being  a  b  c  d  e  f  o  ii,  and  let  there  be  a  break,  c  n  e  f, 
as  the  breast  of  a  chimney.  Let  Fig.  2  be  part  of  the  plan 
enlarged,  showing  an  internal  angle  at  c,  and  an  external 
angle  at  n  :  let  n  o  p  q  represent  the  face  of  the  rough  wall, 
and  B  c  D  E  the  finish  of  the  plaster  ;  then  the  space  between 
N  o  and  B  c,  o  p,  and  c  n,  p  q  and  d  e  will  be  the  space  for 
the  battening,  lath,  and  plaster.  Let  Fig.  3  be  a  section  of 
the  cornice,  intended  to  he  run  hy  the  plasterer,  and  let  the 
shadowed  part  be  the  form  of  the  common  brackets  :  let  i  x, 
I  K,  &c..  Fig.  2,  be  the  projections  or  scats  of  the  common 
brackets,  each  equal  to  a  b,  Fig.  3,  and  let  l  o  and  m  p  be 
the  seats  of  the  angle-brackets ;  l  o  being  that  of  the  internal 
bracket,  and  m  p  that  of  the  external  bracket.  Besides  the 
projection  beyond  the  finishing  surface  of  the  plaster,  there 
7nust  be  .added  the  thickness  of  the  battening,  lath,  and 
plaster.  As  the  lath  terminates  upon  the  angle-brackets, 
and  as  they  require  to  be  ranked  in  the  same  surface  with 
the  edges  of  the  common  brackets,  they  are  here  made 
double,  or  in  tw^o  thicknesses.  Let  it  now  be  required  to  find 
the  form  of  the  brackets,  either  for  mouldings,  as  Fig.  3,  or 
for  a  cove:  make  a  b,  Figs.  4  and  5.  equal  to  the  projection 
of  the  common  bracket;  drawn  A  perpendicular  and  equal  to 
A  b,  and  join  a  h:  place  or  draw  the  form  of  the  bracket 
with  the  ceiling  edge  of  it  upon  a  b  :  take  any  mnnber  of 
points,  G,  H,  I,  K,  &c.,  in  the  ranging  edge  of  the  bracket,  at 
the  concourse  of  every  two  lines,  or  in  the  curve,  and  draw 
o  A,  11  c,  1  D,  K  E,  &c.,  perpendicular  to  a  b  :  produce  h  c,  i  d, 
K  E,  &e.,  to  meet  a  b  in  c,  rf,  e,  &c.,  draw  \g,c  h,  d  i,  e  k,  &c., 


BlRACKETIMG, 


rL./77-;  I 


riff.  2. 


'MANichoIsorv. 
Tfio'JHay. 


Ena'^hj  BThew. 


BRA 


43 


BRA 


perpendicular  to  a  b,  and  make  a  a,  c  h,  ci  i,  e  k,  &c.,  each 
equal  to  a  g,  c  h,  d  i,  e  k,  (kc,  and  join  the  points  ij,  h,  i,  k,  &c. 
if  the  ranging  edge  of  the  eotunion  bracket  is  made  of  straight 
lines ;  or  draw  a  curve  if  the  common  bracket  is  a  cove  : 
then  will  A  </,  A,  i,  A-,  &c.  to  b,  be  the  form  of  the  angular 
bracket,  whether  for  the  external  or  internal  angle,  and 
ff,  h,  t,  k,  &c.,  the  ranging  edge ;  the  parts  o  ii  and  (/  h  are 
supposed  to  be  within  the  finished  surface  of  the  plaster. 
Fig.  0  shows  the  bracket  for  an  acute  angle,  and  Fig.  7  for 
an  obtuse  angle;  but  except  the  quantity  of  the  angle,  the 
method  of  liiiding  the  f'urnis  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  Kigs.  4 
and  5.  The  conimon  bracket  of  Figs.  4,  5,  and  7,  is  laid 
down  upon  the  ceiling  line  ;  but  that  of  Fig.  G  is  laid  down 
upon  the  base  line,  in  the  common  brackets  of  Figs.  5  and  6, 
the  |>rojcctions  and  heights  are  equal  ;  but  in  Fig.  7,  the 
height  u  c  is  greater  than  the  ]n-ojeclion  a  c  :  the  shadowed 
parts  of  Figs.  0  and  7  represent  the  thickness  of  the  batten- 
ing, hitli.  and  plaster  Figs,  y,  !•,  10,  11,  show  the  ranging 
both  tiir  external  and  internal  angles.     ^SVe  Hanging. 

liRACKETiNG,  for  lath  and  plaster,  is  variously  named 
according  to  the  figure  of  the  ceiling  which  it  sustains :  as 
groin-linickeliiiy,  ispaiidrel-brnckt'tiiig,  &cc.  hi  all  cases  the 
brackets  are  so  disposed,  that  their  edges  will  be  parallel  to 
the  surface  of  the  plaster  when  fuiished  :  the  distance  between 
the  edges  of  the  brackets  and  the  surface  of  the  plaster,  is, 
in  general,  about  three-fourths  or  seven-eighths  of  an  inch, 
which  includes  the  space  for  batteuhig,  lath,  and  plaster.  See 
Cove,  Dome,  Groin,  Pendentive,  Spandrel,  Spherical, 
and  Spheuoidal  Bracketing. 

BR.\]).S,  in  joinery,  are  slender  nails  without  spreading 
heads,  except  a  projection  from  one  of  their  narrow  sides.  The 
intention  is  to  drive  them  within  the  surface  of  the  wood,  by 
means  of  a  liammer  and  punch,  and  fill  the  cavity  to  the  sur- 
face with  putty,  and  thus  conceal  them  entirely.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  them,  as  joiners^  brads,  Jiuoriiiff  brads,  &c. 

BliAMANTE,  Lazzari,  dT'ubino,  a  celebrated  archi- 
tect, born  at  Castel  Durante,  (or  according  to  some  accounts, 
at  Fcmagnano.)  in  the  province  of  Urbino,  about  the  year 
1444.  'Ihe  family  of  which  he  was  a  branch,  was  poor, 
though  respectable,  by  whom  he  was  designed  for  a  painter  : 
his  early  years  were  spent  in  the  study  of  this  art,  but  his 
taste  and  talents  for  architecture  outran  every  other  con- 
sideration, till  at  length  he  devoted  himself  altogether  to  it. 
lie  travelled  first  in  Lombardy,  and  having  made  some 
observations  on  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  executed  some  paintings  for  the  church  of  St.  John 
de  Lateran,  which  are  now  lost.  His  great  care  was  to 
examine  and  measure  all  the  precious  remains  of  antiquity, 
both  within  and  out  of  Rome  :  he  measured  all  that  he  could 
of  the  Villa  Adriana,  at  Tivoli;  and  in  pursuit  of  similar 
objects,  went  even  so  far  as  Naples. 

This  devotedness  to  his  favourite  science  attracted  the 
notice  of  many  patrons  of  the  fine  arts,  and  among  the  rest, 
of  Cardinal  Uliviero  CarafTa,  who  employed  him  to  rebuild 
the  convent  della  Puce,  at  Naples,  which  established  his 
reputation.  The  work  itself  is  not  of  the  most  exquisite 
character,  but  it  procured  him  the  title  of  architect  to  his 
holiness  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  there  being  at  that  time  no 
artists  of  superior  talents  in  the  papal  dominions.  The  foun- 
tain of  Trastevere,  and  another  fountain,  which  formerly 
stood  in  the  square  before  St.  Peter's,  were  of  his  workman- 
ship. He  also  had  a  considerable  share  in  building  the 
palace  della  Cancellaria,  the  church  of  St.  Lorenzo  Damaso, 
and  the  palace  of  San  Giacomo  Scosciacavalli ;  all  these,  as 
well  as  the  convent  della  Puce,  above  noticed,  are  built  in 
travertine,  on  the  outside  ;  but  their  meagre  style  is  a  striking 
evidence  that  in  the  days  of  Bramante  architecture  was  only 


reviving,  and  was  not  completely  purged  from  barbarous 
intermixtures.  In  such  an  age  the  genius  of  Bramante 
could  not  but  shine,  and  he  retained  his  lustre  as  being 
without  an  equal  in  invention,  as  well  as  in  execution,  till, 
towards  the  decline  of  his  life,  the  superior  powers  of  Michael 
Angelo  Bonarrottl  bore  away  the  palm  of  science,  and  the 
voice  of  public  applause.     See  Bonakkotti. 

When  Julius  II.  obtained  the  papal  chair,  he  appointed 
Bramante  superintendent  of  his  buildings,  and  employed  him 
to  execute  his  grand  project  of  uniting  the  Belvedere  to  the 
palace  of  the  Vatican,  by  means  of  a  magnificent  court.  In 
his  turn,  Bramante  engaged  the  pope  in  the  favourite  design 
of  pulling  down  the  church  of  St.  Peter's,  and  erecting  a  new 
basilica,  after  the  model  of  the  Pantheon,  on  a  scale  that 
should  astonish  the  world.  With  this  view,  he  made  many 
drawings,  and  used  great  diligence  to  produce  one  having 
two  steeples  with  the  front  between  them,  as  may  be  seen  on 
the  medals  struck  by  Corodasso,  in  honour  of  Bramante  and 
his  patrons  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  The  plan  was  that  ()f  a 
Latin  cross,  and  was  well  constructed,  though  of  an  un- 
equalled magnitude.  Three  naves  were  formed  by  means  of 
colonnades;  the  principal  nave  of  very  fair  propurtions,  and 
the  whole  productive  of  the  finest  effect.  The  cupola  h  id 
the  same  dimensions  with  that  of  the  Panlheon  ;  the  external 
steps  were  also  similar.  Indeed,  the  plan  of  the  whole 
basilica  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Pantheon,  having 
eight  piers,  between  each  two  of  which  were  two  columns, 
forming  three  openings,  or  passages.  This  design  being 
approved  of  by  the  pope,  part  of  the  old  church  was  pulled 
down,  and  the  foundation  of  the  new  structure  laid,  in  the 
year  150C.  The  building  was  carried  on  with  great  celcrily 
as  high  as  the  entablature,  the  arches  over  the  four  great 
piers  were  turned,  and  the  principal  chapel,  opjiosite  the 
door,  was  erected,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his  labours,  in 
1514,  in  his  70th  year.  The  continuation  of  this  work  was 
given  to  ^Michael  Angelo  Bonarrotti,  who  also  did  not  live 
to  see  it  completed.  Bramante's  successors  made  so  many 
alterations  upon  his  original  design,  that  scarcely  anything 
besides  the  four  great  arches  over  the  tribune  can  be  said  to 
be  his.  Ilis  remains  were  interred  in  St.  Peter's,  and  the 
solemnity  was  honoured  by  the  presence  of  the  papal  court, 
and  all  the  professors  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome  and  its  neigh- 
bourhood. 

Besides  the  works  above  described,  Bramante  constructed 
a  whimsical  staircase,  with  the  three  ordcr.s  of  architect oi-c, 
in  the  Vatican.  The  elegant  circular  temple  in  the  cloister 
of  San  Pietro  Monterio,  though  esteemed  as  one  of  his  best 
performances,  has  many  defects;  for  instance,  the  duorway 
cuts  into  two  pilasters  ;  the  balustrade  is  a  continued  series 
of  balusters  without  pedestals  ;  and  the  ornament  at  the  top 
of  the  cupola  is  clumsy  and  heavy.  Out  of  the  walls  of  Todi, 
Bramante  built  an  insulated  temple,  encrusted  on  the  exterior 
with  white  stone  ;  the  plan  is  that  of  a  Greek  cross,  witii  a  fine 
cupola  in  the  centre;  and  the  whole  has  an  air  of  being  the 
model  of  St.  Peter's.  In  fini>liing  the  chapel  within  the  basilica, 
he  revived  the  use  of  the  ancient  stuccos.  He  made  many 
designs  of  palaces  and  tem])les,  both  within  and  without  the 
walls  of  Rome,  and  began  the  palace,  which  was  afterwards 
finished  by  Raflaello,  with  columns  of  brick  covered  witii 
plaster,  then  a  new  invention  ;  but  this  edifice  wms  destroyed 
to  make  room  for  the  colonnade  of  St.  Peter's  ;  and  the  palace 
which  he  began  for  the  Duchess  Eleonora  Gonzaga,  wife  of 
Francis  Duke  of  Urban,  was  never  completed,  owing  to  the 
deaths  of  both  duke  and  duchess. 

BRANCHES,  are  the  diagonal  ribs  of  a  Gothic  vault, 
rising  upwards  from  the  tops  of  the  jiillars  to  the  apex,  and 
seeming  to  support  the  ceiling  or  vault. 


BRE 


44 


BRl 


BRANDRITII,  or  Bkandrette,  a  fence  round  the  mouth 
of  a  well. 

BRASSES,  sepulchral  engravings  on  large  or  small  brass 
plates,  let  into  slabs  in  the  pavement  of  our  ancient  churches, 
portiaving  the  effigies  of  illustrious  personages,  with  the 
accompaniments  of  buildings,  &:c.  The  greater  part  of  the 
effigies  are  as  large  as  life.  The  vaiious  colours  for  the  dresses, 
armours,  and  coats  of  arms,  in  many  instances,  were  laid  on 
in  enamel,  the  attitudes  well  drawn,  and  the  lines  both  of 
dresses  and  architecture  made  out  with  precision  and  tiiith 
of  imitation. 

BREADTH,  the  greatest  extension  of  a  body  at  right 
angles  to  the  length. 

BKJ-2AK,  a  projecting  part  of  the  front  of  a  building, 
carried  up  tinough  one  or  more  stories  in  a  vertical  surface. 
In  its  general  acceptation,  it  implies  only  a  part,  which 
stands  forward  in  a  jilane  parallel  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
front  behind  the  break  ;  or  a  cylindric  wall  concentric  with  a 
receding  one,  and  in  this  it  comprehends  not  only  the  parallel 
projecting  face,  Imt  the  two  flank  parts  which  join  the 
parallel  walls.  The  break  therefore  f^rms,  with  the  receding 
part  or  parts,  two  external  and  two  internal  angles.  The 
term  is,  however,  not  restricted  to  this  disposition  of  the 
planes,  or  cylindric  faces  of  the  building,  it  may  also  imply  a 
bow,  whether  cylindric  or  canted.  No  break  can  be  formed 
unless  it  have  at  least  one  internal  angle,  or,  if  the  building 
adjoin  on  both  sides,  there  will  be  at  least  two  internal  angles. 
Small  breaks,  or  those  projecting  only  a  few  inches,  never 
add  to  the  effect  of  the  building. 

A  building  may  have  either  one,  two,  or  several  breaks  in 
a  front.  When  the  disposition  of  the  rooms  naturally  falls 
into  the  same  plane  on  the  inside  of  the  front  wall,  no  break 
should  be  admitted,  because,  in  this  case,  it  can  only  project 
a  few  inches.  Breaks  only  fritter  away  the  parts  of  a  small 
building,  and  destroy  the  beauty  and  elegance  which  arises 
from  the  simplicity  of  its  figure  ;  but  in  large  buildings  they 
give  the  utmost  splen  lour  to  the  design,  provided  they  have 
bold  projections,  and  appear  as  distinct  parts  of  the  building, 
so  that  if  the  other  connecting  parts  be  supposed  to  be  taken 
away,  they  would  be  so  many  insulated  buildings,  insisting 
each  upon  a  simple  rectangular  plan.  The  greatest  effect 
would,  therefore,  be  produced  by  giving  each  part  or  break 
its  separate  roof  termination,  or  covering.  For  this  reason, 
breaks  should  either  be  left  lower,  or  carried  higher  than  the 
main  body,  or  the  connecting  part  or  parts  of  the  building. 
When  a  break  is  carried  higher  than  the  connecting  part  or 
parts,  it  must  have  an  entire  roof,  or  uniform  termination  all 
round  its  four  walls. 

In  the  ancient  architecture  of  Greece,  the  walls  insisted 
upon  simple  rectangular  plans,  and  therefore  had  no  internal 
angles,  and  consequently  no  breaks.  The  Romans  indulged 
in  buildings  consisting  of  greater  variety  of  parts  than  the 
Greeks,  and  formed  many  of  their  principal  edifices  with 
breaks. 

When  the  upper  part  of  a  front  wall  is  intended  to  be  one 
continued  plane,  with  a  break  or  breaks  in  the  lower  part  or 
story,  the  superior  continued  wall  may  either  be  supported 
upon  a  row  of  columns  arched  above"  the  intervals  in  long 
apartments,  or  with  one  aieh,  when  the  front  horizontal 
dimension  is  small,  and  finished  as  above. 

Bi'eaks  in  cylindric  walls  destroy  the  harmony  arising  from 
the  continuity  of  the  figure,  and  should  therefore  be  rejected 
in  every  round  edifice. 

Bre.vk-in,  among  carpenters,  is  to  cut  or  break  a  hole  in 
brickwork  with  the  ripping  chisel,  for  the  purpose  of  insert- 
ing timber,  as  to  receive  plugs,  or  the  end  of  a  beam,  or  other 
piece  of  timber. 


Break-Joint,  in  masonry  or  brick-work,  is  when  two 
stones  are  placed  contiguous  to  each  other,  with  a  third 
stone  laid  across  the  joint,  so  as  to  cover  a  part  or  the  whole 
of  the  surface  of  both  stones,  in  order  to  bind  the  work 
together. 

BREAST  OF  A  Chimney.     See  Cuimxey. 

Breast  of  a  Window,  the  masonry  or  brick-work  which 
forms  the  back  of  the  recess  and  the  parapet,  for  leaning  upon, 
under  the  window-sill. 

Breast  Wall,  a  retaining  wall  at  the  foot  of  a  slope. 

BRES.SUMMER,  or  Breast  Simmer,  in  building,  ft 
lintol-beam  in  the  exterior  walls,  supported  by  wooden  or 
iron-posts,  or  by  brick  or  stone  j)illar3,  for  sustaining  the 
superincumbent  part  of  the  wall.  Bressummcrs  are  used  in 
the  construction  of  shops,  where  it  it  necessary  to  have  the 
window  as  large  as  possible,  and  consequently  the  pillars  as 
small  as  possible,  in  order  to  give  light,  and  show  articles  for 
sale  to  advantage. 

Where  breast-summers  are  used  for  this  purpose,  the 
superincumbent  mass  should  be  strengthened  by  an  arch  of 
discharge  or  otherwise,  for,  if  not  so,  they  will  be  found  of 
great  injury  to  the  building  through  the  shrinkage  of  the 
timber.  Where  this  precaution  is  not  attended  to,  it  almost 
invariably  occurs  that  the  brick-work  above  is  fractured  in  its 
settlement,  and  in  some  cases  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 

Cast-iron  beams  are  occasionally  used  for  breast-summers, 
but  although  they  have  an  advantage  in  not  being  liable  to 
rot,  and  are  naturally  incombustible,  yet  they  are  by  no  means 
eligible  for  the  purpose.  Cast-iron  should  never  be  subjected 
to  cross  strain,  as,  although  it  may  bear  a  certain  weight 
with  safety,  the  least  addition  or  disturbance  will  cause  it 
to  break.  In  eases  of  fire,  cast-iron  is  much  less  secure  than 
wood,  for  it  soon  becomes  red-hot,  and  in  this  state,  iqion  the 
slightest  contact  with  water,  will  snap  asunder  ;  w  hereas  tim- 
bers, if  of  sufficient  scantling,  are  seldom  entirely  consumed, 
usually  only  charred  on  their  exposed  surfiices. 

Bressummers  were  a  necessary  part  in  the  construction  of 
old  timber  buildings,  where  it  was  requisite  to  have  them 
not  only  for  binding  the  building  together,  but  for  the  sup- 
port of  every  floor,  and  also  of  the  roof  They  were  likewise 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  building  as  a  foundation  to  the 
whole  structure,  and  called  silk.     See  Sc.mmer. 

BRICK,  an  artificial  kind  of  stone,  composed  in  general 
of  earth  and  sand,  or  coal  cinders,  or  ashes,  well  mixed  toge- 
ther, and  tempered  with  water,  then  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
finally  burned  to  a  i)roper  degree  of  hardness  in  a  kiln,  or  in 
a  heap  or  stack,  denominated  a  clamp. 

The  antiquity  of  bricks  seems  to  be  coeval  with  the  fir>t 
edifices  afler  the  Deluge;  the  tower  and  city  of  Babel  lieing 
built  of  them;  as  also  most  of  the  early  structures  of  Egypt. 
The  (Jreeks  chiefly  used  three  kinds  of  bricks:  the  first 
sort  was  called  Atdwpoi',  hricls  of  two  palms  ;  the  second 
TerpaSooov.  of  four  palms  ;  the  third  TXevradopov,  of  five 
palms.  Besides  these,  they  also  had  bricks  of  just  half  the 
above  dimensions,  used  for  making  their  work  more  solid, 
and  for  giving  an  agreeable  diversity  to  its  appearance. 

The  Romans  began  to  build  with  brick  towards  the  decline 
of  the  republic:  accordiiig  to  Pliny,  those  most  in  use  were 
a  foot  and  a  half  long,  and  a  foot  broad  ;  which  agrees  with 
the  dimensions  of  several  Roman  bricks  fo\md  in  Knghind, 
viz.  seventeen  inches  in  length,  by  eleven  in  breadth,  of  our 
measure.  Sir  Ilem-y  Walton  speaks  of  some  bricks  at 
Venice,  of  which  stately  colunnis  were  built :  they  were 
first  formed  in  a  circular  mould,  and  cut,  prior  to  their  being 
burned,  into  four  or  more  sections ;  afterwards,  in  laying 
they  were  jointed  so  closely  and  exiictly,  that  the  pillars  had 
the  appearance  of  being  composed  of  one  entire  piece. 


BRI 


45 


JJKI 


For  the  purposes  of  building,  bricks  claim  a  decided 
superiority  over  stone,  not  only  as  being  lighter,  and  more 
easily  worked ;  but  also  because  their  porous  texture  facili- 
fcites  their  union  witii  the  mortar,  and  makes  them  less  liable 
to  attract  or  retain  damp  and  moisture. 

In  England,  tlie  mould  in  which  bricks  arc  formed,  is  ten 
inches  in  length,  by  five  in  breadth  ;  the  bricks  when  burned 
are  about  nine  inches  long,  four  inches  and  a  half  broad,  and 
tw'o  inches  and  a  half  thick.  The  degree  of  shrinkage,  how- 
ever, is  various,  according  to  the  purity  and  temper  of  the 
clay,  and  tiie  intensity  of  the  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed  in 
the  burning. 

The  earth  selected  for  brick-making  should  be  of  the 
purest  kind  ;  though  indeed  bricks  may  be  made  of  any  kind 
of  earth  that  is  free  from  stones,  and  even  of  sca-ooze ;  but 
it  is  not  every  soil  that  will  burn  red,  which  is  a  property 
peculiar  to  earths  containing  ferruginous  particles,  hi  this 
country,  bricks  are  chiefly  made  either  of  stitt'  clay,  or  of  a 
hazelly-yellowish-eoloured  fat  earth,  commonly  called  loam. 
The  former  produces  hard  red  bricks,  incapable  of  rubbing 
or  cutting  ;  the  latter  is  mostly  found  near  London,  and  gives 
a  neat  gray-coloured  brick,  which  yields  freely  to  the  axe 
and  rubbing-stone,  though  equally  durable  with  the  harder 
red  brick  made  in  more  distant  parts.  The  earth,  of  what- 
ever quality,  should  be  dug  in  the  autumn,  and  suflered  to 
remain  in  a  heap  till  the  next  spring,  that  it  may  be  well 
penetrated  by  the  air,  and  particularly  by  th§  winter's  frosts, 
which  by  puherizing  the  more  tenacious  particles,  greatly 
assist  the  ciperations  of  mixing  and  tempering.  Indeed,  for 
the  best  bricks,  two  or  three  years  w  ill  not  be  found  too  long 
to  submit  the  earth  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  in  order 
to  render  it  free  in  the  working.  In  making  up  this  heap 
for  the  season,  the  soil  and  ashes  or  sand  are  to  be  laid  in 
alternate  layers,  or  strata ;  each  stratum  containing  such 
a  quantity  as  the  stift'ness  of  the  soil  may  admit  or  require. 
For  making  such  biicks  as  will  stand  the  fiercest  fires, 
Sturbridge  clay  and  Windsor  loam  are  esteemed  the  best. 

In  tempering  the  earth,  much  judgment  is  required  as  to 
the  quantity  of  sand  to  be  thrown  into  the  mass,  for  too 
much  renders  the  bricks  heavy  and  brittle,  and  too  little 
leaves  them  liable  to  shrink  and  crack  in  the  burnin^g.  Tlio 
London  firactice  of  mixing  sea-eoal  ashes,  and  in  the  country 
of  adding  light  sandy  earth  to  the  loam,  not  only  makes  it  work 
easy  and  with  greater  expedition,  but  tends  also  to  save  fuel. 

W  ilh  reference  to  the  proportion  which  should  be  observed 
in  mixing  the  ditlerent  ingredients,  it  is  impossible  to  lay 
down  any  fixed  rules,  as  such  proportion  must  entirely 
depend  upon  the  particular  quality  of  the  materials  employed. 
The  principal  of  these  consist  of  clay,  marl,  and  loam,  with 
the  admixture  of  sand,  chalk,  breeze,  &c.  We  shall  here 
give  the  particular  uses  to  which  the  accessories  are  applied, 
but  must  leave  it  entirely  to  individual  instances  to  determine 
in  what  manner  each  of  them  must  be  made  use  of  The 
clay  of  course  is  the  principal  matter,  and  forms  the  body  of 
the  brick,  but  before  this  can  be  made  available  for  building, 
it  has  to  be  agglutinated  together  by  means  of  sand  vitritied 
by  heat.  Clay  is  composed  for  the  most  part  of  alumina 
and  silica  combined  with  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  and  occa- 
sionally of  magnesia  and  alkali.  Usually  speaking,  clay 
requires  additional  sand  to  be  used  as  a  flux,  but  it  happens 
sometimes  to  contain  sufficient  in  itself;  when  this  is  the 
case,  no  addition  of  course  will  be  required.  If  the  silica 
be  in  excess,  it  will  on  the  contrary  require  the  addition  of 
some  dry  substance  to  hold  the  mass  together,  as  otherwise 
the  silica  will  fuse  and  run  when  under  the  action  of  great 
heat ;  for  this  purpose  the  chalk  is  used  :  if,  however,  too 
much  be  added,  the  bricks  will  become  porous  and  friable. 


The  heat,  as  above  stated,  is  produced  by  means  of  the  breeze, 
but  the  quantity  of  this  also  nuist  be  regulated  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  clay  you  have  to  use  ;  if  it  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  sand,  less  breeze  will  be  required,  not  only  to 
prevent  the  silica  from  running,  but  :ilso  because  silica  con- 
tains a  large  portion  of  oxygen  :  should,  however,  the  clay 
contain  a  free  proportion  of  lime,  more  breeze  will  be  required, 
for  the  reason  that  lime  has  but  little  o.xygen  in  its  compo- 
sition. Thus  it  will  be  seen  how  impracticable  it  is  to  lay- 
down  any  general  rule  in  this  case  ;  the  proportion  of  each 
ingredient  to  be  added,  can  oidy  bo  determined  by  careful 
observations  in  individual  instances. 

Every  stony  particle  should  be  carefully  cleared  out  of  the 
earth,  before  the  workman  begins  his  operation  of  tempering ; 
it  should  then  be  well  trodden  or  beat,  and  frequently  turned 
over,  with  the  addition  of  as  little  water  as  possible,  till  the 
soil  and  ashes,  or  sand,  are  so  completely  incorporated 
as  to  form  a  paste  of  a  tough  viscous  substance.  If  in 
this  operation  too  much  water  be  used,  the  paste  will  become 
almost  as  dry  and  brittle  as  the  soil  of  which  it  is  composed  ; 
but  by  a  judicious  management,  as  to  the  quantity  of  water, 
and  the  mode  of  administering  it,  the  bricks  become  smooth, 
solid,  and  durable. 

For  the  preparation  or  tempering  of  the  soil,  the  worktnan 
is  provided  with  a  long  hoe,  in  form  like  a  mattock,  a  shovel, 
and  a  scoop.  The  hoe  is  for  pulling  down  the  soil  from  the 
great  heap,  which  is  then  chopped  backwards  with  the  shovel, 
in  order  to  turn  it  as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  and  to 
incorporate  the  ashes,  or  sand,  and  soil,  thoroughly  together-. 
The  use  of  the  scoop  is  for  throwing  water  over  the  portion 
so  pulled  down  with  the  hoe,  to  bring  it  to  a  more  ductile 
state,  and  render  it  easier  for  tempering.  When  the  mass 
is  sufficiently  mixed,  it  is  removed  in  barrows  to  the  pugmill. 
This  mill  consists  principally  of  a  strong  barrel,  firmly  fixed 
on  two  transverse  beams,  having  in  its  centre  a  vertical  bar, 
kept  in  position  by  two  shoulders  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
barrel,  and  working  on  the  transverse  beams  at  their  inter- 
section as  on  a  pivot.  On  the  top  of  this  bar  is  placed 
a  horizontal  beam,  by  means  of  perpendiculars  suspended 
from  which,  the  horse  is  attached.  On  that  part  of  the  bar 
which  is  within  the  barrel,  is  fixed  several  iion  knives,  by 
the  revolution  of  which  the  masticated  clay  is  forced  through 
a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  when  it  is  cut  off' in  pieces 
with  a  "  cuek-hold,"  or  concave  shovel,  and  laid  on  one  side. 
A  quantity  of  sand  is  then  thrown  over  it,  and  it  is  kept  for 
use  under  a  covering  of  sacking  or  matting,  to  preserve  it 
from  the  sun  and  air. 

The  moulding-table  is  placed  under  a  movable  shed,  and 
is  strewed  with  dry  sand.  A  boy,  with  the  cuck-hold,  cuts 
off"  as  much  as  he  can  carry  in  his  arms,  from  the  prepared 
mass,  and  brings  it  to  the  table,  where  a  girl  receives  it,  and 
rolls  out  a  lump  rather  larger  than  the  mould  will  contain. 
The  moulder  receives  this  lump  from  the  girl,  throws  it  into 
his  mould,  previously  dipped  in  dry  sand,  and  with  a  flat 
smooth  stick,  about  eight  inches  long,  kept  for  the  purpose 
in  a  pan  of  water,  stiikcs  oft'  the  overplus  of  the  soil :  he  then 
turns  the  brick  out  of  the  mould  upon  a  thin  board,  rather 
larger  than  the  brick,  upon  which  it  is  removed  by  a  boy, 
and  placed  on  a  light  barrow,  having  a  lattice-work  frame 
raised  about  three  feet  above  the  wheel,  and  about  eight<'cn 
inches  at  the  handles,  forming  an  inclined  plane.  On  this 
lattice-frame  the  new-made  bricks  are  laid,  and  sand  is  thrown 
over  them,  to  prevent  their  sticking  to  each  other,  as  well 
as  to  preserve  them  in  a  certain  degree  from  cracking  in 
drying  on  the  hacks.  The  hacks  for  drying,  are  each  wide 
enough  for  two  bricks  to  be  placed  edgeways  across,  with  a 
passage  between  the    heads,  for  the    admission   of  air,  to 


BRI 


46 


BRI 


facilitate  the  circulation  of  which,  the  bricks  arc  generally 
laid  in  a  diagonal  direction.  The  hacks  arc  usually  Ciirried 
eight  bricks  high ;  the  bottom  bricks  at  the  ends  are  com- 
monly old  ones. 

In  showery  weather,  the  bricks  on  the  hacks  are  to  be 
carefully  covered  with  wheat  or  rye  straw,  to  keep  them  dry  ; 
unless  sheds  or  roofs  be  erected  over  the  hacks,  as  is  done 
in  some  country  places;  but  in  London  this  is  impracticable, 
from  the 'very  great  extent  of  the  grounds. 

In  fine  weather  the  bricks  will  be  dry  enough  for  turning, 
in  a  few  days  ;  in  doing  which  they  are  reset  more  open 
than  at  first;  and  in  six  or  eight  days  more  they  will  be 
ready  for  burning. 

The  best  bricks,  that  is,  those  made  of  the  best  materials, 
and  well  tempered,  as  they  are  harder  and  more  ponderous,  so 
they  require  half  as  much  more  earth,  and  longer  time  for 
drying  and  burning,  th,m  the  common  sort,  which  are  lisiht, 
spongy,  and  full  of  cracks.  The  well  drying  of  bricks  before 
they  are  binned,  prevents  their  cracking  and  crumbling  in 
the  kiln  or  clamp. 

In  the  vicinity  of  London,  bricks  are  commonly  burned 
in  clamps  ;  farther  in  the  country  it  is  the  custom  to  burn 
them  in  kilns.  In  building  the  clamps,  the  bricks  are  laid 
after  the  manner  of  arches  in  the  kilns,  with  a  vacancy 
between  every  tw(»  bricks,  for  the  fire  to  play  through  ;  yet 
with  this  ditlerence,  that  instead  of  arching,  the  vacuity  for 
the  fuel  is  spanned  over,  by  making  the  layers  project  one 
over  the  other  from  each  side,  till  they  meet  at  top.  The 
flue  is  about  the  width  of  a  brick,  carried  up  straight  on  both 
sides  about  three  feet;  it  is  then  nearly  filled  with  drv  bavins, 
or  wood,  on  which  is  laid  a  covering  of  sea-coal  and  cinders 
(or  breeze,  as  they  are  called) ;  the  arch  is  then  overspanned, 
and  layers  of  breeze  are  strewed  over  the  clamp,  as  well  as 
between  the  rows  of  bricks. 

When  the  clamp  is  about  the  width  of  si.\  feet,  another 
flue  is  made,  in  every  respect  similar  to  the  first ;  this  is 
repeated  at  every  distance  of  si.v  feet,  throughout  the  whole 
clamp,  which  when  completed,  is  surrounded  with  old  bricks, 
if  there  be  any  on  the  grounds,  if  not,  with  some  of  the 
driest  unbaked  ones,  that  have  been  reserved  for  the  pnrpose. 
On  the  top  of  all,  a  thick  layer  of  breeze  is  laid.  The  wood 
is  then  kindled,  which  gives  fire  to  the  coal ;  and  when  all  is 
consumed,  which  will  be  in  about  twenty  or  thirty  days 
if  the  weather  be  tolerable,  the  bricks  are  concluded  to  be 
sufficiently  burned.  Should  there  be  no  immediate  hurry 
for  the  bricks,  the  flues  may  be  placed  nine  feet  asunder, 
and  the  fuel  left  to  burn  slowly. 

If  the  lire  in  the  clamp  burns  well,  the  mouths  of  the  (lues 
are  stopped  with  old  bricks,  plastered  over  with  clav.  The 
outside  of  the  whole  clamp  is  also  plastered  with  day.  if  the 
weather  be  precarious,  or  if  the  fire  burn  too  furiously  ;  and 
against  any  side  jtarticularly  exposed  to  the  rain,iS:c.,  screens 
are  laid,  made  of  reeds  worked  into  frames  about  si.x  feet 
high,  and  sufliciently  wide  to  be  moved  about  with  ease. 

This  is  the  ordinary  method  of  maniifact\iring  common 
gray-stocks.  But  washed  malms,  or  marls,  are  made  with  still 
greater  attention.  A  circular  recess  is  built,  about  four  feet 
high,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  paved  at  the 
bottom,  with  a  horse-wheel  placed  in  its  centre,  from  which 
a_  beam  extends  to  the  outside,  for  the  horse  to  turn  it  by. 
The  earth  is  then  raised  to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  recess, 
on  which  a  platform  is  laid,  for  the  horse  to  walk  upon.  This 
mdl  IS  always  placed  as  near  a  well  or  spring  as  possible,  and 
a  pump  is  set  up,  to  supply  it  with  water.  A  harrow,  made 
to  fit  the  interior  of  the  recess,  thick-set  with  long  iron  teeth, 
and  well  loaded,  is  chained  to  the  beam  of  the  wheel,  to  which 
the  horse  is  harnessed.  Previously  to  putting  the  machine  in 


motion,  the  soil,  as  prepared  in  the  heap  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  is  brought  in  barrows,  an(]  distributed  regularly 
round  the  recess,  with  the  addition  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water  ;  the  horse  then  moves  on,  and  drags  the  harrow,  which 
forces  its  way  into  the  soil,  admits  the  water  into  it,  and  by 
tearing  and  separating  its  particles,  not  only  n\ixes  the  ingre- 
dients, but  also  alliirds  an  opportunity  for  stones  and  other 
heavy  substances  to  fall  to  the  bottom.  Fresh  soil  and  water 
continue  to  be  added  till  the  recess  is  full. 

On  one  side  of  the  recess,  and  as  near  to  it  as  possible, 
a  hollow  square  is  prepared,  about  18  inches  or  two  feet 
deep.  The  soil  being  sufficiently  harrowed  and  purified, 
and  reduced  to  a  kind  of  liquid  paste,  is  ladled  out  of  the 
recess,  and  by  means  of  wooden  troughs  conveyed  into  this 
squai-e  pit;  care  being  taken  to  leave  the  sediment  behind, 
which  is  afterwards  to  be  cleared  out  and  thrown  on  the  sides 
of  the  recess.  The  fluid  soil  dilfuscs  itself  over  the  hollow 
square,  or  pit,  where  it  settles  of  an  equal  thicknc^ss,  and 
remains  till  wanted  for  use,  the  superfluous  water  being  either 
dr.iined  away  or  evaporated,  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 
\\  hen  one  of  these  square  pits  is  full,  another  is  made  by  its 
side,  and  so  on  progressively,  till  as  much  soil  is  prepared  as 
is  likely  to  be  wanted  for  the  season. 

In  the  country  bricks  are  always  burned  in  kilns,  whereby 
much  waste  is  prevented,  less  fuel  consumed,  and  the  bricks 
are  more  expeditiously  burned.  A  kiln  is  usually  thirteen 
feet  long,  by  ten  feet  six  inches  wide,  about  twelve  feet  in 
height,  and  will  burn  20,000  bricks  at  a  time.  The  walls  are 
about  one  foot  two  inches  thick,  and  incline  inward  towards 
the  top,  so  that  the  area  of  the  upper  part  is  not  more  than 
114  square  feet.  The  bricks  are  set  on  flat  arches,  having 
holes  left  between  them  resembling  lattice-work.  The  bricks 
being  set  in  the  kiln,  and  covered  with  pieces  of  bn^kcn  bricks 
or  tiles,  some  wood  is  put  in  and  kindled,  to  dry  them  gra- 
dually; this  is  continued  till  the  bricks  are  pretty  dry,  which 
is  known  by  the  smoke  turning  from  a  darki.-h  to  a  trans- 
parent colour.  The  bmiiing  then  takes  place,  and  is  etfected 
by  putting  in  brushwood,  furze,  heath,  fagots,  &c.,  but 
bcfiire  these  are  put  in,  the  mouths  of  the  kiln  arc  stopped 
with  pieces  of  lirick,  called  shiiilofl,  piled  one  upon  another, 
and  closed  over  with  wet  brick  earth.  This  shinlog  is  carried 
just  high  enough  to  leave  room  sufliciont  to  thrust  in  a  fagot 
at  a  time ;  the  fire  is  then  made  up,  and  continued  till  the 
arches  assume  a  whitish  appearance,  and  the  flames  appear 
through  the  top  of  the  kiln  ;  upon  which  the  fire  is  slackened, 
and  the  kiln  cools  by  degrees.  This  jiroccss  is  continued,  alter- 
nately heating  and  slackening,  till  the  bricks  are  thoroughly 
burned,  which  is  generally  in  the  space  of  forty-eight  hours. 

The  practice  of  steeping  bricks  in  water  after  they  have 
been  once  burned,  and  then  burning  them  again,  renders 
them  more  than  doubly  durable. —  Goldham. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  machinery  in 
the  practice  of  brickmaking,  but  with  little  success,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  old  practice  continuing  so  general  in  use. 

The  most  usual  varieties  of  bricks  consist  of  marls,  stores, 
and  p/dce-bricks,  but  there  is  very  little  dill'erence  in  the 
manufacture.  M<irh  are  prepared  and  tempered  with  the 
greatest  care  ;  but  the  construction  of  the  clamp  for  burnijig 
them  is  similar  to  that  for  other  bricks,  though  more  caution 
is  required  not  to  overheat  them,  and  to  see  that  the  fire 
burn  equally  and  ditliisively  throughout  the  clamp  or  kiln. 
The  finest  marls,  called _/iV«A<,  are  selected  as  cutting  bricks, 
for  arches  of  doorways,  windows,  and  quoins;  for  which 
purpose  they  are  rubbed  to  their  proper  dimensions  and  form. 
The  next  best,  termed  seconds,  are  used  for  principal  fronts. 
The  cleanly  pale  ycUowcolourof  marls,  added  to  their  smooth 
texture  and  superior  durability,  give  them  a  pre-eminence 


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47 


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above  other  sorts  of  bricks.  Grai/slocks  are  somewhat  like 
the  seconds,  but  of  an  inferior  quality.  Plnce-liricks,  some- 
times called  pickings,  .laiukil,  or  somel-hricks,  are  such  as, 
from  being  outside  in  a  kiln  or  clamp,  have  not  been  thoroughly 
burned,  and  are  consequently  soft,  of  a  more  uneven  texture, 
and  a  red  colour.  There  are  also  biirra,  or  cliitker-ln-ich, 
such  as  from  being  too  violently  acted  upon  by  the  fire,  have 
vitrifie<l  in  the  kiln,  and  sometimes  several  are  found  run 
together. 

Jied-s/ocks  are  made  in  the  country,  and  burned  in  kilns. 
They  owe  their  colour  to  the  nature  of  the  clay  of  which 
thcv  are  formed,  which  is  always  used  tolerably  pure.  The 
best  sort  are  used  as  cutting  bricks,  and  are  called  I'ed- 
riibhers.  In  old  buildings  they  are  frequently  to  be  seen, 
ground  to  a  fine  smooth  surface,  and  set  in  putty,  instead  of 
mortar,  as  ornaments  over  arches,  windows,  doorways,  &c. 
Though  many  very  beautiful  specimens  of  red  brickwork  are 
to  l)c  met  with,  yet  th('se  bricks  can  seldom  be  judiciously  used 
for  the  front-walls  of  buildings.  The  colour  is  much  too 
heavy,  and  in  summer  conveys  an  vuipleasant  idea  of  heat  to 
the  mind  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  that  as  in  the  fronts 
of  most  buildings  of  any  consequence,  more  or  less  of  stone- 
\vork  is  introduced,  there  is  something  harsh  in  the  contrast 
between  the  red  bricks  and  the  cold  colour  of  the  stones ;  and 
even  where  no  stone  is  employed,  there  is  always  some  wood 
used,  which  being  painted  white,  by  no  means  lessens  the 
objection.  Gray-stocks  match  so  much  better  with  the  colour 
both  of  stone  and  paint,  that  they  have  obtained  a  universal 
preference  in  London  and  its  immediate  vicinity. 

At  Iledgerly,  a  village  near  Windsor,  red  bricks,  about 
one  inch  and  a  half  thick,  of  a  very  firm  texture,  are  made  ; 
they  will  stand  the  greatest  violence  of  fire,  and  are  called 
WiinUor  bricks,  and  sometimes /!i-e-6c(oA-.s'. 

Bricks  for  paving  are  of  the  same  dimensions  with  Windsor 
bricks,  viz.,  nine  inches  long,  four  inches  and  a  half  broad, 
and  one  inch  and  a  half  thick.  Besides  these,  there  are  what 
arc  called  paving-tiles,  which  are  made  of  stronger  clay,  of 
a  red  colour.  The  largest  are  about  twelve  inches  square, 
and  one  inch  and  a  half  thick ;  the  next  size,  though  called 
ten-inch  tiles,  are  about  nine  inches  square,  and  one  inch  and 
a  quarter  thick.     See  Tiles. 

Besides  the  foregoing  varieties,  the  following  are  w'orth 
notice,  though  some  of  them  are  not  much  in  use:  1.  The 
ordinary  Paris  brick  is  eight  inches  long,  four  inches  broad, 
and  two  inches  thick,  French  measure,  which  makes  them 
rather  larger  than  ours.  2.  Buttress,  or  plaster  bricks,  made 
with  a  notch  at  one  end,  half  the  length  of  the  brick ;  used 
for  binding  work  built  with  great  bricks.  3.  Cupping  bricks, 
used  for  the  purpose  which  their  name  denotes.  4.  Great 
bricks,  used  in  fence  walls,  are  twelve  inches  long,  six  inches 
broad,  and  three  thick.  5.  Cogging  bricks,  for  making  the 
indented  works  under  the  capping  of  walls  built  with  great 
bricks.  6.  Compass  bricks,  of  a  circular  form,  for  steyning 
wells.  7.  Concave,  or  liolloir  bricks,  made  flat  on  one  side, 
like  an  ordinary  brick,  and  hollowed  on  the  other  side ;  used 
for  drains  and  water-courses.  8.  Dutch,  or  Flemish  bricks, 
used  in  paving  yard-;,  stables,  ifcc,  also  for  lining  soap-boilers, 
cisterns,  and  vaults.  9.  Feather-edged  bricks,  made  of  the 
same  size  with  the  ordinary  statute  bricks,  but  thinner  on  one 
edge  than  on  the  other ;  they  are  used  for  pinning  up  brick 
panels  in  timber  buildings. 

Bkick-Nogging,  a  wall  constructed  with  a  row  of  posts 
or  quarters,  disposed  at  three  feet  apart,  and  with  brickwork, 
so  as  to  fill  up  the  intervals.  This  kind  of  walling  is  gene- 
i-ally  either  the  thickness  or  breadth  of  a  brick,  and  the 
woodwork  flush  on  both  sides  with  the  faces  of  the  bricks. 
In  brick-uogging,  thin  pieces  of  timber,  reaching  horizontally 


from  post  to  post,  are  disposed  so  as  to  form  the  brickwork 
between  every  two  posts  or  quarters,  into  several  compart- 
ments in  the  height  of  the  story  ;  each  piece  being  inserted 
between  two  courses  of  bricks,  with  its  edges  flush  with  the 
faces  of  the  wall. 

Brick  and  Stud.     See  Brick-Nogging. 

Brick-Kiln,  a  building  erected  in  the  form  of  the  frustum 
of  a  cone,  for  the  purpose  of  burning  bricks. 

BRICKLAYER,  a  workman  who  builds  with  bricks. 
Ilis  business,  in  London,  includes  walling,  tiling,  and  paving 
with  bricks  or  tiles ;  some  jobbing-masters  also  under- 
take plastering.  Country  bricklayers  unite  bricklaying, 
plastering,  and  not  unfrequently  masonry.  The  bricklayer's 
materials  are  bricks,  tiles,  mortar,  laths,  nails,  and  tile-])ins; 
with  which  he  is  supplied  while  at  work  by  a  labourer,  who 
likewise  makes  the  mortar. 

Bricklayers  form  a  very  ntmierous  body  of  artisans  in  this 
country.  A  good  workman  can  lay  1,500  bricks  daily  in 
walls.  His  wages  in  London  are  from  five  to  six  shillings 
a  day.  The  Immense  demand  for  bricklayers  caused  by  the 
extensive  works  connected  with  railways,  and  the  great 
increase  of  building  operations  in  the  last  few  years,  have 
enabled  good  workmen  to  command  almost  any  amount  of 
wages. 

Bricklayers,  in  London,  are,  by  a  charter  granted  in 
1568,  a  corporate  company,  consisting  of  a  master,  two  war- 
dens, twenty  assistants,  and  seventy-eight  on  the  livery. 

BRICKLAYING,  BRICKWORK,  the  art  of  building 
or  erecting  walls  or  edifices  with  bricks,  cemented  together 
with  mortar,  cement,  &c.  For  the  materials,  &c.,  used  in 
this  business,  see  the  articles  Brick,  Bricklayer,  Mortar, 
Tiles,  Ce.ment,  &c. 

The  first  thing  to  be  attended  to,  in  bricklaying,  is  to  dig 
trenches  for  the  foundations,  after  which  the  ground  must  be 
tried  with  an  iron  crow,  or  rammer,  to  see  that  it  is  sound  : 
if  it  appear  to  shake,  it  must  be  bored  with  a  well-sinker's 
tool,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  shake  be  local  or 
general.  If  the  soil  prove  generally  firm,  the  looser  parts,  if 
not  very  deep,  may  be  dug  up  till  a  solid  bed  be  got  at,  on 
which  a  pier  or  piers  may  be  built,  as  hereafter  described ; 
if  the  ground  bo  not  very  loose,  it  may  be  made  good  by 
ramming  into  it  large  stones,  close  packed  together,  or  dry 
brick  rubbish,  of  a  breadth  at  the  bottom  proportioned  to  the 
intended  insisting  weight ;  but  if  the  ground  be  veiy  bad, 
it  must  be  piled  and  planked,  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the 
structure. 

In  building  upon  an  inclined  plane,  or  rising  ground,  the 
foundation  ought  to  rise  with  the  inclination  of  the  ground, 
in  a  series  of  level  steps,  which  will  ensure  a  firm  bed  for 
the  courses,  and  prevent  them  from  sliding,  as  they  would  be 
apt  to  do  if  built  on  inclined  planes;  and  in  wet  seasons  the 
moisture  in  the  foundation  would  induce  the  inclined  parts 
to  descend  towards  the  lowest  parts,  to  the  manifest  danger 
ot  fracturing  the  walls,  and  destroying  the  building. 

When  the  ground  proves  loose  to  a  great  depth  in  places 
over  which  it  is  intended  to  make  windows,  doors,  or  other 
apertures,  while  the  sides  on  which  the  piers  must  stand  are 
firm,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  turn  inverted  arches  under  such 
intended  windows,  &c.  Indeed,  this  is  a  necessary  precau- 
tion in  all  cases  where  the  depth  of  wall  below  the  aperture 
will  admit  of  it.  For  the  small  base  of  the  piers  will  more 
easily  penetrate  the  ground,  than  one  continued  base ;  and 
as  the  piers  may  be  permitted  to  descend,  in  a  certain  degree, 
so  long  as  they  can  be  kept  from  spreading,  they  will  carry 
the  arch  with  them,  compressing  the  ground,  and  forcing  it 
to  reaction  against  the  sides  of  the  inverted  arch,  which  if 
closely  jointed,  so  I'ar  from  yielding,  will,  with  the  abutting 


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48 


BRI 


piers,  operate  as  a  solid  liody.  Whereas,  if  this  expedient  of 
inverted  arehes  he  not  adojited,  the  low  piece  of  wall  under 
the  aperture,  not  having  a  siiflicient  vertical  dimension,  will 
ijive  wav  l>y  the  resistance  of  the  ground  upon  its  base,  and 
not  only  fracture  the  briclcwork  between  the  apertures,  but 
also  the  winilow-sills.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  these  arches 
should  l)c  turned  with  the  greatest  exactness,  and  should  be 
in  height  at  least  half  iheir  width.  The  parabolic  curve  will 
be  Ibund  most  efiectual  in  resisting  the  reaction  of  the 
ground  :  it  being  the  form  most  adapted  to  the  hiws  of 
uniform  pressure. 

The  bed  of  the  piers  ought  to  be  of  equal  solidity  through- 
out; fur  though  the  bottom  of  the  trench  may  be  fu-ni  enough, 
yet  if  there  be  any  ditlerence  in  substance,  the  settlement  will 
be  partial,  the  amount  thereof  varying  according  to  the  soft- 
ness of  the  ground  ;  conse<iuently  the  piers  on  the  softer  ground 
will  s«^ttle  more  than  those  on  the  firmer,  and  occasion  a  ver- 
tical fracture  in  the  superstructure. 

Should  the  solid  parts  of  the  ti'ench  be  fomid  under  the 
intended  apertures,  and  the  softer  parts  where  piers  are  to  be 
built,  the  reverse  of  the  above  practice  must  be  resorted  to, 
viz. :  build  piers  on  the  firm  ground,  and  suspend  arehes,  not 
inverted,  between  them  ;  in  performing  which,  attention  must 
be  paid  to  the  insisting  pier,  whether  it  will  cover  the  arch, 
or  not ;  for  if  the  middle  of  the  ])ier  rest  over  the  middle  of 
the  summit  of  the  arch,  the  narrower  the  pier  is,  the  greater 
should  be  the  curvature  of  the  arch  of  its  apex.  When  sus- 
pended arches  are  used,  the  intrados  ought  to  be  clear,  that 
the  arch  may  have  its  full  effect.  Here  also,  as  before,  the 
ground  on  which  the  jiiers  are  erected  should  be  of  equal 
firmness,  lest  the  building  be  injured  by  an  unequal  settling, 
which  is  attcndeil  with  much  more  mischievous  consequences 
than  where  the  ground,  from  being  uniformly  soft,  permits 
the  piers  to  descend  ecpuilly,  in  which  case  the  building  is 
seldom  or  never  damageii. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  ram  foundations,  the  stone,  being 
previously  chopped  or  hammer-dressed,  so  as  to  have  them  as 
little  taper  as  possible,  should  be  laid  of  a  breadth  propor- 
tioned to  the  weight  intended  to  be  rested  on  them,  and 
rammed  closely  together  with  a  heavy  rammer.  In  ordinary 
cases,  the  lower  bed  of  stones  may  pi'oject  about  a  foot  on 
each  side  of  the  wall,  on  which  another  course  may  be  laid, 
so  as  to  bring  the  upper  bed  of  stones  upon  a  general  level 
with  that  of  the  trench,  projecting  about  eight  inches  on 
cither  side  of  the  wall,  or  receding  four  inches  on  each  side 
within  the  lower  course.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
joints  of  every  upper  course  fall  as  nearly  as  possible  upon 
the  miihlle  of  the  stones  in  the  course  immediately  beneath 
it;  a  ])riuciple  also  to  be  strictly  adhered  to  in  every  kind  of 
walling;  ti)r  in  all  the  modes,  various  as  they  are,  of  laying 
stones  or  bricks,  the  uniform  object  is  to  obtain  the  greatest 
lap  one  upon  the  other. 

The  directions  for  preparing  a  solid  foundation,  refer  to 
the  general  practice  amongst  buihlers  bef^jre  the  introduction 
of  concrete.  The  now  almost  universal  use  of  the  latter,  as 
a  certain,  convenient,  and  ready  means  of  obtaining  a  secure 
foundation,  has  rendered  it  necessary  to  give  a  description  of 
the  mode  in  which  this  material  is  gcnerallv  used. 

The  ground  having  been  examined  as  described  in  the  first 
part  of  this  article,  a  sunieient  depth  imist  be  excavated  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  to  allow  of  throwing  in  a  quan- 
tity of  concrete,  varying  in  breadth  and  depth,  according  to 
the  size  and  character  of  the  building  to  be  erected,  and  the 
rccessary  width  of  the  footings. 

The  concrete  is  composed  of  different  materials,  and  pro- 
portions of  those  materials,  as  the  qualities  of  sand,  lime,  iSjc, 
»re  most  conveniently  obtained  in  the  locality  of  the  building. 


The  concrete  used  in  and  near  London  is  generally  composed 
of  Thames  ballast  and  flesh  burned  stone-liire,  (ground  to 
powder  without  slacking,)  in  the  proportions  of  *roni  one-fifth 
to  one-ninth  of  lime  to  one  of  the  ballast.  These  ingredients 
should  be  well  blended  together  dry,  and  as  small  a  quantity 
of  water  added  as  will  bring  them  to  the  consistency  of  mor- 
tar; and  then,  after  tuniing  over  the  materials  with  the 
shovel  once  or  twice,  thrown  as  quickly  as  possible  into  the 
fuuu<lation,  from  a  height  of  several  feet.  It  sets  very 
quickly,  so  that  it  is  desirable  that  the  mixture  should  be 
made  at,  or  close  to  the  heislit  from  which  it  is  tlnowu,  and 
then  spread  and  brought  to  a  level  as  expeditiously  as  pos- 
sible.    See  Concrete. 

Having  premised  thus  much  on  fiiiiudations,  we  proceed 
to  the  operation  of  Mailing;  the  first  object  in  which  is  the 
due  preparation  of  the  cementing  mati'rial. 

Mortar  is  most  commonly  used  in  modern  brick  buildings. 
It  is  composed  of  lime,  gray  or  white,*but  gray  or  stone-lime 
is  the  better,  mixed  with  river-saud,  or  road-sand,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  of  gray  lime  to  two  and  a  half  of  sand,  and 
one  of  white  or  chalk-lime  to  two  of  sand. 

In  slacking  the  lime,  no  more  water  should  be  used  than  is 
barely  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  powder;  and  it  should  be 
covered  with  a  layer  of  sand,  in  order  to  prevent  the  gas, 
wherein  is  the  virtue  of  the  lime,  from  flying  oil".  It  is  best 
to  slack  the  lime  in  small  q\iantitics,  about  a  bushel  at  a  time, 
in  order  to  secure  its  qualities  in  the  mortar,  which  would 
evaporate  were  it  to  remain  slacked  any  length  of  time  before 
being  used.     See  Mortar. 

The  mortar,  when  about  to  be  used,  should  be  beaten  three 
or  four  times,  and  turned  over  with  the  beater,  so  as  to 
incorporate  the  lime  and  sand,  and  break  the  knots  that  pass 
through  the  sieve:  this  not  only  renders  the  texture  more 
uuiforiii,  but  by  admitting  the  air  into  the  body  and  pores  of 
the  mortar,  makes  it  much  stronger.  Should  the  mortar 
stand  any  length  of  time  after  this  operation,  without  being 
used,  it  must  be  beaten  again  :  it  should  be  observed,  that  in 
these  beatings  very  little  water  should  be  used  ;  though  in 
hot  and  dry  weather  the  mortar  may  be  kept  considerably 
softer  than  in  winter. 

In  dry  weather,  and  for  firm  work,  the  best  mortar  must 
be  used,  and  the  bricks  should  be  wetted,  or  dipped  in  water 
as  they  arc  laid ;  but  in  damp  weather,  the  latter  precaution 
will  be  unnecessary.  The  wetting  of  the  bricks  causes  them 
to  adhere  to  the  mortar,  which  they  will  never  do  if  laid  dry, 
and  covered  with  sand  or  dust,  as  they  may  be  removed  with- 
out the  adhesion  of  a  single  [)article  of  the  mortar. 

In  laying  the  foundations  of  walls,  the  first  courses  are 
always  laid  bro.ader  th.in  the  wall  intended  to  be  carried  up; 
these  courses  are  called  the  footi/u/s,  and  the  projections  are 
called  set-offs;  there  arc  generally  two  inches  in  each  pro- 
jection. 

In  working  up  the  wall,  not  more  than  four  or  five  feet 
of  anv  part  should  be  built  at  a  time  ;  for  as  all  walls  shrink 
immediately  after  building,  the  part  which  is  first  liroiight 
up  will  settle  before  the  adjacent  part  is  brought  up  to  it; 
and  the  shrinking  of  the  latter  will  consequently  cause  the 
two  parts  to  separate.  Unless  it  be  to  accommodate  the 
carpenter,  &:o..  no  part  of  a  wall  should  be  carried  higher 
than  one  scaffold,  without  having  its  contingent  parts  added 
to  it.  In  carrying  up  any  particular  part,  the  ends  should 
be  regularly  sloped  off,  so  as  to  receive  the  bond  of  the 
adjoining  parts,  on  the  right  and  left. 

In  laying  bricks,  there  are  four  kinds  of  Bond;  viz., 
English-bond,  Flemish-bond,  Herring-bond,  and  Garden 
wall-bond.  The  two  first  are  principally  used  in  modern 
brickwork,  the  others  only  occasionally. 


Ill  Eiifilish-bond,  a  row  of  bricks  laid  lengthwise  on  the 
length  of  the  wall,  is  crossed  by  a  row  with  its  breadth  in 
the  said  length,  and  so  on  alternately.  The  courses  in  which 
the  lengths  of  the  bricks  are  disposed  through  the  length  of 
the  wall,  arc  called  stretching  courses,  and  the  bricks, 
stntchirs:  the  courses  in  which  the  lengths  of  the  bricks 
run  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  are  called  heading  courses, 
and  the  bricks,  headers.  The  other  sort  of  bond,  called 
Flemish-bond,  consists  in  placing  a  header  and  a  stretcher 
alternately  in  the  same  course.     See  Bokd,  English,  &c. 

When  iiew  walls  are  to  be  built  into  old  it  is  usual  to  cut 
a  chase,  or  draw  a  brick  at  every  other  course  in  the  old 
work,  and  tooth  in  the  new  work.  When  it  is  intended  to 
add  walls  to  buildings,  these  toothings  are  left. 

The  most  difficult  work  for  a  bricklayer  to  execute  is  the 
groining  or  intersection  of  arches  in  vaults,  where  every  brick 
has  to  be  cut  to  a  ditlercnt  bed.  Tliis  and  the  arches  called 
gauged  arches,  either  circular  or  straight,  require  the  neatest 
workmanship.  Some  straight  arches  arc  made  roughly ;  that 
is,  the  bricks  are  inclined  each  way,  parallel  to  each  other,  on 
the  respective  skewbacks,  or  shoulders  of  the  arch,  until  the 
soffit-ends  of  the  bricks  touch,  when  the  vacant  space  at  top 
is  lilled  with  two  bricks,  forming  a  wedge  :  this  arch,  like 
other  straight  arches,  is  constructed  on  a  camber  slip,  or  piece 
of  wood  slightly  curved  on  the  upper  side  for  centering. 

In  steining  wells,  a  centre  must  be  first  made,  consisting  of 
a  boarding,  of  inch  or  iiich-and-a-half  stuff,  ledged  within  with 
three  circular  rings,  upon  which  the  bricks  are  laid,  all 
headers.  The  gaps  between  the  biicks  towards  the  boarding 
are  to  be  filled  in  with  tile  or  pieces  of  brick.  As  the  well- 
sinker  excavates  the  ground,  the  centre  with  its  load  of  bricks 
sinks,  and  another,  similarly  charged,  is  laid  upon  it,  another 
upon  that,  and  so  on,  till  the  well  is  completed  ;  the  centering 
remaining  permanently  fixed  with  the  brickwork.  This  is 
the  method  generally  adopted  in  London,  at  least  where  the 
soil  is  sandy  and  loose ;  where  it  is  firm,  centerings  are  not 
requisite.  In  the  country,  among  many  other  methods,  the 
following  most  prevails  :  rings  of  timber,  without  the  exterior 
boarding,  are  used  ;  upon  the  first  ring,  four  or  five  feet  of 
bricks  are  laid,  then  a  second  ring,  and  so  on.  But  this  is 
far  inferior  to  the  mode  above  described,  as  the  sides  of  the 
brick-work  arc  apt  to  bilge  in  sinking,  particularly  if  great 
care  be  not  tiiken  in  filling  and  ramming  the  sides  uniformly, 
so  as  to  keep  the  pressure  regular  and  equal.  In  steining 
wells,  and  in  the  construction  of  cesspools,  a  rod  of  brick- 
work will  require  at  least  4,760  bricks. 

In  winter,  it  is  essential  to  preserve  the  unfinished  wall,  as 
much  as  possiljle,  from  the  alternate  effects  of  rain  and  frost, 
than  which  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  a  building ;  the 
rain  by  penetrating  into  the  very  heart  of  the  bricks  and 
mortar,  and  the  frost  by  converting  the  water,  so  lodged,  into 
ice,  expanding  its  bulk,  and  bursting  or  crumbling  the 
materials  in  which  it  is  contained.  The  decay  of  buildings, 
commonly  attributed  to  the  effects  of  time,  is,  in  reality, 
occasioned  by  this  o[)cration  and  counter-operation  of  the  rain 
and  frost,  but  as,  in  finished  edifices,  they  have  only  a  verti- 
cal surface  to  act  upon,  their  effects  are  not  rapidly  extended. 
In  an  unfinished  wall,  there  is  a  horizontal  surface,  by  which 
both  ruin  and  frost  find  an  easy  access  into  the  body  of  the 
work ;  care  must  therefore  be  taken  to  exclude  them,  by  a 
siifilcient  covering,  as  soon  as  the  frost  or  stormy  weather 
sets  in,  either  of  straw,  which  is  most  usually  employed,  or 
of  weather-boarding,  placed  in  the  form  of  a  stone  coping,  so 
as  to  throw  ofi"  the  water  equally  on  either  side  :  but  in  the 
latter  case,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  good  body  of  straw  under 
the  wiiod,  as  no  precaution  can  be  too  great, for  the  security 
and  strength  of  the  work. 

7 


A  variety  of  pleasing  cornices  and  ornaments  may  be 
formed  in  brickwork,  by  the  disposition  of  the  bricks,  fre- 
quently without  cutting  them,  or  if  cut,  chamfering  only  may 
be  used  ;  but  a  great  defect  is  frequently  to  be  observed  in 
these  ornaments,  particularly  in  the  bilging  of  the  arches  over 
windows.  This  arises  from  mere  carelessness  in  rulibing 
the  bricks  too  much  off,  on  the  inside  ;  whereas,  if  due  care 
were  taken  to  rub  them  exact  to  the  gauge  on  the  inside,  that 
they  bear  upon  the  front  edges,  their  geometrical  bearings 
being  united,  they  would  all  tend  to  one  centre,  and  produce 
a  well-proportioned  and  pleasing  effect. 

A  rod  of  brickwork  was  taken  from  the  original  standard 
of  164^  feet  square,  and  consequently  the  supefieial  rod  con- 
tained 272.25  square  feet,  or  1T2\  square  feet ;  but  as  the 
quarter  was  found  troublesome  in  calculation,  272  superficial 
feet  was  admitted  as  the  standard  for  brickwork;  the  result 
is  the  same  in  practice,  when  it  is  considered  that  equal  values 
will  be  found  by  annexing  the  proportional  price  per  rod  to 
each ;  and  indeed,  if  the  same  price  be  appropriate  to  each, 
the  difference  would  be  so  trifling  as  not  to  be  worth  the 
trouble  of  calculating.  The  standard  thickness  of  a  brick 
wall  is  1-J-  brick  in  length,  therefore  if  272  square  feet  be  mul- 
tiplied by  \^\  inches," the  result  is  306  cubic  feet  in  the  rod. 

A  rod  of  standard  brickwork  with  mortar,  will  require 
4,500  bricks  at  a  medium,  allowing  for  waste  ;  this  number 
will  depend  upon  the  closeness  of  the  joints,  and  the  size  of 
the  bricks.  The  mortar  in  a  rod  of  brickwork  will  require 
1^  cwt.  of  chalk-lime,  or  one  cwt.  of  stone-lime,  and  2^  loads 
of  sand  with  stone-lime,  or  2  loads  with  chalk-lime. 

In  walling,  a  foot  of  reduced  brickwork  will  require  17 
bricks.  A  foot  superficial  of  marl  facing  laid  in  Flemish 
bond,  will  require  8  bricks  ;  and  a  foot  superficial  of  gauged 
arches,  10  bricks.  In  paving,  a  yard  will  require  82  paving- 
bricks,  or  48  stock-bricks,  or  144  Dutch  clinkers  laid  on  edge, 
or  36  bricks  laid  flat. 

In  tiling,  100  superficial  feet  make  a  square.  A  square 
will  require,  of  plain  tiles,  800  at  a  6-inch  gauge,  700  at 
a  7-inch  gauge,  or  000  at  an  8-inch  gauge.  The  distance 
of  the  laths  will  depend  upon  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and 
may  require  a  6,  7,  or  8-inch  gauge ;  thus,  a  kirb  roof  will 
require  a  gauge  of  74-  or  8  inches  in  the  kirb  part,  and  the 
upper  part  6,  6+,  or  7  inches,  the  distance  being  less  as  the 
angle  of  elevation  is  less.  A  square  of  plain  tiling  will 
require  a  bundle  of  laths,  more  or  less  according  to  the  pitch, 
two  bushels  of  lime  and  one  of  sand,  and  a  peck  of  tile-pins 
at  least.  The  laths  are  sold  in  bundles,  which  generally  con- 
sist of  3,  4,  and  5-feet  lengths ;  the  3-fcet  arc  8  scoi-e,  the  4-feet 
6  score,  and  the  5-feet  5  score  to  the  bundle.  The  nails  used 
in  lathing,  are  fourpenny.  They  arc  purchased  by  the  long 
hundred,  viz.,  six  score  to  each  hundred,  and  charged  by  the 
bricklayer  by  the  short  hundred,  viz.,  five  score  to  the 
hundred.  The  rates  of  charge  by  the  hundred  are  as  their 
names  imply,  viz.,  fourpenny,  fourpence  per  hundred;  six- 
penny, sixpence  per  hundred.  The  number  of  nails  required 
to  a  bundle  of  five-feet  laths  are  500,  and  to  a  bundle  of  six- 
feet  laths  600.  A  square  of  pan-tiling  will  require  180  tiles, 
laid  at  a  10-inch  gauge,  and  a  bundle  of  laths.  The  bundle 
consists  of  12  laths,  10  feet  long. 

In  lime  measure,  25  striked  bushels,  or  100  pecks,  is  a 
hundred  of  lime;  8  gallons,  or  2,150|  cubic  inches,  is  a 
bushel  of  dry  measure';  and  268^  cubic  inches  is  a  gallon. 

In  sand  measure,  24  heaped  bushels,  or  .30  striked  bushels, 
is  a  load,  and  24  cubic  feet  weigh  a  ton.  In  mortar  measure, 
27  cubic  feet  make  a  load,  which  contains  half  a  hundred  of 
lime,  with  a  proportional  quantity  of  sand  ;  1,134  cubic 
inches  make  a  hod,  which  is  9  inches  by  9,  and  14  inches 
long  ;  2  hods  of  mortar  make  a  bushel  nearly. 


A  ton  weight  contains  234-  cubic  feet  of  sand,  17^  of  clay, 
or  18  of  cartii,  or  330  briclis. 

A  cubic  foot  contains  951b.  of  sand,  1351b.  of  clay,  or 
1241b.  of  common  earth,  or  125  bricks. 

To  measure  trenches  for  foundations. — All  kinds  of  exca- 
vations of  earth  are  measured  by  the  number  of  cubic  yards 
which  they  contain  ;  therefore,  to  find  the  numljcr  of  cubic 
yards  in  a  trench,  find  thesolidity  of  the  trench  in  cubic  feet, 
which  divide  by  27,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  yard,  and 
the  quotient,  if  any,  is  the  answer  in  cubic  yards,  and  the 
remainder,  if  any,  shows  cubic  feet. 

Example. — The  length  of  a  trench  is  02  feet,  the  vertical 
depth  2  feet  G  inches,  and  the  breadth  2  feet  9  inches. 
62 
_2i 

124 
31 

165 


310 
77    6 
38     9 


27  )  426 
27 

156 
135 


3  ( IS  yanla  21  feet,  the  answer. 


21 

In  the  horizontal  dimensions,  if  the  trench  is  wider  at  the 
top  than  at  the  bottom,  as  is  generally  the  case,  and  equal 
at  the  ends,  take  half  the  sum  of  the  two  dimensions  for 
a  mean  breadth,  and  if  the  breadth  of  one  end  of  the  trench 
exceed  that  of  the  other,  so  as  to  have  two  mean  breadths 
dillering  from  each  other,  take  half  the  sum  of  the  two  added 
together,  as  a  mean  breadth  for  the  whole. 

Or,  take  a  mean  dimension  in  the  middle  of  the  length,  and 
the  middle  of  the  height,  and  proceed  as  in  the  above  operation. 

The  footing  of  a  wall  is  the  projecting  courses  of  brickwork 
under  the  wall,  spread  out  to  prevent  it  from  sinking. 

To  measure  the  footing  of  a  loall. — Multiply  the  length 
and  the  height  of  the  course  together,  then  multiply  the 
product  by  the  number  of  half  bricks  in  the  mean  breadth  : 
divide  the  last  product  by  3,  and  the  quotient  is  the  answer 
in  reduced  feet. 

Tlie  number  of  half  bricks  in  the  mean  breadth  will  be 
found  by  adding  the  number  of  half  bricks  in  each  course 
together,  and  dividing  the  sum  by  the  number  of  courses ; 
or  take  half  the  sum  of  the  half  bricks  in  the  upper  and 
lowermost  courses  ;  but  if  the  number  of  courses  is  odd,  this 
trouble  may  bo  saved  by  taking  the  number  of  half  bricks 
in  the  middle  course  for  the  mean  breadth. 

Also,  instead  of  measuring  the  height  of  the  footing,  it  is 
usual  to  allow  three  inches  to  each  course  in  height ;  or  multiply 
the  number  of  courses  by  3,  which  gives  the  height  in  inches. 

Example. — The  footing  of  a  wall  is  fi2  feet  in  length,  and 
consists  of  3  courses,  the  middle  course  of  which  consists 
of  3.V  bricks;  how  many  feet  of  reduced  work  are  in  the  said 
footing  1 

62    0 
0     9 


46     6 


7  number  of  half  bricks  in  mean  breadth. 


3)325    6 

108  ft.  0  in.  of  reduced  brickwork. 
To  find  the  number  of  rods  contained  in  a  piece  of  brick- 
work:    Jiule  I. — If  the  wall  be  at  the  standard  thickness, 


divide  the  area  of  the  wall  by  272,  and  the  quotient,  if  any, 
will  be  the  answer  in  rods,  .ind  the  remainder,  if  any,  in 
feet :  but  if  the  wall  be  less  or  more  than  a  brick  and  a  half 
in  thickness,  multiply  the  area  of  the  wall  by  the  number  of 
half  bricks,  that  is,  the  number  of  half  lengths  of  a  brick ; 
divide  the  product  by  ^,  and  the  wall  will  be  reduced  to  the 
standard  of  li  brick  thick.  Divide  the  quotient  by  272,  and 
this  quotient  will  give  the  number  of  rods  required. 

Jiule  II. — Divide  the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained  in  the 
wall  by  306,  and  the  quotient,  if  any,  will  show  the  number 
of  rods,  and  the  remainder,  if  any,  the  number  of  culiic  feet. 

liule  III. — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  wall 
by  8;  divide  the  product  by  9,  and  the  quotient  will  give 
the  area  of  the  wall  at  the  standard :  divide  the  standard 
area  by  272,  and  this  quotient,  if  any,  mil  show  the  number 
of  rods  ;  the  remainder,  if  any,  is  the  reduced  feet.  The  rea- 
son of  this  rule  may  be  thus  shown  :  - — -r:-r= r — 7T-r=  „^,. 
■'  9x272     9x34       30G 

which  is  a  divisor  of  a  rod,  without  any  regard  to  the  standard. 
Example. — The   length   of  a  wall  is  sixty-two  feet,  the 
height  fifteen  feet,  and  the  breadth  equal  to  the  length  of 
two  bricks  and  a  half:   how  many  rods  of  brickwork  are 
contained  in  the  wall  ? 
Operation  by  Rule  I. 
62 
15 


810 
62 


930 
5  number  of  half  bricks. 


8  )  4650 


272 )  1550  (  5  rods  190  feet,  the  answer. 
1360 


190 

Operation  by  Eule  II. 

62 

15 


310 

62 


930 
1  10 


38 

775 
930 


9     0 


806  )  1743     9    0(5  ixxis  213  feet,  the  answer. 
1530 


213 
Operation  by  Rule  III. 

62 
16 


810 
62 


930 
1   10 


88 
775 
930 


9     0 


1748     9 


9  )  13950     0 

272 )  1560  (  6  rods  190  feet,  the  answer. 
1360 


190 


In  the  calculation  of  brickwork,  where  there  are  several 
walls  of  Jiflcront  thicknesses,  it  will  be  quite  unnecessary 
to  use  the  divisors  3  and  '2~'2,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown. 

In  measuring  walls  withm  the  districts  to  which  the 
building  act  extends,  it  is  customary  to  take  the  length  of 
front  walls  within  the  building,  and  the  length  of  party  walls 
from  the  front  to  the  rear  faces  of  the  building,  in  order  to 
appropriate  more  easily  the  share  of  each  proprietor  ;  but  in 
country  houses,  which  stand  insulated,  and  which  have  their 
adjoining  faces  of  the  same  workmanship,  either  of  the  two 
pair  of  parallel  walls  may  be  taken  the  whole  length  of  the 
external  faces,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  other  pair  of  parallel 
walls  should  be  taken  perpendicularly  from  the  interior  sides 
of  the  said  walls,  or  the  horizontal  stretch  of  the  interior 
side  of  either. 

In  measuring  for  workmanship  only,  it  is  customary  to 
allow  the  length  of  each  wall  on  the  external  side ;  or,  if  all 
the  adjoining  walls  are  of  the  same  workmanship,  to  girt  the 
whole  on  the  outside ;  and  consequently,  if  the  building  be 
a  rectangle,  the  contents  will  by  this  means  exceed  the  real 
quantity  by  four  square  pillars,  each  the  height  of  the  build- 
ing, and  in  horizontal  dimensions  the  thickness  of  each  wall. 
This  is  a  compensation  for  plumbing  the  angles ;  but  this 
practice  is  unfair  with  regard  to  materials. 

In  measuring  walls  that  are  faced  with  bricks  of  a  superior 
quality,  the  Loudon  surveyors  measure  the  whole  as  if  com- 
mon work,  and  allow  so  much  per  rod  for  the  facing,  as  the 
quality  of  the  bricks  and  superior  excellence  of  the  work  may 
deserve.    The  facing  may  be  reckoned  at  two  thirds  of  a  brick. 

In  taking  the  dimensions  of  the  brickwork  in  the  different 
stories,  the  height  of  each  part,  as  high  as  it  goes  of  the  same 
thickness,  must  be  taken ;  and  the  contents  of  each  part 
computed  separately,  the  offsets  being  always  below  the  joists, 
and  consequently  the  wall  the  same  thickness  throughout, 
from  the  ceiling  of  one  floor  to  the  ceiling  of  another. 

All  apertures  and  recesses  from  any  of  the  faces  are  to  be 
deducted,  but  an  allowance  per  foot  lineal  should  be  granted 
upon  every  right  angle,  whether  external  or  internal,  except 
that  two  external  angles  are  formed  by  a  brick  in  breadth, 
and  then  only  one  of  them  must  be  accounted  for.  This 
allowance  is  in  consequence  of  plumbing  the  faces  which 
constitute  the  said  angles ;  but  if  the  bricks  are  cut  so  as  to 
form  oblique  angles,  this  allowance  should  be  at  least  double. 

It  is  customary,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  in 
measuring  for  workmanship,  to  find  the  contents  of  the  walls 
as  if  solid,  without  deducting  the  vacuities,  so  that  upon  this 
principle,  if  the  apertures  be  ever  so  large,  they  must,  at  all 
events,  be  accounted  as  solid  ;  and,  in  this  instance,  the  pro- 
prietor would  be  greatly  overcharged  by  the  workman. 

Again,  in  apertures  of  small  breadth,  the  trouble  in  plumb- 
ing at  the  returns  is  equally  the  same  at  the  same  height  as 
if  ever  so  wide ;  but  in  case  the  voids  are  less  than  the 
lineal  allowance,  there  would  be  a  manifest  loss  to  the  master 
workman.  It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  such  an  allowance 
as  above  mentioned  should  be  established,  in  order  to  do  away 
the  uncertainty  of  computing  the  quantity  of  walling,  such 
as  to  be  often  above,  and  sometimes  below  the  real  value  of 
workmanship. 

Gauged  arches  are  sometimes  deducted  and  charged  sepa- 
rately, and  sometimes  not ;  but  it  is  the  same  whether  they 
are  deducted  or  not,  as  the  extra  price  must  be  allowed  in 
the  former  case,  and  the  whole  price  allowed  in  the  latter, 
which  is  much  the  more  troublesome  of  the  two.  Gauged 
archesare  at  least  five  times  the  trouble  of  the  best  marl  facing. 
To  measure  the  vacuity  of  a  rectangular  tvindoiv. — Find 
the  solidity  that  would  fill  the  outside  vacuity  from  the  face 
of  the  wall  to  the  reveal,  or  outside  of  the  sash-frame  ;  the 


solidity  that  would  fill  the  vacuity  from  the  outside  of  the 
sash-frame  to  the  vertical  plane  of  the  extension  of  the  back 
upwards;  and  the  solidity  that  would  fill  the  vacuity  con- 
tained between  the  vertical  plane  of  tlieback  and  the  internal 
face  of  the  wall ;  then  add  these  three  solidities  together,  and 
the  sum  will  be  the  solidity  that  will  fill  the  whole  void  ; 
then  add  the  allowances. 

Or  thus — Find  the  area  of  each  of  the  three  vacuities 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  wall ;  multiply  each  area  by  each 
respective  number  of  half  bricks  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
add  the  three  products  together  ;  divide  the  sum  by  3,  and 
the  quotient  reduces  the  contents  in  superficial  feet  to  the 
standard  thickness. 

In  taking  the  dimensions  of  brickwork,  inches  are  generally 
neglected. 

Example. — Suppose  the  height  of  the  outer  vacuity,  from 
the  sill  to  the  under  side  of  the  head,  to  be  10  feet,  the 
breadth  4  feet  6  inches,  and  the  thickness  half  a  brick ;  the 
height  of  the  middle  vacuity  from  the  sill  to  the  under  side 
of  the  wooden  lintels,  to  bp  10  feet  3  inches,  the  breadth 
5  feet  2  inches,  and  the  thickness  also  \  a  brick,  and  the 
inside  vacuity,  from  the  floor  to  the  under  side  of  the  said 
lintels,  13  feet ;  the  mean  breadth,  supposing  the  inside  to 
splay,  to  be  5  feet  6  inches,  and  the  depth  of  the  recess  1  \ 
brick :  required  the  solidity  that  will  fill  the  void. 


Operation  for  the  outside  vacuity. 

10 

4i 

40 

6 

46 

Operation  for  the  middle  vacuity. 

10    3    0 

5     2     0 

18     6 

51     3     0 

52  11       6 

Operation  for  the  inside  vacuity. 

13 

Bi 

65                                      ...       . 

6     6                                ft.      la 

sec 

45       0 

0 

71     6                             52     11 

6 

3                                 214       6 

0 

214    6                     3  )  312       5 

6 

104       1     10  the  solid  that  will  fill 
the  vacuity. 

To  calculate  the  price  of  a  rod  of  brickwork. — This  will 
depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  bricks  and  the  goodness  of 
the  workmanship  ;  for  in  building  foundations  and  party- 
walls,  which  arc  commonly  done  with  place-bricks,  the  brick- 
layer may  easily  lay  1,500  bricks  in  a  day  :  in  garden-walls, 
barns,  and  common  country  houses,  where  greater  nicety  is 
required  in  jointing,  he  may  lay  about  1,000  per  day  ;  and  in 
gray-stock,  or  marl  fronts,  done  with  great  care,  he  will 
hardly  exceed  500  in  a  day.  Tlie  expense  per  rod  will  also 
depend  upon  the  articles  of  living,  and  consequently  upon  the 
times.  One  example,  however,  will  be  suflncient ;  the  prices 
of  materials  and  labour  may  be  had  from  a  Price  Book.  In  the 


BEI 


52 


BRI 


following  statement,  the  work  is  supposed  to  be  a  well-built 
gray-stock  front,  the  rates  of  charge  according  to  tfic  present 
London  iirices  for  1848. 

£.    s.    d 
To  4,500  gray -stock  bricks,  prime  cost  at   J    „     ,j     „ 

389.  per  thousand ^ 

IJ  cwt.  lime,  at  14s.  per  cwt 110 

2  loads  saud,  at  5s.  per  load 0     10     0 

}  of  a  day  of  a  labourer  to  slack,  cliaff,  &c.    )    ^       ••>     "i 

the  mortar,  lis.  (id.  ]ht  day.. )  "       * 

Bricklayer  5  days,  5s.  G(L  . .' 1       1     6 

Labourer  5  days,  3s.  6d 0     17     6 

£12       9     li 

Add  li  per  cent  for  scaffolding,  &.C. 0       8     4-^ 

Add  15  per  cent  profit  ou  the  ))rime  cost.         1     17     6 

.i'14  10  6 
In  making  the  calculation  of  a  wall  where  the  bricks  of 
the  facing  arc  of  a  superior  quality  to  the  backing,  it  is  pro- 
per to  observe,  that  the  number  of  bricks  in  the  facing  of 
a  rod  of  Flemish-bond  work  will  vary  from  1,500  to  2,000, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  bricks  and  closeness  of  the 
joints;  this  nimiber  of  bricks  must  be  deducted  from  the 
whole  number  that  would  constitute  a  rod  ;  and  each  number 
of  bricks  must  be  valued  according  to  their  respective 
qualities. 

The  following  example  will  sufficiently  explain  the  appli- 
cation of  tiie  foregoing  rules  in  the  measurement  of  the  front 
wall  of  a  house. 

Examjjle. — Suppose  the  front  wall  of  a  house  to  be  four 
stories  high,  and  the  length  26  feet ;  the  fooling  to  consist  of 
placc-liricks  in  four  courses,  which  are  respectively,  5,  A\,  4, 
and  31  l)ricks  in  breadth  ;  the  basement  part  of  the  wall  to  be 
built  witli  gray-stocks,  11  feet  in  height,  and  3  bricks  in 
thickness ;  the  parl<  mr  part  of  the  wall  to  be  II  feet  in  height, 
and  2^  bricks  in  thickiu'ss  ;  the  one-pair-of-stairs,  (vr  principal 
floor,  to  be  13  feet  in  height  and  2  bricks  in  thickness  ;  the 
chamber  floor  to  be  10  feet  in  height  and  1^  biick  in  tliick- 
ness ;  the  three  upper  .stories  to  be  of  gray -stock  work,  faced 
with  marls ;  in  each  of  the  basement  and  entrance  stories  are 
to  be  two  windows  and  a  door,  and  three  windows  in  each  of 
the  upper  stories  :  the  whole  of  the  windows,  as  well  as  tlic 
doors,  to  bo  4  feet  in  width  ;  the  windows  in  the  Ijasenient  to 
be  G  feet  in  height,  and  not  recessed  in  the  inside  below  tlie 
sash-frame ;  those  in  (lie  ]>ar!our-story  to  be  8A  feet  in  height, 
recessed  from  the  inside  of  the  room  below  the  sash-frame, 
which  is  to  be  placed  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  floor ; 
those  in  the  drawing-room  story  to  descend  to  the  bottom,  and 
to  be  in  height  10  feet.  The  upper  windows  to  be  (5  flct 
9  inches  in  height,  and  2  J-  feet  above  the  surface  (jf  the  floor, 
the  head  of  the  basement  door  to  be  uj)on  a  level  willi  tlie 
windows,  and  the  jambs  8^  feet  high.  The  street-door  to 
entrance,  or  parlour-story,  to  be  semicircular,  and  the  top  of 
the  arch  upon  a  level  with  the  soffits  of  the  heads  of  the 
windows;  the  sash-frames  to  be  all  sunk  within  the  jambs 
in  4  inch  reveals ;  likewise  the  under  sides  of  the  wooden 
lintels  above  the  level  of  the  soflits  of  the  brick  beads,  to  be 
recessed  3  inches  upward,  and  the  door-frames  13  inches  into 
the  jambs,  atid  also  3  inches  into  the  head  ;  all  the  windows 
and  doors  to  have  rubbed  and  gauged  arches :  the  arches  of 
the  windows  to  be  11  inches  broad,  and  in  height  equal  to 
four  courses  of  the  wall.  Their  mean  length,  or  horizontal 
dimension,  to  be  4^  feet ;  the  soflits  to  be  the  breadth  of 
a  brick,  or  4 J  inches,  and  tlie  length  is  consequently  four  feet, 
the  breadth  of  the  windows  :  the  arch  of  the  door  to  be  9 
inches  broad  on  the  face,  and  as  much  on  the  soflU  :  how 
much  will  the  whole  amount  to,  supposing  the  rod  of  place- 
bricks  to  be  £12  15s.,  the  rod  of  gray-stock  work  to  be 
£14  10s.,  the  extra  facmg  of  best  marl  stocks  to  be  sixpence 


per  foot  superficial,  the  extra  price  of  the  rubbed  and  gauged 
arches  S^i.  per  foot,  and  the  lineal  foot  of  angles  in  apertures 
to  be  a  penny  per  foot :  likewise,  what  will  be  the  price  of  a 
rod,  .supposing  the  apertures  not  deducted,  and  what  will  be 
the  rate  if  they  are  deducted,  without  making  any  other  extra 
charge  whatever;  so  that  the  profit  of  the  master  bricklayer 
shall  be  the  same  in  cither  case? 

The  dimensions  are  generally  taken  with  two  five-feet  rods, 
and  entered  in  a  book,  ruled  perpendicularly  for  the  purpose. 
In  brickwork  it  will  be  convenient  to  have  three  columns 
contiguous  to  each  other  on  the  left  hand  ;  the  first  vertical 
column  to  contain  the  dimensions,  and  to  be  only  bounded  liy 
one  vertical  line  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  column  :  the 
dimensions  of  the  same  surface  to  be  written  one  under  the 
other,  putting  the  like  denominations  in  vertical  rows ; 
the  number  of  times  any  work  is  repeated  is  put  on  the  left 
of  the  upper  dimension,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  curve; 
the  number  of  half  bricks  are  to  be  wiitten  in  the  adjoin- 
ing right-hand  column,  ruled  on  both  sides,  and  in  a  horizontal 
line  with  either  dimension. 

It  would  answer  little  purpose  to  show  the  work  arising 
by  s(piaring  the  dimensions.  It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  in 
order  to  avoid  numerous  repetitions  of  division,  that  the 
dimensions  of  the  surfaces,  in  length  and  breadth,  must  be 
multiplied  together,  and  the  product  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  times,  if  more  than  once  repeated,  and  this  la.st  pro- 
duct again  by  the  number  of  half  bricks  in  the  thickness 
of  the  work  :  but  if  the  outline  of  the  .surliice  of  the  work  be 
circular,  or  any  figure  whatever,  the  quantity  of  surface  must 
be  found  by  the  rules  for  measuring  that  figure,  and  repeated 
the  number  of  tiuK^s,  and  this  product  by  the  number  of  half 
bricks  in  tlie  thickness  of  the  work,  ,as  before.  These  products 
may  be  found  by  beginning  with  any  of  the  multipliers,  and 
using  any  one  of  the  remaining  ones  in  each  succeeding 
product  until  their  numlier  is  exhausted  ;  the  result  is  to 
be  placed  in  a  third  adjoining  column  on  the  right,  in  a 
horizontal  row  with  either  of  the  dimensions.  The  dimen- 
sions, the  number  of  half  bricks,  and  contents  of  every 
two  surfaces,  are  to  be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  hori- 
zontal line.  The  numbers  in  the  third  column  are  the  con- 
tents of  the  work  reduced  to  a  wall,  half  a  brick  thick  ;  and 
consequently,  any  number  of  contents  of  the  same  species  of 
work  may  be  added  together,  and  reduced  to  the  standard  by 
dividing  the  sum  by  3  ;  and  if  rods  are  required,  the  quotient 
must  be  di\  ided  by  272,  which  will  save  immense  labour. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  Dimension  Rook  :  The 
lineal  measures  are  as  in  the  preceding  description,  and  are 
supposed  to  be  taken  in  order,  as  they  succeed  e.a(h  fither, 
beginning  with  the  basement  part  of  the  building,  whether  of 
the  same  kind  or  not,  in  order  to  prevent  frequent  returning 
to  the  same  place. 

Where  the  same  dimension  is  of'ten  repeated  in  diflerent 
jiarts  of  the  building,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  insert  the 
number  of  times  they  occur  in  every  part ;  it  is  sufficient  to 
make  a  memonmdum  of  the  number  to  be  found  in  each 
place,  on  the  waste,  and  then  the  number  of  times  it  is 
repeated  in  the  whole  may  be  inserted  in  the  Dimension 
Book  at  last. 

In  each  of  the  diflerent  stories,  the  same  order,  if  possible, 
is  repeated,  that  mistakes  of  overlooking  any  of  the  articles 
may  be  prevented. 

Every  other  part  will  be  sufficiently  evident  by  inspection, 
and  by  attending  to  the  general  description  in  the  example, 
except  the  semicircular  head  of  doorway,  the  dimensions  of 
which  are  set  down  in  the  same  manner  as  the  others,  and  the 
squaring  is  found  by  the  rules  for  measuring  a  circle.  Now 
the  multiplier  for  the  area  of  a  circle  reduced  to  duodecimals 


B  R[ 


63 


BRI 


is  9  ill.  5  sec. ;  the  dimensions  are  4  feet  by  2  ;  these  multi- 
plied together  give  8;  this  product  again  multiplied  by  9  in. 
5  sec.  gives  d"  ft.  3  in.  4  sec.,  and  this  repeated  by  2,  the 
number  of  liaif  bricks  on  the  e.xterior  part  of  the  aperture, 
gives  12  ft.  0  m.  as  the  seconds  are  always  unnoticed. 

Dimension  Book,  with  the  Contents. 


26     0 
1     0 

Si 

221 

0 

Footing  of  wall  with  place-bricks 

26     0 
11     0 

6 

716 

0 

Part  of  the  wall  opposite  basement,  of  gray- 
stock  brick-work 

Exterior  part  of  the  apertures  of  the  two 
windows 

Interior  part  of  ditto 

E.xtemal  and  internal  quouis  of  windows 

Kxterior  part  of  the  aperture  of  doorway 

Interior  part  of  ditto 

Quoins  of  doorway 

2(    6     0 
4     0 

1 

48 

0 

2(    6     3 
4     8 

5 

291 

8 

4(18     3 

73 

0 

8     6 
4     0 

2 

68 

0 

8     9 
4     8 

4 

163 

4 

2(25     9 

51 

6 

26     0 
11     0 

6 

1430 

0 

Part  of  the  wall  opposite  parlour,  or  en- 
trance, story 

2(    8     6 
4     0 

1 

68 

0 

External  parts  of  apertures  of  windows 

2(    8     9 
4     8 

1 

81 

8 

Middle  parts  of  ditto 

2(10     9 
4     8 

3 

301 

0 

Iiitcmal  parts  of  ditto 

4(28     0 

112 

0 

Quoins  of  windows 

8     6 
4     0 

2 

68 

0 

External  p.art  of  aperture  of  street-door,  ex- 
cluding the  circular  head 

8     6 
4     6 

3 

114 

9 

Interim-  part  of  aperture  of  street-door,  ex- 
cluding the  circular  head 

4     0 
2     0 

2 

12 

6 

Exterior  part  of  aperture  of  semicircular 
head  of  street-door 

4     6 
2     3 

3 

23 

10 

Interior  part  of  ditto 

2(25     6 

61 

0 

Straight  quoins  of  doorway 

26     0 
13     0 

4 

1352 

0 

Part  of  the  wall  opposite  the  one  pair,  or 
principal  story 

3(10     0 
4     0 

1 

120 

0 

Exterior  part  of  the  aperture  of  windows 

3(10     3 
4     8 

3 

430 

6 

Interior  part  of  ditto 

6(30     6 

183 

0 

Quoins  of  windows 

26     0 
10     0 

3 

780 

0 

Part  of  the  wall  opposite  attic  story 

3(    6     9 
4     0 

1 

81 

0 

Exterior  parts  of  apertures 

3(    7     0 
4     8 

1 

98 

0 

Middle  parts  of  ditto 

3(    9     6 
4     8 

133 

0 

Interior  parts  of  ditto 

6(  20     9 

124 

6 

Quoins  of  windows 

Sundry  Extras. 


11(4 
0 

6 

8 

33 

0 

Kubbed  and  gauged  faces  of  arches  in  all  the 
windows 

4 
2 

0 
0 

6 

6 

Rubbed  and  gauged  arch  of  doorway 

11(4 
0 

0 
4 

14 

8 

Soffits  in  ditto 

34 
26 

0 
0 

884 

0 

Marl  facing,  including  apertuiea 

2(8 
4 

6 
0 

68 

0 

Deduction  of  parlour  windows  from  marl  facing 

3(10 
4 

0 
0 

120 

0 

Deduction  of  the  one-pair  windows  from  marl 
facing 

3(6 
4 

9 
0 

81 

0 

Deduction  of  attic  windows  from  marl  facings 

8 
4 

6 
0 

34 

0 

Deduction  of  the  area  of  doonvay  from  marl 
facing,  excluding  the  semieiicle 

4 
2 

0 
0 

6 

3 

Deduction  of  the  semicircular  head  of  doorway 
from  marl  facing 

The  dimensions  are  most  frequently  wrought  upon  the 
waste,  or  upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  leaf  of  the  Dimen- 
sion Book,  which  is  very  convenient,  as  the  work  may  be 
inspected  should  any  mistake  be  apprehended. 

The  arranging  of  the  several  kinds  of  work  into  columns, 
so  as  that  each  column  may  contain  the  same  kind  through- 
out, is  called  an  abstract.  This  arrangement  saves  much 
trouble  in  the  calculation,  reduces  the  whole  into  a  very  small 
compass  in  homogeneous  kinds,  and  prevents  the  confusion 
which  would  otherwise  arise  from  the  multitude  of  parts  in 
a  complex  building. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  whole :  The  contents 
are  placed  in  vertical  columns,  which  are  in  number  equal  to 
the  number  of  kinds  of  work,  every  number  of  the  same  kind 
being  arranged  in  the  same  column.  The  order  of  each  kind 
or  species  of  work  is  the  same  as  they  occur  in  the  Dimension 
Book  ;  for  example,  221  footing  of  walls,  with  place-bricks, 
first  occurs ;  this  is  entered  in  the  first  column  of  the  abstract : 
1710,  basement  wall  of  gray-stock  brick-work  next  occurs  ; 
these  bricks  and  work  being  of  a  different  quality,  are 
entered  in  the  second  column  of  the  abstract :  48,  the  exte- 
rior part  of  the  apertures  next  occurs ;  this  is  the  same  kind 
of  work  as  the  last,  but  as  the  former  is  a  measure  of  both 
solids  and  voids,  and  this  is  only  a  part  of  the  measure  of  the 
voids,  the  48  is  placed  in  an  adjoining  column.  The  next 
number  is  291  ..  8  ;  this  is  a  deduction  of  the  same  kind,  and 
is  therefore  inserted  in  the  abstract  below  the  48  :  the  next 
that  occurs  is  73  feet  of  quoins  lineal  measure  ;  this,  being 
different  from  the  preceding,  is  entered  in  a  fourth  column. 
The  next  that  occur  in  the  Dimension  Book,  are  68  and 
163  ..  4,  external  and  internal  parts  of  the  aperture  of  door- 
way ;  being  voids  of  the  same  kind  as  the  preceding,  they  are 
successively  entered  in  the  third  column,  below  the  291  ..  8. 
The  next  that  occurs  is  51  ..  6,  quoins  of  doorway,  and  is 
entered  in  the  fourth  column.  The  next  that  occurs  is 
1430  ..  0,  the  part  of  the  wall  opposite  parlour,  or  entrance- 
story ;  now,  though  this  is  gray -stock  work,  faced  with 
marles,  it  is  taken  only  as  a  gray -stock  wall,  and  is  therefore 
entered  in  the  second  column  ;  the  difference  of  price  for  the 
superior  quality  of  bricks  and  work  being  afterwards  made 
up  by  affixing"  an  extra  price  to  the  superficial  contents  of 
this  part  of  the  wall,  and  thus  for  all  that  follows.  The 
whole  being  inserted,  each  column  is  added  together,  and  in 
the  quality  of  the  brick-work  the  sura  of  the  voids  is  taken 


BRI 


54 


BRI 


from  the  whole;  the  remainder  is  divided  by  3,  which  gives 
the  superficial  contents  in  feet  of  the  surface  of  a  wall  reduced 
to  1|  briik  in  thiokncss;  the  deductions  being  negative  quan- 
tities, no  further  notice  is  taken  of  them ;  the  sums  of  the 
other  columns  being  positive,  the  price  is  affi.xed  to  each 
common  measure,  whether  a  foot  or  a  rod,  &c.,  and  the  value 
of  each  quantity  is  found  by  this  common  measure;  then  the 
quantities,  with  the  prices  of  their  common  measures  and 
values,  arc  inserted  in  a  bill;  the  whole  being  reduced  into 
a  sum,  gives  the  amount  of  the  whole  money  for  the  wall. 

Abstract, 


Footing  of  wall 
of  pl.ice-bricks. 

The  whole  of  the  walling  re- 
duced to  ^  a  brick  thick,  taken 
as  grav-stock  work  williout  re- 
gard to  the  facing. 

Quoins  of 

apertures  by 

the  lineal 

foot 

Contents  of  the  wall. 

Deductions. 

3)221     0 
73     8 

1716     0 

1430     0 

1852     0 

780     0 

48       0 

291       8 
68       0 

163       4 
68       0 
81       8 

301       0 
68       0 

114       9 
12       6 
23     10 

120       0 

430       6 
81       0 
98       0 

133       0 

73     0 

51     6 

112     0 

51     0 

5278     0 
2103     3 

183     0 
124     6 

3)3174     9 

595     0 

272)1058(3  R 
816 

242 

2103       3 

Rubbed 

and  gauged 

arches. 

Marl  facing  in  superficial  feet 

Contents. 

Deductions. 

ft.    in. 
87     1 
16     6 

ft     ia 
884     0 
309     3 

ft.     in. 

68     0 

120     0 

81     0 

53     7 

57     9 

34     0 
6     3 

809     3 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  affi.x  the  price  of  the 
common  measure  to  each  of  the  above  species  of  work,  and 
from  this,  to  calculate  the  quantity  of  each ;  then  insert  the 
several  sums  in  a  bill,  as  follows : 


Rods. 
0 


Feet 


Bill. 


73|*  Superficial  of  place-brick  work  leduced  ) 

to  the  standard  at  £12.  l.'is.  pur  rod  ) 
242  Superficial  of  grjiy-stock  work  reduced  j 

to  the  st;uidar(l  at  £14.  10s.  per  rod  f 
696  Feet  line.il  of  quoins  iu  apertures  at  Id  | 

per  foot ) 

53J  Superficial  of  rubbed  and  gauged  work  ( 

at  3s.  per  foot f 

6741  Superficial  of  mail  facing  at  6d  per  foot 


£. 

1. 

d 

8 

8 

H 

56 

8 

0 

2 

0 

7 

8 

0 

6 

14 

7 

a 

£84  13  lOf 
*  f  not  noticed  in  the  calculation. 

In  the  foregoing  admeasurement,  the  quoins  are  valued  by 
the  foot  lineal,  in  addition,  and  the  method  of  making  out  the 
contents  is  different  from  that  commonly  used  ;  but  though 
the  allowance  is  strictlyjust,  and  the  practice  shorter  and  less 
liable  to  mistake  than  that  in  common  use ;  that  there  should 


be  nothing  wanting  to  gratify  those  who  may  still  favour  the 
customary  method,  the  admeasurement  is  here  rejieated  in 
the  usual  way.     The  mark  thus  —  signifies  a  deduction. 


Dimen 


ft.   in. 
26     0 

1     0 


26     0 
11     0 


6     0 
4     0 


Contents.   Th, 


ft   in. 
26     0 


brick 


6     3 
4     8 


8     6 
4     0 


8     9 
4     8 


286     0 

•  48     0 

•  68     4 
—  34    0 

40  10 


26     0 
11     0 


8 

6 

4 

0 

8 

9 

4 

8 

10 

9 

4 

8 

8 

6 

4 

0 

8 

6 

4 

6 

4 

0 

2 

0 

4     6 
2     3 


26     0 
13     0 


>  0 

—  68  0 

—  81 
-100  4 

—  34  0 

—  38  3 

—  63 

—  7  11 


10     0 
4     0 


10     3 
4    8 


838     0 


—120     0 


—143     6 


26     0 
10     0 


6     9 
4     0 


7     0 
4     8 


9     6 
4     8 


260  0 

-  81  0 

-  98  0 
—133  0 


Names. 


Footing. 


Walling 

Windows 

Ditto 

Doorway 

Ditto 


Walling 
Windows 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto   O 
Ditto    Q 
Ditto 
Ditto 


The  dimensions  are  fiequently 
squared  upon  the  waste  on  the 
margin  of  the  Dimension  Book ;  the 
following  is  a  specimen : 

First  Second. 

4     8  8     9 

6     8  4     8 


n 


Walling 


Windows 


Ditto 


Walling 
Windows 
Ditto 
Ditto 


28 
1 

0 
2 

29 

2 
2 

58 

4 

35 

0 

2 

11 

2 

11 

40 

10 

Third. 

8     9 

4 


Fourtli. 
4    8 


5  10     0 
35     0 


40  10     0 


8 

9 

3     6 
37     4 

0 

40  10 

0 

The  operations  are  wrought  in 
various  ways :  as  in  the  first  and 
second,  by  ahquot  parts ;  the  third 
and  fourth  bv  duodecimals.  These 
vaiious  modes  serve  to  confirm 
each  other.  Tlie  third  and  foinlh 
are  the  siime  dimension,  but  the 
factors  are  inverted  in  respect  of 
each  other. 

4  4     6 

2  2     3 


0 

8 

9 

5 

0 

3 

4 

6 

0 

6 

3 

4 

1 
9 

1 

0 

6 

10 

1 

6 
0 

9     5 

7 

4 
7 

o 

1 

7    6 
6 

7 

11 

4 

1     6 

The  mark  thus  Q  signifies  a 
semicircle.  The  method  of  finding 
the  semicircular  area  is  shown  in 
the  two  examples  above;  first  by 
multiplving  the  dimensions  together, 
and  multiplying  the  product  by  9 
inches  ami  6  seconds,  as  above,  or 
by  calling  the  feet  inches,  as  in  the 
first  operation,  and  multiplying  by 
9  feet  6  inches. 


The  above  contents  are  abstracted  by  inserting  each  area 
in  a  separate  column,  according  to  the  number  of  half  bricks 
it  is  thick. 

In  the  following  abstract,  the  several  parts  of  each  column 
are  collected :  the  sum  or  amount  is  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  half  bricks,  and  the  product  divided  by  3 ;  then  the  positive 
quantities  are  added  together,  and  the  negative  ones  added 
together,  their  ditference  is  the  real  quantity  in  reduced  feet, 
by  dividing  which  by  272,  the  answer  will  be  obtained  in  rods 


BRl 


55 


BRI 


4}  bricks. 


Footin<5  of 
place  bricks. 

ft 
26 

in. 
0 
8i 

208 
13 

0 
0 

8)221 

0 

73     8 


Wall,  including  Apertures. 


3  bricks. 


ft.     in. 


286     0 
6 


3)1716     0 


572     0 


2J  bricks. 


ft     ia 

286     0 
5 


3)1430     0 


476     8 


2  bricks. 


ft.     in. 


338     0 
4 


3)1352     0 


450     8 


1^^  brick. 


ft.  in. 

2G0  0 

450  8 

476  8 

572  0 

1759  4 

700  11 

272)1058  5(3  rds. 
816 

242  feet 


Deductions  from  Wall. 


2J  bricks. 


ft.     in 


58     4 
5 


3)291     8 


97 


2  bricks. 


ft.     in. 

40  10 

4 


3)163     4 


54     5 


\i  brick. 


ft.     in. 

100     4 

38     3 

7  11 

143  6 
97  2 
54  5 
49     6 

209  10 


700  11 


1  brick. 


ft.  in. 

34  0 

34  0 

6  3 


74     3 
2 


3)148     6 


49     6 


i  brick. 


ft    in. 


48  0 

68  0 

81  8 

120  0 

81  0 

98  0 

133  0 


629     8 
1 

3)629     8 


209  10 


Instead  of  dividing  by  3,  as  in  the  above  abstract,  it 
would  be  easier  to  add  the  products  of  the  half  brickwork, 
both  for  the  walliiig  and  for  the  deductions,  and  subtract 


the  deductions  from  the  walling ;  divide  the  difference 
by  3,  and  the  quotient  by  272,  should  it  be  found  neces- 
sary. 


Wall,  including  Apertures. 


4J  bricks. 

ft. 

in. 

26 

0 

8i 

208 

0 

13 

0 

221     0 


3  bricks. 


2i  bricks. 


ft.     ia 
286    0 


1716     0 


ft     in. 
286     0 
5 


1430     0 


2  bricks. 


ft.     in. 
338     0 
4 


1352     0 


H  brick. 


ft    in. 
260     0 


780  0 

1352  0 

1430  0 

1716  0 

6278  0 

2103  2 

8)3174  10 


272)1058  3(3  rods  242  feet 
816 

242 


2  J-  bricks. 


Deductions  from  Wall. 


it    in. 
58    4 
6 


291     8 


2  bricks. 


ft.     in. 
10  10 
4 


163     4 


1^  brick     1  brick. 


ft.  in, 

100  4 

38  3 

7  11 

143  6 


290     0 
3 


870  0 

291  8 

163  4 

148  6 

629  8 


2103     2 


ft.    ia 
34     0 
34     0 


74     3 
2 


148     6 


i  brick. 


ft  ia 

48  0 

68  0 

81  8 

120  0 

81  0 

98  0 

133  0 


629     8 
1 


629     8 


The  other  parts  of  the  above  abstracts  are  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding, and  are,  therefore,  not  again  repeated. 

A  wall  common  to  two  houses,  the  properties  of  different 
persons,  is  termed  a  pniVy  wall ;  but  if  a  building  stands 
insulated,  the  walls  which  join  the  entrance  to  the  rear  front 
are  called  Jlank  walls.  Chimneys  are  generally  carried  up, 
either  in  party  walls,  flank  walls,  or  partition  walls,  and  some- 
times in  all  of  them ;  but  never,  or  very  seldom,  in  the  front  or 
rear  walls.  When  the  walls  which  contain  the  chimneys  are 
thin,  it  becomes  necessary  to  form  a  projection  of  sufficient 
breadth  and  depth,  for  the  reception  of  the  flues,  or  as  many 
of  them  as  can  be  collected  into  one  stack.  This  projection 
is  generally  a  rectangular  prism,  showing  three  vertical  sides, 
and  is  termed  the  clnmney-breast,  or  breast  of  the  chimney. 

The  method  of  measuring  the  solid  contents  of  every  part 
of  a  building,  is  to  reduce  all  the  parts  into  rectangular 
prisms,  and  then  find  the  solid  contents  of  each  prism.  It 
frequently  happens  that  walls  consist  of  a  cluster  of  prisms, 
which  may  be  differently  divided,  in  order  to  separate  them. 
All  apertures  or  cavities  of  any  consequence,  ought  to  be 
deducted  from  the  measure,  whether  the  proprietor  or  the 
contractor  find  the  materials;  but  as  every  return  or  termi- 
nation requires  more  trouble  than  a  continued  wall,  an  allow- 
ance ought  to  be  made  in  lineal  measure,  upon  every  foot  of 


angles,  or  terminations,  as  before  mentioned,  for  the  trouble 
of  plumbing,  levelling,  and  straighting.  It  is  true,  that  a 
great  length  of  wall  requires  several  intermediate  plumbings, 
but  then,  as  they  are  only  regulated  upon  the  face,  the  trouble 
is  small  in  comparison  to  what  is  required  in  a  vertical  termi- 
nation, or  a  deflection  of  the  wall  from  its  course,  by  another 
return  wall  at  an  angle  with  it ;  and  as  these  plumbings  may 
be  made  at  regular  distances,  the  parts  of  the  wall  may  be 
said  to  be  unifonnly  built,  and  the  same  in  all  equal  lengths 
of  walls,  and  the  time  proportional  to  the  quantity  under  the 
same  circumstances  of  height  and  thickness,  and  therefore 
the  area  or  solidity  is  a  fair  ratio  of  the  price  :  and  farther  it 
is  evident,  that  the  greater  the  number  of  apertures  or  vacui- 
ties, in  the  same  length  of  wall,  the  more  trouble  will 
they  occasion  the  workmen,  since  more  time  is  required 
to  tbrm  the  sides  of  the  apertures,  or  the  boundaries  of  the 
vacuities.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  time  of  completing  a 
wall  of  given  dimensions,  even  with  the  same  quality  of  work, 
depends  upon  the  number  of  quoins  that  arc  to  be  built,  .and 
consequently  cannot  be  determined  by  the  solidity  of  the  wall, 
but  jointly  by  this  measure  .and  the  lineal  quantity  of  angles ; 
for  the  solidity  is  not  as  the  time,  when  the  number  of  quoins 
are  increased,  and  consequently  the  price  not  as  the  time ; 
but  the  price  may  be  made  up  by  the  increase  of  the  angles. 


BRI 


56 


BRI 


It  is  likewise  evident,  that  in  buikling  quoins,  while  the 
workmen  continue  at  the  same  rate  of  work,  the  lineal  quantity 
is  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  time,  and  therefore  this  lineal 
measure  is  a  fair  representation  of  the  value  of  the  work.  In 
carryin"  up  a  wall  of  the  same  horizontal  length,  where 
there  are  no  vacuities,  the  quantity  of  work  performed  by  the 
same  number  of  bricklayers  is  equal  in  equal  times,  but  the 
work  requires  an  additional  number  of  labourers  as  the  height 
increases,  to  supply  the  materials :  in  this  case  also,  the 
quantity  of  surface  is  a  fair  representation  of  the  value  of 
the  work,  in  respect  of  the  bricklayers,  but  an  additional  sum 
must  be  added  as  the  work  proceeds,  and  this  increase  would 
be  the  terms  of  an  arithmetical  progression  ;  for  suppose  the 
materials  at  the  foot  of  the  scaffold,  and  the  scaffolding  erected 
at  regular  heights ;  now  it  is  evident,  that  whatever  time  the 
labourer  requires  to  mount  the  first  scaflold,  he  would  require 
a  time  double,  triple,  quadrui)le,  the  first,  &c.,  to  mount  the 
second,  third,  fourth  scafl'old,  &c. :  the  sum  of  all  these  times 
is  the  whole  time.  There  should  also  be  a  uniform  increa«i 
of  price  tor  the  use  of  scaffolding,  as  well  as  for  an  additional 
nimiber  of  labourers,  as  the  work  is  carried  upwards.  From 
the  aggregate  of  these  circumstances,  it  is  evident,  that  the 
value  of  the  labour,  with  resj)ect  to  the  bricklayers,  may  be 
fairly  estimated  by  the  quantity  of  s\nfaee,  of  equal  thickness, 
but  an  increase  of  price  must  be  allowed  for  labourers  and 
scaffolding. 

To  measure  and  value  party  walls,  flank  walls,  and  par- 
tition walls  tcith  flues.— Find  the  cubical  contents  of  the 
whole,  or  each  part  of  the  wall,  in  feet,  according  to  its  figure, 
or  the  figures  into  which  it  may  be  resolved ;  deduct  the 
vacuities,  multiply  the  remainder  by  8,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  9,  and  the  work  will  be  reduced  to  the  standard; 
then  take  the  lineal  measure  of  all  the  quoins,  whether  exter- 
nal or  internal,  the  proper  rate  being  atlixed  to  each  common 
measure,  and  it  will  give  the  value  of  the  whole. 

In  measuring  walls  containing  chimneys,  it  is  not  cus- 
tomary to  deduct  the  flues ;  but  this  [iracticc  with  regard  to 
the  materials,  is  unjust,  though  perhaps,  by  taking  the  labour 
and  materials  together,  the  overcharge,  with  respect  to  the 
quantity  of  bricks  and  mortar,  may,  in  some  degree,  com- 
pensate for  the  loss  of  time;  on  the  other  hand,  should  the 
proprietor  find  the  materials,  it  is  not  customary  to  allow  for 
the  trouble  of  forming  the  flues,  which  is  therefore  a  loss  to 
the  contractor,  or  to  the  workman  who  engages  to  execute 
his  part  by  measure  or  task-work. 

With  regard  to  the  allowance  for  the  lineal  measure  of 
quoins,  we  regret  to  observe,  that  the  practice  is  not  general, 
and,  so  far  as  we  know,  has  only  as  yet  taken  place  in  outside 
and  inside  splays,  and  the  angles  of  groins :  we  admit  that 
every  innovation,  not  founded  upon  reason,  ought  to  be 
resisted  ;  but  as  we  are  convinced  of  the  justice  of  this  mode, 
we  have  here  ventured  to  introduce  this  as  a  general  practice, 
which  ought  to  be  followed  in  every  case,  whether  the  quoins 
be  vertical,  or  horizontal,  or  curved ;  and  an  appropriate  price 
should  be  affixed  to  each  species  of  cpioins,  whether  external 
or  internal,  right-angled  or  oblique,  curves  or  right  lines,  as 
the  trouble  is  greater  in  external  than  in  internal  angles, 
greater  in  oblique  than  in  right  angles,  greater  in  curved  quoins 
than  in  straight  ones,  and  still  greater  in  groins,  where  the 
angles  are  continually  varying,  than  in  curves  where  the 
angles  are^hc  same  throughout. 

If  the  brick-work  of  the  footing  of  a  wall  project  equally  on 
each  side,  and  if  the  bricks  be  of  the  same  kind  as  the  wall 
above,  take  the  height  of  the  wall  from  the  bottom  of  the 
footing,  as  high  as  it  goes  of  the  same  thickness;  multi[dy 
that  by  the  length  and  the  thickness,  and  reserve  this  solidity  ; 
then  multiply  the  length  of  the  wall,  the  height  of  the  footing, 


and  its  projection  with  the  addition  of  half  a  brick,  will  give 
the  solidity  of  the  footing  ;  add  these  two  solidities  together, 
and  the  sum  will  be  the  solidity  of  the  wall,  from  which 
deduct  the  vacuities,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  quantity 
of  solid  work. 

If  the  breast  of  a  chimney  project  from  tlie  surface  of  the 
wall,  and  be  parallel  thereto,  the  best  method  is  to  take  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  dimension  of  the  face,  multiply  these 
together,  and  the  product  by  the  thickness  taken  in  the  thin- 
nest part,  taking  no  notice  of  the  breast  of  the  chimney ;  then 
find  the  solidity  of  the  breast  itself;  add  these  solidities 
together,  and  the  sum  will  give  the  solidity  of  the  wall, 
including  the  vacuities,  which  must  be  deducted  for  the  real 
solidity  ;  after  taking  the  dimensions  for  the  quantity  of 
briek-work,  the  lineal  quantity  of  angles  should  be  taken,  and 
entered  in  the  Dimension  Book. 

Nothing  more  is  necessary  to  be  said  of  the  shaft,  than  to 
take  its  dimension  in  height,  and  horizontally  in  breadth  and 
thickness,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  stilidity  ;  and  then  take 
the  lineal  quantity  of  angles,  and  enter  them  all  in  the  Di- 
mension  Book. 

If  a  chimney  is  placed  in  the  angle,  with  the  face  of  the 
breast  intersecting  the  two  sides  of  the  wall,  the  breast  of 
the  chimney  must  be  considered  as  a  triangular  prism  ;  to 
find  the  solidity,  therefore,  multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by 
the  height  of  the  surface  of  the  front  or  breast,  and  the  pro- 
duet  is  the  solidity. 

To  take  the  dimensions  :  from  the  intersections  of  the  front 
of  the  breast  into  the  two  adjacent  walls,  draw  two  lines  on 
the  floor  parallel  to  each  adjacent  wall,  then  will  the  triangle 
on  the  floor,  included  between  the  front  and  these  lines,  be 
equal  to  the  triangular  base  of  the  chimney.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  area  of  the  triangular  base,  the  dimensions  may  be 
taken  in  three  various  ways,  almost  equally  easy  ;  but  as  con- 
venient a  method  is  to  take  the  extent  of  the  base,  which  is  the 
horizontal  dimension  of  the  breast,  and  multiply  that  by  half 
the  perpendicular;  or,  multiply  the  whole  perpendicular  by- 
half  the  base,  for  the  area  of  the  surface  on  which  the  prism 
stands  ;  but  as  fractions  arise  by  the  halving  of  odd  numbers, 
it  would  be  better  in  such  eases  to  multiply  the  whole  per- 
pendicular by  the  whole  base,  and  half  the  product  will  give 
the  area  of  tlie  prismatic  base,  which  is  that  of  the  chimney- 
breast. 

Sometimes  the  front  of  the  chimney-breast  does  not 
intersect  the  walls,  but  is  projected  out  from  each  adjacent 
wall  by  two  returning  vertical  planes  of  equal  breadth,  each 
at  a  right  angle  with  the  adjacent  wall  :  in  this  case  the 
triangular  prism  is  measured  as  before ;  but  as  the  part 
between  the  prism  and  the  wall  is  fri'qucntly  constructed 
with  burrs,  an  inferior  kind  of  brick,  this  part  will  then 
Consist  of  two  rectangular  prisms,  and  there  is  nothing  more 
to  do  than  to  measure  them  as  such ;  then  deducting  the 
vacuity  of  the  fire-place  from  the  triangular  prism,  the  re- 
mainder will  be  the  true  solidity  of  this  j)rism.  In  the 
former  case,  when  the  plane  of  the  breast  intersects  the  two 
sides  of  the  room,  a  lineal  allowance  per  foot  ought  to  be 
made  for  the  inside  splays,  and  in  the  latter  case,  where  the 
plane  of  the  breast  does  not  intersect  the  adjacent  walls, 
there  will  be  two  outside  splays,  and  two  internal  right 
angles;  in  this  case,  there  must  be  an  allowance  for  outside 
splays,  and  the  internal  right  angles,  per  tiiot,  running  each 
according  to  its  respective  (jualities  :  and  in  both  cases  it 
would  only  be  fair  to  allow  for  the  vertical  extent  of  the 
angles  of  the  fire-place.  It  is  not  here  meant  that  these 
allowances  should  l)e  made  according  to  the  present  prices, 
which  arc  adapted  so  as  to  include  hinderances  at  a  hazard, 
without  any  foundation    to  common    reason,   but    that  the 


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price  per  rod  sh<iiild  be  reduced  in  an  adequate  degiee,  and 
each  kind  valued  by  its  common  nicasuie,  in  proportion  to 
the  time  it  requires  to  i)i>rtbrni  a  given  portion. 

A  row  of  plain  tiles  laid  edge  to  edge,  with  their  broad 
surfaces  parallel  to  the  termination  of  a  wall,  so  as  to  project 
over  the  wall  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical  surface,  is  called 
single  plain  tile  cfeasiny,  and  if  two  rows  are  laid  one  above 
the  other,  the  one  row  breaking  the  joints  of  the  other,  then 
these  two  rows  are  called  double  plain  tile  creasing  ;  over 
the  plain  tile  creasing  a  row  of  bricks  are  on  edge,  with 
their  length  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  called  a  barge 
course,  or  cope. 

In  gables  which  terminate  with  plain  tile  creasing,  coped 
with  brick,  in  order  to  form  the  sloping  bed  for  the  tile 
creasing,  the  bricks  must  be  cut,  which  is  a  considerable 
trouble  ;  the  sloping  of  the  bricks  thus,  is  called  cut  splag. 
Plain  tile  creasing  and  cut  splay  are  charged  by  the  foot  run, 
and  sometimes  the  latter  by  the  foot  superficial. 

A  brick  wall  made  in  panels  between  quarters,  is  called 
brick-nogging.  This  kind  of  work  is  generally  measured 
by  the  yard  scpiare,  with  the  quarters  and  nogging  pieces 
included  in  the  niejisure ;  but  the  apertures  should  be  deducted, 
and  the  lineal  measure  of  the  angles  allowed. 

Pointing  is  the  filling  up  of  the  joints  of  the  bricks  on  the 
face,  after  the  wall  is  built,  with  mortar,  so  as  to  be  regular. 
Pointing  is  of  two  kinds.  In  either,  the  mortar  in  th6  joints 
is  well  raked  out,  and  filled  again  with  blue  mortar:  in  the 
one  kind,  the  courses  are  simjily  marked  with  the  edge  of  a 
trowel;  in  this  state  it  is  caW^A  fat  joint  pointing.  If,  in 
addition  to  flat  joint  pointing,  plaster  be  inserted  in  the  joint 
with  a  regular  projection,  and  neatly  pared  to  a  parallel 
breadth,  this  stale  is  called  tuck  pointing,  or  tuck-joint  point- 
ing, formerly  tuck  and  ])iitt. 

Pointing  is  measin-ed  by  the  foot  superficial,  including  in 
the  price,  mortar,  labour,  and  scafl'olding. 

IJubbed  and  ga\iged  work  is  set  either  in  putty  or  mortar, 
and  is  measured  either  by  the  foot  run,  or  by  the  foot  super- 
ficial, according  to  the  construction. 

The  circular  parts  of  drains  may  be  either  reduced  to  the 
standard,  or  to  the  cubic  foot,  and  tlie  number  of  rods  taken 
if  required.  The  mean  dimension  of  the  arch  will  be  found 
hy  taking  the  half  sum  of  the  exterior  and  interior  circum- 
ferences ;  but  perhaps  it  might  be  proper  to  make  the  price 
of  the  common  measure,  whether  it  be  a  foot,  or  a  yard,  or  a 
rod,  greater,  as  the  diameter  is  less ;  but  as  the  reciprocal  ratio 
would  increase  the  price  in  small  diameters  too  much,  perhaps 
prices  at  certain  diameters  would  be  a  sufficient  regulation. 

Circular  walls  are  measured  in  the  same  way,  by  finding 
a  mean  girt,  which  is  to  be  multiplied  by  the  height  and 
thickness ;  but  all  work  should  be  valued  in  proportion  to 
the  time  required  to  perform  a  given  portion  of  it,  but  in 
equal  portions  of  straight  and  curved  walls  of  the  same  kind 
of  workmanship,  the  curved  portion  will  require  a  greater 
price  than  the  straight  portion. 

In  measuring  canted  bows,  the  sides  are  measured  as 
continued  straight  walls,  but  the  angles  on  the  exterior  side 
of  the  building,  whether  they  are  external  or  internal,  are 
allowed  for  in  addition,  and  paid  for  under  the  denomination 
of  run  of  bird's-mouth  ;  all  angles  within  the  building,  if 
oblique,  from  whatever  cause  they  are  formed,  whether  by 
straight  or  circular  bows,  or  the  splays  of  windows,  are 
allowed  for,  under  the  denomination  of  run  of  cut  splay. 
These  allowances  are  certainly  what  ought  in  justice  to  be, 
and  this  is  fulfilling,  in  part,  what  has  been  so  much  insisted 
upon  ;  but  allowances  should  extend  to  right  angles  also  : 
if  the  bricks  be  made  to  the  splay,  then  the  charge  need  not 
be  greater  than  when  the  angles  are  right. 

8 


Brick  cornices  are  charged  by  the  foot  run,  but  as  there 
are  many  kinds,  and  these  executed  with  more  or  less  diffi- 
culty, the  price  will  depend  on  this,  and  also  upon  the  value 
of  the  materials. 

Garden  walls  are  measured  the  same  as  other  walls,  but 
if  they  arc  interrupted  with  piers,  the  thin  part  may  be 
measured  as  in  common  walling,  and  the  pier.s  by  themselves, 
and  the  additional  allowance  for  the  right  angles,  at  per  foot 
run,  should  be  granted.  The  coping  is  measured  by  itself, 
according  to  its  kind. 

The  common  measure  for  tiling,  is  a  square  of  10  feet,  each 
side  containing  an  area  of  100  superficial  feet.  Not  only  the 
price  of  new  work  is  valued  by  this  measure,  but  also  strip- 
ping and  re-tiling  of  old  roofs;  but  if  any  quantity  of  new 
tiles  are  used,  they  are  charged  separately,  and  the  superficial 
quantity  of  old  tiles  that  would  fill  the  places  of  the  new,  are 
computed,  and  deducted  from  the  old.  In  plain  tiling,  as  the 
rafters  are  generally  made  three-quarters  of  the  breadth  of 
the  building,  the  svn-face  of  the  roof  is  exactly  equal  to  the 
area,  and  a  half  more,  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  build- 
ing, or  the  space  contained  between  the  sides  of  the  covering 
and  ends.  This  being  kept  m  view,  will  save  much  trouble 
in  calculation. 

Paving  is  laid  either  with  bricks  or  tiles,  and  is  measured 
by  the  yard  square.  The  price  per  yard  will  depend  on 
whether  the  bricks  are  laid  flat  or  on  edge,  or  whether  laid 
with  bricks  or  tiles,  or  of  what  size  tiles,  or  whether  any  of 
these  be  laid  in  sand  or  in  mortar. 

The  mensuration  of  groins  and  vaults  will  be  shown  under 
their  respective  heads. 

That  this  work  may  be  generally  useful,  we  shall  here 
subjoin  the  customs  of  several  other  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  well  as  the  foregoing,  which  are  calculated  for 
London  and  its  neighbourhood,  or  work  done  in  the  country 
by  London  masters. 

In  most  counties,  brick  walls  are  measured  by  the  yard, 
without  reducing  the  thickness  of  the  work  to  the  standard, 
and  fixing  a  price  per  yard  according  to  the  thickness. 

In  Cumberland,  walls  are  mostly  measured  by  the  yard, 
and  rated  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  work  :  they  have 
also  a  standard  thickness  of  18  inches,  and  their  rod  or  rood 
is  49  square  yards  ;  these  ai-e  also  used  by  masons  in  the 
country,  but  neither  the  standard  nor  the  rod  are  frequently 
used  ;  apertures  are  always  included  for  workmanship.  In 
measuring  the  breasts  of  chimneys,  they  take  the  horizontal 
girt  from  wall  to. wall,  to  this  they  add  the  number  of  withs, 
or  divisions  between  the  flues,  reckoning  each  with  3  inches, 
for  the  whole  breadth ;  the  height  of  the  story,  or  as  high  as 
the  work  goes  on  uniformly,  is  the  other  dimension  of  the 
face,  and  the  thickness  is  reckoned  9-inch  work.  In  mea- 
suring a  chimney-shaft,  they  girt  it  all  round,  then  add  the 
number  of  withs  lor  the  breadth,  as  before,  and  if  there  is 
only  one  row  of  flues,  they  reckon  the  thickness  a  9-inch 
wall. 

In  Scotland,  the  brickwork  of  outside  walls  is  generally 
measured  by  the  rood  of  36  square  feet,  and  this  measure  is 
almost,  if  not  quite,  general.  In  Glasgow,  the  standard 
thickness  is  14  inches,  or  1-^  brick,  the  same  as  London ;  and 
walls  of  less  thickness  are  generally  measured  by  tiie  yard, 
and  the  rate  of  price  is  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
work.  Chimney  shafts,  or  stalks  as  they  are  th»re  called, 
are  girt  about  for  their  horizontal  dimension,  and  the  altitude 
of  the  shaft,  together  with  half  its  thickness,  is  the  other 
dimension  of  the  face ;  and  the  thickness  is  reckoned  a  brick 
and  a  half.  In  measuring  the  breasts  of  chimneys,  they  take 
the  breadth  of  the  face,  and  one  return  for  the  length,  and 
the  other  dimension  of  the  face  is  thi!  height  as  far  as  the 


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58 


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work  goes  of  a  uniform  quality  and  thickness;  the  thick- 
ness is  what  the  breast  really  projects.  Vacuities  for  doors 
and  windows  are  not  deducted  from  outside  work. 

In  Ireland,  the  common  measure  is  a  perch  of  21  square 
feet,  being  21  feet  long,  and  1  foot  high  ;  the  standard  thick- 
ness is  9  inches  only.  The  custom  there,  as  also  in  most 
country  places  in  Great  Britain,  was  to  include  the  openings. 
A  4-inch  wall  is  reckoned  two-thirds  of  a  9-inch  wall ;  and 
a  3-ineh  wall,  half  a  9-inch  wall.  In  the  centering  of  sewer 
vaulting,  half  the  arch  is  allowed;  and  in  groin  vaulting,  the 
whole  arches  arc  done  at  so  much  per  piece,  according  to 
their  kind ;  splayed  jambs,  cant  quoins,  &c.,  by  the  running 
foot. 

For  further  information  on  measuring,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  a  valual)le  little  work,  called  "  The  Student's  Guide  to  the 
Practice  of  Measuring  and  Valuing  Artificers'  Works,"  pub- 
lished by  Weak,  London. 

Materials  in  bricklaying  are  charged  as  follows : — 

i'ine  bricks,  red  rubbers,  best  marl  stocks  for  cutters, 
second  best,  pickings,  common  bricks,  place  bricks,  paving 
bricks,  kiln-burnt  bricks,  and  Dutch  clinkers,  by  the  thou- 
sand. 

Red  rubbers,  kiln-burnt  bricks,  and  fire-bricks,  are  also 
sold  by  the  hundred. 

Foot-tiles  and  ten-inch  tiles,  cither  by  the  hundred  or 
thousand. 

Sunk  foot-tiles,  and  ten-inch  tiles,  with  five  holes,  by  the 
piece. 

Pantiles,  plain  tiles,  and  nine-inch  tiles,  by  the  thousand. 

Oven-tiles,  Welch  oven-tiles,  Welch  fire-lumps, fire-bricks, 
and  chimney-pots,  are  sold  by  the  piece. 

Sand,  clay,  and  loam,  by  the  load :  lime  sometimes  by  the 
hundredweight. 

Dutch  terras,  Parker's  Roman  cement,  and  lime,  by  the 
bushel. 

Pantile  laths,  oak  laths,  double  and  single,  for  slating,  are 
sold  by  the  bundle  or  load. 

Ilair  and  mortar  by  the  load. 

ilortar,  lime,  and  hair  fine  stuff,  Parker's  cement,  and 
blue  pointing  mortar,  are  sold  by  the  hod.  Hair  is  some- 
times sold  by  the  bushel. 

Hip  hooks  and  T  nails  by  the  piece. 

In  the  former  edition  of  this  work  was  inserted  a  number 
of  tables,  showing  the  prices  and  quantities  of  materials ;  but 
as  there  are  now  published  several  useful  price-books,  in 
which  this  kind  of  information  is  given,  it  has  been  con- 
sidered better  to  refer  to  them  than  occupy  so  large  a  portion 
of  our  limited  space  as  the  tables  would  necessarily  occupy. 

BRIDGE,  a  structure  of  wood,  stone,  brick,  iron,  or  other 
material,  raised  over  a  river,  pond,  lake,  or  any  intervening 
space,  for  the  purpose  of  allljrding  a  convenient  mode  of 
passage  for  men  or  animals.  The  extreme  supports  of  a 
bridge  are  called  the  butments,  or  abutments.  See  Abutment. 
If  composed  of  more  than  one  opening,  the  intermediate  sup- 
porters are  called  piers :  the  protecting  walls  or  fences  on 
each  side  are  called  parapets. 

When  the  bridge  is  intended  for  both  foot-passengers  and 
carriages,  the  sides  arc  generally  raised,  and  sometimes  paved 
with  flag-stones,  and  are  called  banquettes,  or  foot-jmths ; 
the  middle  part,  being  reserved  for  carriages,  is  the  road,  or 
carriafje-imy. 

In  tnis  place  we  propose  to  give  a  slight  historical  sketch 
of  the  rise,  progress,  and  present  state  of  bridge-building, 
exemplified  in  descriptions  of  the  most  celebrated  edifices  of 
the  kind  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Under  the  respective 
heads  of  Stone  Bridoe,  Timber  Bhidoe,  Iron  Bridge, 
Suspension  Biudoe,'  &c.,  will  be  found  the  required  infor- 


mation on  each  of  these  several  branches  of  this  important 
subject;  and  some  account  will  be  given  of  the  theory  under 
Stone  Bridge. 

The  origin  of  bridges,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  takes  its  date 
very  far  back  in  the  annals  of  the  human  race,  though  we 
have  no  documents  by  whieli  to  trace  their  progressive 
improvement,  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  rudely  thrown  by 
accident  or  choice  over  a  stream,  to  the  convenient  and  stu- 
pendous edifices  of  more  modern  times. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  bridges  w'cre  composed  of 
lintels  of  wood  or  stone,  stretching  from  bank  to  bank ;  or 
if  the  breadth  of  the  river  or  valley  to  be  passed  were  con- 
siderable, resting  on  piers  or  posts  fixed  in  thi;  bed  of  the 
river.  In  a  strong  current,  the  freijuent  jiiers  or  posts 
required  for  the  support  of  lintels,  would,  by  contracting  the 
water.way,  increase  it  to  a  torrent,  obstructive  of  navigation, 
and  ruinous  to  the  piers  themselves.  In  constructing  bridges 
therefore  over  rapid  rivers,  it  would  be  found  essential  to 
their  stability,  that  the  openings  between  the  supporters 
should  be  as  wide  as  possible,  and  every  facility  given  to  the 
free  passage  of  the  water ;  and  as  this  could  be  etfected  only 
by  the  use  of  stone  arches  or  wood  trusses,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  these  inventions  were  perfected  before  bridges  of 
importance  had  become  common. 

There  are  still  remaining  bridges  of  great  antiquity  built 
by  the  Romans,  but  we  are  not  acquainted  with  the  earliest 
history  of  so  useful  a  contrivance.  It  is  by  many  supposed 
that  the  Greeks  very  soon  adopted  the  use  of  arches,  but  at 
any  rate  they  do  not  appear  to  have  applied  them  to  other 
purposes  than  for  covering  apertures  in  their  buildings.  See 
Arch,  ARCHiTECffURE.  Nor  had  they  a  bridge  over  the 
Cephisus,  which  crossed  the  high-road  between  Athens  and 
Eleusis,  till  the  Emperor  Adrian  erected  one.  In  the  Old 
Testament  there  is  no  mention  of  a  bridge,  and  perhaps  the 
bridge  of  Semiramis,  at  Babylon,  may  be  considered  the 
oldest  on  record. 

The  Chinese  lay  claim  to  a  high  antiquity  for  their  skill 
in  bridge-building  by  means  of  arches.  Several  of  these 
structures  are  of  great  magnitude,  built  of  stone,  and  turned 
c<n  arches  in  the  usual  manner  ;  others  are  constructed  with 
stones  from  five  to  ten  feet  in  length,  so  cut  as  each  to  form 
the  segment  of  an  are,  which  consequently  has  no  key-stone ; 
ribs  of  wood  being  fitted  to  the  convexity  of  the  arch,  and 
bolted  through  the  stones  by  iron  bars,  fastened  in  the  solid 
parts  of  the  bridge. 

The  suspension-bridges  of  South  America  are  of  a  very 
extraordinary  character,  and  from  the  lightness  of  their  mate- 
rials, their  oscillation,  and  the  great  height  at  which  they  are 
sometimes  suspended,  present  to  the  startled  traveller  objects 
at  once  alarming  and  picturesque,  and  well  calculated  to  try 
the  strongest  nerve.     See  Suspension-Bridge. 

The  Roman  bridges  arc  described  by  Bergier,as  possessing 
all  the  requisites  met  with  in  a  modern  bridge ;  they  consisted 
of  piers,  arches,  butments,  carriage-ways,  and  raised  ban- 
quettes or  footpaths  separated  from  the  road  by  a  railing, 
and  sometimes  furnished  with  a  cover  to  shelter  jiassengcrs 
from  the  weather.  Their  solidity  and  proportion  prove  they 
must  have  been  constructed  on  sound  principles. 

The  superintendence  and  care  of  bridges  was  always  an 
important  object  with  the  Romans ;  it  was  at  first  committed 
to  the  priests,  who  thence  obtained  the  name  of  pontijices  ; 
afterwards  it  was  given  to  the  censors  and  curators  of  roads ; 
and  at  last  the  emperors  took  it  into  their  own  hands.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  building  of  bridges  was  esteemed  to  be  an 
act  of  religion ;  and  about  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
St.  Benezet  founded  a  regular  order  of  hospitallers,  under  the 
denomination  of  pontifces,  or  bridge-builders,  whose  pro- 


vincc  it  was  to  erect  bridges,  appoint  ferries,  and  entertain  tra- 
Vfllei-s  in  hospitals  built  on  the  banks  of  rivers. 

( )f  the  l)ridges  of  antiquity,  that  built  by  Trajan  across  the 
Danube,  near  the  town  of  Warhel,  in  Hungary,  is  allowed 
to  have  been  the  most  magnificent.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Adrian,  but  some  of  the  piers  may  still  be  seen. 

The  remains  of  a  bridge  bearing  as  strong  marks  of  ruined 
magnificence  as  any  of  antiquity,  are  to  be  met  with  at  the 
bottom  of  a  hill,  on  which  the  town  of  Narni  is  seated,  on 
the  road  between  Loretto  and  Eome.  This  bridge  was  built 
by  Augustus,  to  join  two  mountains,  between  which  flows  the 
river  Ncra,  and  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  Narni  to  pass  on 
a  level  from  one  mountain  to  the  other.  It  was  of  an  e.xtra- 
ordinary  height,  and  its  whole  length,  850  palms  (637J  feet). 
It  consisted  of  four  large  unequal  arches. 

The  next  considerable  Eoman  work  of  this  kind  is  the 
Pont  du,  Garde,  about  three  leagues  from  Nismes;  which 
serves  the  double  purpose  of  a  bridge  over  the  Gardon,  and 
an  aqueduct  for  supplying  the  people  of  Nismes  with  water. 
The  bridge,  which  consists  of  six  arches,  is  about  465  feet  in 
length,  and  supports  a  second  series  of  1 1  arches,  which  are 
continued  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  bridge,  and  form  a 
junction  with  the  slope  of  the  mountains  on  either  side ;  it  is 
about  780  feet  long.  Over  these  is  a  third  series  of  35  arches, 
much  smaller  than  those  below,  850  feet  in  length,  support- 
ing a  canal  on  a  level  with  the  two  mountains,  along  which 
the  water  is  conveyed  to  Nismes  by  a  continued  aqueduct. 
This  extraordinary  edifice  is  built  with  very  large  stones, 
held  together  by  iron  cramps  without  cement.  The  whole 
height  is  190  feet  above  the  lower  river. 

The  bridge  of  St.  JEsprit,  near  Lyons,  is  of  Roman  origin, 
and  has  long  been  deemed  one  of  the  finest  and  boldest  of  the 
ancient  bridges  of  France.  Its  whole  length  is  upwards  of 
800  yards  ;  it  is  very  crooked,  bends  in  several  places,  and 
makes  many  unequal  angles,  particularly  in  those  parts  where 
the  river  has  the  strongest  current.  The  arches  run  fi"om 
15  to  20  fathoms  in  width.  The  feet  or  bottoms  of  the  piers 
consist,  in  their  lower  parts,  of  several  courses  of  footings 
jutting  out  like  steps ;  and  are  each  protected  by  two  pedes- 
tals, projecting  from  them.  Between  the  large  arches  are 
smaller  apertures,  like  windows,  reaching  nearly  to  the  tops 
of  the  pedestals,  about  the  middle  of  the  pier.  This  mode  of 
construction  was  adopted  with  a  view  to  break  gradually 
the  mighty  force  of  the  Rhone :  the  several  courses  of  steps, 
jutting  out  from  the  piers,  oppose  and  break  the  stream  by 
portions,  and  prevent  it  from  operating  with  its  whole  force 
upon  the  fabric  at  once  ;  and  when  the  flood  rises  so  high  as 
to  cover  the  steps  and  pedestals,  the  small  arches,  or  windows, 
allow  the  water  to  pass  freely,  which  otherwise  would  have 
choked  in  the  upper  part  of  the  great  arches,  and  endangered 
by  their  being  forced  up. 

The  city  of  Valenza  de  Alcantara,  in  Spain,  is  celebrated 
for  its  ancient  bridge  over  the  Tajo,  or  Tagus,  about  25  miles 
from  Madrid,  built  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan;  and, 
as  appears  from  an  inscription  over  one  of  its  arches,  by  the 
people  of  Lusitania,  who  were  assessed  to  defray  the  expense. 
It  is  200  feet  above  the  water,  and  though  consisting  of  only 
six  arches,  is  670  feet  in  length,  and  28  in  breadth.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  bridge  is  a  small  chapel  dug  in  the  rock  by 
the  pagans,  who  dedicated  it  to  Trajan ;  but  when  the  Chris- 
tians obtained  possession,  they  consecrated  it  to  St.  Julian. 

Near  the  old  town  of  Brioude,  in  the  Lower  Auvergne,  or 
department  of  the  Upper  Loire,  is  a  stupendous  stone  bridge, 
of  one  arch,  the  largest  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  is 
attributed  to  the  Romans,  and  stretches  over  the  whole  stream 
of  the  Allier.  The  extremities  of  the  arch  rest  on  a  natural 
rock,  which  occasions  the  spring  on  one  side  to  be  lower  than 


on  the  other  ;  it  is  formed  of  squared  stones  in  two  ranks  ; 
the  rest  of  the  fabric  is  of  rubljle-work.  The  span  of  the 
arch  is  181  feet;  its  greatest  height,  from  the  level  of  the 
water  to  its  intrados,  08  feet  8  inches :  and  the  breadth 
of  the  bridge,  13  feet. 

The  bridge  of  Avignon  was  begun  in  the  year  1176,  and 
finished  in  1188,  probably  under  the  direction  of  St.  Bcnezet 
and  the  fraternity  of  hospitallers,  over  whom  he  presided  ;  it 
consisted  of  18  arches,  and  was  about  1,000  yards  in  length. 
The  road  way  was  so  narrow,  that  two  carriages  could  not 
pass  each  other  in  any  part ;  this  had  caused  it  to  be  deserted 
by  all  but  foot-passengers  long  before  its  destruction,  which 
happened  in  1699,  by  one  of  those  violent  inundations  com- 
mon to  the  Rhone.  Many  of  the  ruinous-decayed  arches  still 
remain. 

The  city  of  Venice  has  nearly  500  handsome  bridges  of 
one  arch,  and  various  sizes,  over  the  canals,  &c. ;  most  of  them 
are  of  white  stone,  similar  to  that  with  which  the  streets  are 
paved,  without  any  balusters  or  fence  on  either  side.  Of  these 
the  principal  is  the  Rialto,  esteemed,  when  erected,  a  master- 
piece of  art.  It  was  begun  in  1588,  and  finished  in  1591, 
after  a  design  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  consists  of  one  bold 
flat  arch,  nearly  100  feet  wide,  and  only  23  in  height  from 
the  level  of  the  water.  Its  breadth,  which  is  43  feet,  is 
divided  into  three  narrow  streets,  by  two  rows  of  shops :  the 
middle  street  is  the  widest,  and  in  the  centre  there  is  an 
arched  aperture,  by  which  the  three  streets  communicate 
with  each  other.  At  each  end  of  the  bridge  is  an  ascent  of 
50  steps,  and  the  prospect  from  its  summit  is  both  lively  and 
magnificent.  The  foundation  extends  90  feet,  and  rests  upon 
12,000  elm  piles ;  the  whole  exterior  of  the  bridge,  as  well 
as  of  the  shops,  is  of  marble.  The  buUding  cost  the  Republic 
250,000  ducats. 

The  most  stupendous  and  magnificent  work  ever  executed 
in  the  department  we  are  now  speaking  of,  is  the  aqueduct 
bridge  of  Alcantara,  near  the  city  of  Lisbon.  It  was  begun 
in  the  reign  of  John  V.  king  of  Portugal,  in  the  year  1713, 
and  was  finished  on  the  sixth  of  August,  1732,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Brigadier  Mansel  de  Maya.  The  aque- 
duct commences  at  a  spring  near  Ribeira  de  Caranque,  about 
three  leagues  and  a  half  from  Lisbon,  to  which  city  the 
water  is  conveyed  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
aqueduct  passes  subterraneously  through  the  hills,  receiving 
in  its  course  the  waters  of  several  springs,  and  stretches 
across  many  valleys  on  the  tops  of  magnificent  ranges  of 
arches,  of  which  that  crossing  the  vale  of  Alcantara  is  the 
principal.  When  the  water  emerges  fi-om  its  subterraneous 
passage,  it  is  received  in  two  chamiels  on  the  tops  of  these 
arches,  each  about  12  inches  deep ;  it  generally  flows  at 
about  the  depth  of  seven  inches,  yielding  an  abundant  supply 
for  the  city  and  its  environs.  The  interior  height  of  this 
building  is  13  feet,  and  between  the  streams  is  a  paved  walk 
or  foot-path.  The  subterraneous  passages  are  continued  of 
the  same  height  and  width  throughout  the  whole  extent 
of  the  works,  and  are  lighted  and  ventilated  by  openings  to 
the  surface  of  the  hills  through  which  they  pass.  Over  each 
of  these  openings  are  turrets  or  square  towers,  with  strong 
latticed  windows,  to  prevent  mischievous  persons  from 
thro^ving  stones,  &c.,  into  the  aqueduct.  These  turrets  are 
16  in  number,  each  16  feet  square,  and  rising  23  feet  six 
inches  above  the  roof  of  the  aqueduct ;  the  number  of  win- 
dows is  79,  each  three  feet  seven  inches  long,  by  13  inches 
wide,  railed  with  iron  and  latticed  with  bars.  Beneath  every 
second  turret  is  an  arched  doorway  into  the  aqueduct.  The 
water-channel  uader  the  grand  arch  is  about  24  feet  in  width, 
and  seven  feet  in  depth  ;  but  this  channel  is  dry,  except  in 
very  rainy  seasons.     There  is,  indeed,  a  small  stream  cpn- 


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slantly  running  through  the  vale  of  Alcantara,  but  it  is 
conveyed  by  a  very  narrow  channel  under  the  pavement 
beneath  the  grand  arch,  and  then  continues  its  course  through 
the  valley  in  a  stream  between  two  and  three  feet  wide,  till 
it  falls  into  the  Tagiis,  about  two  miles  below.  This  remark- 
al)le  structure  consists  of  35  arches,  of  various  dimensions. 
The  eighth  is  the  grand  arch,  which  is  108  feet  five  inches 
in  the" span,  and  227  feet  in  height:  the  other  arches  vary 
from  21  feet  ten  inches,  to  72  feet  in  width.  The  total 
length  of  the  ])iers  and  arches  is  2,404  feet.  The  expense 
of  erecting  this  work,  and  keeping  it  in  repair,  has  hitherto 
been  defrayed  h\  the  trifling  rate  of  one  rey  on  every  pound 
of  meat  sold  in  the  markets  of  Lisbon. 

In  France,  besides  the  Roman  structures  already  noticed, 
there  arc  many  bridges  of  more  recent  date,  remarkable  both 
for  their  size  and  the  boldness  of  their  construction:  among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  bridge  of  Neuilly,  built  between 
the  years  17G8  and  1780,  by  M.  Perronct.  It  crosses  the 
Seine,  on  a  line  with  the  grand  avenue  of  the  Champs  Elysees, 
in  the  front  of  the  Tuilleries;  it  is  level  on  the  top,  and 
consists  of  five  equal  arches,  120  feet  French  ( 128  feet  English) 
in  the  span,  with  a  rise  of  30  French  feet  (32  feet  English). 
The  piers  are  14  feet  thick,  and  the  bridge  itself  48  feet 
broad.  The  arches,  which  are  elliptic,  are  composed  of  1 1 
ares  of  circles,  of  different  diameters  :  the  upper  portion 
of  the  arch  was  formed  with  a  circle  of  160  feet  radius, 
which,  by  its  settlement  during  the  building  and  after  remo- 
ving the  centres,  became  flattened  to  an  arc  of  a  circle  of 
259  feet  radius,  diflering  so  little  from  a  platband,  that  the 
rise  of  the  curve  in  a  length  of  33  feet,  amounts  to  no  more 
than  six  inches  nine  lines. 

At  Mantes  is  a  bridge  of  three  arches,  likewise  over  the 
Seine.  It  was  begun  in  1757,  by  M.  Hupeau,  and  finished 
by  M.  Perroet.  The  centre  arch  is  120  feet  French  (128 
feet  English)  in  the  span  ;  the  side  arches  are  each  12  feet 
less.  The  piers  are  25^  feet  wide,  and  the  abutments  29 
feet  thick. 

In  the  year  1771,  M.  Regemortes  constructed  a  flat  bridge 
over  the  river  AUier,  at  Moulins,  consisting  of  13  semi-ellip- 
tical arches,  of  04  fcct  span  each,  and  24  feet  high. 

Over  the  river  Oise,  oii  the  great  road  from  Paris  into 
Flanders,  is  the  bridge  of  St.  Maxence,  41  feet  wide,  built 
by  M.  Perronct.  The  arches,  three  in  number,  each  describe 
the  segment  of  a  circle,  whose  radius  is  118  feet,  leaving  a 
water-way  of  77  feet.  The  piers  are  singularly  constructed  ; 
each  being  composed  of  four  cylindrical  jiillars,  nine  feet  in 
diameter,  leaving  between  them  three  spaces  or  intercolum- 
niations,  which  are  arched  over ;  those  on  the  oiitsides  are 
closed  with  a  thin  walling,  and  the  middle  one  is  lefl  open. 

The  last  f  jrcign  bridge  we  shall  notice,  is  that  of  Orleans, 
over  the  Loire,  built  by  M.  ITupcau,  between  the  yeai's  1750 
and  1700.  It  comprises  nine  oval  arches,  described  from 
three  centres,  which  spring  at  12  inches  above  low  water. 
The  middle  arch  is  100  feet  in  span,  with  a  rise  of  30  feet ; 
the  extreme  arches  at  either  end,  are  each  98  feet  wide,  and 
20  feet  high;  the  intermediate  arches  increase  gradually  in 
dimensions  as  they  approach  the  centre.  The  four  middle 
piers  are  19  feet  wide;  the  others,  18  feet  each;  and  the 
abutments  23?f  feet  thick;  making  the  whole  length  of  the 
bridge  1,100  feet. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  bridges  in  our  own  country, 
beginning  with  those  of  the  greatest  antiquity.  The  Gothic 
triangular  bridge  at  Croylaud,  Lincolnshire,  is  supposed  to 
be  the  most  ancient  structure  remaining  entire  in  the  khig- 
dom.  It  was  erected  about  the  year  800,  bui  fur  what  pur- 
pose, it  is  difficult,  if  not  altogether  impossible  to  determine; 
it  is,  however,  obvious  that  utility  was  not  the  motive  of  the 


builder ;  though  it  may  be  allowed  to  claim  the  qualities  of 
boldness  of  design  and  singularity  of  construction,  as  power- 
fully as  any  bridge  in  Europe.  It  is  formed  by  three  semi- 
arches,  whose  bases  stand  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
equidistant  from  each  other,  and  uniting  at  the  top.  This 
curious  triune  formation  has  led  many  persons  to  imagine, 
that  the  architect  intended  thereby  to  suggest  an  idea  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  :  nor  is  this  improbable,  considering  the  age 
in  which  it  was  built.  Tlie  ascent  on  either  side  of  the 
semi-arches  is  by  steps  paved  with  small  stones,  and  so  steep 
that  foot-passengers  only  can  go  over  the  bridge.  Horsemen 
and  carriages  frequently  go  under  it,  as  the  river  is  in  that 
place  but  shallow.  Although  this  structure  has  been  built 
for  so  many  centuries,  the  arches  ai'c  still  sound  and  free 
from  fissures,  and  the  building  in  general  exhibits  very 
trifling  marks  of  decay. 

The  bridge  of  Burton-upon-Trent  is  1,.545  feet  in  length. 
It  consists  of  34  arches,  all  of  free-stone,  and  is  strong  and 
lofty.  It  was  erected  in  the  12th  century,  by  Bernard, 
abbot  of  Burton. 

Near  Old  Aberdeen  is  a  celebrated  Gothic  bridge,  over 
the  river  Don. 

The  centre  arch  of  the  bridge  at  York  is  82^  feet  wide, 
and  27  feet  high. 

At  Winston,  Yorkshire,  is  a  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  108 
feet  nine  inches  in  width,  built  of  rubble  stone,  for  the  small 
cost  of  £500.  It  was  designed  by  Sir  Thomas  Robinson, 
and  built  by  John  Johnson,  a  common  mason,  of  Walsingham, 
in  the  year  1702. 

At  Kelso,  is  an  elegant  stone  bridge  over  the  Tweed, 
built  by  Mr.  Rennie.  It  is  quite  level  at  the  top,  having 
five  elliptical  arches,  each  of  72  feet  span  ;  every  pier  has 
a  circular  projection,  on  which  stand  two  Doric  pilasters, 
supporting  a  simple  block  cornice.  This  bridge  cost  about 
£13,000  exclusive  of  the  new  roads  at  each  end,  which  cost 
about  £3,000  more. 

Mr.  Rennie  also  constructed  the  aqueduct  bridge  over  the 
river  Lune,  at  Lancaster,  which  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  works  of  the  kind  extant.  At  the  place 
where  it  is  built,  the  water  is  deep  and  the  bottom  bad  :  the 
foundations  are  therefore  laid  20  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  water,  on  a  flooring  of  timber  resting  on  piles.  The 
arches  are  five  in  number,  of  70  feet  span  each,  and  rise; 
about  39  feet  above  the  surfiice  of  the  water.  It  has  a  hand- 
some cornice,  and  every  part  is  finished  in  the  best  manner. 
The  total  height  from  the  surface  of  the  river,  to  that  of  the 
canal,  is  57  feet ;  and  the  canal  admits  barges  of  00  Ions 
burden  to  navigate  upon  it.  'llie  foundation  alone  of  this 
building  cost  £15,000,  and  the  superstructure  more  than 
double  that  sum,  although  the  stnne  was  obtained  from  a 
quai'ry  less  than  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  spot. 

The  bridge  over  the  Pease,  or  Peaths,  between  Dunbar 
and  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  is  rather  an  uncommon  structure. 
It  crosses  a  deep  ravine,  and  consists  of  four  semicircular 
arches.  The  arch  on  the  east  side  of  the  ravine  is  54  feet 
wide;  the  .second  55  feet;  the  third  52  feet;  and  the  fixirth. 
or  western  arch,  48  feet.  From  tlie  bottom  of  the  ravine  to 
the  surface  of  the  road,  the  height  is  124  feet.  It  was  designed 
and  built  by  the  late  Mr.  I).  Henderson,  of  Edinburgh. 

The  bridges  of  Edinburgh  are  built,  not  over  water,  but 
over  dry  land.  They  arc  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
North  Bridfie  and  South  Bridge,  and  afford  an  easy  com- 
munication between  the  New  Town  and  the  royalty  and 
suburbs  on  cither  side  of  it.  'ITie  North  Bridge,  which  forms 
the  main  communication  between  the  Old  and  New  Towns, 
was  projected  in  the  year  1703;  but  the  contract  for  build- 
ing was  not  signed  till  the  21st  of  August,   1765.     The 


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architect  was  Mr.  Wiiliam  Mylnc,  wlio  agreed  with  the 
towii-c'Oiincii  of"  Ediuljiirgh  to  finish  the  work  for  £10,140, 
ami  to  iipliold  it  for  ten  years.  It  was  also  to  be  finished 
before  Martinnias,  1769  ;  but  on  the  8th  of  August  that 
year,  whiii  tiie  work  was  nearly  completed,  the  vaults  and 
side  walls  on  the  st)uth  fell  down.  This  misfortune  was 
occasioned  by  the  foundation  having  been  laid  upon  the 
rubliish  of  the  houses  which  had  long  betbre  been  built  on 
the  north  side  of  the  High-street  ;  and  which  had  been 
thrown  o\it  into  the  hollow  to  the  northward  ;  of  this  rub- 
bish there  was  a  depth  of  no  less  than  eight  feet  between  the 
foundation  of  the  briiJge  and  the  solid  earth.  Besides  this 
deficiency  in  the  foundation,  an  immense  load  of  earth,  which 
had  been  laid  over  the  vaults  and  arches,  in  Oider  to  raise 
the  bridge  to  a  proper  level,  had,  no  doubt,  contributed  to 
produce  the  catastrophe  above-mentioned.  The  bridge  was 
repaired  by  pulling  down  some  parts  of  the  side  walls,  and 
afterwards  rebuilding  them;  strengthening  them  in  others 
wtrii  cliun  bars ;  removing  the  quantity  of  earth  laid  upon 
the  vaults,  and  supplying  its  place  with  hollow  aix-hcs,  &c. 
The  whole  was  sup|iortcd  at  the  south  end  by  very  strong 
buttresses  and  counterf'irts  on  each  side  ;  but  on  the  north  it 
lias  only  a  single  support.  The  whole  length  of  the  bridge, 
from  High-street,  in  the  Old  Town,  to  Princes-street,  in  the 
New  Town,  is  1,125  feet;  the  total  length  of  the  piers  and 
archer,  is  310  feet.  The  width  of  the  three  great  arches,  is 
72  feet  each ;  of  the  piers,  13^  feet ;  and  of  the  small  arches, 
each  20  feet.  Tlie  height  of  the  great  arches,  from  the  base 
to  the  top  (if  the  parapet,  is  08  feet;  the  breadth  of  the 
bridge,  within  the  wall  over  the  arches,  is  40  feet ;  and  the 
breadth  at  each  eiul,  50  teet.  The  South  Bridge  is  in  a  line 
with  the  North  Bridge,  so  as  to  make  but  one  street,  crossing 
the  High-street  almost  at  right  angles.  It  consists  of  twenty- 
two  arches  of  different  sizes  ;  but  only  one  of  them  is  visible, 
vi/..  the  large  one  over  the  Cow-gate ;  and  even  this  is  small 
in  comparison  svith  those  of  the  North  Bridge,  being  no  more 
than  30  feet  wide,  and  31  feet  high.  On  the  south,  it  ter- 
minates at  the  University  on  one  hand,  and  the  Royal  In- 
firnuiry  on  the  other. 

The  a(pieduct  bridge  at  Gla^ow,  over  the  river  Kelvin, 
which  conducts  the  great  canal  from  the  Forth  to  the  Clyde, 
is  till'  \rork  of  that  great  engineer,  Mr.  Smeaton.  Its  length 
between  the  abutments,  or  land-fiiers,  is  245  feet ;  the  arches, 
which  are  four  in  number,  are  each  50  feet  in  span,  rising 
15  feet  3  inches,  from  151  feet  above  the  footing  of  the  piers ; 
the  three  piers  are  each  fifteen  feet  thick,  and  54  feet  high,  ex- 
clusive of  the  footing.  The  extrados  is  a  straight  surface  for 
the  canal.  Tliis  bridge  is  constructed  upon  true  mechanical 
principles,  and  the  parapet  is  recessed  opposite  to  the  arches 
in  order  to  resist  the  pressui'e  of  the  water  in  the  canal.  The 
land-piers  are  also  ingeniously  contrived  to  be  concave  out- 
wardly, so  as  to  spread  out  at  the  base. 

Tlie  bridge  at  Perth  was  erected  between  the  years  1766 
and  1771,  according  to  a  plan  by  Smeaton,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  late  Earl  of  Kinnoul.  It  consists  of  ten 
arches,  one  of  which  is  a  land  arch.  The  clear  water-way  is 
589f  feet ;  the  extent  of  all  the  arches,  730f  feet ;  and  the 
wing-walls  176  feet:  so  that  the  total  length  of  the  bridge  is 
906f  feet.  The  expense  of  building  amounted  to  £26,446 
12s.  3d.,  and  wasdefrayed  by  public  subscription.  Blenheim 
bridge  consists  of  three  arches,  the  chief  of  which  is  101^ 
feet  in  the  span. 

But  the  most  extraordinary  bridge  in  Great  Britain,  is  that 
over  the  Taff,  near  Llantrissent,  in  Glamorganshire,  called 
by  the  Welch  Pont-i/-f;/-Prkld.  It  is  the  work  of  William 
Edwards,  an  uneduc^ited  mason  of  the  country,  who  engaged, 
in   1746,  to  erect  a  new  bridge  at  tliis  place,   which   for 


elegance  of  design,  and  neatness  of  execution,  surpasses  any 
thing  of  the  kind  throughout  the  Principality.  The  dcscrij)tion 
and  history  of  the  progress  of  this  bridge,  we  shall  borrow 
from   Mr.  Malkin's  Tour  in  South  Wales  :  "  It  consisted  of 
three  arches,  elegantly  light  in  their  construction.     The  hewn 
stones  were  excellently  well  dressed  and  closely  jointed.     It 
was  admired  by  all  who  saw  it.     But  this  river  runs  through 
a  very  deep  vale,  that  is  more  than  usually  woody,  and 
crowded  about  with  mountains.     It  is  also  to  be  considered, 
that  many  other  rivers,  of  no  mean  capacity,  as  the  Cruc,  the 
Bargoed  Tafi"  and  the  Cunno,  besides  almost  numberless 
brooks,  that  run  through  long,  deep,  and  well-wooded  vales 
or  glens,  fall  into  the  Taff,  in  its  progress.     The  descents 
into  these  vales  from  the  mountains  being  in  general  very 
steep,  the  waters,  in  long  and  heavy  rains,  collect  into  these 
rivers  with  great  rapidity  and  force,  raising  floods,  that  in 
their  description  would  appear  absolutely  incredible  to  the 
inhabitants  of  open  and  flat  countries,  where  the  rivers  are 
neither  so  precipitate  in  their  courses,  nor  have  hills  on  each 
side  to  swell  them  with  their  torrents.     Such  a  flood   unfor- 
tunately occurred  soon  after  the  completion  of  this  under- 
taking, which  tore  up  the  largest  trees  by  the  roots,  and 
carried  them  down  the  river  to  the  bridge,  where  the  arches 
were  not  sufiieiently  wide  to  admit  of  their  passage  :  here 
therefore    they  were   detained.       Brush-wood,   weeds,    hay, 
straw,  and  whatever  lay  in  the  w.ay  of  the  flood,  came  dow  n, 
and  collected  about  the  branches  of  the  trees,  that  stuck  fast 
in  the  arches,  and  choked  the  free  current  of  the  water.     In 
consequence  of  this  obstruction,  a  thick  and  strong  dam  was 
formed,  and   the  aggregate  of  so   many  collected   streams 
being  unable  to  get  any  fiirther,  the  waters  rose  to  a  pro- 
digious height,  and  by  the  force  of  their  pressure  carried  the 
bridge  entirely  away  !     Edwards  had  given  security  for  the 
stability  of  his  bridge  during  the  space  of  seven  years;  it 
had  stood  only  about  two  years  and  a  half;  of  course  he  was 
obliged  to  erect  another,  and  he  proceeded  on  his  duty  with 
all  possible  sjieed.     The  second    bridge  was  of  one  arch,  for 
the  purpose  of  admitting  freely  under  it  whatever  incum- 
brances the  floods  might  bring  down.     The  span  or  chord  of 
this  arch  was  140  feet ;  its  altitude  35  feet ;  the  segment 
of  a  circle,  whose  diameter  was  170  feet.     The  arch  was 
finished,  but  the  parapets  were  not  yet  erected,  when  such 
was  the  pressure  of  the  unavoidably  ponderous  work  over  the 
haunches,  that  it  sprang  in  the  middle,  and  the   key -stones 
were  forced  out !     This  was  a  severe  blow  to  a  man,  who 
had  hitherto  met  with  nothing  but  misfortune  in  an  enterprise 
which  was  to  establish  or  ruin  him  in  his  profession.   William 
Edwards,  however,  possessed  a  courage  which  did  not  easily 
forsake  him  ;  he  engaged  in  it  a  third  time,  and  by  means  of 
cylindrical    holes   through  the  haunches,   so  reduced    their 
weight,  that  there  was  no  longer  any  danger  to  be  appre- 
hended.    The  second  bridge  fell  in  1751 ;  the  third,  which 
has  stood  ever  since,  was  completed  in  1755."     The  breadth 
of  this  bridge  is  aljout  11   feet  in  the  widest  part;  but  in 
order  to  strengthen  it  horizontally,  it  is  contracted  t<}wards 
the  centre   by  seven   oft'-sets,  so  that  the  road-way  is  there 
one  foot  nine  inches  narrower  than  at  the  extremities.     It 
consists  of  a  single  arch,  140  feet  in  width,  forming  the  seg- 
ment of  a  circle  of  175  feet;  its  height  is  35  feet.     This 
arch  is  between  40  and  50  feet  wider  than  tliatof  the  cele- 
brated Rialto,  at  Venice,  and   its  additional  altitude  only  in 
proportion.     In  each  haunch  are  three  cylindrical  opi^nings 
rmming  quite   through,  from  side  to  side,  like  circidar  win- 
dows: the  diameter  of  the  lowest  is  nine  feet ;  of  the  middle 
one,  six  feet;  and  of  the  uppermost,  three  feet. 

Besides   the  bridges  already  mentioned,  there  are  other 
neat   and    elegant    structures   in   various   parts  of  Great 


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Britain  and  Ireland.  In  the  latter  kingdom,  we  cannot 
refrain  from  noticing  the  bridge  over  the  Liflcy,  above 
i)iililin,  called  i^'urah,  or  Island  Bridge,  built  in  the  year 
1792,  by  Mr.  Alexander  Stevens,  a  mason  of  l^^dinbiirgii. 
It  consists  of  a  single  elliptical  arch,  100  feet  wide,  rising 
only  '22  feet :  and  is  consequently  six  feet  wider  than  the 
Rialto,  at  Venice,  and  one  foot  less  in  altitude.  The  city  of 
Dublin  has  likewise  five  other  bridges  over  the  Lillcy, 
of  which  the  two  following  are  particularly  worth  notice  : 
Arran,  or  Queen's  Bridge,  originally  erected  in  the  year 
1084,  but  being  destroyed  by  a  tlood  in  1763,  was  rebuilt  of 
hewn  stone,  and  finished  in  1708.  It  is  built  in  a  handsome 
light  style,  and  consists  of  three  .arches,  with  paved  ban- 
quettes tor  foot-passengers,  on  each  side  of  the  cai'riage-way, 
guarded  with  stone  balusters.  The  other  is  Essex  Bridge, 
first  built  in  lOSl,  taken  down  in  1753,  and  rebuilt  after  the 
model  of  Westminster  Hriilge.  It  has  five  arches,  the 
buttresses  between  wliich  support  semicircular  niches,  pro- 
jecting from  the  parapet;  between  these  niches  arc  balus- 
trades, which  are  cuntinued  to  the  ends  of  the  bridge.  The 
foot-ways  are  flagged,  and  the  whole  is  constructed  of  hewn 
stone,  in  very  fine  taste. 

We  come  nowto  those  magnificent  examplesof  bridgcarchi- 
tecture,  equalling  any  that  the  Romans  have  left,  and  surpass- 
ing all  others  in  the  world — the  bridges  of  London.  Each  of 
these  nubk;  structures  may  be  considered  almost  perfect  in  its 
kind,  and  as  alUmling  a  specimen  of  the  application  in  its  gran- 
dest form,  of  the  peculiar  material  of  which  it  is  constructed. 

Four  of  these  fine  bridges  are  built  of  stone — namely, 
London  Bridge,  Blackfriars  Bridge,  Waterloo  Bridge,  and 
Westminster  Bridge.  They  will  be  fully  described  under 
Stone  BiiuxiE.  Southwark  Bridge,  built  of  iron,  under 
Iron  Bkiuok.  And  the  beautiful  new  bridge  lately  com- 
pleted at  llungerford,  by  Brunei,  the  celebrated  engineer, 
inider  Suspension  Buidoe. 

Among  Bridijex  of  Wood,  (fi.ir  the  principles  and  methods 
of  constructing  which,  sec  Timiier  Bkidge,)  the  fiist  that 
attracts  our  notice  is  the  bridge  of  Caisar  across  the  Rhine. 
It  consisted  of  a  donlile  row  of  piles,  leaning  to  the  course  of 
the  stream,  and  joined  together  at  the  distance  of  two  feet 
from  each  other.  Forty  feet  lower  down  the  river,  was 
another  double  row  of  piles,  leaning  against  the  stream,  and 
towards  the  former  row.  Between  the  double  piles,  which 
were  well  rammed  into  the  bed  of  the  river,  long  beams,  two 
feet  thick,  were  placed,  and  held  fast  at  each  end  by  two 
braces.  These  beams  being  joined  by  transverse  pieces,  the 
whole  was  surmounted  with  hurdles.  To  preserve  this  struc- 
ture from  injury  by  the  f  )ree  of  the  water,  the  supporters  were 
guarded  with  piles  as  buttresses;  and  above  the  bridge,  other 
piles  were  placed,  to  stop  the  progress  of  trees  or  timber, 
which  by  accident  might  fall  into  the  river,  or  be  designedly 
floated  down  by  an  enemy,  to  destroy  the  work. 

The  bridge  over  the  Cismone,  a  river  falling  from  the 
mouulains  which  separate  Italy  from  Germany,  is  described 
by  Palladioasan  interesting  object  to  the  builder  and  architect. 
The  river  where!  this  bridge  is  erected  is  100  feet  wide  ;  and 
because  the  cui-rent  is  very  rapid,  and  great  quantities  of 
timber  are  floated  down  it  by  the  mountaineers,  the  bridge 
was  constructed  of  a  single  span.  The  width  is  divided 
into  six  equal  parts,  and  at  the  end  of  each  part,  except  at 
the  banks,  which  are  strengthened  with  pilasters  of  stone,  are 
placed  the  beams  that  form  the  breadth  of  the  Itridge.  On 
these,  leaving  a  little  space  at  their  ends,  other  beams  arc 
placed  lengthwise,  constituting  the  sides,  llie  king-posts 
are  disposed  on  either  side,  over  both  beams,  connected  with 
tlie  projecting  ends  of  those  forming  the  breadth,  by  means 
of  iron  bolts  and  pins. 


At  Wittengcn,  in  Switzerland,  is  a  very  curious  bridge, 
the  contrivance  of  Ulrick  Grul)enhamm,  an  imeducated  car- 
penter of  Tutl'en,  in  the  canton  of  Appenzel,  celebrated  for 
several  works  of  the  same  nature.  It  consists  of  two  wooden 
arches  parallel  to  each  other,  with  the  roadway  hanging 
between  them.  The  span  is  230  feet,  and  rises  only  five 
feet.  The  arches  approach  the  catenarian  shape,  and  are 
built  of  seven  courses  of  solid  oak  logs,  in  lengths  of  12  or 
14  ti;et,  and  10  inches  and  upwards  in  thickness.  By 
picking  these  logs  of  a  natural  shape  suited  to  the  intended 
curve,  the  wood  is  nowhere  trimmed  across  the  grain.  The 
logs  being  laid  one  upon  the  other,  with  their  abutting  joints 
carefully  alternated,  have  the  appearance  of  a  wooden  wall  : 
instead  of  being  pinned  together,  they  are  surrounded  with 
sti'aps  of  iron,  at  every  distance  of  five  feet,  and  fastened  by 
bolts  and  keys.  The  abutments  are  the  natural  rock.  The 
roadway  intersects  these  arches  at  about  the  middle  of  their 
height,  and  is  stipported  by  cross  joists,  resting  on  a  long 
horizontal  beam,  connected  with  the  arches  on  either  side  by 
uprights  bolted  into  them.  Three  of  the  spaces  between 
these  uprights  have  struts  or  braces,  giving  the  upper  work 
a  sort  of  trussing  in  that  part.  The  whole  is  covered  with  a 
roof,  projecting  over  the  arches  on  each  side  of  the  roadway, 
to  defend  the  timbers  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather.  This 
bridge  is  of  more  than  suflicient  strength  to  bear  any  load 
that  can  be  laid  upon  it,  though  the  attempt  to  truss  the  ends 
demonstrates  that  the  builder  was  ignorant  of  true  architec- 
tural principles. 

In  1754,  Grubenhamm  erected  another  bridge,  upon  a  plan 
nearly  similar  to  the  foregoing,  at  Schaffhausen,  where  the 
river  (the  lihine)  is  nearly  390  feet  wide.  The  current  is 
ver)'  rapid  at  this  spot,  and  had  destroyed  several  stone 
bridges,  when  Gndienhamm  offered  to  throw  a  wooden 
bridge  across,  of  a  single  span ;  but  the  magistrates  were 
alarmed  at  the  proposition,  on  account  of  the  breadth  of  the 
river,  and  would  scarcely  listen  to  it :  at  last  they  consented 
that  he  should  build  a  bridge,  provided  he  would  divide  it 
into  two  spans,  and  use  the  middle  pier  of  the  late  stone 
bridge  as  a  support  at  their  junction.  Grubenhamm  complied 
with  the  wish  of  the  magistrates  so  far  as  to  divide  his  bridge 
into  two  unequal  parts,  the  span  of  the  one  being  172  feet, 
and  of  the  other,  193,  both  appearing  to  rest  upon  the  old 
pier,  though  he  contrived  to  leave  it  doubtful  whether  they 
really  did  so  or  not.  This  structure  cost  £8,000  sterling,  and 
travellers  inform  us,  that  though  it  sustained  the  most  heavily 
laden  waggons  in  perfect  security,  yet  the  weight  of  a  single 
foot-passenger  caused  it  to  tremble  under  him.  It  was 
destroved  by  the  French,  when  the}'  evacuated  Schaffhausen, 
in  April,  1799. 

Among  wooden-bridges,  the  Schuylkill  bridges  at  Phila- 
delphia, in  America,  are  very  renuirkable. 

Wooden-bridges,  unsupported  by  posts  or  pillars,  and  sus- 
tained only  by  hutments  at  the  ends,  have  obtained  the  deno- 
mination of  Pendent  or  IIaii(/hu/  JJrid(/es,  by  some  also  called 
Philosophkal  Bridi;es,  of  whicli  Palladiohas  described  three 
modes  of  erecting;  such  is  the  bridge  over  the  Cismone, 
already  described.  Doctor  Wallis  has  likewise  given  the 
design  of  a  timber  bridge,  70  feet  long,  without  any  pillars, 
which  may  be  useful  where  supports  cannot  be  conveniently 
erected  ;  and  Doctor  Plott  assures  us,  that  iV)rmerly  there  was 
a  large  bridge  over  the  castle  ditch  at  Tutb\n-y,  in  Staflbrd- 
shire,  made  of  short  timbers,  none  of  them  above  a  yard  in 
length,  yet  not  supported  from  beneath,  either  by  pillars  or 
arches.  The  Spaniards  use  bridges  of  this  kind  for  crossing 
the  torrents  of  Peru,  over  which  it  would  be  difficult,  not  to 
say  impossible,  to  throw  more  solid  structures,  either  of  wood 
or  stone.  Some  of  these  hanging-bridges  are  sufficiently  strong 


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63 


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and  In-oad  for  loaded  mules  to  pass  along  them  with  safety. 
In  China,  these  flying  bi-idgcs  arc  eonstnu'tcJ  of  an  almost 
inerediliie  magnitude  ;  the  Philosophical  Transactions  contain 
the  figure  of  one,  consisting  of  a  single  arch,  400  cubits  long, 
and  500  in  height. 

A  great  change  in  modem  bridge-building  has  been  eflccted 
by  the  introduction  of  iron,  and  the  use  of  eliain  or  suspen- 
sion-bridges. The  invention  of  Iron  B-ridgcs  is  said  to  be 
cxckisively  English,  but  Duhalde  gives  the  merit  of  it  to  the 
Chinese  ;  be  that  as  it  may,  there  is  no  country  where  there 
has  lieen  so  extensive  an  application  of  the  discovery,  or  in 
which  has  been  erected  so  many  line  bridges  of  iron  as  in 
Great  IJritain.  The  fu'st  was  set  up  at  Colebrook  Dale, 
Shropshire,  in  the  year  1797,  and  was  speedily  succeeded  by 
numerous  others  in  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  for  a 
description  of  which  we  must  refer  to  Iron  Bridge. 

Draw  Bridges  are  of  wood  or  iron,  sometimes  of  both,  with 
stone  abutments.  They  are  placed  over  navigable  canals  and 
rivers,  or  used  in  fortified  places  for  the  purpose  of  shutting 
out  the  enemy,  and  are  of  varied  construction.  Some  are 
fastened  at  one  end  by  lunges,  so  that  the  other  end  may  be 
raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure.  The  most  common  method  of 
doing  this  is  by  a  kind  of  balance,  called  ^jft/ers,  in  which  case 
the  bridge  when  drawn  up  stands  erect,  to  preclude  a  passage 
across  a  moat,  &e.  Others  are  so  constructed  as  to  bo  drawn 
back,  or  thrust  forward,  as  occasion  may  require.  On  small 
canals,  &c.,  draw-bridges  consist  of  one  leaf  only  ;  but  on 
larger  navigations,  wet-docks,  &c.,  they  are  of  two  pieces, 
meeting  in  the  middle,  and  forming  an  arch,  which  are  raised 
or  lowered  by  means  of  balance  frames,  movable  on  the  tops 
of  uprights  suited  in  height  to  the  magnitude  of  the  bridge ; 
such  as  that  at  Bristol,  over  the  Frome.  Such  bridges,  how- 
ever, having  been  found  inconvenient  from  their  tackling 
catching  the  yards  and  rigging  of  vessels  passing  through  them, 
a  kind  of  bridge,  diverse  from  all  the  preceding,  has  been  in- 
vented, called  a  Swivel  Bridge :  these,  on  small  rivei-s,  are  only 
of  one  frame,  or  leaf,  and  turn  on  a  centre,  or  series  of  balls 
or  rollers ;  but  when  made  on  a  wider  scale,  they  consist  of 
two  parts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  channel,  and  meeting  in 
the  centre.  The  most  complete  of  this  kind  are  those  con- 
structed at  the  West^India  and  London  Docks ;  the  latter 
spans  40  feet,  and  is  15  feet  wide  in  the  road-way.  It  con- 
sists of  cast-iron  ribs,  about  14-  inch  thick,  turning  on  a  num- 
ber of  oncentric  rollers,  which  move  between  two  circular 
cast-iron  rings,  very  nicely  turned :  each  leaf  has  a  flap,  which 
lets  down  by  a  screw,  and  abuts  upon  the  stone-work  on 
either  side,  forming  the  whole  bridge,  when  shut,  into  an  arch 
capable  of  bearing  any  weight  that  can  possiljly  pass  over  it. 
The  whole  apparatus  weighs  85  tons  ;  tiut  it  moves  with  so 
much  ease,  that  it  can  be  opened  and  shut  iij  less  than  three 
minutes. 

Suspension  Bridges  have  only  lately  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  though  known  to  the  Chinese  from  a  very  early 
period.  The  iron-chain  bridge  of  Yunnan  is  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  about  a.  d.  65,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Mingus,  and  is  described  as  very  similar  in  principle  to  the 
Hammersmith  Suspension  Bridge  near  London.  In  Kireher's 
China  Illustrala,  it  is  stated,  that  the  chord-line  is  of  the 
length  of  200  cubits.  In  the  Asiatic  Researches,  Turner 
gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  singular  bridges 
erected  by  the  natives  of  Boot.an.  These  bridges  are  of 
varied  construction,  but  admirably  adapted  to  the  circum- 
stances for  which  they  are  intended.  Over  the  widest  river 
in  Bootan,  there  is  an  iron  bridge,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
iron  chains,  which  support  a  matted  platform ;  and  two  chams 
are  stretched  above,  parallel  to  the  sides,  to  support  a  matted 
border,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the 


passenger,  who  is  certainly  not  quite  at  his  case  till  he  has 
landed  from  tliis  swinging,  unsteady  footing.  At  another 
jilace,  a  bridge  for  foot-passengers  is  formed  l>y  two  parallel 
chains,  round  which  creepers  are  loosely  twisted,  from  which 
planks  are  suspended,  the  end  of  one  plank  resting  upon  the 
other  without  being  confined. 

In  the  rude  suspcnsinn  bridge  of  South  America,  with 
its  ropes  of  twisted  bark,  and  its  platform  of  cross  pieces  of 
wood  intcrwovt'U  in  them,  or  the  platform  attached  imme- 
diately to  the  sustaining  ropes,  the  form  assumed,  the  cate- 
narian curve,  is  the  same  as  in  the  more  perfect  structures  of 
modern  times — and  one  traces  easily  the  transition  from  the 
simple  but  effective  contrivance  of  the  untutored  Indian,  to 
the  master-pieces  of  the  genius  of  a  Telford.  See  Suspen- 
sion Bridge. 

Brjdges  of  Boats  are  made  of  boats,  either  of  copper,  tin, 
or  wood,  fastened  across  the  stream  by  means  of  anchors  or 
stakes,  and  laid  over  with  planks.  The  earliest  instance 
upon  record  of  this  kind  of  bridge,  was  that  laid  by  Darius 
Hystaspes  over  the  Ister,  or  Danube,  in  his  Scythian  expedi- 
tion, 508  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  same  monarch 
also  crossed  the  Thracian  Bosphorus  with  700,000  men  by 
means  of  a  bridge  of  boats;  the  strait  being  five  stadia,  or 
1,008  yards  in  width.  Modern  armies  carry  with  them  tin 
or  copper  boats,  called  pontoons,  to  be  ready  on  any  emer- 
gency :  several  of  them,  placed  side  by  side,  across  the  river, 
till  they  reach  the  opposite  shore,  with  planks  laid  upon 
them,  form  a  plane  for  the  soldiers  to  march  on.  At  Beaueairc, 
Rouen,  and  Seville,  are  very  fine  stationary  bridges  of  boats, 
which  rise  and  fell  with  the  tide :  that  at  Rouen  is  nearly 
300  yards  long,  and  paved  with  stone,  so  that  laden  carriages 
and  horses,  as  well  as  foot-passengers,  go  over  it  in  safety. 
In  the  absence  of  pontoons,  military  bridges  have  been  made 
of  blown  bladders,  hollow  casks,  sheaves  of  rushes,  &c., 
covered  over  with  planks. 

When  bridges  of  this  kind  do  not  extend  over  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  river,  but  are  contrived  to  float  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  they  are  termed  Flying  or  Floating  Bridges. 
A  bridge  of  this  description  is  generally  composed  of  several 
boats  connected  with  each  other  by  a  flooring  of  planks,  and 
surrounded  by  a  railuig.  This  stage  or  raft  is  furnished 
with  one  or  more  masts,  according  to  its  dimensions,  to 
which  is  fastened  a  strong  cable,  supported  at  proper  dis- 
tances by  boats,  and  extending  to  an  anchor,  in  the  middle  of 
the  water,  where  it  is  made  secure.  The  bridge  thus  becomes 
movable,  like  a  pendulum,  from  one  side  of  the  river  to  the 
other,  with  the  assistance  only  of  a  rudder.  Such  bridges 
were  formerly  sometimes  constructed  of  two  stories,  for  the 
more  expeditious  passage  of  a  great  number  of  men. 

Another  kind  of  flying  bridge  is  formed  of  two  platforms, 
laid  one  upon  the  other,  and  by  means  of  cords  and  pullies 
the  uppermost  is  made  to  run  out  beyond  the  lower  platform, 
till  its  farther  extremity  rests  against  the  place  it  was 
designed  to  reach.  In  the  Histoire  dc  VAcademie  Roijale  des 
Sciences,  for  the  year  1713,  p.'ige  104,  is  a  description  of  a 
floating  bridge,  which  lays  itself  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  river. 

Under  this  head  we  have  now  to  describe  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  ingenious  constructions  of  modern  science  and 
engineering  skill — the  steam  Floating  Bridge  invented  by 
Mr.  J.  M.  Rendel,  the  eminent  civil  engineer.  The  first 
bridge  on  this  prmciple  was  erected  by  Mr.  Rendel  across 
the  estuary  of  the  Dart  at  Dartmouth,  about  the  year  1832, 
and  a  similar  one  was  established  about  two  years  after, 
across  the  Hamoaze,  between  Torpoint  and  Devonport. 

A  very  full  description  of  the  latter,  accompanied  by 
elaborate  drawings,  has  been  furnished  to  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers  by  Mr.  Rendel  himself,  and  from  the  first 


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voliiinc  of  the  ''Transactions"  of  the  Institution,  wo  have 
extracted  the  following  liricf  sketch. 

The  niodiuni  width  of  the  river  at  the  site  of  the  bridge 
may  be  talvcn  at  about  :i,350  feet,  the  strength  of  the  current 
after  heavy  land  floods  is  very  great,  and  the  site  so  niu<'h 
exposed,  that  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  ships  lying  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  bridge  to  drag  their  moorings.  The  liridgc 
is  a  large  flat-bottomed  vessel,  of  a  width  nearly  equal  to  its 
length.  The  vessel  is  divided  in  the  direction  of  its  length 
into  three  parts — the  middle  one  being  appropriated  to  the 
machiiiory — each  of  the  side  divisions  to  carriages,  &c. 
These  side  divisions  or  decks  are  raised  about  2  feet  above 
the  line  of  flotation,  and  l)y  means  of  movable  platforms,  an 
easy  communication  is  allordcd  witli  the  shore  on  embarking 
or  landing.  The  bridge  is  guided  by  two  chains,  which  pass- 
ing through  it  over  cast-iron  wheels,  are  laid  across  the  river 
and  fastened  to  the  o[>po>ite  shores,  forming  as  it  were  a  road 
along  which  the  vessel  travels  backwards  and  forwards. 

'J  he  moving  power  employed  is  two  small  steam-engines 
turning  a  shaft,  on  each  end  of  which  is  a  large  iron  wheel 
whereon  the  guide  chains  rest.  The  peripheries  of  these 
wheels  are  cast  with  sockets  fitted  to  the  links  of  the  chains, 
so  that  when  the  bridge  is  put  in  motion  by  the  steam- 
engines,  it  is  moved  in  the  reverse  direction  of,  and  with  the 
same  velocity  as  the  wheels.  The-ends  of  the  chains  have 
balance-weights  attached  to  tliem,  which  rise  or  fall  as  the 
tension  of  the  chains  becomes  more  or  less. 

A  similar  Ijridge  has  been  established  at  Portsmouth,  and 
plies  between  that  place  and  Gosport. 

I'nder  this  article  we  may  also  mention  Portable  Bridges, 
which  are  easily  taken  to  pieces,  and  as  readily  put  together 
again.  M.  Couplet  speaks  of  a  bridge  of  this  kind,  200  feet 
lung,  carried  by  40  men. 

Writers  on  architecture  have  bestowed  considerable  atten- 
tion on  the  subject  of  bridge-building,  which  is  justly  esteemed 
as  one  of  the  most  noble  and  striking  spccinions  of  human 
art.  The  earliest  of  these  is  Alberti,  a  native  of  Florence, 
who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  1.5th  century;  he 
has  given  several  judicious  precepts,  which,  with  little 
alteration,  were  afterwards  laid  down  by  I'alladio,  8crlio, 
and  Scamozzi.  'J'he  best  of  these  rules  are  likewise  given 
by  (Joldinan  and  Baukhurst,  as  well  as  by  Ilawkesmoor,  in 
his  History  of  London  Bridf/c. — M.  (iautier  has  written  a 
large  volume  on  bridges,  ancient  and  modern.  M.  Belidor 
has  treated  on  this  sulyeet,  in  his  Architecture  Hydraulique  ; 
as  lias  M.  Parent,  in  his  Exmis  el  liechcrches  Aht/iematit/ues, 
vol.  iii. — De  la  Hire,  too,  has  touched  on  it,  in  his  Trtiite 
de  Mcchaniqiie. — Pcrronct  has  given  the  result  of  his  expe- 
rience in  a  magnilicent  work,  which  has  ac(]uired  him  great 
credit  in  France. — liosset  has  given  an  excellent  treatise  on 
bridge-building,  in  the  Mimoircn  de  I' Academic. — Regemortcs 
published,  in  1771,  an  accoiuit  of  the  bridge  built  by  him 
over  the  Allier,  at  Moulins. — In  17(i0,  Mr.  Kiou  published 
a  work  entitled.  Short  Principles  for  the  Architecture  of 
Bridges;  and  Mr.  Semple  has  given  some  excellent  prac- 
tical remarks  in  his  Treatise  on  Building  in  Water,  published 
in  1770.  Other  writers  on  the  construction  and  prineii>les 
of  arches  and  bridges,  are  Muller,  Labelye,  Atwood, 
Emerson,  and  Dr.  Ilutton. 

When  a  bridge  is  constructed  of  stone,  and  arched  over, 
it  requires,  in  the  act  of  building,  to  be  supported  upon 
a  mould,  called  a  centre  ;  the  construction  of  which  is  shown 
under  the  article  Centre. 

Bridgk  BoAun     See  Notch  Boaud. 

Bridge  over  :  when  there  are  any  number  of  parallel 
timbers,  and  another  piece  fixed  transversely  over  them, 
thcu  tiic  trausversc  piece  is  said  to  bridge  over  the  other 


parallel  j)icces.  In  fiamed  roofing,  the  common  rafters 
bridge  over  the  purlins  ;  likewise  in  framed  flooring,  the 
upper  joists,  to  which  the  boarding  is  fi.xed,  l)ridge  over 
the  beams  or  binding  joists,  and  are  therefore  called  bridging 
joists. 

Bridge  Stone,  a  stone  laid  from  the  pavement  to  the 
entrance-door  of  a  house,  over  a  sunk  area,  not  supported  by 
an  arch. 

BRIDGED  GUTTERS,  those  made  with  boards,  sup- 
ported below  with  bearers,  and  covered  above  with  lead. 

BRIDGING  FLOORS,  those  in  which  bridging  joists 
are  used.     See  Naked  Floorino. 

Bridging  Joists,  those  which  are  sustained  by  transverse 
beams  below,  called  binding-joists  ;  also  those  on  which  the 
boarding  for  walking  upon  is  nailed  or  fixed.  See  Naked 
Flooring. 

BRIDGINGS,  or  Bridging  Pieces.  See  Straining 
Pieces,  and  Strutting  Pieces. 

BRING  UP,  a  term  used  by  workmen  for  carrying  up 
the  walls  to  a  certain  height :  they  say,  "  bring  up  that  part ;" 
but  the  term  carry  ii})  is  more  frequently  used. 

BROACH,  an  old  English  term  for  a  spire,  still  in  use 
in  the  north  of  England.  The  term  is  specifically  applied 
to  spires  which  spring  directly  from  the  eaves  of  the  tower 
or  other  substructure,  without  the  intervention  of  a  parapet. 
This  kind  of  spire  is  confined  more  especially  to  the  earlier 
styles  of  Gothic  architecture  ;  in  the  later  ones,  the  parapet 
is  seldom  dispensed  with. 

BROAD-STONE,  the  same  as  Free-Stone. 

BRONZE ;  a  compound  of  copper  and  other  metals, 
especially  zinc.     It  is  used  for  cannon,  medals,  &c. 

Bronze  also  denotes  any  piece  of  sculpture  made  of  bronze 
metal,  as  statues,  busts,  &c.,  whether  in  imitation  of  the 
antique,  or  representing  a  modern  prototype.  The  method 
of  casting  bronzes  is  described  under  Casting. 

BROWN,  a  dusky  colour  inclining  to  redness.  Of  this 
there  are  various  shades,  distinguished  by  dillcrent  appella- 
tions, as  Spanish  bi-oivn,  sad  brown,  tawny  broirn,  London 
brown,  and  clove  hroivn.  Spa?iish  brown  is  a  dark  dull  red, 
of  a  horseflesh  colour,  of  great  use  to  painters,  being  generally 
used  in  house-painting,  for  priming  the  timber  work,  or  first 
coaling.  The  best  is  that  of  a  deep  colour,  and  free  from 
stones.  It  is  the  best  and  brightest  when  burnt  in  the  fire  till 
it  is  red-hot.  The  various  browns  used  in  drawing  are 
Bistre,  Cologne  Earth,  and  Umber. 

BRUNELLESCIII,  Philip,  the  son  of  a  notary,  born  at 
Florence  in  1377,  was  at  first  designed  for  the  bar ;  but 
not  liking  that  profession,  he  was  ai)prenticed  to  a  goldsmith. 
His  genius,  however,  turned  him  to  the  study  of  sculpture, 
geometry,  and  architecture.  The  first  model  by  which  he 
formed  liis  taste  in  architecture  was  the  church  of  St.  John, 
at  Florence,  a  building  of  good  style,  and  much  inclining  to 
the  anti(iue;  he  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  to  study  the 
ancient  monuments  there,  the  best  of  which  he  measured 
and  took  drawings  from  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  first  distin- 
guished the  three  ancient  orders. 

When  the  Florentines  first  thought  of  raising  a  dt)me  upon 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  del  Fiore,  they  invited  all  the  prin- 
cipal architects  of  Europe  to  a  consultation,  at  which  Bru- 
nelleschi  proposed  a  double  cupola,  with  a  space  between  the 
inner  and  outer  vaults,  sufficient  to  admit  of  staircases  and 
passages  to  the  top.  lliis  idea  was  deemed  so  preposterous, 
that  he  was  actually  turned  out  of  the  assembly,  for  having 
presumed  to  insult  the  good  sense  and  judgment  of  so  many 
cx|ierienccd  artists,  who  had  never  heard  of  such  a  thing, 
and  belli  it  to  be  impracticable.  Uiulaunted  by  this  frcat- 
ineiit,  JJruncllesehi  persisted  in  maintaining  the  practicability 


BUI 


65 


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of  his  scheme,  and  demonstrated  it  by  drawings  and  models : 
but  the  clamour  excited  by  his  brother  artists  ran  so  high 
for  a  time,  that  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  downright  madman  ! 
At  length,  however,  the  violence  of  jirejudice  began  to  sub- 
side, and  when  it  was  seen  that  the  rest  of  the  architects 
produced  nothing  eligible  for  the  purpose,  the  deputies,  who 
had  the  management  of  the  building,  sent  for  Bruuelleschi, 
listened  candidly  to  what  he  had  to  propose,  examined  his 
drawings  and  models,  and  finally  set  him  to  work,  under 
certain  restrictions :  they  also  appuinted  him  an  assistant, 
but  his  complete  ignorance  soon  manifested  itself,  and  he  was 
dismissed.  Brunelleschi  being  thus  Icfl  at  liberty,  the 
citizens  saw  with  admiration  a  magnificent  cupola  arise  over 
their  church,  which  Michael  Angelo  himself  pronounced  to 
be  a  masterpiece  of  science.  This  cupola  is  oetangulai', 
154  cubits  (Flemish)  in  height,  on  which  rises  a  lantern  of 
thirty -eight  cubits,  surmounted  with  a  ball  of  four  cubits, 
and  a  cross  of  eight  cubits  ;  making  a  total  of  202  cubits, 
a  height  never  before  attempted  on  such  a  plan.  Brunelleschi 
died  before  the  lantern  was  quite  finished,  but  he  left  a 
model,  and  recommended  on  his  death-bed,  that  it  should 
be  loaded  with  the  heaviest  marble.  The  portico  that  was 
to  have  sunouuded  the  tambour  still  remains  unfinished. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  celebrated  cupola  is,  that  it  has  no 
counterforts. 

Brunelleschi  built  the  abbey  for  the  regular  canons  at 
Fiesole,  under  the  direction  and  patronage  of  Cosmo  de 
Medicis ;  it  is  a  convenient  cheerful  edifice,  and  the  orna- 
ments are  in  a  chaste  style.  He  also  constructed  several 
military  works.  A  gieat  part  of  the  church  of  St.  Laurence, 
at  Florence,  was  built  by  Brunelleschi,  but  he  died  before 
it  was  completed,  and  his  successors  committed  so  many 
blunders  in  finishing  it,  that  the  original  design  is  very 
much  mutilated.  The  palace  of  Pitti,  at  Florence,  was 
likewise  begun  from  his  designs;  and  so  completely  did  the 
tide  of  public  favour  turn  in  his  behalf,  that  his  fellow- 
citizens  elected  him  to  the  office  of  magistrate.  But  it  was 
after  his  death  that  his  talents  were  most  appreciated,  and 
his  merit  fully  acknowledged  as  the  reviver  of  pure  archi- 
tecture. He  died  in  1444,  aged  67,  honoured  and  esteemed  by 
all  who  knew  him,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Mary's  cathedral. 

BUCCULA,  in  antiquity,  denotes  the  umbo,  or  prominent 
part  of  a  shield. 

BUDGET,  a  kind  of  pocket  used  by  bricklayers,  for  hold- 
ing nails  when  they  lath  for  tiling. 

BUFFET,  a  cabinet  or  cupboard  for  plate,  glasses,  or 
china-ware.  In  former  times,  these  were  frequently  made 
very  ornamental,  in  the  form  of  niches,  and  left  open  in  the 
front  in  order  to  show  the  furniture.  The  buffet  is  now 
rarely  seen,  except  in  old-fashioned  houses ;  in  modern 
estalilishments  it  has  been  superseded  by  the  sideboard. 

BUILDER,  a  person  who  contracts  to  build,  or  rear  up 
edifices. 

BUILDING,  in  general,  is  a  mass  formed  by  the  junction 
of  materials.  When  a  building  is  stationary,  and  erected  for 
dwelling  in,  or  for  some  useful  purpose  or  ornament,  it  is 
called  an  edifice.  Those  who  intend  to  build,  should  make 
choice  of  an  architect  who  is  known  to  be  a  man  of  ability 
and  of  tried  experience  and  integrity.  The  proprietor  should 
then  explain  as  clearly  as  possible  his  ideas  and  intentions 
respecting  the  proposed  building,  to  enable  the  architect  to 
furnish  the  requisite  plans  and  estimates.  Tlicse  should  be 
carefully  examined  and  gone  into,  so  that  the  proprietor 
be  perfectly  satisfied  that  his  wishes  are  understood,  and  the 
cost  of  carrying  them  into  efleet  brought  within  the  extent 
of  his  means  or  inclinations.  The  whole  management  ought 
then  to  be  committed  to  the  architect,  with  full  liberty  in  the 


choice  of  masters  for  the  execution  of  the  respective  depart- 
ments. The  architect  should  then  proceed  to  make  out  a 
specification,  and  contract  for  each  individual  branch  con- 
cerned in  the  business,  and  put  them  into  the  hands  of 
respectable  tradesmen  ;  if  the  estimates  appear  to  be  reason- 
able, the  contracts  .should  be  signed.  There  are  many  kinds 
of  work  fljr  which,  however,  from  novelty  in  execution,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  anticipate  a  price  :  but  if  the  work 
consist  of  similar  repetitions  or  parts,  the  value  of  one  pait 
being  known,  by  taking  an  account  of  the  time,  that  of  the 
others  will  follow,  and  then  the  estimated  expense  of  the 
whole  may  be  ascertained.  There  are  many  propiictors 
whose  ideas  are  never  fixed,  and  no  sooner  is  work  done  than 
it  is  undone:  in  such  a  case,  the  work  should  be  done  by 
measure  and  value,  affixing  a  regular  price  to  every  corres- 
ponding article  ;  and  an  account  should  be  taken  of  the  work 
pulled  down.  In  whatever  way  the  work  be  valued,  there 
should  be  a  person  employed,  stationary  in  the  building, 
called  a  clerk  of  the  works,  whose  business  it  is  to  give  direc- 
tions for  fixing,  and  to  superintend  all  parts  of  the  execution  ; 
to  keep  the  workmen's  time,  to  give  in  weekly  reports,  and 
to  examine  the  work,  should  it  happen  to  be  prepared  out  of 
the  building. 

The  drawings  necessary  in  the  construction  of  an  edifice 
are,  plans  of  the  several  stories,  elevations  of  the  facades,  a 
transverse  and  a  longitudinal  section  at  least,  horizontal  and 
vertical  sections  of  all  the  difficult  parts,  and  a  detail  of  all 
the  mouldings  and  ornaments  at  large.  These  ought  to  be 
committed  to  the  care  of  the  clerk  of  the  works.  It  is  not 
very  easy  for  an  architect  to  furnish  all  the  detail  before  a 
building  is  to  be  estimated  ;  but  if  time  would  permit  this  to 
be  done,  the  contractors  would  be  able  to  undertake  the  M'ork 
at  the  lowest  rate,  and  this  would  in  a  great  measure  super- 
sede the  necessity  of  the  addition,  which  is  too  generally 
found  necessary  to  cover  the  uncertainty  of  estimating  large 
works. 

With  regard  to  building  in  general,  it  must  be  obvious, 
that  to  the  taste,  judgment,  and  science  of  the  architect 
must  be  left  the  selection  of  the  character  and  style  of  the 
building  to  be  erected  ;  no  certain  rules  can  be  given  to  form 
the  general  contour  of  an  edifice,  but  the  middle  part  ought 
to  have  some  commanding  feature,  and  the  general  outline  of 
the  whole  should  appioach  to  a  pyramidal  form.  Large  edi- 
fices are  susceptiljle  of  great  splendour,  by  an  agreeable 
variety  of  parts  ;  but  the  beauty  of  a  small  building  consists 
in  the  simplicity  and  symmetry  of  its  surfaces. 

The  regularly  repeated  columns,  entablatures,  and  other 
ornaments  which  may  adorn  a  circular  building,  create  the 
most  pleasing  feelings,  and  in  a  straight  building  also,  the 
uniformity  and  succession  of  parts  are  usually  delightful  to 
the  observer,  hence  the  gratifying  sensation  arising  from  long 
ranges  of  colonnades,  as  in  the  Grecian  temples  and  the  aisles 
of  churches :  but  the  preceding  observation,  with  respect  to 
the  entablature,  does  not  apply  in  a  straight  building.  The 
entablatures  may  either  be  broken  or  contimied,  according  to 
the  use  of  the  columns ;  the  outline  of  the  building  being 
still  preserved  in  either  case :  for  when  the  repetitions  are 
fac-similes  of  each  other,  the  eye  will  judge  of  the  figure  of 
the  building  the  same,  whether  the  entablature  be  continued 
or  interrupted,  which  is  not  the  case  in  rotund  edifices. 
When  columns  arc  placed  so  remote  from  each  other,  as  not 
to  be  capable  of  supporting  an  entablature,  or  not  sufficiently 
near  to  excite  the  idea,  the  entablatures  may  be  broken,  as 
in  the  triumphal  arches  at  Rome,  where  the  columns  are 
introduced  to  support  the  ornaments  of  triumph.  In  the 
peribolus  of  the  Grecian  temples,  the  broken  entablatures 
are  not  only  beautiful,  but  the  repetition  of  the  order  itself 


BUI 


60 


BUI 


is  useful  in  reinforcing  tiio  strengtli  of  the  enclosure,  and 
thus  performing  the  office  of  buttresses  to  the  walls.  Much 
of  the  jigret-ahfe  sensation  in  viewing  our  venerable  antique- 
modern  c-iuirthfs,  arises  from  the  uniform  succession  of  the 
buttresses  ami  their  ornaments. 

For  fartlier  particulars,  witii  regard  to  the  exterior  of  a 
building,  we  must  refer  tlie  reader  to  the  term  Break. 

AVith  regard  to  situation,  a  building  should  be  placed  in 
a  salubrious  and  mild  atmosphere,  free  from  noxious  exha- 
lations, within  the  reach  of  the  rays  of  the  sun,  so  as  to 
make  it  cheerful,  and  to  have  a  plentiful  sujiply  of  water  and 
coal,  as  lii<e\vise  of  all  other  necessaries  of  life  :  it  should  be 
surrounded  with  an  agreeable  variety  of  woods  and  walks, 
and  ought  to  have  an  easy  access  to  the  highway.  Tlie  situ- 
ation shciulJ  be  commanding,  but  not  so  high  as  to  e.xposc  the 
building  to  the  fury  of  heavy  winds. 

Willi  regard  to  the  plan  of  a  building,  the  disposition  of 
the  apartments  must  be  agreeable  to  the  intention  of  the 
design,  and  in  general  the  rooms  ought  to  be  all  entered  by- 
one  common  passage  ;  for  farther  particulars  on  this  head, 
see  Apartment,  Chimney,  Passage,  Eoof,  Room,  and 
Staircase. 

The  inoilern  method  of  placing  a  bedchamber  and  dress- 
ing-room together,  each  with  its  separate  door  to  the  com- 
mon passage,  and  likewise  with  a  door  common  to  each  other, 
is  very  convenient.  The  mode  of  uniting,  when  necessary, 
two  or  more  rooms  by  means  of  folding-doors,  is  a  very 
great  improvement,  particularly  in  small  houses.  The  hall, 
or  entrance,  should  at  least  have  one  chimney,  and  if  con- 
nected with  the  staircase  or  a  lofty  saloon,  the  heat  will  be 
of  essential  service  in  warming  the  whole  liouse.  Double 
doiirs  are  useful  in  preserving  a  uniform  temperature. 

Besides  double  external  doors,  for  the  exclusion  of  cold 
winds,  double  w  indows  should  be  used  for  winter  apartments. 

The  proper  distribution  of  rooms  must  be  regulated  by  the 
course  of  the  sun,  in  order  to  avoid  the  extremes  of  the  sum- 
mer's heat  and  winter's  cold.  Bedchambers  are  properly 
situated  towards  the  east,  in  order  to  regulate  the  time  of 
rising.  Every  house  ought  to  have  two  sitting-rooms,  to 
accommodate  the  extreme  seasons  of  the  year;  that  for  the 
summer  ought  to  be  disposed  in  the  north,  and  that  for 
the  winter  in  the  south.  Drawing-rooms  and  dining-parlours 
are  best  situated  in  the  west,  as  they  are  generally  used  in 
the  afternoon,  that  the  declining  sun  may  throw  an  a"ree- 
able  shade  upon  objects ;  these  matters,  however,  frequently 
depend  upon  other  circumstances  of  convenience. 

The  drawing-rooms  should  be  so  disposed,  as  to  be  easily 
converted  into  one  room,  by  throwing  open  the  folding- 
doors.  In  country  mansions,  the  kitchen  should  be  as  near 
the  dining-room  as  convenient,  but  so  dispo.scd  with  regard 
to  the  passage  of  communication,  as  to  prevent  the  efiluvia 
from  escaping  to  other  prineifial  parts  of  the  house.  The 
ofliees  connected  with  the  kitchen  sliould  be  generally  placed 
towards  the  nortli ;  but  in  town  houses  this  cannot  ajwavs  be 
done,  and  therefore  regard  must  be  had  to  eireumstanees. 
The  larder,  however,  must  always  be  placed  beyond  the 
influence  of  the  heat  of  the  kitchen.  Galleries  for  paintings. 
and  museums,  that  require  a  steady  light,  should  have 
a  northern  aspect. 

Windows  ought  to  be  made  vertically  one  above  the  other, 
and  not  too  near  the  angles  of  the  building;  and  in  large 
edifices,  wiiere  the  walls  are  tliiek,  their  jaml)s  ought  to  be 
splayed  or  beveled,  for  a  more  full  distribution df  light. 
Lofty  windows,  descending  to  the  floor,  or  nearly  so,  \\  ith  a 
projecting  balcony  in  front  of  tlie  building,  di'fended  by  a 
railing  of  cast-iron,  are  both  healthy  and  agreeable.  Sky- 
lights,  in  cold   climates  like  ours,  are  productive  of  many 


inconveniences,  as  they  admit  of  cold  air,  damps,  rain,  and 
snow,  and  thereby  waste  the  heat  generated  in  the  house. 
They  ought  therefore  never  to  be  admitted,  except  for  stairs 
and  halls  ;  but  when  this  admission  is  necessary,  their  aper- 
tures should  be  of  sufficient  dimensions,  not  to  hinder  the 
passage  of  the  sun's  rays. 

The  plans  of  buildings  may  be  of  various  forms  ;  the  circle 
is  the  most  eai>acious  of  all  figures,  under  the  same  perimeter, 
and  a  building  erected  upon  a  circular  plan,  is  also  the  most 
strong,  durable,  and  beautiful  of  all  others;  but  its  compart- 
ments are  not  convenient  in  dwelling-houses,  on  account  of  a 
waste  of  room  occasioned  by  the  disposition  of  angular  furni- 
ture ;  so  that  the  loss  in  this  respect  more  than  counter- 
balances the  quantity  of  area  gained  by  the  property  of  its 
figure.  Circular  buildings  are  also  the  most  expensive,  and, 
on  account  of  the  impossibility  of  dividing  them  into  compart- 
ments without  distortion,  they  are  unfit  for  the  purpose  of 
private  edifices  :  on  this  account  they  were  employed  by  the 
ancients  only  in  their  temples  and  amphitheatres,  which  had 
no  need  of  compartition.  In  modern  mansions,  entire  eylin- 
dric  or  polygonal  buildings  arc  seldom  or  never  used,  except 
in  parts  which  form  single  apartments  upon  a  floor,  as  in 
towers  or  bows.  Though  very  beautiful  forms  of  edifices 
may  be  reared  upon  rectilineal  plans,  a  judicious  arrange- 
ment of  apartments  formed  both  of  jilane  and  curved  sur- 
faces will  make  a  most  agreeable  variety. 

Of  all  buildings  upon  plans  of  equilateral  and  equiangular 
polygons,  the  triangle  contains  the  least  area,  and  on  account 
of  the  acuteness  of  its  angles,  rectangular  furniture  cannot  be 
disposed  on  its  area  without  very  considerable  waste  ;  the 
employment  of  this  figure,  therefore,  occasions  not  only  a  loss 
of  surfiice  from  its  property,  but  a  loss  also  in  placing  of 
furniture :  it  may,  however,  be  observed,  in  buildings  erected 
upon  equilateral  and  equi-angular  polygons,  the  greater  the 
number  of  sides  the  plan  has,  the  less  loss  of  area  will  be 
sustained  on  account  oi^  the  ]iroperty  of  the  figure  ;  but  those 
with  obtuse  angles  will  still  have  the  same  objections  on 
account  of  the  furniture.  Various  figures  may  be  adopted 
occasionally,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  when  the  loss  of  room  is 
not  an  object ;  but  for  general  use,  the  rectangular  disposition 
of  an  edifice  is  the  most  convenient,  as  it  will  compart  ad 
iiifinilum  into  rectangular  figures,  which  is  the  best  form  of 
fiirnitiire  for  general  use. 

The  accessories  of  a  building  are  ornaments  borrowed 
from  sculpture  and  painting;  but  wherever  they  are  intro- 
duced, they  ought  to  be  in  character,  and  to  indicate  in  some 
measure  its  destination.  Figures  representing  animals  arc 
of  a  higher  class  than  those  of  foli.ige  or  vegetables  :  the 
former  were  generally  employed  by  the  Greeks,  particularly 
in  the  principal  parts  of  their  edifices,  though  sometimes  the 
small  jiarls  were  covered  with  foliage,  in  which  the  honey- 
suckle was  most  predominant.  The  Romans,  whose  taste 
was  inferior  to  that  of  the  Greeks,  indulged  in  both.  It  is 
to  the  remains  of  the  edifices  of  these  two  nations,  that  the 
architect  must  have  recourse  for  the  embellishments  of  the 
fibrie. 

Of  all  the  ornaments  applicable  to  buildings,  columns  are 
the  most  splendid  and  dignified,  and  no  invention  has  yet 
been  able  to  supplant  the  three  Grecian  orders,  though  a 
lapse  of  more  than  two  thousand  years  has  past.  Pilasters  are 
not  only  very  beautifiil,  but  when  wrought  in  with  the  work, 
they  reinforce  the  strength  of  the  walls,  and  consequently 
the  whole  fabric;  but  they  have  neither  the  dignity  nor  the 
gracefiil  appearance  of  columns. 

The  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  edifices  are  of 
various  kinds,  as  timber,  earth,  mortar,  chalk,  stone,  marble, 
iron,  &c. ;  every  place  adopts,  in  the  general  construction  of  its 


BUS 


67 


BUT 


buildings,  those  materials  which  are  its  own  native  produc- 
tions, or  those  of  other  phices  which  can  be  procured  by  an 
easy  carriage. 

The  chief  writers  on  buildinj;,  whose  works  have  been 
transiuittcd  to  our  hands,  are  Vitruvius,  Alberti,  Serlio, 
Scammozzi,  Vigiiohi,  Palladio,  Baldiis,  Barbarus,  Blondol, 
Catanei,  Denioniosius,  Friard,  Goldman,  Perrault,  Rivius, 
Gulielmus,  Langle^',  Ware,  and  some  living  authors.  See 
Architecture  ami  House. 

Building,  in  masonry,  is  the  art  of  joining  stones  together, 
with  or  without  cement,  so  as  to  form  the  whole  or  part  of 
an  edifice.  Buiidiug  also  signifies  the  mass  of  body  formed 
by  the  junction  of  stone  with  regular  sui  faces.  In  this  sense 
it  is  the  same  with  masonry,  or  a  piece  of  masonry.  Masonry 
always  implies  building ;  but  building  does  not  always  imply 
masonrv.     See  Masonry. 

BUILDING  ACT,  the  act  passed  in  the  year  1844, 
known  as  7  &  8  Vict.  cap.  84,  for  regulating  the  construction 
and  tlie  use  of  Iniiidings  in  the  metropolis  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, within  certain  limits  defined  by  the  act. 

As  this  act  is  usually  appended  to  Price  Books,  &c., 
we  have  thought  it  unnecessary  to  occupy  space  by  giving  it 
here  at  length. 

BUILDING  OF  BEAMS,  the  joining  of  two,  or  several 
pieces  of  timber  together  in  one  thickness,  and  of  several 
pieces  in  one  length,  by  means  of  bolts,  so  as  to  form  a  beam 
of  given  dimensions,  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  obtain 
from  a  single  piece  of  timber.  Beams  thus  built,  are  stronger 
than  such  as  are  scarfed,  provided  their  joints  be  judiciously 
st'Tapped  across  on  the  exterior  sides;  and  their  construction 
does  not  require  so  much  waste  of  timber.  Not  only  beams, 
bnt  ribs  for  vaulted  roofs,  may  be  built  so  as  to  be  stronger, 
and  require  less  timber  in  their  fabrication,  than  those  which 
arc  scarfed  ;  and  if  due  attention  be  paid  to  their  curves, 
no  trussing  will  be  necessary.  The  practice  of  building 
a  compound  timber,  so  as  to  form  one  mass,  or  piece, 
wlii  li  would  perform  the  function  of  a  single  piece,  will 
be  found  under  the  article  Kib.  Other  particulars,  with 
regard  to  the  lengthening  of  beams,  will  be  found  under 
Scarfing. 

liULKER,  a  term  used  in  Lincolnshire  for  a  beam  or 
rafter. 

BULLEN-NAILS,  those  with  round  heads  and  short 
shanks,  tinned  and  lacquered  :  there  are  about  three  sizes  of 
them,  which  arc  used  in  the  hangings  of  rooms. 

BULWARK,  in  ancient  fortification,  is  nearly  the  samo 
with  bastion  in  the  modern.     See  Rampart  and  Torus. 

BUNDLE  PILLAR,  in  Gothic  architecture,  a  column 
consisting  of  a  number  of  small  pillars  around  its  circum- 
ference. 

BUSCIIETTO,  a  distinguished  Grecian  architect,  born 
in  theisleof  Dulichio.  and  employed,  in  1016,  by  the  republic 
of  Pisa,  in  erecting  their  cathedral  church.  This  has  been 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  edifices  in  Italy.  He 
died  at  Pisa,  where  he  had  a  monument  erected  to  his 
memory,  with  an  inscription,  intimating  his  superior  know- 
ledge of  the  mechanical  powers.  He  had  many  disciples, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern  architectural 
science  in  Italy. 

BUST,  or  BusTo,  in  sculpture,  that  portion  of  the  human 
figure,  which  comprehends  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and 
shoulders.  The  Italians  also  apply  this  term  to  a  greater 
portion  of  the  human  figure,  as  low  as  the  hips,  with  or 
without  the  head  and  arms,  as  in  the  busts  of  many  illus- 
trious ancient  Romans.  The  word  is  probably  derived  from 
the  Latin  bustinn.  These  pieces  of  sculpture  are  generallv 
placed  upon  a  pedestal  or  console. 


BUT-HINGES,  those  employed  in  hanging  closures,  aa 
doors,  shutters,  casements,  &c.,  placed  on  the  edges  with  the 
knuckle  projecting  on  the  side  on  which  the  closure  is  to 
open,  and  the  other  edges  stopping  against  a  small  piece  of 
wood  left  on  the  thickness  of  the  closure,  so  as  to  keep  the 
arris  entire.  It  is  customary  to  sink  the  thickness  of  the 
hinges  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  edge  of  the  closure,  and 
the  tail  part  one-half  into  the  jamb.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  but-hinges,  such  as,  sfop  but-hinges,  which  only  permit  the 
closure  to  open  to  a  right  angle,  or  perhaps  little  more,  with- 
out breaking  the  hinge  ;  risiny  but-hingen,  which  turn  upon 
a  screw,  employed  in  doors,  and  cause  the  door  to  rise  in  the 
act  of  opening,  so  as  to  clear  a  carpet  in  the  apartment. 
Slip-off  but-hinc/es,  are  those  employed  where  a  door  or 
window-blind  requires  to  be  taken  off  occasionally. 

BUTMENT.     See  Abutment  and  Stone  Bridge. 

BuTMENT  Cheeks,  the  two  solid  parts  on  each  side  of 
a  mortise  :  the  thickness  of  each  of  the  cheeks  should  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  moitise,  when  there  is  no  circumstance 
which  may  require  them  to  be  of  a  different  thickness. 

BUTT-END  of  a  piece  of  timber,  the  largest  end  next  to 
the  root. 

BUTT-JOINT,  in  hand-railing,  a  joint  at  right  angles  to 
the  curve  of  the  rail.     See  Hand-Railing. 

BUTTERY,  the  store-room  for  provisions.  Its  situation 
is  generally  north. 

BUTl'ING-JOINT,  that  which  is  formed  by  the  surfaces 
of  two  pieces  of  wood,  of  which  the  one  surface  is  pei'pen- 
dicular  to  the  fibres,  and  the  other  in  their  direction,  or 
making  an  oblique  angle  with  them  ; — as  the  joint  w  hich  the 
struts  and  braces  in  carpentry  make  with  the  truss-posts. 

BUITON,  a  small  piece  or  wood  or  metal,  made  to  turn 
round  a  centre,  for  fastening  a  door,  or  any  other  kind  of 
closure.  The  centre  in  commonly  a  nail,  which  should  be 
made  round  where  it  is  to  turn,  and  the  head  made  smooth. 

Button  of  a  Lock,  a  round  head  for  moving  the  bolt. 

BUTTRESS,  an  erection  serving  to  support  a  wall  or 
other  building,  which  is  either  too  high  otherwise  to  main- 
tain its  position,  or  is  pressed  against  from  the  other  side 
by  an  adventitious  force. 

Buttresses  are  so  frequent  in  Gothic  architecture  as  to 
become  a  marked  and  principal  featuie  in  buildings  of  that 
style ;  they  are  placed  around  the  exterior  sides  of  the 
edifice,  usually  one  between  every  two  windows,  and  one  or 
two  at  each  of  the  angles  of  the  building.  In  the  earlier 
erections,  each  angle  was  supported  by  two  buttresses,  dis- 
posed so  as  to  leave  their  sides  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the 
walls;  but  in  later  examples,  for  the  sake  of  giving  a  lighter 
appearance  to  the  building,  as  well  as  for  economizing 
materials,  only  one  buttress  was  used,  situate  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  receive  the  direct  drift  of  the  vaulting,  having 
its  sides  parallel  to  the  vertical  diagonal  plane  which  bisects 
the  angle  formed  by  the  two  planes  of  the  adjoining  faces 
of  the  building.  The  use  of  these  projections  is  not  so  much 
to  support  the  weight  of  the  walls,  as  to  resist  the  outward 
thrust  of  the  roof,  more  especially  when  vaulted. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  buttresses  used  in  Gothic  build- 
ings ;  those  that  are  formed  of  vertical  planes,  and  attached 
to  the  walls,  are  called  pillared  builresses ;  those  which  rise 
from  the  pillared  buttresses  upon  the  sides  of  the  aisles,  with 
an  arch-formed  intrados,  and  sloping  cxtrados  or  top,  are 
caWed  ffyinr/  buttresses,  arc  boiitants,  or  arcli  buttresses. 

In  few  instances  perhaps  have  the  medireval  architects 
shown  greater  constructive  skill  than  in  the  erection  of 
buttresses,  as  is  more  especially  evidenced  in  their  larger 
structures,  such  as  cathedrals,  where  by  means  of  them  the 
active  force  of  the  vaulting,  which  would  otherwise  overthrow 


BYZ 


68 


BYZ 


the  walls,  is  borne  down  harmless  ontside  the  biiildinj;  into 
the  earth.  By  the  arc-boiitants  the  drift  is  carried  over  the 
aisles  to  the  up]ier  part  of  the  main  buttresses,  wiiere,  by 
the  gravity  of  the  snpcr-iinposed  pinnacles,  the  direction  of 
the  force  is  changed,  so  that  from  an  horizontal  thrnst,  it 
hoconu'S  or  at  least  approaches  to  a  vertical  pressure,  which 
again  is  Ciirried  through  the  mass  of  the  buttress  to  the 
ground  at  its  base.  No  material  is  thrown  away,  all  is 
pressed  into  active  service,  what  does  not  answer  a  useful 
end  is  removed,  and  nothing  added  merely  for  ornament; 
an  instance  of  the  latter  has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
surmounting  pinnacle;  which,  although  by  a  superficial 
observer  it  might  be  considered  as  mere  ornament,  is  in 
reality  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  construction  ;  as  an 
e.xample  of  the  previous  statement,  may  bo  produced  the 
buttresses  at  Westminster  Hall,  from  which  a  considerable 
portion  near  the  ground  and  adjoining  the  walls,  being  of 
no  service,  has  been  entirely  cutaway. 

Pillared  buttresses  are  enriched  with  jiinnacles,  niches, 
statues,  and  other  ornaments.  Flying  buttresses  are  often 
perforated,  ]iartieularly  in  the  later  examples,  in  which  the 
perforations  assume  the  form  of  polyfoils,  flambeaux,  and 
other  beautiful  devices.  A  rich  specimen  is  to  be  found  in 
Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at  Westminster,  where  the 
butti'csses  are  of  a  wonderfully  light  and  gorgeous  appear- 
ance ;  the  main  buttresses  also  in  this  instance  are  of  a  very 
elaborate  description. 

BYZANTINE  ARCPnTECTURE,  a  style  of  architec- 
ture bordering  on  the  Romanesque,  which  prevailed  in 
Greece.and  its  dependencies  during  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

This  style  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Eastern  empire,  when  Constantine  trans- 
feired  the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium, 
from  the  name  of  which  city  it  also  derives  its  distinguishing 
appellation.  Some  writers  indeed  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
state  that  the  first  Christian  empeior  removed  from  the 
ancient  city  for  the  sole  purpose  of  obtaining  greater 
fjeedom  in  the  establishment  of  his  new-  religion  ;  solici- 
tous for  its  purity,  that  it  might  remain  unpolluted  by 
any  mixture  with  the  ancient  rites,  distinct  from  pagan- 
ism even  in  its  architecture.  Hope,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  lor  much  information  on  the  subject,  states  this  as 
his  opinion,  and  says  that  Constantine,  having  evaded  the 
restraints  which  his  new  creed  was  subject  to  at  Rome  by  his 
removal  to  B3'zantium,  set  himself  diligently  to  work  to 
establish  it  on  a  firm  basis:  one  great  object  which  pre- 
sented itself  to  his  notice,  was  the  erection  of  appropriate 
places  of  worship,  which  were  much  needed,  the  number  of 
Christians  exceeding  that  of  pagans,  and  there  being  no 
previous  edifices  either  of  a  civil  or  religious  character, 
which  could  be  conveniently  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Archi- 
tects, therefore,  were  left  entirely  to  their  own  resources, 
unless  indeed  they  were  willing  to  copy  that  class  of  edifices 
adopted  in  the  old  metropolis  ;  but  this  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  their  object,  they  desired  rather  to  form  an  entirely 
new  style  of  building ;  there  were  besides  no  existing  edifices 
of  any  note,  whose  materials  might  tempt  their  removal  to 
the  new  structures,  and  so,  to  a  certain  extent,  determine 
their  constructFon,  as  had  been  the  case  at  Rome.  Under 
such  circumstances  originated  the  peculiar  style  of  architec- 
ture which  has  been  since  denominated  Byzantine. 

We  have  before  noticed  that  the  Christians  had  already 
outnumbered  their  heathen  adversaries  in  this  city,  and  as 
their  religion  was  daily  acquiring  more  and  more  proselytes, 
the  want  of  churches  must  have  been  daily  more  appa- 
rent;  it  would    be  reasonable    to   suppose,  therefore,  that 


a  vast  number  must  have  been  at  once  erected,  and  such 
indeed  seems  to  have  been  the  case,  for  wc  are  told  that  no 
less  than  eighteen  hundred  were  endowed  between  the  reigns 
of  Constantine  and  Justinian,  a  period  of  little  more  than 
two  hundred  years.  Few  of  these,  however,  remain  :  many 
of  the  oldest  of  them  were  destroyed  by  earthquakes  and 
fires,  principally  iu  the  reign  of  Zeno;  and  all  that  sur- 
vived that  period,  in  the  sedition  of  a.  d.  532.  This  out- 
break happened  in  the  time  of  Justinian,  who  set  zealously 
to  work  to  repair  the  losses  which  had  been  sustained,  and 
vied  with  his  illustrious  predecessor  in  the  erection  and 
restoration  of  Christian  churches. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  style  of  building  was  all 
this  time  confined  to  its  original  locality  ;  it  had  spread 
rapidly  throughout  the  Eastern  empire ;  where  the  Eastern 
churches  extended,  there  also  did  its  architecture  extend,  from 
the  city  of  the  chief  bishop  through  the  whole  patriarchate 
under  his  jurisdiction.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  how 
rarely  it  found  its  wa\-  into  Western  Christendom  ;  the  first 
instance  of  its  appearance  in  that  quarter,  was  the  church 
of  S.  Nazareo  e  Celso,  at  Ravenna,  in  the  year  a.  d.  440. 
This  church  was  erected  hy  Galla  Placidia,  daughter  of 
Theodosius,  afterwards  married  to  Constantins  C;esar,  and 
mother  of  Valentinian  ;  she  was  regent  of  the  Western 
empire  for  some  time  during  the  minority  of  her  son,  and 
seems  to  have  been  a  zealous  promoter  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion ;  the  erection  of  many  churches  is  attribute'!  to  her, 
amongst  which  are  three  or  four  in  this  same  city  of  Ravenna. 
The  next  we  hear  of  Byzantine  architecture  in  Italy  is 
A.  D.  547,  at  Ravenna  again,  in  the  church  of  S.  Vitale, 
which  was  erected  by  Julianas,  the  treasurer,  under  the 
direction  of  Justinian.  The  reign  of  this  prince  is  remark- 
able for  the  number  of  buildings  of  all  kinds  erect  eil ;  bridges, 
aqueducts,  roads,  fortresses,  and  a  variety  of  works  of  public 
utility  were  undertaken  throughout  the  provinces,  but  the 
number  of  churches  erected  surpassed  that  of  all  other  struc- 
tures ;  new  ones  were  constructed,  and  old  ones  re-edified, 
of  which  last  a  great  number,  as  already  stated,  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  insurrection  which  occurred  in  this  reign. 
Of  all  the  restorations  which  this  emperor  eflected,  the  most 
remarkable  is  that  of  S.  Sophia,  at  Constantinciple  ;  this 
church  he  entirely  rebuilt,  preserving,  however,  as  it  would 
appear,  the  original  plan. 

In  this  same  reign  the  Ostrogoths  were  driven  out  of  Italy 
by  Narses,  one  of  Justinian's  generals,  and  the  Western 
empire  again  brought  under  the  rule  of  one  sovereign,  which 
circumstance  led  to  a  further  introduction  westward  of 
Byzantine  architecture.  Its  progress,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  more  limited  than  might  have  been  expected,  for, 
with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  principal  cities  where  the 
viceroys  held  their  court,  we  see  but  few  instances  of  its 
adoption.  We  have  already  alluded  to  Ravenna,  which  was 
the  seat  of  the  principal  exarchate,  and  have  now  only  to 
refer  to  the  cases  of  Ancona  and  Venice,  in  the  former  of 
which  is  found  the  church  of  S.  Ciri.aco,  and  in  the  latter 
that  of  S.  Mark,  though  the  existence  of  this  style  in  the 
latter  city  is  perhaps  attributable  rather  to  the  mercatitile 
intercourse  of  the  Yenetians  with  the  East,  than  to  the 
authority  of  the  emperor  over  the  western  shores  of  the 
Adriatic.  We  have  now  quoted  all  the  pirincipal  examples 
of  this  style  that  have  been  discovered  iu  the  West,  at  least 
on  the  one  side  the  Alps ;  we  make  this  reservation,  for 
Hope,  quoting  Floury,  says  that  the  style  crossed  the  Alps, 
and  is  to  be  seen  in  the  old  city  of  Atlas,  on  the  !Mediterra- 
nean,  in  the  church  of  S.  ("esarius,  an  erection  of  the  sixth 
century  ;  he  further  states  that  it  eventually  reached  as  far 
north  as  Paris.     Be  this  as  it  may,  however,  putting  all  the 


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69 


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examples  together,  it  is  certain  that  tliey  number  much 
lower  tiian  would  naturally  be  expected ;  a  fact  not  easily  to 
be  accounted  for,  were  it  not  for  one  circumstance,  the 
rivalry  that  existed  between  the  eastern  and  western 
churches.  As  early  as  the  second  century,  a  serious  division 
arose  between  them  respecting  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter, 
which  proceeded  to  such  an  extent,  that  Victor,  bishop  of 
Rome,  separated  his  opponents  from  his  communion.  The 
liomau  church,  owing  to  its  connection  with  the  metropolis 
of  the  em|)ire,  as  well  as  from  other  causes,  had  obtained  an 
early  distinction,  which,  in  process  of  time,  became  invidious 
from  the  pertinacity  with  which  it  was  claimed,  and  the 
encroachments  which  it  gave  rise  to  luider  individual 
bishops.  When,  however,  Constantine  removed  his  court  to 
Byzantium,  the  see  of  Constantinople  rose  suddenly  to  dig- 
nity and  power,  and  showed  itself  a  formidable  rival  to  that 
of  Rome,  and  a  serious  hindi-ance  to  its  usurpations ;  thus 
originated  a  determined  jealousy  between  the  two  churches, 
which  was  manifested  by  the  constant  differences  which 
occurred  between  them,  of  which  there  were  no  less  than 
four  in  little  more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  one  of  twenty- 
five  years'  duration,  and  which  led  eventually  to  the  final 
separation  in  the  eleventh  century.  It  is  to  this  rivalry  we 
attribute  the  paucity  of  examples  in  this  style  of  architecture 
to  be  met  with  in  the  Western  empire ;  an  opinion  confirmed 
by  Mr.  Gaily  Knight,  who,  alluding  to  the  subject  of  our 
article,  says,  "  'J'his  plan  became  a  favourite  in  the  East,  and 
was  adhered  to  in  those  parts  with  the  greater  tenacity,  in 
consequence  of  the  schism  which  subsequently  took  place 
between  the  pope  of  Rome  and  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. There  was  to  be  a  difference  in  every  thing.  The 
Greeks  insisted  upon  the  square  form  of  their  own  inven- 
tions;  whilst  all  the  nations  which  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  continued  to  employ  the  long 
form,  which  was  ]iersevered  in  at  Rome."  A  reviewer  of 
the  work  from  which  this  extract  is  made,  remarks,  "  Mr. 
Knight's  observations  with  regard  to  the  antagonism  of  the 
eastern  and  the  western  churches,  are  entirely  correct. 
Except  when  favoured  by  peculiar  political  relations,  it  is 
remarkable  how  little  influence  was  exerted  in  Italy  by 
Byzantine  art.  Ravenna  and  Venice  are  almost  the  only 
loe^ilities  w^hero  we  may  trace  any  decided  imitation  of  the 
type  of  Constantinople." 

There  is  one  passage  in  this  extract  which  we  would  de- 
sire to  quality,  for  although  Byzantine  architecture,  as  a 
style,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  employed  to  anv  extent  in 
the  West,  still  it  cannot  be  said  that  it  possessed  no  influence 
in  that  quarter.  That  many  of  its  features  were  imitated  in 
succeeding  styles  cannot  be  doubted  ;  its  principal  charac- 
teristics are  evident  in  most  of  the  Lombardic  churches,  and 
in  the  other  styles  which  prevailed  in  Western  Christendom. 
The  Greek  church  w.as  seldom  copied  entire;  but  its  different 
parts  were  adopted  in  buildings  otherwise  of  a  different  cha- 
racter; for  instance,  in  some  cases  the  Greek  dome  appears 
in  conjunction  with  the  Latin  cross  ;  in  others,  the  Greek 
plan  alone  is  imitated  ;  in  others  again,  both  appear  toge- 
ther ;  so  that  were  it  not  for  some  peculiarity  of  arrange- 
ment or  detail,  it  would  be  difficult  to  decide  to  which  style 
the  building  might  belong.  This  Icind  of  influence  was  "ex- 
erted not  only  in  Italy,  but  throughout  the  whole  of  Western 
Europe. 

In  A.  D.  586,  the  Lombai-ds  made  their  appearance  in 
Italy,  and  from  that  time  dates  the  downfall  of  the  previous 
styles  of  art,  and  the  introduction  of  that  mode  which  is 
entitled,  after  their  designation,  Lombardic;  not  that  this 
may  bo  strictly  said  to  be  a  new  style,  but  rather  a  modifi- 
cation of  those  already  existing  ;   still  its  characteristics  are 


so  marked  as  readily  to  distinginsh  it  from  its  predecessors. 
After  this  period  we  see  little  more  of  Byzantine  architecture 
beyond  the  localitj'  where  it  first  originated  ;  in  the  East  it 
seems  to  have  h(dd  out  until  the  invasion  of  the  Ottomans. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Byzantine  architecture 
is  the  dome,  a  feature  which  distinguishes  it  at  once  from 
all  preceding  styles,  and  no  loss  surely,  though  perhaps  less 
readily,  from  its  successors;  in  the  one  case  by  its  mere 
presence,  in  the  other  by  its  peculiar  form.  The  adaptation 
of  the  sphere  throughout  the  building,  may  be  said  to  be  the 
mark  of  the  style,  for  it  is  used  not  only  in  the  case  of  the 
principal  dome,  but  in  a  modified  form  as  the  covering  of 
the  building  in  every  part  where  it  can  possibly  be  applied, 
as  instanced  in  the  conchs  over  the  apsides  or  extremities  of 
the  aisles.  We  might  perhaps  speak  more  generally,  and 
lay  down  the  circle  as  the  standard  figure  of  construction, 
for  it  appears  every  where,  in  plan,  in  section,  and  in  eleva- 
tion, or,  as  Hope  says,  "  Arches  rising  over  arches,  and 
cupolas  over  cupolas,  we  may  say,  that  all  which  in  the 
temples  of  Athens  had  been  straight,  and  angular,  and  square, 
in  the  churches  of  Constantinople  became  curved  and  rounded, 
concave  within  and  convex  without."  The  plan  of  the  build- 
ings was  generally  that  of  a  cross  inscribed  in  a  square,  hav- 
ing each  of  the  arms  of  an  equal  length,  and  not  greatly 
prolonged.  At  the  angles  of  the  square  formed  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  cross  were  situate  four  piers,  supporting  as 
many  arches,  whose  spandrils  converged  so  as  to  unite  in 
the  form  of  a  circle  towards  their  summit,  which  again  sup- 
ported the  crowning  dome.  The  four  arms  of  the  cross 
terminated  in  apsides  of  semicircular  plan,  and  were  likewise 
covered  with  semi-cupolas,  closing  over  the  arches  which 
supported  the  central  dome.  The  principal  entrance  was 
preceded  by  a  porch,  and  this  again  by  an  atrium  or  open 
quadrangle,  which  is  seldom  omitted  in  the  Eastern  churches. 
The  church  of  S.  Sophia  is  said  to  have  had  four  distinct 
nartheces  besides  the  atrium.  The  domes  in  this  style  are 
generally  flat  or  depressed,  of  a  vertical  section  less  than 
a  semicircle,  that  of  S.  Sophia  is  noted  as  having  been 
remarkably  low ;  the  materials  of  their  construction  were 
always  of  a  light  description,  frequently  hollow  jars  of  a 
somewhat  cylindrical  form,  fittuig  one  in  the  other,  and  made 
of  earthenware  or  some  light  substance.  The  thrust  of  the 
dome  was  most  usually  resisted  by  pendentives  or  brackets 
springing  from  the  angles  of  walls,  which  were  square,  and 
carried  up  to  support  the  base  of  the  dome ;  but  this  method 
was  not  universally  adopted,  for  in  the  Church  of  S.  Vitale 
at  Ravemia,  the  dome  is  supported  by  a  series  of  small 
arches ;  in  this  case,  however,  the  plan  of  the  walls  is  not 
square,  but  octagon. 

The  Biinor  points  of  distinction  are  to  be  found  in  the 
details,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  remarkable. 
The  heads  of  apertures  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  semicircular 
form,  sometimes  however  of  a  larger,  sometimes  of  a  lesser 
segment;  not  unfrequently  at  a  late  period,  stilted  arches 
are  used,  that  is,  semicircular  arches  having  the  lower 
extremities  continued  downwards  perpendicularly  ; — this 
method  seems  to  have  been  adopted  for  the  sake  of  preserving 
the  same  level  when  arches  of  different  spans  were  employed. 
Besides  these  forms,  pointed  arches  are  occasionally  met 
with,  also  apertures  having  triangular  or  pedimental  heads. 
Another  peculiarity  is  the  frequent  employment  of  a  series 
of  successive  arches.  The  only  remaining  distinction  which 
we  shall  notice  has  reference  to  the  capitals  of  the  columns, 
which  are  square,  tapering  blocks  of  the  form  of  truncated 
pyramids  having  the  apex  downwards  ;  they  are  little  better 
than  plain  blocks,  their  only  ornamentation  consisting  of 
foliation  in  low  relief,  or  a  sort  of  basket-work  which  is 


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peculiar  to  this  style  of  architecture.  Nothing  further  need 
be  said  respecting  its  characteristics,  the  dome  of  itself  is 
alnioiit  a  sullieient  feature  to  stamp  the  character  of  the  tjpe. 

Tiieorij,'in  of  this  mode  of  building  is  variously  attributed 
by  various  writers;  some  will  have  it  that  it  is  but  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Basilican  style,  with  the  addition  of  the  dome, 
which  necessitated  the  shortening  of  the  oblong  of  the 
Basilica  ;  but  this,  which  is  considered  as  merely  an  addition, 
is  the.  [irincipal  feature  both  in  construction  and  design.  It 
is  true,  the  plan  of  the  Basilica  was  an  oblong,  and  that  of 
the  Byzantine  buildings  a  square,  but  surely  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  the  latter  should  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
former ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  may  be  so,  but  there  is  no 
prima  facie  evidence  in  favour  of  such  an  opinion,  from  the 
mere  similarity  of  plan.  Others  attribute  its  origin  to  the 
baptisteries,  or  to  the  sepulchral  chapels  built  by  Constautine, 
sucii  as  that  of  S.  Costanza,  the  Ijurial-placc  of  Constantia, 
his  daughter,  or  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  and  it 
must  be  confessed  that  these  offer  a  greater  resemblance 
to  the  Greek  churches  than  do  the  Basilicas :  others  again 
are  of  opinion  that  this  was  entirely  a  new  style  without 
any  previous  model,  owing  its  origin  to  the  skill  and  concep- 
tion of  the  Byzantine  architects.  The  question  remains, 
how  are  these  differences  to  be  settled  ?  Not,  we  presume, 
by  following  any  one  opinion  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others, 
but  by  granting  a  moderate  ci'cdit  to  all.  We  believe  that 
they  all  speak  truly,  but  that  no  one  of  them  speaks  the 
whole  truth;  it  is  probable  that  Byzantine  architecture  owes 
its  origin  to  each  and  all  of  the  above  sources,— to  one  per- 
haps more  than  another,  but  not  to  one  to  the  exclusion  of 
another.  We  would  say  that  it  owed  its  existence  not  a 
little  to  the  two  first  causes,  but  more  especially  to  the  last, 
for  as  Mr.  Knight;  in  describing  the  church  of  S.  Vitale, 
says,  '•  The  chief  architectural  novelty  in  this  building,  is 
the  dome.  No  vaulting  of  any  kind  had  ever  been  hitherto 
employed  in  the  roofs  of  churches,  much  less  that  most  skil- 
ful and  admired  of  all  vaulting,  the  cupola,  or  dome  ;  a  mode 
of  covering  buildings  perfectly  well  understood  by  the 
Romans,  but  discontinued  as  art  declined,  and,  for  the  first 
time,  reproduced  by  thi  Greek  architects  of  Constantinople, 
in  the  instance  of  S.  Sophia." 

With  the  insufficient  materials  we  have  to  work  upon,  it 
would  be  futile  to  attempt  a  detailed  classification  of  the 
examples  belonging  to  this  style.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
our  knowledge  on  the  subject  is  so  scanty,  but  we  trust 
that  somj  of  our  travellers  will  take  an  interest  in  those 
hitherto  neglected  remains  of  Christian  art.  That  there  is 
a  scarcity  of  examples,  we  can  hardly  suppose;  we  believe 
that  Asia  Minor  would  afford  ami)le  materials  for  a  proper 
investigation.  The  only  writer  we  know  of  who  has  essayed 
an  arrangement  of  known  examples,  and  their  division  into 
classes,  is  M.  Couchaud  in  his  book  on  the  Eglises  Byzan- 
tines en  Grece.  It  is  true  he  seems  to  include  some  examples 
imder  this  style  which  other  authors  do  not  suppose  to 
belong  to  it,  but  he  has  given  considerable  attention  to  the 
subject,  and  his  opinions  cannot  but  be  worth  consideration. 
He  commences  by  dividing  the  buildings  into  three  classes, 
to  each  of  which  he  assigns  a  particular  period.  The  first 
period  is  comprised  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  centuries, 
the  second  between  the  sixth  and  eleventh,  and  the  third  be- 
tween the  eleventh  and  the  invasion  by  the  Ottomans.  We 
cannot  do  better  than  follow  his  own  description  as  closely 
as  possible. 

Few  of  the  churches  of  the  first  period,  says  he,  arc 
now  extant;  but  we  learn  from  the  historian  Eusebius 
that  they  were  in  plan  cither  round  or  octagon,  and  were 
surmouuted    by    a   dome.       Of    this   description    was    the 


church  erected  by  Constantine  at  Antioch,  which  was  of 
the  latter  class,  and  that  erected  by  his  mother  Helena, 
in  Syria,  of  the  circular  form.  The  churches  ofS.  Marcellin 
and  S.  Constance  at  Home,  as  well  as  that  of  S.  Vitale  at 
Ravenna,  afford  further  examples  of  the  historian's  descrip- 
tion. The  plans  in  both  cases,  whether  circular  or  octagonal, 
terminated  of  a  square  form,  and  upon  the  plans  thus  pro- 
duced were  erected  the  facades ;  the  most  ancient  of  which 
are  simple  parallelopipeds,  terminated  at  their  summit  by 
a  cornice  of  stone  or  marble,  and  sometimes  of  bricks,  so 
placed  as  to  form  salient  and  re-entering  angles.  Pediments 
showing  the  slope  of  the  loof  do  not  appear  in  the  fa9ades, 
for  the  use  of  timber  had  already  been  discarded  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  formation  of  their  roofs,  which  were  now 
either  flat  or  spherical.  One  or  more  gates  gave  admittance 
into  the  church,  and  these  were  generally  adorned  with  deep 
mouldings  ;  the  lintels  were  relieved  by  an  arch  of  discharge. 
We  have  said  that  all  the  churches  of  this  period  were  sur- 
mounted by  domes;  these  were  pierced  at  their  lower 
extremity  by  a  multitude  of  apertures  which  lighted  the 
interior  of  the  cupola.  According  to  Eusebius  and  S.  Paul 
of  Seleucia,  the  domes  were  covered  with  lead  and  occasionally 
gilded,  but  all  those  which  are  still  to  be  found  in  Greece 
are  covered  with  tiles  of  terra  cotta.  The  lateral  facades 
differ  little  from  the  principal  one ;  they  are  each  of  them 
provided  with  an  entrance.  The  apsides,  generally  three 
in  number,  symbolizing  the  three  Persons  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  were  of  a  simple  plan,  which  was  more  frequently 
circular  than  polygonal :  their  sides  were  pierced  with  one 
or  more  apertures  or  windows.  In  the  interior  of  the  church 
the  nave  was  always  preceded  by  a  porch  or  vestibule.  A 
gallery  for  the  female  portion  of  the  congregation  was  carried 
along  the  nave  as  far  as  the  sanctuary,  and  was  lighted  by 
windows  situated  over  the  principal  fii9ade,  and  sometimes 
by  others  in  the  side  facades.  The  principal  difterence 
between  the  styles  of  the  two  empires,  is  shown  in  the  length 
of  the  nave,  which  in  the  Greelc  churches  is  much  shorter 
than  in  the  basilicas  of  the  west.  In  the  centre  of  the  church 
were  four  piers  supporting  the  dome,  which  was  erected  on 
a  square  plan,  the  angles  being  filled  up  by  very  ingenious 
contrivances  technically  termed  pondentives.  The  extremi- 
ties of  the  nave  were  covered  by  two  hemispherical  cupolas. 

Such  are  the  principal  feature^  of  the  edifices  which  were 
erected  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  centur3\ 

An  enumeration  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  second  period 
will  help  to  give  us  an  idea  of  the  progress  made  by  Justinian 
in  the  ('hristian  architecture  of  this  era. 

The  first  edifice  which  presents  itself  to  our  notice  is  the 
smaller  church  of  S.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  converted 
into  a  mosque  after  the  invasion  of  the  Ottomans.  The  plan 
of  the  exterior  is  that  of  a  square  surrounding  an  octagon, 
the  form  of  that  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna.  In  the  interior 
the  galleries  for  females  were  carried  round  the  first  story, 
and  the  nave  covered,  as  in  the  preceding  period,  with  a 
dome.  From  this  let  us  pass  on  to  the  larger  church  of  the 
same  name,  a  building  erected  by  Justinian  to  replace  one 
which  had  not  long  previously  been  destroyed  by  fire.  In 
plan  this  is  similar  to  the  smaller  church,  with  the  exception 
that  the  octagon  is  slightly  prolonged.  The  interior  gal- 
leries are  similar  to  those  already  described,  but  the  dome 
is  more  rich  and  bcautilul  than  in  all  previous  examples,  and 
pierced  with  a  larger  number  of  apertures.  The  effect  pro- 
duced by  this  building  wa^  great,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
influence  which  it  obtained  throughout  the  Eastern  empire. 
At  a  later  time,  the  form  of  the  interior  was  repeated  in  the 
exterior;  this  combination,  which  was  first  applied  to  the  nave 


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and  transepts,  at  last  became  so  general,  that  externally  you 
could  scarcely  discover  a  straight  line  towards  the  summit 
of  the  building.  The  churches  of  "  the  Almighty,"  and  of 
the  monasliry  at  Constantinople,  whi-ch  still  preserve  the  roof 
of  this  period,  oiler  remarkable  examples  of  this  combination 
of  vaulting  ;  and  the  method,  which  was  employed  in  a  great 
number  of  instances,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  most  of  the  isles  of 
the  Archipelago,  hi  this  period  the  domes  were  increased  in 
number,  and  at  last  were  carried  even  over  the  porch  ;  the 
side  fafades  follow  the  same  tbrm  as  the  principal  one,  and 
the  rear  end  of  tiie  edifice  terminates  in  a  polygonal  apsis, 
pierced  with  windows  of  tw-o  or  three  compartments.  In 
the  interior  decoration  mosaics  tooic  the  place  of  the  marble 
slabs  previously  employed,  which  were  retained  only  in  the 
surbasements.  The  nave  was  simplified  ;  square  piers  were 
substituted  for  columns,  which  gradually  disappeared,  and  the 
pendentives  were  modified  and  somewhat  varied.  The  vaults 
were  divided  by  horizontal  rings,  and  decorated  with  paint- 
ings; the  centre  of  the  cupola  being  occupied  by  a  colossal 
head  of  Christ,  surrounded  by  angels.  The  domes  belonging 
to  the  latter  portion  of  this  period  difl'ered  from  the  preceding, 
inasmuch  as  the  windows  encroached  upon  the  spherical  part, 
whereas  before  they  had  been  confined  to  the  base.  This 
second  period,  as  may  readily  be  seen,  added  greatly  to  the 
embellishment  of  Byzantine  architecture,  and  eventually  con- 
siderably modified  its  character. 

In  the  third  period,  the  systems  of  Italy  and  Greece  w-erc 
united  ;  the  division  indeed  owes  its  origin,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, to  the  Roman  basilica,  as  is  manifested  by  the  gable 
ends  of  the  wail  showing  the  inclination  of  the  roof.  Athens 
furnishes  a  number  of  examples,  in  which  the  influence  of 
Western  type  is  particularly  noticeable.  The  galleries  for 
females  were  now  dispensed  with,  and  a  portion  of  the  area  of 
the  church  set  apart  for  their  service  in  the  transepts.  The 
influence  of  tliis  new  mode,  however,  was  more  especially 
shown  in  the  piroftision  and  richness  of  the  ornaments  em- 
ployed in  the  details  of  the  buildings. 

Paintings  in  fresco  took  the  place  of  mosaics,  and  were 
multiplied  to  such  an  extent,  that  at  last  the  very  marble 
which  previously  adorned  the  surbasement,  was  imitated  by 
this  means. 

Semicircular  vaults  covered  the  whole  length  of  the 
church ;  the  windows  were  closed  up  with  slabs  of  stone  or 
marble,  pierced  with  small  circular  apertures  to  admit 
light ;  and  the  doors  began  to  be  of  more  elaborate  work- 
manship ;  the  interior  arrangement  remained  the  same  as 
before.  This  last  period,  which  has  been  said  to  end  w'ith 
the  invasion  of  the  Turks,  may  be  considered  as  continuing 
for  some  time  longer,  during  which  the  arts  remained  sta- 
tionary in  Greeoe,  up  to  the  period  of  the  last  war  of  inde- 
pendence. 

It  now  only  remains  to  give  some  description  of  a  few  of 
the  churches  which  have  been  alluded  to  in  a  previous  part 
of  this  article  :  we  cannot  do  better  than  commence  with 
that  of  S.  Sophia,  which  forms  a  fair  type  of  the  whole 
style.  The  following  extract  is  taken  from  the  Encyclopedia 
Metropolitana  : — 

"The  ciithedral  of  S.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  which 
had  been  built  by  Constantine,  having  been  twice  destroyed 
by  fire,  was  rebuilt  finally  by  Justinian,  about  a.  d.  532. 
His  architect,  Anthemius,  gave  the  design,  and  the  emperor 
every  day  superintended  the  wotk,  which  was  completed  in 
about  six  years  from  the  time  of  laying  the  foundation  ;  the 
magnificence  of  the  edifice  so  well  satisfied  the  emperor,  that 
he  is  said  to  have  glorified  himself  with  the  reflection  that  in 
it  he  had  exceeded  Solomon  himself. 

"  The  plan  of  the  interior  is  that  of  a  Greek  cross,  the 


four  arms  of  which  are  of  equal  length  ;  the  central  part  is 
a  square,  the  sides  of  which  are  each  about  115  feet  long. 
At  each  angle  of  the  square  a  massive  pier  of  travertine 
stone  has  been  carried  to  the  height  of  86  feet  from  the 
pavement,  and  four  semicircular  arches  stretch  acros-s  the 
intervals  over  the  sides  of  the  square,  and  rest  upon  the  piers. 
The  interior  angles  bctw-een  the  four  piers  in  the  central 
square  arc  filled  up,  from  the  springing  points  of  the  four 
arches,  in  a  concave  form,  to  a  horizontal  plane  passing 
through  their  vertices,  which  are  at  143  feet  above  the  pave- 
ment; so  that,  at  the  level  of  the  vertices,  the  interior  edge 
of  the  part  filled  up  becomes  a  circle,  the  diameter  of  which 
is  equal  to  the  side  of  the  central  square.  Upon  tliis  circle, 
as  a  base,  is  raised  the  principal  dome,  the  form  of  which  is 
that  of  a  segment  of  a  sphere,  which  is  said  to  be  equal  in 
height  to  one-sixth  of  the  diameter  of  the  base.  On  both 
the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  square,  in  the  centre  of 
the  church,  is  a  semicircular  recess,  the  diameter  of  which 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  side  of  the  square ;  it  is  carried  up  to 
the  same  height  as  the  piers,  and  terminates  in  a  half-dome, 
or  quadrant  of  a  sphere,  its  base  resting  upon  the  herni- 
cylindrical  wall  of  the  recess,  and  its  vertical  side  coinciding 
with  the  arch  raised  between  the  piers  on  the  face  of  the 
building ;  the  flat  side  of  each  recess  and  dome  being  open 
towards  the  interior  of  the  church.  These  quadrantal 
domes  were  intended  to  resist  the  lateral  thrust  of  the 
arches  raised  on  the  northern  and  southern  sides  of  the 
church,  but  they  were  found  insufficient,  for  the  arches 
pushed  away  the  half-dome  on  the  eastern  side  twice,  and  it 
could  only  be  made  to  stand  by  constructing  the  great  dome 
of  pumice  stone  and  very  light  bricks  obtained  from  Rhodes, 
by  filling  up  the  arches  with  others  of  smaller  dimensions, 
and  by  carrying  an  enormous  arch-buttress  from  a  massive 
wall  beyond  the  building  to  the  foot  of  the  dome. 

"At  the  extremities  of  the  semicircular  recesses,  in  a  lino 
running  east  and  west  through  the  centre  of  the  church,  ai-e 
smaller  recesses,  the  plan  of  one  of  which  terminates  in 
a  semicircle,  and  of  the  other  in  a  right  line  ;  these  recesses 
are  built  to  the  height  of  the  springing  of  the  four  principal 
arches,  and  are  crowned  by  quadrantal  domes,  which,  as  well 
as  the  recesses,  are  open  towards  the  interior.  In  each  of  the 
two  principal  hemicylindrical  recesses  between  the  great 
piers,  and  the  other  recesses  just  mentioned,  are  formed  two 
other  cylindrical  recesses,  open  towards  the  interior,  and 
covered  by  quadrantal  domes.  All  the  recesses  and  domes 
are  perforated  by  rows  of  small  windows  to  obtain  light. 

"  On  both  the  northern  and  southern  sides  of  the  square, 
in  the  interior  of  the  church,  is  a  grand  vestibule  forming 
a  square  on  the  plan  ;  the  roof  of  each  consists  of  three 
hemicylindrical  vaults  extending  from  north  to  south,  and 
of  another  vault  of  the  same  kind  crossing  the  former  at 
right  angles  through  the  middle,  and  forming,  by  their  inter- 
sections, three  groined  arches  ;  these  vaults  are  supported 
by  massive  pillars,  which  have  bases,  but  no  plinths;  the 
upper  part  of  their  capitals  resemble  the  volutes  of  the  Ionic 
order,  but  the  lower  part  seems  to  be  a  barbarous  imitation 
of  the  Corinthian  base.  Above  these  vestibules  are  galleries 
exactly  similar  to  them,  and,  probably,  appropriated  to 
women  during  the  performance  of  divine  service.  The 
whole  church  is  surrounded  by  cloisters,  and  enclosed  by 
four  walls,  forming  one  great  rectangle  on  the  plan.  The 
exterior  does  not  correspond  with  the  internal  grandeur 
of  the  edifice,  being  surrounded  by  clumsy  buttresses.  The 
entrance  is  by  a  portico  as  long  as  the  church,  and  about 
36  feet  wide  ;'  this  is  ornamented  with  pilasters,  and  com- 
municates with  the  interior  by  five  doorways  of  marble, 
sculptured  with  figures   in  bas-relief.     Contiguous   to  this 


BYZ 


72 


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vestibule,  and  parallel  to  it,  is  another,  which  has  nine 
doorways  of  bronze. 

"  Alter  twenty  years,  the  Eastern  dome  was  thrown 
down  by  an  earthquake,  but  it  was  immediately  restored 
by  the  persevering  industry  of  Justinian;  and  it  now 
remains,  after  a  lapse  of  thirteen  centuries,  a  stately  monu- 
ment to  his  fame." 

The  next  description,  that  of  !S.  N'itale,  Kavenna,  is  given 
by  Mr.  (jwilt,  in  his  Eneyclopaidia  of  Architecture. 

"  The  exterior  walls  are  formed  in  a  regular  octagon, 
whose  diameter  is  128  feet.  Within  this  octagon  is  another 
eoTicentric  one,  54  feet  in  diameter,  from  the  eight  piers 
whereof — 55  feet  in  height — a  hemispherical  vault  is 
gathered  over,  and  over  this  is  a  timber  conical  roof  The 
peculiarity  exhibited  in  the  construction  of  the  cupola  is, 
that  the  spandrils  are  filled  in  with  earthen  vases,  and  that 
round  the  exterior  of  its  base,  semicircular-headed  windows 
are  introduced,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  two  aper- 
tures of  similar  forms.  Between  every  two  piers  hemi- 
cylindrical  recesses  are  formed,  each  covered  by  a  semi- 
dome,  whose  vertex  is  48  feet  from  the  pavement,  and  each 
of  them  contains  two  windows,  subdivided  into  three  spaces 
by  two  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order,  supporting  semi- 
circular-headed arches.  Between  the  piers  and  the  external 
walls  are  two  corridors,  which  surround  the  whole  building, 
in  two  stories,  one  above  the  other,  each  covered  by  hemi- 
cylindiical  vaulting.  The  upper  corridor,  above  the  vault,  is 
covered  with  a  sloping  or  lean-to  roof" 

Mr.  Hope  adds  the  following  particulars  : — "  S.  Vitale," 
says  he,  '"built  under  Justinian  in  534,  announces  itself  at 
first  sight  as  a  work  of  Greek  architects,  and  a  kindred  pro- 
duction with  S.  Sophia,  and  the  others  of  Constantinople. 
Its  form,  round  without,  though  octagonal  within  ;  its  two 
tiers  of  arcades  supported  on  pillars  ;  its  larger  arcades  or 
apsides,  containing  lesser  arches  or  pillars ;  its  square  capi- 
Uils,  partly  of  basket-work,  and  its  coating  of  Mosaic,  at  once 
complete  the  resemblance  and  establish  the  relationship." 

The  next  descriptions,  of  S.  Ciriaco,  at  Ancona,  and 
S.  Mark's,  Venice,  are  taken  from  Mr.  Gaily  Knight's  beau- 
tiful work  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Italy. 

"  Ancona  was  one  of  the  tow ns  of  Italy  which  remained 
longest  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors  of  the  East.  Muratori 
informs  us,  that  in  the  year  1  174  Ancona  was  governed  by 
an  ollicer  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Comncnus,  and  he  adds, 
that  the  I'^nperor  Frederick  saw  with  impatience  that  rem- 
nant of  Oriental  power  in  the  heart  of  the  Western  Empire. 
These  circumstances  will  sufficiently  account  for  the  plan 
and  style  of  S.  Ciriaco,  which,  constructed  under  the  domi- 
nation of  the  Greeks,  is  Greek  in  all  its  parts. 

"  No  certain  record  of  the  date  of  this  building  has  been 
preserved,  but  from  an  inscription  still  extant,  it  appears 
that  tile  bodies  of  SS.  Ciriaco,  Marcellino,  and  Liberio,  were 
deposited  in  the  crypt  of  this  church  in  the  year  1097. 
Almost  invariably,  when  the  bodies  of  saints  were  trans- 
liited,  a  newchmch  was  prepared  for  their  reception,  and  the 
translation  usually  took  place  when  the  building  was  suffi- 
ciently advanced  for  the  performance  of  divine  service,  but 
before  the  work  was  entirely  completed.  We  further  find, 
that  Bernard,  Bishop  of  Ancona,  consecrated  a  high-altar 
in  11-28,  and  that  in  1189,  Bishop  Beraldus  added  a  chapel, 
and  encrusted  the  walls  of  the  interior  of  the  church  with 
marble.  From  all  these  circumstances,  it  may  be  inferred, 
that  this  CiUhedral  was  begun  about  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  cotnpleted  in  the  course  of  the 
twelllh.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  Saracens,  who 
landed  at  Ancona  in  983,  and  committed  extensive  devas- 
tations, maltreated  the  cathedral,  which  was  then  in  exist- 


ence, and  ma^e  it  necessary  to  provide  another  in  peaceable 
times. 

"The  cathedral  was  originally  dedicated  to  S.  Lawrence, 
and  retained  that  name  till  so  late  as  the  fourteenth  century, 
but  finally  the  local  favourite  obtained  the  ascendant.  The 
body  of  S.  Ciriaco  was  originally  imported  from  the  East  by 
the  empress  Galla  IMacidia  in  the  fifth  century,  and  by  her 
deposited  in  the  cathedral  which  then  existed  at  Ancona. 

'■  S.  Ciriaco  is  on  a  large  scale.  The  plan  exactly  repre- 
sents the  Greek  cross,  and  was  probably  sup)[)lied  by  a  Greek 
architect.  The  centre  of  the  building  is  surmounted  by  the 
Eastern  cupola.  The  building  appears  to  have  been  erected 
without  any  deviation  from  the  original  design,  and  for  the 
most  part  remains  as  it  was  at  first  constructed.  The  prin- 
cipal porch,  which  projects  boldly,  and  is  enriched  with 
numerous  mouldings,  must  have  been  a  subsequent  addition, 
as  the  ccjurses  of  the  stones  of  which  it  is  composed,  do  not 
correspond  with  those  of  the  church.  In  the  interior,  pillars 
supporting  round  arches,  divide  the  nave  from  the  aisles. 
The  capitals  of  these  pillars  imitate  the  Corinthian,  and 
exhibit  no  admixture  of  the  Lombard  imagery,  which,  at 
the  time  when  the  cathedral  was  built,  prevailed  in  the  north 
of  Italy.  The  cupola  is  supported  by  piers  and  arches. 
The  arches  under  the  dome  are  pointed,  but  are  evidently 
alterations.  These  pointed  ai'ches  njay  have  been  introduced 
by  the  celebi'ated  architect,  Margaritone,  who  flourished  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy.  ilargaritone  was 
very  much  employed  at  Ancona,  and  to  him  the  entire  con- 
struction of  S.  Ciriaco  is  attributed  erroneously  by  Vasari. 
Margaritone  may  have  added  the  porch." 

"The  plan  of  S.  Mark's,  like  that  of  S.  Sophia,  is  a 
Greek  cross,  with  the  addition  of  sjiaeious  porticos.  The 
centre  of  the  building  is  covered  with  a  dome,  and  over 
the  centre  of  each  of  the  arms  of  the  cross,  rises  a  smaller 
cupola.  All  the  remaining  parts  of  the  building  are  covered 
with  vaults,  in  constructing  which,  the  Greeks  had  become 
expert,  and  which  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  wooden 
roofs  of  the  old  basilicas.  Colonnades  and  round  arches 
separate  the  nave  from  the  aisles  in  each  of  the  four  com- 
partments, and  sup])ort  galleries  above.  The  capitals  of  the 
pillars  imitate  the  Corinthian,  and  are  free  from  the  ima- 
gery which  at  that  time  abounded  in  the  other  churches  of 
Itah'.  It  is  computed,  that  in  the  decoration  of  the  build- 
ing, without  and  within,  above  five  hundred  pillars  are 
employed. 

"  The  pillars  are  all  of  marble,  and  were  chiefly  l)rought 
from  Greece  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant.  Whilst  S. 
Mark's  was  building,  every  vessel  that  cleared  out  of  Venice 
for  the  East,  was  obliged  to  bring  back  pillars  and  mar- 
bles for  the  work  in  which  the  republic  took  so  general 
an  interest." 

'•  The  external  ajipearance  of  S.  Mark's  is  no  less  Byzan- 
tine than  its  interior,  but  less  resembles  S.  Sophia  from 
the  increased  numbers  and  elevatitm  of  its  cupolas.  Suc- 
ceeding generations  endeavour  to  outstrip  their  predecessors, 
and  in  the  interval  which  had  elapsed  between  the  construc- 
tion of  S.  Sophia  and  that  of  S.  Mark's,  ihe  (Jreek  archi- 
tects had  multiplied  the  feature  which  had  obtained  so  much 
admiration,  and  had  sought  to  give  it  additional  importance, 
and  surmounted  the  hemisphere  of  the  dome  with  a  second 
c\ipola  of  wood  covered  with  lead.  This  change  was  imparted 
to  the  Venetian  copy. 

"  Another  Byzantine  feature  is  conspicuous  in  the  exterior 
of  the  building  in  the  tiers  of  round  arches  by  which  the 
flank  walls  are  relieved.  With  a  singular  contrast  to 
the  habits  of  their  forefathers,  who  inflexibly  adhered 
to  the  horizontal,  the  Greeks  of  the  lower  Empire  turned 


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N:'  /  ,  f'a/i/f  meiif/ioK/  .      A':'  5,  fji'nu/i/rr 


■/■,/,y 


Yf  6 .  f'm^ttr  fci7 .  ...  Crr>,r7 . 


.1"."  /3.Cr,-r/rrf  , 

N"  I  A,  Crc'fs  . 

X"  Z'!.  Ciirh  rrrar . 


CAA 


73 


CAI 


every  line  into  a  curve,  and  introduced  a  semi-arch  wherever 
they  could,  even  in  the  shape  of  windows,  which  were  often 
what  in  modern  phraseology  would  be  termed  fan-lights. 
The  front  is  on  the  same  principle  :  a  second  tier  of  semi- 
circular arches  rises  over  the  portico,  which  consists  of  no 
less  than  five  semicircular  entrances  decorated  with  numer- 
ous pillars ;  the  summit  is  crowned  with  spiral  and  pyra- 
midal forms,  partaking  more  of  the  character  of  the  pointed 
style  than  of  the  round.  Altogether,  the  exterior  of  S. 
Mark's  is  a  strange  mi.xture,  but  it  is  venerable  and  pictu- 
resque." 


The  last  description  which  we  shall  give  is  that  of  S. 
Theodore,  at  Athens ;  it  is  extracted  from  M.  Couchaud. 

"  Of  all  the  churches  which  Athens  possesses,  S.  Theodore 
is  certainly  the  most  complete,  since  it  has  three  apsides,  a 
dome  and  belfry  ;  but  the  fresco  painting  in  the  interior  has 
decayed.  The  altar-screen,  the  furniture,  and  the  pulpit,  have 
been  replaced.  It  is  constructed  of  a  porous  stone,  separated 
by  courses  of  brick  ;  the  only  peculiarity  which  it  offers  is 
a  frieze  in  terra  cotta,  running  along  the  front  facade,  and  the 
two  side  fa9ades,  which  are  pierced  with  doors  of  singular 
proportion,  and  having  a  horse-shoe-headed  arch." 


CAA 


c. 


CAABA,  a  part  of  the  temple  of  Mecca,  to  which  the 
Mahometans  principally  address  themselves  in  prayer.  It 
consists  of  a  stone  edifice,  nearly  square,  and  is  said,  by  the 
followers  of  Mahomet,  to  have  been  first  built  by  Abraham 
and  his  son  Ishmael. 

The  word  is  Arabic,  caaba,  and  caabak. ;  a  name  which 
some  have  given  to  this  building,  on  account  of  its  height, 
which  exceeded  that  of  the  other  buildings  in  Mecca ;  but 
others,  with  more  appearance  of  propriety,  derive  the  name 
from  its  quadrangular  form. 

This  edifice  is  so  ancient,  that  its  original  use,  and  the 
name  of  its  builder,  are  lost  in  a  cloud  of  idle  traditions  ;  it 
is  not  improbable,  however,  that  it  was  built  by  some  of  the 
immediate  descendants  of  Ishmael.  But,  whatever  was 
the  original  destination  of  the  building,  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  a  temple,  as  the  door  was  not  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  structure ;  and  for  many  ages  there  was  no  worship 
performed  in  it,  though  the  pagan  Arabs  went  in  procession 
round  it.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  the  Caaba  was 
primarily  designed  for  religious  purposes  ;  and  it  is  certain, 
that  it  was  held  in  the  highest  veneration  long  before  the 
birth  of  Mahomet.  Having  undergone  several  reparations, 
it  was,  a  few  j-ears  after  his  birth,  rebuilt,  on  the  old  foun- 
dation, by  the  tribe  of  Koreish,  who  had  acquired  possession 
of  it,  either  by  fraud  or  force.  It  was  afterwards  repaired 
by  Abdall.^h  Eben  Zobeir,  the  calif  of  Mecca;  and  again 
rebuilt  by  Yussof,  surnamed  AI  Hejaj,  in  the  seventy-fourth 
year  of  the  Hegira,  with  some  alterations,  in  the  form  in 
which  it  now  remains. 

The  length  of  the  Caaba  is  twenty-four  cubits,  from  north 
to  south ;  its  breadth,  from  east  to  west,  twenty-three  cubits; 
the  door,  which  is  on  the  east  side,  is  raised  four  cubits  from 
the  ground,  and  the  floor  is  on  a  level  with  the  threshold 
of  the  door.  The  Caaba  has  a  double  roof,  supported  by 
three  octangular  pillars  of  aloes-wood.  The  outside  of  the 
building  is  covered  with  rich  black  damask,  adorned  with 
an  embroidered  band  of  gold,  which  is  changed  every  year, 
and  which  is  provided  by  the  Turkish  emperors.  At  some 
distance,  the  Caaba  is  surrounded,  but  not  entirely,  with 
a  circular  enclosure  of  pillars,  joined  at  the  bottom  by  a  low 
balustrade,  and  towards  the  top  by  bars  of  silver.  Without 
this  enclosure,  on  the  south,  north,  and  west  sides  of  the 
Caaba,  are  three  buildings,  which  are  the  oratories,  or  places 
where  three  of  the  orthodox  sects  assemble  to  perform  their 
devotions  ;  and  towards  the  south-east  stands  the  edifice 
which  covers  the  well  Zemzem,  the  treasury,  and  the  cupola 
of  Al  Abbas.  All  these  buildings  are  enclosed,  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  by  a  magnificent  piazza,  or  square  colon- 
ic 


CAI 

nade,  covered  with  cupolas.  From  each  angle  of  this  piazza 
rises  a  minaret,  with  a  double  gallery,  adorned  with  a  gilded 
spire  and  crescent,  as  are  the  cupolas  which  cover  the  piazza. 
Between  the  pillars  of  both  enclosures,  hang  a  great  number 
of  lamps,  which  are  constantly  kept  lighted  by  night. 

CABLE,  a  moulding  of  a  convex  circular  section,  rising 
from  the  back  or  concave  surface  of  a  flute,  so  that  its  most 
prominent  part  may  be  in  the  same  surface  as  the  fillet,  on 
each  side  of  the  flute ;  the  surface  of  the  flute  being  that  of 
a  concave  cylinder,  while  that  of  the  cable  is  the  surface 
of  a  convex  cylinder,  with  the  axes  of  the  cylinders  parallel 
to  each  other.  A  cable  represents  a  rope  or  stafi'laid  in  the 
flute ;  it  is  always  shorter  than  the  flute,  and  placed  at  the 
lower  end  of  it. 

Cable  mouldings  of  a  somewhat  different  character  are 
made  use  of  in  Norman  architecture ;  they  represent  cables 
or  twisted  ropes,  laid  in  mouldings  of  a  concave  circular 
section,  and  having  one  half  or  greater  portion  of  their  bodies 
exposed,  and  projecting  from  their  beds. 

Cabled  Flutes,  such  flutes  as  are  filled  with  cables. 

CABLING,  the  filling  of  flutes  with  cables,  or  the  cables 
themselves  so  disposed.  Cabling  the  flutes  of  columns  was 
not  in  very  frequent  use  in  the  works  of  antiquity.  The 
flutes  of  the  columns  of  the  arch  of  Constantine  are  filled 
with  cables  to  about  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  shafts. 
Most  of  the  columns  in  the  ruins  of  Balbec,  Palmyra,  and 
Dioclesian's  palace  at  Spalatra,  have  neither  flutes  nor  cables. 
Cabling  has  sometimes  been  practised  in  modern  times, 
without  fluting,  as  in  the  church  of  Sapienza,  at  Rome. 
See  Flutes. 

CAGE,  in  carpentry,  an  outer  work  of  timber,  enclosing 
other  works  within  it ;  as,  the  cage  of  a  stair,  is  the  wooden 
wall  that  encloses  it. 

CAISSON,  in  water-building,  a  large  chest  of  strong 
timber,  made  water-tight,  and  used  in  large  and  rapid  rivers 
for  building  the  pier  of  a  bridge.  The  bottom  consists  of 
a  grating  of  timber,  so  contrived  as  to  be  detached  from  the 
sides  when  necessary.  The  ground  under  the  intended 
pier  is  first  levelled,  and  the  caisson  being  launched  and 
floated  to  a  proper  position,  is  sunk,  and  the  pier  built  as 
high  as  the  level  of  the  water,  or  nearly  so ;  then  the  sides 
are  detached,  and  the  bottom  remains  as  a  foundation  for 
the  pier. 

The  most  considerable  work  that  has  come  to  our  know 
ledge,  where  caissons  have  been  used,  is  Westminster  Bridge ; 
of  this,  therefore,  a  particular  account  may  be  acceptable. 
Each  of  the  caissons  contained  150  loads  of  fir  timber,  and 
more  tonnage  than  a  man-of-war  of  40  guns ;  their  size  was 


CAI 


74 


CAM 


nearly  80  feet  fruin  point  to  point,  and  30  feet  in  breadth  ; 
the  sides,  10  feet  in  height,  were  formed  of  timbers,  laid 
horizontally  over  eaeh  other,  pinned  with  oak  triinnels,  and 
framed  together  at  all  comers,  except  the  salient  angles, 
where  they  were  secured  by  proper  iron  work,  which  being 
\niserewed,  would  permit  the  sides  of  the  caisson,  had  it  been 
fcmnd  necessary,  to  divide  into  two  parts.  These  sides  were 
jilanked  across  the  timbers,  inside  and  outside,  with  3-inch 
planks,  in  a  vertical  position.  The  thickness  of  the  sides 
was  18  inches  at  the  bottom  and  15  inches  at  the  top ;  and  in 
order  to  strengthen  them  the  more,  every  angle,  except  the 
two  points,  liad  tiiree  oaken  knce-tiniber.s,  properly  bolted 
and  secured.  These  sides,  when  finished,  were  flistencd  to 
the  bottom,  or  grating,  by  twenty-eight  pieces  of  timber 
on  the  outside,  and  eighteen  within,  called  slmpf,  about 
8  inches  broad  and  3  inches  thick,  reaching  and  lapping  over 
the  toj)s  of  the  sides  ;  the  lower  parts  of  these  straps  were 
dovetailed  to  the  outer  kirb  of  the  grating,  and  kept  to  their 
places  by  iron  wedges.  The  purpose  of  those  straps  and 
wedges  was,  that  when  the  pier  was  built  up  sufficiently  high 
above  low-water  mark,  to  render  the  caisson  no  longer 
necessary  for  the  masons  to  work  in,  the  wedges  being 
drawn  up,  gave  liberty  to  clear  the  straps  from  the  mortises, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  sides  rose  by  their  own  buoyancy, 
leaving  the  grating  under  the  foundation  of  the  pier. 

The  pressure  of  the  water  upon  the  sides  of  the  caisson 
was  resisted  by  means  of  a  ground  timber,  or  ribbon,  14 
inches  wide,  and  7  inches  thick,  pinned  upon  the  upper  row 
of  timbers  of  the  grating;  and  the  top  of  the  sides  was 
secured  by  a  sufficient  number  of  beams  laid  across,  which 
also  served  to  support  a  floor  on  which  tiie  labourers  stood, 
to  lioist  the  stones  out  of  the  lighters,  and  to  lower  them 
into  the  caisson. 

The  caisson  was  also  provided  with  a  sluice  to  admit  the 
water.  The  method  of  working  was  as  follows:  a  pit  being 
dug  and  levelled  in  the  proper  situation  for  the  pier,  of  the 
same  shape  as  the  caisson,  and  about  5  feet  wider  all  round  ; 
the  caisson  was  brought  to  its  position,  a  few  of  the  lower 
courses  of  the  pier  built  in  it,  and  sunk  once  or  twice,  to 
prove  the  level  of  the  foundation ;  then,  being  finally  fixed, 
the  masons  worked  in  the  usual  method  of  tide-work.  About 
two  hours  before  low-water,  the  sluice  of  the  caisson,  kept 
open  till  then,  lest  the  water,  flowing  to  the  height  of  many 
more  feet  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside,  should  float  the 
caisson  and  all  the  stone-work  out  of  its  true  place,  was  shut 
down,  and  the  water  pumped  low  enough,  without  waiting 
for  the  low  ebb  of  the  tide,  for  the  masons  to  set  and  cramp 
the  stone-work  of  the  succeeding  courses.  Then  when  the 
tide  had  risen  to  a  considerable  height,  the  sluice  was  opened 
again,  and  the  water  admitted  ;  and  as  the  caisson  was  j)ur- 
poscly  built  but  1*5  feet  high,  to  save  useless  expense,  the 
high  tides  flowed  some  feet  above  the  sides,  but  without  any 
damage  or  inconvenience  to  the  works.  In  this  manner  the 
work  proceeded  till  the  pier  rose  to  the  surface  of  the  caisson  ; 
when  the  sides  were  floated  away,  to  serve  at  another  pier. 
(Labelye's  Description  of  Westminster  Bridf/e.) 

Caisson,  signifies  also  the  sunken  panel  in  a  vaulted 
ceiling,  or  in  the  soffit  of  a  cornice. 

CALATIIUS,  the  work-basket  of  Minerva:  also  a  hand- 
basket,  made  of  light  wood  or  rushes,  used  by  the  women 
for  gathering  flowers,  after  the  example  of  Minerva.  The 
figure  of  the  calathus,  as  represented  in  ancient  monuments, 
is  narrow  at  the  bottom,  and  widens  upwards  in  its  horizontal 
dimensions.     Also  a  cup  used  in  sacrifices. 

CALCAUEOITS  CEMENTS.     See  Cements. 

Calcareous  Eautii,  a  sort  of  earth  which  becomes 
friable  by  burning,  and  is  afterwards  reduced  to  a  fine  pow- 


der by  mixing  it  with  water ;  it  also  effervesces  with  aeids. 
It  is  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  a  friable  or  comjiact  state, 
in  the  fmrn  of  chalk.     See  Li.vestoxe  and  Gypsi:\i. 

CALENDARIO,  1'hilip,  a  celebrated  architect  and 
sculptor,  who  flourished  at  Venice  about  the  year  1354,  and 
constructed  those  beautiful  porticoes  round  the  Palace  of 
St.  Mark,  which  established  his  fame. 

CALIBlvE,  or  Caliheh,  the  greatest  extent  or  diameter 
of  a  round  body. 

Camiuie  Compasses,  or  Callipers,  a  pair  of  compasses 
with  bent  legs,  for  taking  the  thickness  of  a  convex  or  con- 
cave body  in  various  parts. 

CALIDUCTS,  (from  color,  heat,  and  dticere,  to  lead,) 
pipes  or  canals  disposed  along  the  walls  of  houses  and  apart- 
ments, used  by  the  ancients  for  conveying  heat  to  the  remote 
parts  of  the  house,  from  one  common  furnace. 

CALLIMACHUS,  a  celebrated  architect  of  antiquity, 
inventor  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

CALOTTE,  a  concavity  in  form  of  a  cuf)  or  niche,  lathed 
and  plastered,  to  diminish  the  height  of  a  chapel,  cabinet,  or 
alcove,  which  would  otherwise  be  too  elevated  for  the 
breadth. 

CAM AROSIS,  (from  KOfiapoeiv,  to  arch  over,)  an  elevation 
terminated  with  an  arched  or  vaulted  head. 

CAMBEli,  an  arch  on  the  top  of  an  aperture,  or  on  the 
top  of  a  beam  ;  hence  camber  windows. 

Camber  Beams,  those  which  are  cut  with  an  obtuse 
angle  on  the  upper  edge,  forming  a  declivity  each  way  from 
the  middle  of  their  length  ;  they  are  used  in  truncated  roofs, 
where,  after  being  covered  with  boards,  the  boards  are  again 
covered  with  lead,  in  order  to  discharge  the  rain-water 
towards  each  edge  of  the  flat,  or  |ilatforni. 

Cambered  beams  are  employed  in  a  multitude  of  situations 
where  great  strength  is  required.  All  beams  which  are  so 
situate  as  to  be  subject  to  cross-strain  should  be  cambered. 
Instances  of  cross-strain  occur  in  bressummers,  which  are 
loaded  with  a  wall,  and  of  course  are  most  affected  by  the 
gravity  of  its  materials  where  the  bearing  is  greatest,  which 
will  be  in  their  mid-length.  A  weight  applied  in  this  man- 
ner will  have  the  effect  of  pressing  the  centre  below  the 
level  of  the  ends  of  the  beam,  and  thus  fracturing  the  super- 
incumbent wall ;  and  besides  this,  will  tend  to  snap  and  tear 
asunder  the  timber ;  and  although,  on  account  of  its  great 
scantling,  such  an  event  rarely,  if  over,  occurs,  yet  it  strains 
the  beam  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  a  test  which  timber 
should  not  be  subjected  to.  Moreover,  in  all  cases  where 
beams  of  any  great  length  are  employed,  the  gravity  of  the 
timber  itself  will  weigh  them  down  midway,  even  where 
they  are  subjected  to  no  additional  weight,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  tie-beams  of  a  truss.  In  all  these  instances  the  diffi- 
culty may  be  obviated  by  cambering  the  timber  upwards. 
This  method  not  only  ensures  that  the  beam  shall  be  level 
after  settlement,  but  entirely  alters  the  nature  and  operation 
of  the  force  ;  for  whereas  previously  the  beams  were  strained 
or  extended,  this  tension,  by  the  employment  of  a  camber,  is 
changed  into  a  pressure,  so  that  the  tendency  instead  of 
being  to  tear  the  particles  asunder,  and  thus  weaken  or  break 
the  timber,  is  rather  to  press  them  more  closely  together,  and 
render  the  beam  firmer  and  more  compact. 

Further,  all  timber  is  liable  to  shrinkage  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  moisture  which  is  always  present  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  and  thereby  becomes  of  smaller  dimensions  than 
when  first  inserted  in  a  building.  This  defect  may  be  recti- 
fied as  far  as  the  length  is  concerned,  by  cambering  to  such 
a  degree,  that  when  the  wood  is  completely  dry,  it  may  fall 
into  a  horizontal  position,  or  nearly  so.  The  extent  to  which 
the  beam  should  be  bent  is  a  matter  of  nice  calculation,  and 


CAN 


75 


CAP 


the  regulation  of  it  must  be  left  to  experience.  In  trusses  the 
camber  of  the  tie-beam  should  not  be  too  great,  as  if  so,  it 
will  tend  to  thrust  out  and  derange  the  principals.  When 
bressunnners  occur  one  above  another,  the  higher  ones  should 
be  cambered  to  a  greater  extent  than  those  below,  the  camber 
increasing  in  direct  proportion  to  the  number  of  bressunimers 
beneath  it. 

CAMERATED,  arched. 

CAJIKS,  in  glazing,  small  slender  rods  of  cast  lead,  about 
12  or  14  inches  long,  to  be  drawn  through  a  vice,  in  order  to 
make  turned  lead;  each  such  bar  is  called  a  came. 

CAMP  CEILING,  a  ceiling  formed  by  one  or  more 
planes,  with  inclinations  rising  at  an  internal  obtuse  angle 
frona  the  sidesof  the  apartment,  and  most  frequently  enclos- 
ing a  level  plane  in  the  middle,  in  the  manner  of  a  coved 
ceiling.  This  kind  of  ceiling  is  chiefly  used  in  garrets, 
where  otherwise  there  would  be  a  want  of  head-room. 

CAMPANA,  the  body  of  the  Corinthian  capital,  otherwise 
called  the  vase  or  belt,  from  its  figure. 

CAMPANILE,  (from  campana,  a  bell,)  a  bell-tower, 
chiefly  in  use  among  the  Italians.  It  was  sometimes  a  dis- 
tinct and  separate  building  of  itself;  but  more  commonly 
adjoining  to  the  chui'ch,  so  as  to  make  a  part  of  the  fabric, 
usually  at  the  west  end.  Several  of  these  towers  are  remark- 
able for  being  considerably  out  of  the  perpendicular,  of 
which  those  of  Pisa  and  Bologna  are  the  most  celebrated. 

Campaniles  were  erected  to  a  great  height ;  that  of  Cre- 
mona, the  highest  in  Italy,  is  395  feet  high  ;  that  of  Flo- 
rence, l)uilt  by  Giotto,  !iC7  feet,  of  a  square  plan,  the  sides 
of  which  are  45  feet  in  length.  The  leaning  tower  of  Pisa 
is  150  feet  in  height,  and  13  feet  out  of  the  perpendicular. 

CANAL  OF  THE  Ionic  Volute,  the  spiral  channel  or 
sinking  on  the  face,  which  begins  at  the  eye,  in  a  point,  and 
expands  in  width  until  the  whole  number  of  revolutions  are 
completed.  In  the  volutes  of  the  Ionic  order  of  the  temples 
of  Minerva  Polias  and  Erecthcus,  at  Athens,  are  several 
canals,  which  begin  and  end  in  the  manner  above  described. 

Canal  is  also  used  for  a  Flute. 

Canal  of  the  Larmier,  the  channel  recessed  upwards  on 
the  softit,  for  preventing  the  rain-water  from  reaching  the 
bed  or  lower  part  of  the  cornice.     See  Beak. 

CANARDIERE,  or  Gukrite,  a  small  turret,  sometimes 
of  wood,  and  sometimes  of  stone ;  used  as  a  sentry-box  on 
the  salient  angles  of  works,  as  places  of  shelter  for  sentinels. 
They  were  formerly  constructed  on  castles,  and  used  for 
firing,  or  discharging  anything  unseen  in  unmolested  security. 

CANCELLI,  latticed  windows,  or  those  made  with  cross- 
bars of  wood  or  iron.  Also  balusters  or  rails,  especially 
those  which  separate  the  chancel  from  the  body  of  the 
church. 

CANOPY,  a  magnificent  covering  suspended  over  an 
altar,  throne,  tribunal,  pulpit,  chair,  or  the  like.  See  Bal- 
DAcniN.  It  also  denotes  the  projecting  head  of  Gothic 
niches  or  tabernacles. 

CANT,  a  term  used  by  carpenters,  signifying  to  turn 
a  piece  of  timber,  which  is  brought  in  the  wrong  way  for 
their  work.  Also,  the  external  angle  made  by  any  two 
planes  of  a  solid  or  building. 

Cant  Mouldixo,  a  bevelled  surface,  or  one  that  is 
neither  perpendicular  to  the  horizon  nor  to  the  vertical  sur- 
face of  the  body  or  building.  These  mouldings  are  of  very 
ivniote  antiquity,  and  have  an  eflect  similar  to  the  Grecian 
echinus.  A  cant  moulding,  instead  of  the  echinus,  is  applied 
to  the  capital  of  the  columns  of  the  portico  of  Philip,  king  of 
Macodon,  and  in  many  other  situations,  both  of  Grecian  and 
Roman  edifices,  as  is  exhibited  in  Stewart's  Ruins  of  Alhenx, 
in   the  Ionian  Antiquiticg,  and    in  Adams's  Ruins  of  the 


Palace  of  Dioclesian,  at  Spalatra,  in  Dabnatia.  The 
mouldings  of  our  fn-st  Saxon  buildings  were  originally  very 
simple,  consisting  only  of  surfaces  perpendicular  and  parallel 
to  the  naked  of  the  walls ;  though  afterwards  they  were 
formed  not  only  of  squares,  but  of  cants  also.  These  simple 
forms  continued  in  use  for  some  time  after  the  Conquest ; 
and  even  when  a  great  variety  of  curved  forms  came  to  be 
introduced,  they  were  never  entirely  laid  aside  ;  we  find  them 
frequently  employed  in  the  windows  of  castellated  buildings, 
and  other  pai'ts. 

Canted  Column,  a  column  of  which  the  horizontiil  sec- 
tions are  polygons,  consisting  of  straight  sides  instead  of 
concave  sides  or  flutes.  Canted  columns  are  not  frequently 
to  be  met  with  in  the  works  of  the  ancients,  yet  examples 
may  be  seen  in  the  columns  of  the  portico  of  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  .md  of  the  temple  of  Cora.  The  cants  of  columns 
are  difticult  to  execute  with  truth,  so  as  to  preserve  the 
arrises  in  the  proper  contour  of  the  column,  and  in  a  vertical 
plane  passing  through  its  axis  ;  and  when  done,  they  want 
the  beautiful  contrast  of  light  and  shade,  which  is  so  con- 
spicuous in  the  flutings  of  the  Grecian  Doric. 

CANTING,  the  cutting  aw.ay  a  part  of  an  angular  body 
at  one  of  its  angles,  so  that  the  section  may  be  a  parallelo- 
gram, the  edges  of  which  are  parallel  from  the  intersection 
of  the  adjoining  planes. 

CANTALIVERS,  those  blocks  which  are  placed  at  regu- 
lar distances,  projecting  at  right  angles  from  the  surface  of 
the  wall,  and  supporting  the  upper  members  of  a  cornice, 
the  eaves  of  a  house,  or  balcony  :  they  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose as  modillions,  mutulcs,  blocks,  or  brackets,  although 
they  are  applied  to  more  trivial  purposes;  modillions,  mn- 
tules,  &c.,  being  employed  in  regular  architecture.  Canta- 
livers  are  frequently  made  of  timber,  or  cast  iron,  and  pro- 
ject to  a  great  distance.  Those  used  in  the  cornice  of  St. 
Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  are  of  timber,  and  project  one-fourth 
of  the  height  of  the  column. 

CANTHARUS,  among  ecclesiastical  writers,  a  fountain 
or  cistern  in  the  middle  of  the  atrium,  before  the  ancient 
churches,  wherein  people  washed  their  hands  and  faces  be- 
fore they  entered. 

Cantharus  of  a  Fountain,  with  the  Romans,  the  part, 
or  apparatus,  out  of  which  the  water  issued ;  it  was  of 
various  fancil'ul  forms,  sometimes  resembling  a  shell,  at 
others,  an  animal  vomiting  the  water  from  its  mouth,  and 
sometimes  the  stream  issued  through  the  eyes. 

CANTHERS,  or  Canterii,  in  ancient  carpentry,  the 
common  rafters  of  a  roof,  or  those  placed  in  vertical  planes 
at  right  anjilos  to  the  ridge  or  eaves  of  the  building. 

CANTING  STAIRS.     See  Stairs. 

CANTONED  BUILDING,  a  building  whose  angles  are 
adorned  with  columns,  pilasters,  rustic  quoins,  or  anything 
that  projects  beyond  the  naked  of  the  wall. 

Cantoned  Columns.     See  Columns. 

CAP,  the  mouldings  which  form  the  head  of  a  pier  or 
pilaster. 

Cap,  in  joinery,  the  uppermost  part  of  an  assemblage  of 
principal  or  subordinate  parts.  The  term  is  applied  to  the 
capital  of  a  column,  the  cornice  of  a  door,  the  capping  or 
uppermost  member  of  the  surbase  of  a  room,  the  hand-rail 
of  a  stair,  when  supported  by  an  iron  strap,  &e. 

CAPACITY,  in  geometry,  the  solid  content  of  a  body. 

CAPITAL,  (capitello,  Italian  ;  from  the  Latin,  caput,  the 
head)  the  assemblage  of  mouldings  or  ornaments  above  the 
shaft  of  a  column,  on  which  the  entablature  rests ;  in  other 
words,  the  head  of  the  column.  C:!pitals  are  variousl}-  com- 
posed, some  with  simple  mouldings,  others  with  mouldings, 
foliage,  and  volutes. 


CAP 


76 


CAP 


The  capitals  used  in  the  architecture  of  the  Greeits, 
though  with  numberless  minute  variations  of  ornaments  and 
proportions,  arrange  themselves  into  three  general  classes, 
and  offer  the  most  obvious  distinctions  between  the  orders. 

In  all  the  orders,  the  capital  is  divided  from  the  shaft  by 
some  small  member,  as  an  astragal  and  fillet,  or  by  one  or 
three  channels,  which  are  always  accounted  a  part  of  the 
shaft ;  so  much  of  the  column,  therefore,  as  appears  above 
this  member,  belongs  to  the  capital. 

The  Doric  capital  consists  of  a  neck,  which  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  shaft,  with  its  fluting,  several  fillets,  varying  from 
three  to  five  in  number,  a  bold  projecting  ovolo,  and  a  massy 
abacus,  of  a  square  form,  which  covers  the  whole. 

The  Ionic  capital  consists  of  an  ovolo  above  the  astragal 
of  the  shaft ;  a  band,  or  festoon,  upon  the  ovolo,  on  the  front 
and  rear  of  the  capital,  with  volutes  on  the  right  and  left, 
suspended  from  the  ends  of  each  band,  or  festoon ;  and, 
lastly,  a  thin  moulded  abacus  crowns  the  whole. 

The  Corinthian  capital,  which  is  more  richly  ornamented, 
consists  of  a  vase,  two  rows  of  leaves  attached  to  the  vase, 
volutes,  caulicoli,  which  spring  between  each  two  of  the 
upper  row  of  leaves,  and,  lastly,  an  abacus,  which  is  not  only 
moulded  on  all  the  four  edges,  but  formed  into  a  concavity 
from  the  two  extremities  of  each  of  the  said  edges. 

From  this  description  of  Grecian  capitals,  it  will  be  seen 
that  though  the  parts  are  generally  so  very  unlike  as  to  be 
incapable  of  comparison,  yet  they  in  variety  maintain  a 
general  resemblance. 

The  variations  to  be  found  in  different  ancient  examples 
of  the  same  order,  will  be  described  under  their  respective 
heads. 

With  regard  to  the  Tuscan  capital,  there  are  no  authenti- 
cated remains  of  the  order  of  which  it  is  a  part ;  and  the 
precepts  of  Vitruvius  on  this  head  are  so  obscure,  that 
modern  compilers  of  systems  of  architecture  have,  of  course, 
varied  exceedingly  in  their  designs  ;  so  that  the  order  which 
passes  under  this  name,  must  be  regarded  rather  as  a  modern 
than  an  ancient  invention.  It  is  made  to  differ  from  the 
modern  Doric  by  an  air  of  poverty  and  rudeness,  and  by  the 
suppression  of  the  triglyphs,  mutules,  and  other  members. 

The  Composite  appears  never  to  have  been  admitted  as  a 
separate  order  by  the  ancients. 

From  the  remains  of  Egyptian  antiquities,  we  find  that 
their  architects  had  no  certain  rules;  and  it  is  rather  singu- 
lar, that  though  the  buildings  themselves  were  constructed 
with  the  greatest  simplicity,  their  capitals  are  of  infinite 
variety  ;  many  of  them  possessing  richness  of  decoration, 
although  devoid  of  the  simple  elegance  which  is  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  Grecian  orders.  The  ornaments  are,  in  general, 
accurate  imitations  of  the  natural  productions  of  the  country, 
such  as  the  lotus,  the  reed,  or  the  palm.. 

The  temples  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Hindostan, 
works  of  dateless  antiquity,  present  many  capitals  of  extra- 
ordinary form  and  composition.  In  some,  we  find  repre- 
sented the  figures  of  elephants  and  horses,  apparently 
crouching  under  the  weight  of  the  ceiling.  Capitals,  very 
similar  in  idea,  are  also  found  in  the  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
composed  of  horses  and  camels. 

As  Roman  art  degenerated  with  the  decline  of  the  empire, 
the  capitals  from  the  ancient  edifices  were  used  indiscrimi- 
nately in  the  new  structures ;  and  this  led,  in  later  times,  to 
the  employment  of  a  variety  of  capitals  in  the  same  edifice. 
The  first  alteration  we  find  in  the  form  of  this  member  of  the 
column,  is  in  the  erection  of  that  style  of  architecture  known 
as  Byzantine,  in  which  the  capitals  are  in  the  shape  of  a 
truncated  pyramid  of  four  sides,  placed  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion, having  the  ape.x  downwards  ;  the  surface  is  ornamented 


with  foliations  in  low  relief,  or  with  a  sort  of  basket-work, 
which  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  style  to  which  it 
belongs.  A  nearer  approach  to  their  original  is  shown  at  a 
later  period,  in  the  style  whose  introduction  is  .it.tributcd  to 
the  Lombards  ;  in  this,  which  is  merely  a  modification  of  the 
debased  Roman, someofthec;ipitalsbearagreat  resemblance 
to  the  Corinthian,  although  far  inferior  to  the'""  original  in 
simplicity  and  elegance  ;  there  arc,  however,  other  examples 
of  a  fiir  different  description,  both  in  form  and  ornamenta- 
tion ;  some  ornamented  with  designs  in  low  relief  others 
again  of  a  grotesque  character.  If  we  include  the  Norman 
in  this  style,  to  which  it  certainly  bears  a  close  affinity,  we 
shall  have  a  great  variety  of  forms,  to  be  noted  indeed  rather 
for  their  variety  and  massive  appearance,  than  for  beauty  of 
outline  or  decoration. 

But  of  all  capitals,  those  found  in  buildings  in  the  modes 
commonly  comprised  under  the  term  Gothic,  hold  a  lofty 
pre-eminence,  both  for  variety  and  tastefulness.  What  can 
be  more  chaste  and  elegant  than  the  ornamentation  of  the 
early  English?  or  what  more  graceful  and  natural  than 
the  foliage  of  the  decorated  capital  1  As  to  variety,  it  was  the 
governing  principle  of  decoration,  there  seldom  being  found 
many  repetitions  of  one  form  in  the  same  building.  Nature 
was  their  model,  by  her  alone  were  their  designs  limited,  so 
long  at  least  as  their  skill  was  sufficient  to  imitate  her 
productions. 

Capital,  Angular.     See  Angular  Capital. 

Capital  of  a  Baluster,  one  similar  to  those  of  the  Tuscan 
or  Doric  orders. 

Capital  of  a  Lantern,  the  covering  by  which  it  is 
terminated,  either  in  a  bell-shape,  the  form  of  a  cupola,  that 
of  a  spire,  or  in  any  regular  figure  whatever. 

Capital  of  a  Triglyph,  the  projecting  band  which 
surmounts  the  plain  vertical  area,  or  face,  and  which  is  dis- 
posed in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  said  face.  The  capital  of  the 
triglyph  of  the  Grecian  Doric  projects  but  a  very  small 
distance,  and  is  not  returned  on  the  flanks,  except  at  the 
angular  triglyphs,  and  this  only  upon  each  face  of  the  build- 
ing; but  in  the  Roman  Doric,  the  capital  of  the  triglyph 
projects  more  than  that  of  the  Grecian,  and  is  returned 
with  the  same  projection  on  the  (lanks  as  in  the  face. 

CAPITOL,  a  celebrated  rock,  or  hill,  at  Rome,  whereon 
stood  many  ancient  edifices,  with  the  house  of  Romulus,  &c. 

Among  the  many  celebrated  edifices  that  formerly  occupied 
this  hill,  the  principal  was  the  Asylum,  erected  by  Romulus 
in  order  to  people  his  new  city.  The  house  of  Romulus 
was  composed  of  canes,  rushes,  &c. ;  and  every  year  the 
priests  superstitiously  repaired  it  with  similar  materials. 
Ilere  was  the  Tabularium,  or  Archive,  where  were  deposited 
the  laws  and  consulta  of  the  senate,  and  every  other  public 
act,  written  on  tables  of  bronze.  Vespasian  repaired  the 
Capitol,  and  had  three  thousand  new  tables  made,  the  former 
having  been  defaced  when  the  library  and  other  buildings 
were  destroyed  by  lightning.  It  is  supposed  to  have  stood 
where  the  arches  and  Doric  columns  are  now  seen,  behind 
the  Senatoi-s'  Palace,  towards  the  Campo  Vaccino.  Here 
was  the  Curia  Calabra.  Here  also  stood  the  house  of  Manlius, 
the  defender  of  the  rock,  destroyed  on  account  of  the  treachery 
of  its  master.  The  temple  of  Juno  Moncta  was  built  on  its 
site.  The  number  of  temples  on  this  hill  was  very  consider- 
able :  some  make  them  amount  to  sixty.  But  the  great 
quantity  of  statues  in  marble,  metal,  silver,  and  gold,  erected 
to  heroes  who  had  deserved  well  of  the  republic,  causing 
great  confusion,  Augustus  removed  great  part  of  them  to 
the  Campus  Martins. 

All  these  noble  edifices,  once  the  ornament  of  the  mistress 
of  the  world,  have  fallen  a  victim  to  the  r.avages  of  time. 


CAR 


77 


CAR 


and  the  still  more  destructive  plunder  of  invading  barbarians. 
At  first  this  hill  was  only  accessible  from  the  south;  but  after 
the  Campus  Martius  was  inhabited,  another  road  was  opened 
towards  the  north.  The  first  among  the  moderns  who  pro- 
moted the  decoration  of  the  Campidoi,'lio  was  Pope  Paul  111. 
who,  after  a  design  of  Bonarrotti,constructcd  the  spacious  steps. 

CAPREOLS,  in  Roman  carpentry,  the  struts  or  braces 
of  a  trussed  roof. 

CARACOL,  is  used  sometimes  to  denote  a  staircase  in  the 
form  of  a  heli.x,  or  spiral. 

CARAVANS  ERA,  in  the  East,  a  large  building,  or  inn, 
for  the  reception  of  travellers,  and  the  lodging  of  caravans. 
It  is  usually  a  large  square  of  buildings,  with  a  court  in  the 
middle,  surrounded  with  galleries  and  arches,  under  which 
runs  a  kind  of  banquette,  or  elevation,  some  feet  high,  where 
travellers  rest  themselves,  and  make  their  lodging  as  well  as 
they  can ;  their  baggage,  and  the  beasts  that  carry  them, 
being  fastened  to  the  foot  of  the  banquette.  Over  the  gate 
there  are  frequently  small  chambers,  which  the  caravan- 
seraskier,  or  director,  lets  out  at  a  very  dear  rate,  to  such  as 
wish  to  be  retired. 

CARCASE,  the  work  of  a  house  before  it  is  either  lathed 
or  plastered,  or  the  floors  laid. 

Carcase,  or  Naked  Flooring,  that  which  supports  the 
boaidiug  above,  for  walking  upon,  and  the  ceiling  below,  by 
a  grated  frame  of  timber,  consisting  of  three  tiers  of  beams, 
called  joists  ;  the  middle  tier  being  transverse  to  the  other 
two.  The  beams  of  the  middle  tier,  called  hindlng-joisls, 
support  the  other  two  tiers  :  the  beams  forming  the  upper 
tier,  called  bridyings,  or  bridr/iiiff-joisis,  support  the  boarding, 
and  are  frequently  notched  upon  the  binding-joists  :  the 
lowest  row  of  beams,  called  ceiling-joists,  are  either  framed 
into  the  binding-joists,  with  pulley  or  chase  mortises,  flush 
with  the  under  edges  of  the  said  joists,  or  are  notched  and 
nailed  to  them  below.  When  the  floor  is  very  much  extended 
in  both  dimensions,  another  set  of  large  beams,  called  girders, 
the  whole  depth  of  the  three  tiers,  are  introduced,  for  short- 
ening the  bearings  of  the  binding-joists,  which  are  mortised 
and  tenoned  into  the  girder  on  both  sides  of  it.  The  under 
edges  of  the  binding-joists  should  be  so  framed,  as  to  be  below 
the  under  side  of  the  intermediate  girder,  about  half  an  inch, 
to  prevent  the  ceiling  from  cracking ;  and  the  girder  must 
be  furred,  to  range  with  the  under  edge  of  the  ceiling-joists. 
The  general  scantlings  of  these  timbers  are  as  follow,  viz., 
girders,  12  by  KJ  inches;  binding-joists,  10  by  4;  bridging- 
joists,  5  by  2^  ;  and  ceiling-joists,  3  by  2^.  The  distance 
which  these  timbers  are  commonly  placed  in  the  clear  is  as 
follows:  the  binding-joists  from  4  to  6  feet,  which  is  also 
that  of  the  ceiling-joists;  and  the  bridgings  11  or  12  inches 
apart.  As  the  girders  go  the  whole  length  of  the  room,  they 
have  no  fixed  bearing ;  when  they  extend  to  20  feet  and 
upwards,  they  should  be  trussed.  When  the  breadth  of  a 
room  extends  to  30  feet  and  upwards,  the  girders  should 
be  framed  like  the  truss  of  a  partition,  with  an  upper  and 
lower  beam,  and  with  posts,  braces,  and  struts :  for  this 
purpose,  a  suflScient  depth  for  the  floor  should  be  allowed, 
from  two  to  three  feet.  Girders  should  never  be  placed  over 
openings,  unless  they  be  supported  by  strong  arches.  When 
a  lintelled  opening  comes  under  the  place  where  the  end  of 
the  girder  should  be,  the  end  of  the  girder  must  be  changed 
to  the  nearest  scilid  bearing,  which  will  throw  its  direction 
into  an  oblique  position.  The  wall-hold  for  girders  in  brick 
buildings,  may  be  from  9  to  12  inches,  and  for  binding-joists, 
6  inches.  In  stone  buildings,  for  girders,  from  one  foot  to 
two  feet,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  for 
binding-joists,  9  inches.  In  thick  walls  there  may  be  two 
rows  of  wall-plates. 


Carcase  Roofing,  that  which  supports  the  covering  by 
a  grated  frame  of  timber-work,  consisting  of  three  tiers  of 
timber,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  to  the  sloping  surface 
of  the  covering.  The  most  general  disposition  of  the  tim- 
bers is  the  following  :  the  first  tier  and  support  is  a  row  of 
timbers,  inclined  to  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  supported  at  various 
points  by  other  timbers,  which,  with  the  inclined  timbers, 
form  as  many  vertical  frames,  perpendicular  to  the  sides  of 
the  building  as  there  are  inclined  timbers :  each  frame  is 
called  a  truss:  the  inclined  timbers  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
truss  are  called  principal  rafters :  the  principal  rafters  support 
a  set  of  horizontal  timbers  transversely,  and  parallel  to  each 
other,  called  purlins :  the  purlins  support  the  third  and  last 
tier  of  timbers  of  the  frame,  transversely  or  parallel  to  the 
principal  rafters :  the  timbers  of  the  last  tier  are  called 
bridging,  or  common  rafters.  The  upper  surfaces  of  the 
principals,  those  of  the  purlins,  and  those  of  the  common 
rafters,  are  sometimes  framed  flush  with  each  other,  or  in 
the  same  inclined  plane,  in  order  to  save  room,  or  to  conceal 
more  of  the  roof:  in  this  way  the  purlins  mu>t  be  tenoned, 
and  the  principals  mortised  to  receive  them  ;  the  small  rafters 
and  purlins  are  also  tenoned  and  mortised  together.  But  the 
best  and  strongest  mode  of  carcase  framing  is,  to  make  the 
purlins  bridge  over  the  principals,  and  the  common  rafters 
over  the  purlins.  The  principals  rest  upon  a  horizontal  piece 
of  timber,  on  the  wall  head,  called  the  raising,  or  vall-plate : 
■when  the  purlins  bridge  over  the  principals,  and  the  small 
rafters  over  the  purlins,  the  small  rafters  rest  at  the  bottom 
upon  a  piece  of  timber  called  a  pole-plate.  The  manner  of 
joining  the  timbers  in  carcase  roofing  and  flooring  may  be 
seen  in  the  article  Carpentry;  other  particulars  relative  to 
roofing,  may  be  seen  under  Roofing,  Truss,  and  Boarding. 

Sometimes  the  covering  is  only  supported  by  purlins  rest- 
ing upon  the  principal  rafters  ;  in  this  case,  the  length  of  the 
boards  is  disposed  parallel  to  the  principal  rafters ;  but  this 
position  does  not  give  so  great  strength  to  the  roof  as  that 
which  is  horizontal. 

CARDINAL  SCAPI,  in  Roman  joinery,  the  stiles  of  doors. 

CARINA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  building  in  the  form  of 
a  ship. 

CARNEDDE,  in  British  antiquity,  heaps  of  stones;  sup- 
posed to  be  druidical  remains  for  confirming  and  comme- 
morating covenants. 

CAROLITIC  COLUMN.     &e  Column. 

CARPENTER  (from  the  French  charpentier  ;  forme-^ 
from  charpente,  timber ;  or,  probably,  from  the  Latin,  car- 
peniarius,  a  maker  of  carpenta,  or  carriages),  an  artificer, 
whose  business  it  is  to  cut,  form,  and  join  timber,  for  the 
purpose  of  strengthening  and  supporting  various  parts  neces 
sary  in  the  construction  of  buildings. 

Carpenter's  Rule,  is  generally  used  in  taking  dimen- 
sions, and  in  casting  up  the  contents  of  timber  and  artificers' 
work. 

It  consists  of  two  equal  pieces  of  box,  each  one  foot  in 
length,  connected  together  by  a  feeding  joint :  in  one  of  these 
equal  pieces  there  is  a  slider,  and  four  lines  marked  at  the 
right  hand,  a,  n,  c,  d;  two  of  these  lines,  b,  c,  are  upon  the 
slider,  and  the  other  two,  a,  d,  upon  the  rule.  Three  of 
these  lines,  viz.,  a,  b,  c,  are  called  dovble  Z/hm, because  they 
proceed  from  one  to  ten  twice  over  in  the  length;  these 
three  lines  are  all  exactly  alike,  both  in  numbers  and  division. 
They  are  numbered  from  the  left  hand  towards  the  right, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  1,  which  stands  in  the  middle  ;  the 
numbers  then  go  on  again  to  10,  which  stands  at  the  right- 
hand  end  of  the  rule.  These  numliers  have  no  determinate 
value  of  their  own,  but  depend  upon  the  value  you  set  on 
the  unit  at  the  left  hand  of  this  part  of  the  rule  ;  thus  if  you 


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call  it  1,  the  1  in  the  middle  will  be  10,  the  other  fifrures 
■which  follow  will  be  20,  30,  &c.,  a:;d  the  10  at  the  right- 
hand  end  will  be  100.  If  the  first,  or  left-hand  unit  be 
called  10,  the  middle  1  will  be  100,  and  the  following  figures 
will  be  200,  300,  400,  &c.,  and  the  10  at  the  right-hand  end 
will  be  1000 ;  and  thus,  whatever  be  the  value  of  the  first 
unit,  the  second  unit  in  the  middle  is  always  ten  times 
gi-eater  ;  and  whatever  is  the  value  of  the  first  and  second 
unit,  the  following  numbers  to  the  right  denote  so  many 
Vimes  that  value  as  the  number  expresses. 

The  fourth  line,  d,  called  the  ffirt  line,  is  a  single  line, 
proceeding  from  4  to  40.  Upon  it  are  marked  w  o  at 
17  •  15,  and  a  g  at  18  •95,  the  wine  and  ale  guage  points,  to 
make  it  serve  the  purpose  of  a  guaging-rule. 

The  use  of  the  double  lines,  a  and  b,  is  for  working  the 
rule  of  proportion,  and  finding  the  areas  of  plain  figures. 
And  the  use  of  the  girt  line  d,  and  the  other  double  line  c,  is 
for  measuring  of  timber.  On  the  other  part  of  this  side  of 
the  rule,  there  is  a  table  of  the  value  of  a  load,  or  50  cubic 
feet,  of  timber,  at  all  prices,  from  si.xpence  to  twenty-four 
pence,  or  two  shillings,  per  foot. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  rule  are  several  plane  scales, 
divided  into  12th  parts,  marked  inch,  |-,  -^,  -^j  &c.,  signifying 
that  the  inch,  f  inch,  &e.,  are  each  divided  into  12  parts. 
These  scales  are  useful  for  planning  dimensions  that  are 
taken  in  feet  and  inches.  The  edge  of  the  rule  is  divided 
into  inches,  and  each  of  these  inches  into  eight  parts,  repre- 
senting half  inches,  quarter  inches,  and  half  quarters. 

In  iW'.s  description,  the  rule  is  supposed  to  be  folded  ;  let 
it  now  be  opened,  and  pull  out  the  slider,  you  will  find  the 
br.ck  of  it  divided  like  the  edge  of  the  rule,  so  that  altogether 
it  will  measure  one  yard,  or  three  feet,  in  length.  The 
slide  is  very  tiscful  iu  taking  inside  dimensions  for  any 
length  not  less  than  one  foot,  nor  greater  than  three  feet. 

Some  rules  have  other  scales  and  tables  upon  them ;  as  a 
table  of  board  measure,  one  of  timber  measure,  a  line  for 
showing  what  length  for  any  breadth  will  make  a  foot  square, 
also  a  line  showing  what  length  for  any  thickness  will  make 
a  solid  foot.  The  former  line  serves  to  complete  the  table 
of  board  measure,  and  the  latter  the  table  of  timber 
measure. 

The  thickness  of  the  rule  is  generally  about  a  quarter  of 
an  iucli ;  this  face  is  divided  into  inches  and  tenths,  and  num- 
bered, Vrhen  the  rule  is  opened,  from  the  right-hand  towards 
the  '.eft,  10,  20,  30,  &c.,  to  100,  which  falls  upon  the  joint. 
T!ie  other  half  is  numbered  in  the  same  manner,  and  the 
same  way.  The  scales  serve  for  taking  dimensions  in  feet, 
tenths,  and  hundredths  of  a  foot,  when  the  contents  are  found 
by  decimals. 

Carpenter's  Square,  a  square,  of  which  both  stock  and 
blade  consist  of  an  iron  plate,  of  one  piece ;  it  is  in  size 
and  construction  as  follows  : — one  leg  is  18  inches  in  length, 
numbered  on  the  outer  edge,  from  the  exterior  angle,  with 
the  bottom  of  the  figures  adjacent  to  the  interior  edge :  the 
other  edge  is  12  inches  loHg,  and  numbered  from  the  extre- 
mity towards  the  angle ;  the  figures  are  read  from  the 
internal  angle,  as  on  the  other  side  ;  each  of  the  legs  is  about 
an  inch  broad.  This  implement  is  not  only  used  as  a  square, 
but  also  as  a  level  and  measuring  rule.  Its  application  as  a 
square,  in  taking  measures,  is  so  easy  as  not  to  require  ex- 
ample ;  but  its  use  in  taking  angles  may  be  thus  illustrated  : 
suppose  it  were  required  to  take  the  angle  which  the  heel  of 
a  rafter  makes  with  the  back;  apply  the  end  of  the  short 
leg  of  the  square  to  the  point  of  the  heel  and  back,  with  the 
edge  of  the  square  level  across  the  plate  ;  extend  a  chalk  line 
from  the  ridge  of  the  roof  to  the  said  heel-point,  and  the 
division  on  the  perpendicular  leg  of  the  square  which  the  line 


falls  upon,  will  mark  the  inches,  and  show  how  far  it  deviates 
from  the  square  in  12  inches. 

Carpenter's  Work,  in  the  mensuration  of  artificers'  work, 
includes  the  taking  of  the  dimensions  of  every  description  of 
timber  necessary  in  the  construction  of  buildings,  finding  their 
contents,  and  valuing  the  same. 

The  works  done  by  the  carpenter,  in  the  general  construc- 
tion of  buildings,  are  the  preparation  of  piles,  sleepers,  and 
planking,  or  other  large  timbers  in  the  foundations,  center- 
ings to  vaults,  wall-plates,  lintels,  and  bond-timbers,  naked 
flooring,  partitioning,  roofing,  battening  to  walls,  ribbed  ceil- 
ings to  form  vaulting  for  lath  and  plaster,  &c.  Tliese  arc 
not  necessarily  used  in  the  construction  of  every  edifice  :  piling 
and  planking,  or  other  timbers  used  in  the  foundation,  are 
only  incidental,  depending  upon  the  insufficiency  of  the 
ground  to  be  built  upon ;  the  remaining  articles  may  be 
all  used  in  the  most  substantial  and  elegantly  constructed 
houses. 

Large  and  plain  articles,  where  a  uniform  quantity  of 
materials  and  workmanship  is  expended,  are  generally  mea- 
sured by  the  square  of  100  superficial  feet. 

Piles  may  be  made  at  per  piece,  and  driven  by  the  foot 
run,  according  to  their  diameter,  and  the  quality  of  the 
ground. 

Sleepers  and  planking  are  measured  and  valued  by  taking 
the  superficial  contents  iu  yards  or  squares. 

Plain  centering  is  measured  by  the  square ;  but  as  the 
ribs  and  boarding  are  two  dift'erent  qualities  of  work,  they 
ought  to  be  measured  and  valued  sepai-ately  ;  one  dimension 
of  the  boarding  is  taken  by  girting  it  round  the  arch,  the 
other  is  the  length  of  the  vault. 

Centering  for  groins  should  be  measured  and  valued  as 
common  centering,  but  in  addition  thereto,  the  angles  should 
be  paid  for  by  the  foot  run,  over  and  above  ;  that  is,  the  ribs 
and  boarding  ought  to  be  measured  and  valued  separately, 
according  to  the  exact  superficial  contents  of  each,  and  the 
angles  by  the  lineal  foot  for  workmanship  in  fitting  the  ribs 
and  boards,  and  for  the  waste  of  wood  occasioned  by  the 
operation.  Wall-plates,  lintels,  and  bond-timbers,  are  mea- 
sured by  the  cubic  foot,  under  the  denomination  oi  fir-in- 
hond. 

Naked  flooring  may  either  be  measured  and  valued  by  the 
square,  or  by  the  cubic  foot,  according  to  the  description  of 
the  work,  and  the  quantity  of  timber  employed.  In  forming 
an  idea  of  its  value,  it  is  proper  to  observe,  that  in  equal 
cubic  quantities  of  small  and  large  timbers,  the  small  timbers 
will  have  a  greater  superficies  than  the  large  ones,  and  there- 
fore the  saving  will  not  be  in  a  ratio  with  the  solid  contents; 
consequently  the  value  of  the  workmanship  will  not  follow  the 
cubic  quantity  or  said  ratio.  The  difticulty  of  handling  tim- 
bers of  the  same  length  increases  with  the  weight  or  solidity, 
as  the  greater  quantity  requires  greater  power  to  handle  it, 
and  consequently  a  greater  expenditure  of  time:  and  though 
the  time  may  not  be  exactly  in  a  ratio  with  the  solid  quantity, 
there  will  be  no  great  difference,  as  the  respective  sections  will 
not  vary  considerably  in  their  dimensions ;  and  as  the  value  of 
the  sawing  upon  a  cubic  foot  is  comparatively  small  to  that  of 
the  work  done  by  the  carpenter,  the  whole  value  of  labour 
and  materials  may  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  accuracy 
where  the  work  is  uniformly  of  one  description. 

In  naked  flooring,  where  girders  are  introduced,  they 
interrupt  the  uniformity  of  the  work  by  jnortises  and  tenons. 
In  this  respect,  the  price  ascertained  by  the  cubic  quantity 
of  the  girders,  would  not  be  sufficient  at  the  same  rate  per 
foot,  as  the  other  parts,  not  only  on  aeeount  oi  the  great  dif- 
ference of  size,  but  as  it  is  cut  full  of  mortises  to  receive 
the  tenons  of  the  binding-joists,  it  occasions  a  siMl  greater 


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disparity  in  the  quantity  of  workmanship.  A  correct  method, 
therefore,  of  valuing  labour  and  materials,  would  be  to 
ineasiirc  and  value  the  whole  liy  the  cubic  quantity,  and 
allow  an  additional  rate  upon  every  solid  foot  of  girders;  or 
if  the  binding-joists  were  not  inserted  ill  the  girders  at  the 
usual  dist;\nces,  a  fixed  price  for  every  mortise  and  tenon,  in 
proportion  to  their  size,  which  would  keep  a  ratio  with  the 
area  of  the  end  of  the  girder. 

As  the  binding-joists  are  sometimes  pulley  or  chase  mor- 
tised, to  receive  the  ceiling-joists,  and  sometimes  notched  to 
receive  the  bridging-joists  over  them,  they  ought  to  be  classed 
by  themselves,  at  a  superior  price  per  foot  cube,  or  at  an 
additional  price  for  the  workmanship,  above  that  of  common 
joisting :  this  should  always  be  allowed  according  to  the 
description  of  workmanship,  whether  the  ceiling-joists  be  put 
in  their  pulley  mortises  and  tenons,  or  the  bridgings  notched 
or  adzed  down. 

Partitions  may  be  measured  by  the  cubic  foot,  but  the  sills, 
top  pieces,  and  door  heads,  should  be  measured  by  themselves, 
according  to  the  solid  quantity,  at  an  additional  rate,  because 
both  the  uniform  solidity,  and  the  uniform  quantity  of  work- 
manship, are  interrupted  by  them.  In  trussed  partitions,  the 
braces  should  be  rated  by  the  foot  cube,  at  a  superior  price 
to  that  of  the  quartering,  for  the  trouble  of  fitting  the  ends 
of  the  uprights  upon  their  upper  and  lower  sides,  and  for 
forming  the  abutments  at  the  ends. 

In  roofing,  all  the  timbers  should  be  measured  by  the  cubic 
foot,  classed  as  the  difficulty  of  execution,  or  as  the  waste 
occasioned,  may  require.  Common  rafters  may  be  rated  the 
same  as  joisting  or  quartering ;  purlins  at  a  superior  price, 
for  the  trouble  of  fitting  or  notching  down  the  common 
lafters  ;  the  notching  of  the  purlins  themselves,  upon  these 
principles,  should  be  valued  at  per  piece  or  notch.  The 
various  parts  of  trusses  should  be  arranged  separately  ;  the 
joggles  should  be  paid  for  at  per  piece,  including  the  tenons 
at  the  ends  of  the  struts ;  the  mortising  tie-beams  and  prin- 
cipals, and  making  the  tenons  of  the  truss-posts,  should  like- 
wise go  together  ;  and  the  mortising  and  tenoning  at  the  ends 
of  tie-beams  and  principals,  in  another  class  ;  strapping 
should  be  paid  for  according  to  the  number  of  bolts.  In  all 
these  matters,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  size  and  description 
of  the  work  ;  common  or  bridging  rafter-feet  at  per  piece. 

Battening  to  walls  is  best  measured  by  the  square,  accord- 
ing to  the  dimensions  and  distances  in  the  clear  of  the  bat- 
tening. 

Ribbed  ceilings  should  be  measured  according  to  the  cubic 
quantity,  making  a  proper  allowance  for  the  great  waste  of 
stuff;  the  price  of  labour  will  be  regulated  by  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  work,  and  also  by  the  cubic  quantity  of  timber. 

Trimmers  should  be  measured  separately,  at  such  a  price 
as  to  include  not  only  the  mortises  and  tenons  of  the  joisting 
inserted  into  them,  but  the  tenons  at  their  extremities,  and 
tlie  mortises  of  the  trimming-joists,  which  are  to  receive 
them.  In  this  way,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  take  any 
account  of  the  tenons  at  the  ends  of  the  bridging-joists,  or  of 
the  mortises  in  the  trimming-joists  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
trimmer. 

It  would  be  endless  to  enumerate  the  various  methods  of 
measuring  each  particular  species  of  carpenter's  work ;  the 
leading  articles  only  are  here  observed. 

As  soon  as  the  shell  of  a  building  is  finished,  that  is,  pre- 
vious to  the  floors  being  laid,  or  the  ceilings  lathed  and 
plastered,  all  the  timbers  should  be  measured,  that  no  doubt 
may  e.\ist  as  to  the  actual  scantlings  of  the  timbers,  or  of  the 
description  of  the  workmanship. 

In  taking  the  dimensions,  it  must  be  observed,  that  all 
pieces  which  have  tenons,  must  be  measured  to  the  extre- 


mities of  the  tenons.  Principal  timbers,  as  binding-joists 
and  girders,  go  at  least  nine  inches  into  the  wall,  or  one-third 
of  its  thickness,  if  more  than  27  inches. 

In  taking  the  dimensions  of  bond-timbers  and  wall-plates, 
the  several  laps  must  be  added  to  the  lengths.  When  there 
is  a  necessity  for  cutting  out  parallel  pieces  from  the  sides 
of  ti-uss-posts,  as  in  king  or  queen  posts,  if  the  pieces  cut  out 
exceed  2^  feet  in  length,  and  2^  inches  in  thickness,  they 
should  be  deemed  pieces  fit  for  use ;  but  their  lengths  should 
not  be  reckoned  so  long  by  six  inches,  as  the  saw  can  hardly 
be  entered  with  ItSss  waste. 

The  boarding  of  the  roof  is  measured  by  the  square, 
according  to  the  thickness  and  quantity  of  the  boards,  and 
the  manner  of  jointing  them.  In  measuring  for  labour  and 
materials,  the  most  accurate  method  is,  first,  to  find  the  cubical 
contents,  the  price  of  the  cubic  foot,  including  the  prime  cost, 
carting,  sawing,  waste,  and  the  master's  profit ;  then  add  the 
price  of  labour,  properly  measured,  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
the  journeyman.  Labour  and  mateiials  are  variable,  and 
have  no  relation  whatever  to  each  other  ;  consequently  they 
camiot  be  reduced  to  single  tables.  The  value  of  the  cubic 
foot  may  be  calculated  by  having  the  prime  cost  of  the  load, 
or  50  cubic  feet :  for  example,  let  it  be  required  to  find  the 
price  of  a  cubic  foot,  when  the  price  of  the  load  is  £10. 

£  s.  d 

60  feet  cube  fir,  prime  cost 10  0  0 

Cartage 0  5  0 

Sawing 0  10  0 

T  cube  feet  waste 1  8  0 

12       3       0 
20  per  cent  profit  on  the  above 2       8       1 

Master's  price  per  load £14    11      7 

Then  as  50  cubic  feet  are  to  one  cubic  foot,  so  is 
£14.  lis.  7d.  the  price  of  50  cubic  feet,  to  the  price  of  one 
cubic  foot.     Thus, 

£.        s.      d. 
50     :     1     :  :     14       11      7 
20 


291 
12 


5,0)  349,9 


12)  69,^1 


5  9 


So  that  the  price  of  the  cubic  foot  wants  only  the  fiftieth 
part  of  a  penny  to  be  5s.  lOd.  Tliis  is  the  rate  of  the  mas- 
ter's price  for  the  fir,  exclusive  of  labour. 

The  foregoing  are  the  methods  by  which  the  various  parts 
of  workmanship  should  be  analyzed,  in  order  to  discover  a 
legitimate  ratio  of  prices  ;  but  we  regret  to  add,  that  no  par- 
ticular account  of  time  has  been  kept,  in  which  the  execution 
of  certain  uniform  portions  of  work  have  been  done,  and  by 
which  alone  we  are  enabled  to  give  accurate  calculations.  The 
method  of  lumping  work  by  the  square,  is  not  to  be  depended 
on,  in  the  general  admeasurement  of  buildings,  as  the  surface 
is  not  always  of  a  uniform  description  of  workmanship; 
thus,  in  hipped  roofs,  the  greatest  trouble  is  at  the  hips,  in 
cuttuig  and  fitting  the  jack-rafters,  which  are  fixed  at  equal 
distances  thereon,  and  therefore  such  a  price  may  be  fixed 
upon  the  cubic  quantity  of  hips  and  vallies,  as  will  not  only 


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pay  for  the  workmanship  in  themselves,  but  also  for  the 
trouble  of  cutting  and  fitting  the  jack-rafters. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  a  proper  rate,  including  both 
materials  and  workmanship,  as  the  one  may  be  stationary, 
while  the  other  is  variable.  With  respect  to  materials,  the 
value  of  any  quantity  may  be  easily  ascertained,  whatever  be 
the  price  per  load ;  but  the  far  greater  diflkulty  lies  in  fixing 
proper  rates  of  workmanship;  however,  admitting  that  the 
time  of  executing  every  species  of  work  were  known,  there 
would  be  no  difficulty  in  establishing  certain  uniform  quan- 
tities, which  would  give  the  real  value  at  any  time ;  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  specimen  of  the  several  rates  of  workmanship, 
by  which  the  prices  may  be  regulated  at  any  time,  admitting 
them  to  be  right  for  the  present.  Each  rate  consists  gener- 
ally of  three  places  of  decimals  on  tlie  right  side  of  the 
point,  and  sometimes  an  integer  on  the  left  side.  This  table 
shows  also  the  customary  methods  of  measuring. 

To  find  the  i^rice  of  the  common  measure  of  any  kind  of 
workmanship,  at  any  time. — Multiply  the  wages  of  the 
workman  by  the  rate;  then,  whatever  denomination  the 
wages  is  per  day,  the  integers  of  the  product,  if  any,  will  be 
of  the  same  denomination,  and  the  decimals  will  be  parts  of 
the  same. 

Example. — The  centering  of  cylindric  vaults  is  2.033  per 
square  ;  now  let  the  wages  per  day  be  5  shillings,  or  60 
pence;  then  2.033x5  =  10.165  shillings  per  square,  and  by 
multiplying  the  decimal  parts  by  12,  we  obtain  the  pence. 
Thus— 

.165 
12 


1.980  penny,  or  very  near  two  pence; 
so  that  the  value  of  a  square  of  centering  is  nearly  10s.  2d. 

Again,  suppose  the  wages  to  be  5s.  6d.  per  day,  then 
2.033x5^=11.181  shillings,  or  lis.  2d,  nearly :  and  thus 
for  any  other  example. 

TABLE  III. 

QUARTER  PAaTITIONS. 

Fixed 
per  square. 

Common  four  inch 1  .  033 

Five  inch 1. 113 

Six  inch 1 .  307 

Six  inch  circular  plan 1 .  888 

Trussed  frame  with  king- 
post      1  .  743 

Trussed,  both  king  and  queen 

posts 2.  226 

TABLE  IV. 

NAKED    FLOOaiNG. 

Fixed 
per  square. 

Ceiling  floor,  framed,  witli 
tie  -  beams,  binding,  and 
ceilinir-joists 1 

Ceiling  floor  witli  tie-beams 
and  ceiling-joists  only ....  1 

Ceiling-juists  only 

Single  framed  floor,  trimmed 
to  chimney  and  well  liole.s, 
less  than  9  inches  deep.. .  1  .856 

The  same,  above  9  inches. . .  1 .  646 

The  same,  if  trimmed  to 
party  walls,  add  exti-a  per 
square 388 

Single  framed  flixir,  with  one 
gbder 1 

Strutting  to  be  paid  for  ex- 
tra. 


TABLE  L 

CENTEEING. 

Fixed 
per  square. 
For  cylindric  plain  vaults ...  2.033 
per  ft.  super. 

For  groins 057 

For  gauged  brickwork 073 

For  brick  trimmers  bridge- 
wise  041 

For  coach-head  trimmers ...     .057 
per  ft.  run. 
For  apcrtiu'es 02 


TABLE IL 

lUSCELLANIES. 

Fixed 
per  ft.  run. 
Fir-inbond and  wood  bricks     .008 
Fir-in-templets,    linteLs,   and 

turning  pieces 025 

Planing  fir  from  the  saw,  per 

foot  super 017 

Rebating  fir  up  to  2  iucbca 

by  I 025 

Rebating  from  2  inches  by  J 

to  3  inches  by  1 J 041 

Single  beading  up  to  f  inch    .  008 
Single  quirk  beadiing  from  4 

inch  to  !i 012 

Return  beads  to  be  paid  for 

at  a  double  rate. 


.355 


065 
646 


.936 


Continuation  of  Table  IV. 

Fixed 
per  square. 

Single  framed  floor-case  and 

tail  bays 2.130 

For  every  extra-cased  bay 
add  per  square 484 

Framed  floors,  with  girders, 

binding,  and  ceiliug-joists  3  .  581 

Oround  joists  bedded 775 

Ground-joista    bedded     and 

framed  to  chimneys 968 

Ground-joists  pinned  down  on 
plates,  and  framed  to  chim- 
neys   1  .  065 

per  ft.  run. 

Girders  reversed  and  bolted     .  097 

Truss  girder-braces  4  inches 

by  4 194 

If  any  of  the  above  works 
be  done  in  oak,  add  one- 
third. 


TABLE  V. 

EOOFS. 

Cori^pjin  Shed  Roofing. 

Fixed 
per  square. 

One  story  high 968 

Two  stories 1 .  033 

Three  stories 1.113 

Single  Span  Roofing. 

One  story  high 1  .  065 

Two  stories  high 1.113 

Three  stories  high 1 .  210 

If  the  above  have  purlins, 
add  per  square  .194;  or 
if  the  purlins  be  framed 
diagonally,    add    double, 

or 388 

Hips  and  valleys 08 

In  common  kirh  roofing^ 
add  extra  per  square  when 
one  side  is  kirbed . .   .194 

When  three  sides 357 

When  four  sides 516 

Girt  roofing,  with  framed 
principals,   collar    beams 

and  purlins 2  .  323 

Framed  with  principals, 
beams,  king  -  posts,  pur- 
lins, and  common  rafters.  3.484 
If  the  principals  and  rafters 
are  framed  flush,  and  the 
purlins  housed  in,  add 
.  387  per  square  to  the 
above. 


Continuation  of  Table  V. 

Fixed 
per  square. 
Framed     with      principals, 
beams,  king-posts,  queen- 
posts,  and   common   raft-         — 

ers,  three  stories 549 

The  same,  four  stories 4.81 

per  ft.  run. 

Hips  .ind  valleys 146 

Hip,  and  ridge  rolls  fixed  on 

iron 048 

Bedded    plates  to   common 

span  roofing 008 

Bedded   plates   to   common 

span  roofing,  as  above  ...     .  028 
Diagonal  and  diagon  pieces     .  065 

Angular  ties  and  struts 032 

Rafter-feet  and  eaves-board    .  032 

TABLE  VI. 

QUTTKKING. 

per  ft.  super. 

One  or  IJ  inch  deal,  and 
bearers,  including  6-inch 
side  layer  board 057 

The  same  in  kirb  roofs 073 


TABLE  VIL 

Fl'ERrNGS  OR  BATTHNINGS. 

per  square. 
If  the  stuff  be  i  inch  by  1 J  .  872 
But  if  the  stuff  is  to  be  cut 

out,  add  .  146  per  square. 
Battenings  with  quarters,   3 

iuches  by  2 92 

Battening    to     quarters,    3 

inches    by   2,  to  window 

piers 1 .  856 

If  the  battens   be  fixed    to 

plugs,  add .  29  per  square. 
When  any  of  the  above  are 

circular  on  the  plan,  add 

half  as  much  more. 


TABLE  VIIL 

BRACKETING,  INCLUDING 
PLUGGING. 

Fixed 
per  ft.  super. 

To  straight  cornices 089 

To  coved  straight  cornices..  .      .065 
If  circular  on  the  plan,  add 

one  half  more. 
To   gn)iiis  in  passages  less 

than  4  feet  wide 162 

To  the  same,  above  4  feet . . .     .121 


CARPENTRY,  the  art  of  employing  timbers  in  the  con- 
struction of  buildings. 

The  important  and  useful  art  to  which  the  general  name 
of  carpentry  is  given,  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the 
comforts  and  requirements  of  man,  in  every  stage  of  civilized 
society,  that  no  apologj'  can  be  necessary  for  the  length  to 
which  our  observations  on  it  must  neccss.irily  extend.  In  a 
work  especially  devoted  to  architecture,  it  of  course  must 
occupy  a  prominent  place;  for  carpentry  may  be  considered 
of  so  great  importance,  that  no  man  may  pretend  to  be  an 
architect  who  is  not  well  acquainted  with  its  principles  and 
its  practice.  Carpentry  may  be  divided  into  two  grand 
Viranchcs — Carpentry  and  Joinery.  The  first  includes  the 
larger  and  rougher  kinds  of  work,  or  that  which  is  essential 
to  the  construction  and  stability  of  an  edifice  :  and,  generally, 
all  the  work  wherein  timber  is  valued   bv  the  cubical  foot. 


CAR 


81 


CAR 


Joinery,  (called  by  the  French  menuiscrie,  from  menu,  small, 
and  hois,  wood,  or  small  wood  einplo_\  cd  in  that  art)  includes 
all  the  interior  finishings  and  ornamental  work,  and  is  gene- 
rally valued  by  the  superficial  foot. 

Carpentry  itself  is  properly  divided  into  three  branches, 
viz..  descriptive,  constructive,  and  mechanical. 

Descriptive  carpentry  shows  the  lines  or  methods  for 
forming  every  species  of  work  in  piano,  by  the  rules  of  geo- 
metry. To  this  branch  of  the  art,  sometimes  called  "  finding," 
the  celebrated  Monze  gave  the  name  of  descriptive  geometry. 

Constructive  carpentry  shows  the  practice  of  reducing  the 
wood  into  forms,  and  joining  the  parts,  according  to  the 
intention  or  design  of  the  architect,  and  thereby  forming  a 
complete  whole. 

Mechanical  carpentry  shows  the  relative  strength  of  tim- 
bers, and  the  strains  to  which  they  may  be  subjected  by  their 
arrangement  and  disposition. 

In  this  article,  after  a  few  preliminary  observations  on 
w  hat  may  be  termed  the  "  historv"  of  carpentry,  it  is 
intended  to  give  such  definitions  as  may  conduce  to  a  com- 
prehension of  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  art,  and  then  to 
show  the  progressive  iinpiovements  made  by  the  several 
English  w liters  in  carpentry  ;  the  various  rules  for  forming 
the  timbers,  and  for  the  individual  operations,  being  shown 
under  their  respective  heads.  See  particularly  Constructive, 
Descriptive,  and  Mechanical  Carpextky. 

History. — Tliis  art  is  of  suehgeneral  and  important  use,  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  of  the  highest  antiquity. 
Little  of  its  history,  however,  has  been  transmitted  to  us 
from  the  ancients.  Pliny  and  Vitruvius  are  almost  the  only 
authors  whose  writings  on  the  subject  have  reached  modern 
times  ;  but  as  their  observations  are  merely  confined  to  the 
choice  and  felling  of  timber,  they  are  of  no  use  as  to  the 
constructive  part,  and  onl}-  demonstrate  that  such  an  art 
existed. 

Tlie  practice  of  carpentry  in  its  rudest  form  must  of 
necessity  have  commenced  in  the  very  earliest  ages  ;  for  in 
the  first  attempts  at  the  construction  of  the  primitive  build- 
ings of  tiiose  days,  carpentry  must  have  been  brought  into 
exercise.  It  is  probable  that  the  necessity-  of  introducing 
the  pediment  roof,  occasioned  the  first  use  of  timber  frames, 
and  conseijuently  the  art  of  carpentry  in  building.  The 
invention  of  the  pediment  roof  is  justly  attributed  to  the 
Greeks  ;  as  the  oldest  buildings  of  this  description  are  to  be 
found  in  their  country  ;  they  also  appear  to  have  used  tim- 
ber for  other  purposes,  as  in  the  framing  of  floors,  and  the 
construction  of  rustic  buildings. 

In  warm  countries,  furnishing  stone  or  marble,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  use  of  timber  was  not  very  frequent,  and  that 
it  was  confined  to  movable  articles,  where  lightness  was  an 
essential  quality  ;  we  must,  therefore,  not  look  to  these  cli- 
mates for  any  traces  of  the  art. 

The  next  great  people,  in  succession  of  time,  to  the  Greeks, 
were  the  Ia>mans,  who  seem  to  have  employed  timber  for 
all,  or  nearly  all,  the  purposes  that  the  moderns  are  ac- 
quainted with.  They  not  only  constructed  their  roofs,  but 
whole  buildings,  of  timber  :  in  Vitruvius  we  have  a  descrip 
tion  of  their  manner  of  constructing  the  architraves  of  Tuscan 
temples,  and  of  the  foundation  of  arched  ceilings  and  floors, 
in  timber  work.  The  Romans  also  used  wooden  cornices. 
The  theatres  and  amphitheatres  at  Rome,  and  in  different 
parts  of  Italy,  were  at  first  constructed  of  timber ;  as  we  read 
of  the  wooden  theatre  of  Pompey,  and  the  amphitheatre 
built  of  the  same  material,  by  Augustus,  to  exhibit  the  shows 
on  account  of  the  victory  at  Actium.  The  roofs  of  the 
Roman  buildings  were  not  always  concealed ;  the  timbers 
were   sometimes   exposed,   and    in    magnificent    buildings 

11 


they  were  gilt,  as  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  erected  by 
Constantino;  sometimes  they  were  encrusted  with  bronze. 

Though  circumstances  require  certain  dispositions  of  tim- 
bers in  a  building,  the  timbers  will  still  admit  of  infinite 
decoration,  without  injury  ;  and  sometimes  so  much  as  at 
first  view  to  conceal  the  principal  use.  In  the  middle  ages, 
carpentry  partook  of  the  style  of  building  called  Gothic  ;  the 
roofs  were  pitched  very  high,  but  were  frequently  defective, 
on  account  of  the  want  of  tie-beams,  which  were  omitted  in 
order  to  obtain  more  lofty  ceilings ;  height  being  one  of  the 
predominant  features  of  this  species  of  architecture. 

Carpentry  has  been  cultivated  by  the  modern  Italians. 
Serlio,  in  his  first  book,  exhibits  a  construction  for  naked 
flooring,  with  timbers  shorter  than  either  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  area  to  be  covered  ;  in  the  fourth  book  he  shows  some 
ver}'  curious  and  strong  methods  of  framing  doors,  according 
to  the  principles  of  trussed  work  ;  and  in  the  seventh  book, 
he  has  some  very  good  forms  for  the  trusses  of  roofs.  The 
wooden  bridges  of  Palladio  are  must  excellent  examples. 

Among  the  French,  the  construction  of  wooden  domes  has 
been  improved  by  Philibert  Delorme,  and  Moulineau  ;  and 
the  centerings  of  arches  and  bridges  by  Perronet. 

In  England,  the  very  curious  construction  of  naked  floor- 
ing, exhibited  in  the  works  of  Serlio,  has  been  demoivstrated 
and  improved  by  Dr.  Wallis,  and  carried  into  execution,  in 
the  theatre  of  Oxford,  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  also 
designed  the  wood  trussing  of  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  and 
contrived  a  very  curious  scafl"olding,  which  supported  itself 
without  anything  below  it,  for  the  purpose  of  building  and 
painting  the  interior  dome.  The  art  of  carpentry  has  been 
much  cultivated  of  late  years  in  England,  so  that  it  has  now 
begun  to  assume  a  scientific  form.  In  accuracy  and  celerity 
of  execution  our  workmen  are  unequalled. 

Of  late  years  the  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron,  both  cast  and  wrouyht,  have  caused  the  introduction  of 
that  material  into  buildings  in  every  variety  of  form — as 
yirders,  beams,  &c.  The  floors,  and  sometimes  even  the 
roofs  of  those  intended  to  be  secured  from  fire,  have  been 
constructed  of  iron  ;  and  iron  hooping  is  now  used  instead 
of  bond-timbers  in  walls.  The  use  of  this  material,  how- 
ever, as  a  substitute  for  wood,  does  not  change  the  principle, 
as  both  materials  are  affected  by  the  same  gravitating  laws. 

The  operations  to  which  timber  is  subjected,  from  the 
time  of  its  arrival  in  the  carpenter's  yard,  in  its  natural 
state,  to  the  period  of  its  final  employment  in  a  building, 
may  be  classed  under  two  general  heads ;  as,  those  which 
relate  to  individual  pieces,  and  those  that  relate  to  their 
connection  with  others. 

Under  the  first  head  is  the  pit-saw,  by  which  whole  pieces 
of  timber  are  divided,  and  reduced  into  scantlings.  This 
term  (from  the  French,  enchanliUon)  means  the  dimensions 
in  breadth  and  thickness,  without  respect  to  the  length. 

Planing  is  the  operation  of  reducing  the  wood  to  a  smooth 
surface,  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  a  plane,  which 
consists  of  a  chisel  fixed  in  a  frame,  serving  at  once  as  a 
handle  and  a  regulator  to  the  edge,  which  cuts  the  wood  in 
thin  shavings  as  the  plane  is  moved  to  and  iVo  by  the  work- 
man. The  operations  of  the  plane,  besides  that  of  reducing 
timber  to  a  uniform  surface,  are  those  of  grooving,  rebating, 
and  moulding :  the  latter  not  being  necessary  in  carpentry, 
we  shall  only  describe  the  former  two:  Grooving  is  the 
reducing  a  piece  of  timber  below  the  surface,  so  as  to  take 
away  a  prism,  and  thereby  leave  a  channel  consisting  of  two 
surfaces  of  equal  breadths,  and  another  surface,  of  equal 
breadth,  joining  the  other  tw<^  parallel  to  the  surface  fioia 
which  the  recess  is  made,  generally  forming  two  individual 
right  angles. 


CAR  ^ 

Rebating  is  the  lecliieing  of  a  piece  of  timber,  by  taking 
away  a  prism  at  the  angle,  so  as  to  leave  only  two'sides, 
each  of  a  parallel  breadth,  forming  an  internal  angle,  gene- 
rally a  right  angle  :  so  that  in  grooving  and  rebating,  the 
groove  or  rebate  is  always  less  than  the  original  depth  of 
the  stuff  or  piece  ont  of  which  it  is  finned.  The  latter 
operation  is  particularly  used  in  door-cases  and  the  frames 
of  casement-windows  ;  tiie  rebate  forming  a  kind  of  ledge 
for  the  door  or  casement  to  stop  against. 

The  implements  which  the  carpenter  has  occasion  to 
employ  in  the  several  operations,  will  be  seen  under  the 
head  Tools. 

The  principal  operations,  after  the  pieces  are  formed, 
consist  in  the  joining  of  timbers;  two  pieces  of  timber  may 
be  joined  so  as  to  form  either  one,  two,  or  four  angles, 
oblique  or  right.  A  notched  joint  is  formed  by  cutting  out 
of  the  thickness  of  each  piece,  a  part  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelopiped  ;  so  that  when  the  two  pieces  are  joined,  the 
substance  left  at  the  reduced  thickness  of  the  one  piece,  fills 
the  e.xcavation  of  the  other,  as  far  as  it  goes  into  its  depth. 
If  the  thickness  of  the  part  left  be  equal  to  that  of  the  part 
taken  away  in  each  piece,  and  the  thickness  of  the  part  left 
of  the  one  piece  be  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  pai  t  left  of 
the  other  |iiece,  the  joint  is  then  said  to  be  halved.  In 
making  one  angle,  the  excess  or  excavation  is  formed  at  the 
end  of  each  piece,  and  consists  of  two  plane  snifaces,  one 
perpendicular,  the  other  parallel  to  the  two  opposite  faces, 
and  in  the  plane  of  the  angle.  In  forming  two  right  angles, 
one  piece  must,  of  course,  project  on  both  sides  of  the  other, 
and  the  other,  only  on  one  side  ;  the  excavation  or  recess 
made  in  that  which  projects  on  both  sides,  consists  of  three 
plane  surfaces,  one  being  parallel,  and  the  other  two  at  right 
angles  to  the  faces  ;  the  excavation  or  recess  made  in  that 
which  projects  on  one  side,  consists  of  two  plane  surfaces, 
in  the  like  positions.  In  forming  four  right  angles,  the 
notch  of  each  piece  consists  of  three  sides,  two  of  which  are 
at  right  angles,  and  the  other  parallel  to  the  faces.  One 
piece  of  timber  may  also  be  joined  to  another,  so  as  to  form 
only  one  or  two  adjacent  angles,  by  notching  one  piece  on 
three  sides  at  the  ends,  and  so  forming  a  projecting  prism, 
called  a  tenon,  the  sides  of  which  are  respectively  parallel 
to  the  sides  of  the  piece,  and  by  excavating  the  end  of  the 
other  piece,  to  receive  the  tenon,  which  is  made  to  fit  exactly. 
The  two  pieces  thus  formed  at  one  or  more  angles  to  each 
other,  may,  if  found  necessary,  be  fixed  by  means  of  wooden 
pins,  or  nails,  spikes,  screws,  bolts,  straps,  or  other  metal 
fastenings. 

The  two  celebrated  Italian  authors,  Serlio  and  Palladio, 
have  given  designs  in  carpentry.  The  British  authors  who 
have  written  on  this  u-^efid  art,  are  Godfrey  Richards,  at 
the  end  of  his  Tnmalalion.  of  the  First  Book  of  Andrew 
Piilltidio,  iWwd  edition  printed  107(>;  Moxon's  Mec/ianical 
Exercises,  second  edition  printed  Kii).'?  ;  Halfpenny's  ^lr<  of 
Sound  Bnildin^u  printed  17^."> ;  The  C'arpenler\s  C'omjMinion, 
by  Smith,  printed  1733;  Ancient  M<csonri/,  by  Batty  Lang- 
ley,  printeil  1733  ;  T/ie  British  Carpenter,  by  Francis  Price, 
piiuted  173.">;  The  Oentlcinan''s  and  Builder''s  lieposilori/, 
by  Edward  lloppus,  printed  1738;  The  Builder's  Complete 
Assistant,  by  Batty  Langley,  printed  in  1738;  The  Builder's 
i  find  Worknirin^s  Treasurij,  by  Batty  Langley,  printed  in 
j  1741  ;  The  Builder's  Jewel,  by  the  same  author;  The  Lon- 
j  don  Art  of  Jliiildinf/,  by  William  Salmon,  the  third  edition, 
printed  in  1718;  The  British  Architect,  by  Abraham  Swan, 
second  edition  printed  in  17r)0;  J)esif/ns  in  Carpentri/,  hy 
the  same  author,  printed  in  1759  ;  several  pieces  of  carpentry, 
in  A  Coniple/e  Body  of  Architecture,  written  by  Isaac  Ware, 
published  in  176S  •    The  Carpenter's  and  Joiner  s  Repository, 


82  CAR 


by  William  Pain,  printed  in  1778;  The  Carpenter's  Pocket 
Director//,  by  the  same  author,  printed  in  1780;  The  Golden 
Pule,  by  the  same,  printed  in  1781  ;  The  British  Palladio, 
by  the  same,  printed  1788  ;  Tlie  Practical  Builder,  by  the 
same  author;  The  Practical  House  Carpenter,  bv  the  same 
author,  printed  in  1791.  The  following  are  productions  of 
the  Author  of  the  present  Work  ;  The  Carpenter's  Xew 
Guide,  m  1792;  The  Carp/enter's  and  Joiner's  Assistant, 
printed  in  1792.  Likewise,  the  various  articles  on  carpentry, 
in  Rees'  Ciiclopccdia  ;  A  Treatise  on  Carpentrij,  in  the 
Edinhurcjli  Encyclopiedia  ;  and  a  treatise  on  the  same  subject, 
in  his  Mechanical  Exercises.  A  long  article  on  Carpentry, 
in  a  Siqiplcmcnt  to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  was  written 
by  Professor  Robison,  of  Edinburgh;  and  an  article  on 
Carpentry,  in  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy 
and  the  Mechanical  Arts,  by  Thomas  YoUng,  M.  D.,  late 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution 
of  Great  Britain. 

We  shall  here  give  extracts  from  these  authors,  in  order 
to  mark  the  various  methods  and  progressive  improvements 
in  the  scientific  and  practical  parts  of  carpentry,  particularly 
that  part  which  relates  to  geometrical  description. 

Godfrey  Richards,  in  his  general  title,  at  the  end  of  the 
translation  above  referred  to,  writes  thus  : 

"  Of  Roofs. — Rules  and  instructions  for  framing  all  man- 
ner of  roofs,  whether  square  or  bevel,  either  above  or  under 
pitch,  according  to  the  best  manner  practised  in  England. 

"Also  to  liiid  the  length  of  the  hips  ami  sleepers,  with 
the  back  or  hip  mould,  never  yet  jniblished  by  any  architect, 
modern  or  antique  ;  a  curiosity  worth  the  regard,  even  of 
the  most  curious  workman  ;  exactly  demonstrated  in  the 
following  rules  and  designs,  by  that  ingenious  architect, 
Mr.  William  Pope,  of  London. 

"  Having  raised  the  walls  to  their  designed  height,  and 
made  the  vaults,  laid  the  joists,  brought  up  the  stairs,  and 
performed  all  those  things  spoken  of  before  ;  we  are  now  to 
raise  the  roof,  which  embracing  every  part  of  the  building, 
and  with  its  weight  equally  pressing  upon  the  walls,  is  a 
band  to  all  the  work  ;  and  besides  defends  the  inhabitants 
from  rain,  from  snow,  from  the  burning  smi,  and  from  the 
moisture  of  the  night ;  adds  no  small  help  to  the  building, 
casting  off  from  the  walls  the  rain  water,  which  although 
for  a  while  it  seems  to  do  but  little  huit,  yet  in  process  of 
time  is  the  cause  of  much  damage.  The  lirst  men  (as  saith 
Vitruvius)  built  their  houses  with  flat  roofs,  but  finding  that 
thereby  they  were  not  defended  from  the  weather,  they 
(constrained  by  necessity)  began  to  make  them  ridged  (that 
is  to  say)  raised  in  the  middle.  These  roofs  are  to  be  raised 
to  a  higher  or  lower  pitch,  according  to  the  country  in  which 
they  are  ;  wherefore  iii  Germany,  by  reason  of  the  great 
quantity  of  snow  that  falls  there,  they  raise  their  roofs  to  a 
very  great  pitch,  and  cover  them  with  shingles,  which  are 
small  pieces  of  wood,  or  of  thin  slate  or  tiles  ;  for  if  they 
should  raise  them  otherwise,  they  would  be  ruined  by  reason 
of  the  weight  of  the  snow.  But  we,  who  dwell  in  a  more 
temperate  country,  ought  to  choose  such  a  pitch  as  may  secure 
the  building,  and  be  of  a  handsome  form  :  therefore  we  divide 
the  breadth  of  the  roof  into  four  equal  parts,  and  take  three, 
which  makes  the  most  agreeable  pitch  for  our  country,  and 
is  the  foundation  for  the  raising  of  any  manner  of  roof, 
whether  square  or  bevel ;  as  appears  in  the  following  designs 
and  descriptions." 

"  The  manner  of  framing  a  floor,   with  the  names  of  each 
member.     {See  Carpentrv,  Plate  I.  Figure  1 . 

"1.  The  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  liutel  or  wall-plate ; 
and  if  it  be  in  timber-work,  then  a  bressummer. 


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"  2.  The  summer. 

"  3.  Girders  framed  into  the  summer. 

"  4.  Spaces  between  the  joists. 

"5.  Joists. 

"  6.  Trimmers  for  the  chimney  way. 

"7.  Trimmers  for  the  stjvircase,  or  well-hole  for  the 
stairs." 

Figure  2.—"  Of  the  Design. 

"aa  The    breadth   of  the    house,    cantalivors,    cornices, 
and  eaves. 

"  A  B  The  length  of  the  raftings  and  furrings,  which  ought 
to  be  throe-fourths  of  tiie  breadth  of  the  house,  a  a. 

"  The  principal  rafters  to  be  cut  with  a  knee  (as  in  the 
Design)  that  they  may  the  better  support  themselves  and  the 
burthen  over  them,  upon  the  upright  of  the  wall,  and  also 
secure  that  part  from  the  dripping  in  of  the  rain,  which 
otherwise  would  happen  if  the  rafters  were  made  straight 
and  furred. 

"  The  beams  to  the  roof,  or  girder  to  the  garret  floor, 
ought  to  project  without  the  work,  as  far  as  the  furring  or 
shredding,  which  is  the  projecture  of  the  cornice. 

"This  manner  of  framing  the  roof  will  be  useful  from  20 
to  30  feet,  or  thereabouts. 

"  1.  Ground  plate. 

"  2.  Girder,  or  binding  interduee,  or  bressummer. 

"  3.  Beam  to  the  roof,  or  girder  to  the  garret  floor. 

"  4.   Principal  post,  and  upright  brick  wall. 

"5.  Braces. 

"  6.  Quarters. " 

"7.  Interduces. 

"  8.  Prick-post,  or  window-post. 

"9.  Jaumes,  or  door-posts. 

"  10.  King-piece,  or  joggle-piece. 

"11.  Struts. 

"  12.  Collar-beam,  strut-beam,  wind-beam,  or  top-beam. 

"13.  Door-head. 

"  14.  Principal  rafters. 

"  15.  Furrings,  or  shreddings. 

"  1(5.  Ends  of  the  lintels  and  pieces. 

"  17.  Bedding,  moulding  of  the  cornice  over  the  windows, 
and.  space  between. 

"  18.  Knees  of  the  principal  rafters,  which  are  to  be  of  one 
piece. 

"19.  Purline  mortises."  ^ 

Figure  3.  "  Design  of  the  gable  end,  or  roof — Let  the  whole 
length  of  the  gable  end,  or  roof,  a  a,  be  20  feet,  divide  the 
same  into  four  equal  parts;  take  thereof  three  for  the  length 
of  the  principal  raftei',  a  b,  and  placing  that  perpendicular 
from  the  point  c,  to  the  point  d,  beget  the  length  of  the 
sleeper  a  d,  which  will  be  18  feet.  And  the  length  of 
the  dormer's  principal  rafter,  from  a  to  e,  when  laid  to  its 
pitch  upon  the  back  of  the  principals,  wHl  reach  to  the  level 
line  F  B,  or  top  of  the  principal  rafter  ;  and  this  is  a  general 
•  rule  for  all  breadths. 

"  1.  Summer,  or  beam. 

"  2.  King-piece,  crown-post,  or  joggle-piece. 

"  3.  Braces,  or  struts. 

"  4.  Principal  rafters. 

"  5.  The  sleeper. 

"  6.  Purline  of  the  dormer. 

"7.  Principal  rafter  of  the  dormer. 

"  8.  Single  rafter  of  the  dormer,  standing  on  the  sleeper 
and  purline. 

"  9.   Point  of  the  sleeper. 

"10,  11.  The  thickness  of  the  wall  and  lintels,  or  wall- 
plates." 


Figure  4. — "  Of  the  Italian  or  hip  roof. 
"  a  a  The  breadth  of  the  roof,  being  20  feet. 
"ab  The  length  of  the  sleepers  or  liip.s,  being   18  feet, 

wliicli  is  proporlion.able  to  the  breadtii  of  the  house. 
"ed  The  height  of  tiie  roof  ])erpi'ndieular. 
"cD  The    length  of    the    hip,  and    the    angle    which    it 
maketh   upon   the   diagonal   line,  which   is  showed   by   the 
pricked  line  o,  from  f  to  o. 
"1,  2.  The  wall  and  lintels. 
"3.   Dr.agon-beam  for  the  hip  to  stand  on. 
"4.  Beam  on  summer,  wherein    the    dragon-beams   are 
framed. 

"  5.  King-piece,  or  crown-post. 

"  6.  Struts  or  braces   from   the  crown-post  to   the  hip- 
rafter. 

"  7.  Hips,  as  they  make  the  angle  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
the  house. 

"8.  Hips,  as  they  make  tiie  angle  in  the  diagonal  lines 
from  corner  to  corner. 

"9.  The    additional   length  which  the   hips   make   upon 
the  diagonal  lines,  more  than  the  breadth  of  the  house." 

"  Of  flat  roofs. — (Carpentry,  Plate  \l.  Fig.  1.) — Within 
a  camber-beam  and  rafters  joggled  in,  whose  weight  liclh 
not  chiefly  in  the  middle,  and  may  be  so  made,  that,  without 
hanging  up  the  beam,  the  principals  may  discharge  the 
weight ;  and  how  drips  may  be  made  to  walk  on. 
"  1.  Camber-beam. 

"2.  Principals  joggled  into  the  camber-beam. 
"  3.  The  place  where  the  j>rincipals  are  joggled  in. 
"4.   Puncheons,  or  braces. 

"  5.  Drips  to  walk  on,  and   may  be  made  with  the  less 
current,  that  the  roof  may  be  made  the  more  pitch,  for  the 
strengthening  thereof:  and  may  be  made  higher  or  lower, 
according  to  the  building  and  discretion  of  the  architect. 
"6.  Battlement." 

Figure  2. — "A   flat   roof  with   a   crown-post,  or   king- 
piece." 

Figure  3. — "  Of  the  hiproof. — Instructions  to  find  the  length 

and  back  of  the  l!ip,  so  as  it  mag  answer  the  side  and  the 

end  of  the  perpendicular   line  of  the  gable  end,  the  two 

skirts,  the  side  of  the  roof  in  piano,  or  tying  in  ledgment 

with  the  hip  and  gable  end,  the  diagonal  and  perpendicular 

lines    being    laid   down   proportional    to   any   breadth    or 

length,  by  udiich  the  most  ingenious  may  serve  hiwselfand 

an  ordinary  capacity  (already  acquainted  with  the  vse  of 

the  ruler  and  compa.i.s)  may  jdainly  demonstrate  all  the 

parts  of  a  roof  whether  square  or  bevel,  above  pitch   or 

under  pitch,  by  lines  of  proportion,  as  may  appear  in  the 

Design  following  : —  ^ 

"Suppose  the  roof  20  feet  broad,  and  in  length  30,  40?or 

50  feet,  more  or  less.     Let  a  b  c  d  be  the  sides  and  ends  of 

the  said  roof,  one  end  to  be  hipped,  the  other  a  gable  end  ; 

draw  the  lines  a  b  c  d  the  bre.adth  and  length  of  the  roof; 

then  draw  the  gable  end  a  b  e,  whose  sides  or  principal 

rafters  being  three-fourths  of  the  breadth  of  the  house,  then 

draw  the  perpendicular  line  e  f,  the  height  of  the  gable  end, 

which  line  is  of  general  use  to  level  the  ridge  of  all  roofs ; 

and  if  the  other  end  be  hipped,  as  in  the  Design,  d  c  g,  then 

it  serves  to  find  the  length  of  the  hip,  and  the  back  of  the 

hip,  so  that  it  may  answer  both  sides  and  ends  of  the  roof; 

alwavs  observing,  that  the  middle  of  the  breadth  of  the  house 

isas'iH;  then  draw  the  line  kln  through  the  centre  i, 

which  will  make  right  angles  to  the  line  e  r  h  g,  both  in 

bevel  and  square  houses.     Then  extend  the  line  a  b,  on  both 

sides  to  o,  being  the  length  of  a  e,  or  e  b,  the  length  of  the 

prmcipal  rafters,  or  three-fourths  of  the  breadth  of  the  house 


CAR 


84 


CAR 


So  will  o  N  and  o  k  make  the  length  of  the  ridge  i  f  ;  and  k  d 
and  c  N,  the  two  skirts. 

"  To  find  the  length  of  the  hip. — Draw  the  diagonal  line 
D  I  and  I  c,  over  which  the  liip  is  to  hang  when  in  its  due 
place;  then  take  the  perpendicular  line  e  f,  and  place  it  from 
the  point  i  to  p  p,  perpendicular  to  the  diagonal  or  base  lines 
D  I  and  I  c,  at  i ;  so  is  i  p  and  i  p,  the  pitch  of  the  hip,  equal 
to  the  gable  end,  e  f:  and  when  erected,  will  hang  perpen- 
dicular to  the  point  i;  then  take  p  d,  the  hypothenuse  of  the 
triangle  dip,  and  c  p,  the  hypothenuse  of  the  triangle  c  i  p, 
placing  them  from  d  to  o,  and  c  to  g  gives  the  length  of  the 
hip  D  G  c,  and  when  laid  to  their  pitch,  will  all  meet  perpen- 
dicular to  the  point  i. 

"  To  find  the  back  o/  the  hip,  so  that  it  may  answer  both 
sides  and  ends  of  the  roof  tohether  square  or  bevel. — Lay 
the  ruler  fjom  the  point  h  to  the  point  h,  and  from  the  point  ii 
to  M,  and  mark  where  it  cuts  the  diagonal  lines  d  i  and  i  cat 
Q  q;  then  set  one  foot  of  the  compasses  on  the  point  q,  and 
extend  the  other  foot  to  the  hip  lines  d  p  and  c  p,  at  the 
nearest  distance;  with  that,  mark  the  point  b  upon  the  same 
diagonal  lines;  then  draw  the  pricked  lines  l  r  h  and  h  n  m, 
which  make  the  back  of  the  hip  for  the  two  corners  of  that 
roof 

"  This  rule  serves  for  all  roofs,  whether  over  or  under 
pitch." 

Figure  4. — '■  Of  roofs  bevel  at  one  end,  and  square  at  the 
other  ;   the  gable  end  square,  and  the  bevel  end  hipped. 

"Suppose  the  breadth  of  the  roof  to  be  20  feet,  the  length 
more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  as  in  the  Design,  a  b  c  d, 
then  draw  the  gable  end,  a  e  b,  whose  sides,  from  a  to  e,  and 
from  e  to  B,  are  three-fourths  of  the  breadth  of  the  house,  or 
the  length  of  the  principal  rafters ;  then  draw  the  perpendi- 
cular, E  F,  the  height  of  the  roof  from  the  floor  ;  and,  if 
kneed,  then  from  the  top  of  the  knee,  as  in  the  design  of  a 
kneed  rafter,  before-going. 

'•The  sides  of  the  roof,  which  make  the  ridge  g  ii  i  k,  to 
he  drawn  as  described  in  the  foregoing  design. 

"  Divide  the  breadth  of  the  roof  in  two  equal  parts,  as 
F  L  Q,  then  take  the  distance  l  n,  which  is  the  half  breadth 
of  the  house,  and  make  it  parallel  to  c  q  d,  as  m  l  m,  and  l 
will  be  the  point  whose  perpendiculars,  o  t,  will  meet  the 
principals,  ratlers,  and  hips." 

"  To  find  the  length  nf  each  hip,  distinct  one  from  the 
other. —  Of  the  longest  hips. — Draw  the  diagonal  line  l  c,  and 
take  the  height  of  the  gable  end,  e  f,  and  place  it  perpendi- 
cular' to  I,  c,  at  o ;  so  have  you  tlie  height  of  the  roof  per- 
pen<licular  from  o  l,  equal  to  E  F,  the  gable  end  ;  and  the 
line  o  c  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip-rafter,  which  will  be 
equal  to  c  u,  the  skirt  for  that  side  of  the  hip,  and  c  p  the 
side  of  that  hip  end. 

*  To  find  the  bark  of  the  longest  hip,  c  o. — Lay  the  ruler 
from  the  point  M  to  q,  and  mark  where  it  cuts  the  diagonal 
line  at  r;  then  set  the  foot  of  the  compasses  at  the  point  r, 
^nd  e-xtend  the  other  foot  till  it  touch  the  line  c  o  at  the 
nearest  distance;  then  make  it  touch  the  diagcmal  line  at  s, 
then  draw  the  lines  m  B  Q,  whicli  is  the  hack  of  the  hip  for 
that  corner  of  the  roof 

"  To  find  the  shortest  hip. — Draw  the  diagonal  l  d,  and 
take  K  F,  the  perpendicular  of  the  gable  end,  as  before,  and 
place  it  from  l  to  t,  perpendicular  to  l  d;  then  draw  the 
line  T  D,  which  is  the  length  of  the  hip  for  that  corner, 
and  is  equal  to  the  skirt,  b  i,  and  the  side  of  that  hip,  d  p, 
which,  when  erected,  will  meet  with  the  other  jirincipals, 
perpendicular  to  the  point  i.. 

'•  To  find  the  back  of  the  hip. — Lay  the  ruler  from  the 
point  Q  to  the  point  m,  and  mark  where  it  cuts  the  diagonal 
line  L  D,  at  v:  extend   the  compasses  from  the  point  v,  to 


touch  the  line  t  d  at  the  nearest  distance,  and  carry  that 
distance  on  the  diagonal  line  to  the  point  w  ;  then  diaw  the 
pricked  lines  m  w  q,  which  will  make  the  back  of  that 
hip  fit  for  that  bevel  corner. 

"And  this  rule  serves  for  all  bevel  roofs,  whether  over  or 
under  pitch." 

Figure  5. — "  Of  a  roof  bevel  at  both  ends,  and  broader  at 
one  end  than  the  other. 

"a  B  c  D.     The  length  and  breadth  of  the  house. 

"e  f  g.  The  length  of  the  rafters,  or  pitch  between 
the  widest  and  narrowest  ends,  about  the  middle  of  the 
house,  to  stand  over  the  pricked  line  t  t,  for  the  foot  f 
to  stand,  on  the  one  t,  the  foot  g  to  stand  on  the 
other  T. 

"  n  H.  The  point  of  the  two  hip  ends,  when  brought  to 
their  due  place,  will  be  perpendicular  to  p  p,  and  will 
meet  the  sides  i  k,  l  m,  over  the  points  p  p. 

"  o,  o,  o,  0.  The  points  of  the  perpendiculars,  and  length 
of  the  hips,  from  a  b  c  d. 

"  Q,  Q,  Q,  Q.  The  backs  of  the  hips,  or  hip-mould  to  each 
corner. 

"r,  b,  b,  r.  The  points  to  find  out  q,  the  point  for  each 
back. 

"ss,  s  s.  The  lines  representing  half  the  breadth  of  the 
house,  parallel  to  each  end. 

"t  t.     Representing  the  middle  of  the  house. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  bevel  ends,  you  may  place  your 
beams  for  your  principal  rafters  to  stand  on  a  square,  or  so 
near  a  square  as  may  be,  or  between  both,  as  from  the  ends 
of  the  pricked  lines  i  ic,  l  m,  bringing  the  outside  of  thi'ni 
straight  under  p  p,  which  will  be  more  handsome  fur  the 
house  in  the  inside,  although  it  bevels  outward." 

Tbe  foregoing  descriptions  and  diagrams  contain  all  tliat 
is  said  on  carpentry  by  Godfrey  Richards ;  we  shall  now 
add  a  few  observations. 

In  the  explanation  of  Figure  I,  Plate  I.,  Carpentry,  we 
have  the  names  of  the  several  timbers  which  constitute  a 
floor,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  disposed.  In  this 
explanation,  and  the  plan  which  accompanies  it,  we  find 
girders,  summers,  and  bressummers.  The  summer  runs 
parallel  to  the  front  of  the  building  ;  another  piece  of  timber 
is  placed  in  the  front,  parallel  to,  and  in  the  same  level  with 
the  summer;  if  the  front  timber  terminate  the  apertures  at 
their  height,  and  the  wall  be  of  brick,  this  tindier  is  called 
a  lintel ;  but  if  the  lower  side  of  the  timber  do  not  termi- 
nate the  windows,  it  is  called  a  wall-plate.  If  the  front  wall 
is  constructed  of  timber-work,  then  the  level  piece  of  timber 
in  the  floor,  and  in  the  front  of  the  house,  is  called  a  bres- 
su7nmer,  which  in  modern  carpentry,  when  employed  in  the 
same  office,  still  retains  that  name;  and  hence  tlie  te?-ni 
bressummer  signifies  a  summer  in  the  breast  or  front  of  the 
buildini;.  The  use  of  the  summer  was  to  support  the  ends 
of  the  adjacent  girders  ;  and  the  bressummer  was  not  only 
to  support  the  end  of  the  one  girder,  but  to  tie  the  front 
together.  In  the  present  construction  of  houses,  summers  ' 
are  not  employed.  In  old  carpentry,  the  girders  supporting 
the  joisting  were  sustiiined  at  their  ends  by  the  summers  and 
bressummers,  lintels,  or  wall-plates.  In  modern  carpentry, 
the  girders  are  sustained  by  opyiosite  walls,  upon  plates  or 
lintels,  and  are  still  used  over  every  extensive  bearing  to 
support  the  joisting. 

In  modern  timi)er-buildings,  and  partitions,  the  same 
names  are  still  used  for  the  same  things,  as  in  old  carpentry, 
wherever  the  things  themselves  are  employed,  except  in  a 
few  instances,  viz.,  the  interduces  are  now  called  inlerties  ; 
the  middle  beam  of  the  roof  went  by  several  names,  as 
collar-beam,     strut-beam,   wind-beam,    or    top-beam ;    but  of 


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these  names,  only  that  of  collar-heam  is  retained.  At  pres- 
ent \vc  liave  no  kneed-rafteis,  therefore  neither  furrings  nor 
shredJings  are  necessary  as  in  Figure  2  ;  the  prick-posts  arc 
now  called  jainlt-jjosts,  window,  or  door-posts ;  the  vertical 
timber  hanging  from  the  vertical  angle  of  the  roof,  and  sup- 
porting the  principals,  went  toriiierly  under  the  names  of 
king-piece,  erowii-posi,  ov  joggle-post  ;  but  now  it  retains  only 
the  name  of  kingpost.  The  nomenclature  employed  in 
London  and  its  vicinity  is  here  alluded  to. 

The  timbers  in  the  internal  angles,  at  the  meeting  of  the 
two  inclined  sides  of  a  roof,  were  formerly  called  sleepers, 
but  now  they  are  termed  valleg-pieces,  or  valley-rafters,  see 
Figure  3  ;  in  which  may  be  seen  also  a  method  of  finding 
the  length  of  the  hip.  without  making  any  plan  of  the  roof 

Plate  II.  Figures  .3.  4,  .5,  show  the  maimer  of  finding  the 
lengths  and  backs  of  the  hips,  as  at  present.  The  discovery 
of  this  principle  is  generously  ascribed  to  Mr.  Pope,  of  Lon- 
don, by  the  author  now  quoted. 

Thus  much  fur  the  work  published  by  Godfrey  Richards. 

The  carpentry  published  in  Moxon's  Mechanical  Exer- 
cises, contains  nothing  more  than  the  names  and  applications 
of  timbers,  which  are  the  same  as  those  described  by  Godfrey 
Richards. 

In  The  Art  of  Sound  Building,  Mr.  Halfpenny  shows  the 
methods  of  tracing  the  angle-brackets  of  coves,  regular  and 
irregular  groins,  the  common  ribs  in  each  return  being  of  one 
common  height. 

The  following  specimens  will  show  what  has  been  done  by 
this  author.  He  likewise  shows  how  to  find  the  arch  for  the 
aperture  of  a  window,  of  a  given  width  and  height  so  as  the 
angles  may  be  in  vertical  planes,  according  to  legitimate 
principles ;  but  he  does  not,  in  any  instance,  show  the  method 
of  beveling  the  edge  of  the  angle-ribs,  so  as  to  range  with 
ribs  fixed  in  the  returns. 

Plate  111.  Figure  1.  ''  To  find  the  angle  or  milre-braeket 
of  a  cove. — First,  draw  the  base  a  b  of  the  regular  bracket, 
and  from  a  draw  a  d,  perpendicular  and  equal  to  it,  and 
draw  the  line  d  b,  and  continue  the  line  d  a  to  c,  so  that  a  c 
be  also  equal  to  a  b  ;  then  extending  your  compasses  from 
A  to  B,  and  setting  one  foot  in  a,  with  the  other  describe  the 
arch,  or  quarter  of  a  circle  c  b,  and  from  the  point  d  draw  d  f, 
perpendicular  to  d  b,  and  equal  to  d  a,  or  a  c,  and  another 
as  n  E  from  n,  likewise  equal  to  d  a,  and  draw  the  line  f  e, 
which  will  be  parallel  to  d  b.  This  being  done,  divide  a  b 
into  a  number  of  equal  parts,  not  exceeding  two  inches  and 
a  half,  and  through  the  divisions  of  them  draw  lines  parallel 
to  A  c,  to  touch  the  arch  c  b,  which  contiinie  out  to  the 
line  D  B,  and  this  line  will  be  divided  likewise  into  the  same 
number  of  equal  parts  as  a  b  is.  Lastly,  from  the  divisions 
of  the  line  D  b,  draw  lines  parallel  to  d  f,  and  in  each  of  them, 
from  D  B.  lay  off  its  respective  parallel  (from  a  b  to  the  arch 
B  c)  and  at  the  points  whereat  they  end,  stick  small  nails,  or 
pins,  and  take  a  thin  lath,  and  bend  it  round  the  nails,  or  pins, 
observing  that  it  touches  them  all,  and  with  a  pencil,  or  any- 
thing else  prtiper  to  make  a  mark,  describe  the  arch  f  b  round 
the  edges  of  the  lath ;  and  this  is  the  arch  for  the  angle  or 
mitre  bracket." 

Figure  2.  "If  the  lesser  arch  of  an  irregular  groin  be 
a  given  semicircle,  it  is  required  to  form  a  larger  one  {not 
a  semicircle)  so  that  the  intersection  of  those  two  arches  shall 
beget,  or  make  the  arch-line  of  the  angle  to  hang  perpen- 
dicular over  its  base;  as  also  to  draw  that  arch-line  of  the 
angle. — First,  draw  the  lines  a  b  and  c  d,  to  represent  the 
walls  from  whence  the  arches  spring,  and  draw  the  line  c  b, 
and  on  the  line  a  c  describe  the  semicircle  a  e  c,  and  divide 
A  c  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  from  whence  draw  paral- 
lel lines  to  c  D,  to  touch  or  come  to  the  arch  a  e  c,  and  if 


these  parallels  are  continued  out  to  the  line  c  b,  they  will 
divide  it  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  as  a  c  is  ;  and 
if  from  each  of  the  divisions  of  this  last  line  parallels  to  a  c 
are  drawn,  they  will  divide  the  line  a  b  into  the  same  num- 
ber of  equal  parts  as  a  c,  or  c  n,  is  divided  into.  This  being 
done,  continue  a  c  to  i,  so  that  a  i  be  equal  to  Ef  and  con- 
tinue D  B  to  K,  so  that  K  n  be  likewise  equal  to  Eyl  or  a  i, 
and  draw  the  line  i  k.  Moreover,  at  the  points  c  and  b  raise 
the  perpendiculars  c  n  and  n  o  to  c  d,  each  of  the  same  length 
as  E  f,  or  A  I,  or  b  k,  and  draw  the  line  n  o.  Lastly,  from 
the  divisions  of  a  n,  draw  parallels  to  a  i  (that  is,  continue  the 
parallels  drawn  from  the  divisions  of  the  line  c  b  to  the  line 

1  k)  and  fn  pm  the  divisions  of  c  b  parallels  to  c  n.  Then  set 
off  the  heights  or  lengths  of  each  of  the  parallels  in  the 
semicircle  a  e  c,  upon  the  correspondent  parallels  to  a  i  and 
c  N,  and  stick  in  nails  whereat  they  terminate  ;  and  if  a  lath 
be  bent  round  them,  so  as  to  touch  them  all,  and  a  pencil 
be  moved  round  the  edge  of  it,  the  arches  a  h  b  and  c  m  b 
•will  be  found  ;  which  was  required  to  be  done. 

"  N'ote. — The  pricked  lines  in  this,  and  all  other  examples 
of  this  kind,  show  that  one  parallel  line  has  a  relation  with 
the  other.  For  example :  the  lines  /  e,  g  h,  I  m,  are  all 
equal  to  one  another  ;  so  that  if  the  three  arches  a  h  b,  a  e  c, 
and  c  M  b,  were  raised  perpendicularly  upon  the  lines  a  b, 
a  c,  and  c  b,  and  a  line  drawn  from  h  to  m,  and  another  from 
M  to  E  ;  then  would  the  line  m  h  be  parallel  to,  and  directly 
over  the  pricked  line  Ig.  In  like  manner,  the  line  e  m  would 
be  parallel  to,  and  directly  over  the  pricked  line/ 1.  Under- 
stand the  same  of  the  other  parallels  and  pricked  lines  in  this 
figure,  and  any  others  of  the  like  nature." 

Figure  3. — "  Having  one  centre  given  for  an  unequal- 
sided  groin,  to  form  the  other,  so  that  the  intersection  thereof 
shall  produce  the  angle,  or  mitre-arch,  to  hang  perpendi- 
cularly over  its  base;  and,  moreover,  to  draw  the  curve 
thereof — Draw  the  lines  a  b  and  b  d,  and  d  c  and  c  a,  each 
equal  to  one  another,  to  represent  the  walls  from  whence  the 
arches  spring,  and  on  the  line  a  n  describe  the  given  arch 
A  F  B.  This  being  done,  divide  the  line  a  b  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts,  from  whence  raise  perpendiculars  to  a  b  to 
touch  the  arch  a  f  b,  and  draw  the  diagonal  lines  a  d  and  b  c. 
Then  take  the  line  e  f,  and  set  it  perpendicular  to  the  lines 
a  c,  A  D,  c  D,  c  B,  b  D,  from  A  to  o,  from  A  to  I,  from  c  to  p, 
from  c  to  s,  from  c  to  l,  from  d  to  k,  from  d  to  t,  from  d  to  v, 
and  fiom  b  to  m,  and  from  b  to  z,  and  draw  the  straight  lines 
o  p,  I  K,  s  T,  L  M,  and  V  z.  Now  divide  the  base  lines  b  d,  d  c, 
c  A,  A  D,  and  b  c,  each  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  as 
A  b  is  divided  into,  and  from  the  points  of  division  draw 
parallel  lines  to  touch  the  lines  o  p,  s  t,  v  z,  l  m,  and  i  k. 
Then  take  the  lengths  of  the  perpendiculars  to  a  b,  drawn  to 
touch  the  given  arch  a  f  n,  and  set  them  off"  in  the  correspon- 
dent parallels  drawn  from  the  points  of  division  of  the  several 
bases  upwards,  and  the  arches  v  y  d,d  vc,c  q  a,  a  h  d,  and 
c  n  n,  will  be  described  as  in  the  foregoing  examples  (Figures 

2  and  3)  whose  heights  x  y,  w  v,  r  q,  g  h,  and  g  n,  ai-e  each 
equal  to  e  f,  as  likewise  all  the  other  correspondent  heights, 
from  the  bases  to  the  curves  that  are  formed. 

Figure  4. — "  The  arch  line  of  a  large  ceiling,  or  vault, 
supposed  to  be  semicircular,  being  given  :  how  to  form  the 
curve  of  a  lesser  arch,  that  shall  intersect  the  side  Ihererf,  to 
give  way  for  doors  or  windows,  so  that  their  intersection  shall 
produce  the  groin  to  hang  perpendicularly  over  its  base  ;  as 
also  to  form  the  curve-line  thereof — First,  draw  the  lines 
a  B,  b  D,  D  c,  and  c  a,  to  represent  the  walls  from  whence  the 
arches  spring,  and  describe  the  two  given  semicircular  arches 
A  o  B,  c  L  D^and  in  the  line  b  d  set  off  the  span  of  the  inter- 
sectinsr  arch  from  v  to  /.  This  being  done,  set  off  the  height 
you  design  to  raise  the  lesser  arch  v  z  t  from  g  in  the  line  a  b. 


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perpendicularly  to  touch  the  arch  in  h,  and  from  v  to  )•,  and 
t  to  K,  and  draw  the  line  r  u,  which  halve  in  the  point  z,  and 
draw  the  line  z  y,  parallel  to  v  r,  oc'  ".  Then  strain  a  line, 
or  lay  a  straight  rule  from  h  through  (f,  towards  x  ;  as  also 
from  z  through  y,  towards  x,  and  these  two  lines  will  cut  one 
another  at  x,  from  whence  to  the  points  v  and  /,  draw  the 
lines  X  v  and  x  I.  Now  set  ofTy  h  |)orpendicular  to  x  t  from 
X  to  w,  and  from  t  to  s,  and  draw  the  line  s  iv,  and  divide  </  b 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts  at  pleasure  from  the  divisions 
of  which,  draw  perpendiculars  to  y  d,  to  touch  the  arch  a  o  u 
between  the  points  b  and  /;,  and  divide  in/ and  ij  t,  thj  halves 
of  the  base  v  t,  each  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  as 
g  B,  is  divided  into:  as  likewise  the  base  x  t,  and  from  the 
points  of  division  draw  parallel  lines  to  touch  the  lines  «  r 
and  s  to.  This  being  done,  take  the  lengths  of  the  lines  that 
were  drawn  from  the  points  of  division  of  ff  b,  perpendicu- 
larly to  touch  the  part  ii  h  of  the  arch  a  o  b,  and  set  them  off 
in  the  correspcjndent  parallels  from  1/  v  to  r  ;•,  and  from  1/  t  to 
z  u;  as  likewise  from  x  I  to  w  s.  Then,  if  at  the  extent  of 
each  line,  as  you  set  it  off  in  the  parallels,  you  stick  in  nails, 
as  in  the  foregoing  examples,  and  bend  a  thin  rule  about  them, 
you  will  describe  the  sought  arches  v  z  t  and  w  t,  whereof  ii 
z  t\s  the  true  intersecting  arch,  and  lo  t  the  curve  line  of  the 
groin  that  is  correspondent  thereto. 

"  After  the  very  same  manner  the  arches  k  m  z  and  h  p 
are  drawn." 

In  his  explanations  of  the  diagrams,  he  is  tolerably  intelli- 
gent ;  but  he  has  departed  from  truth  and  reason  in  the  two 
following  problems : — 

"  The  arch  of  a  round  tower,  or  any  other  circular  build- 
ing, being  given,  wherein  a  semicircular  window  is  to  stand, 
how  to  find  a  centre,  so  that  the  7}iason  or  brickhv/er  shall 
twin  their  arches  thereon  without  crippling  them.  (See 
Plate  III.  Figure  5.) 

'"  First,  draw  the  arch  A  F  B,  from  the  centre  e,  to  represent 
the  arch  line  of  the  wall,  and  set  the  width  of  the  window 
from  D  to  c,  which  halve  at  h,  and  draw  the  line  l  m,  which 
halve  at  n;  from  whence  describe  the  semicircle  l  0  m.  This 
being  done,  divide  the  semi-diameter  l  n  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  from  the  division  of  which,  draw  jiarallel  lines 
to  o  N,  the  arch  of  the  quadrant,  which  parallels  continue  out 
to  divide  the  arch  f  c  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  l  n 
is  ;  and  from  the  points  of  division  in  the  arch  r  c  draw  per- 
pendiculars to  the  parallels,  each  equal  in  length  to  the  cor- 
respondent Jiarallel  of  the  quadrant  i,  o  ;  and  from  the  points 
of  the  divisions  of  the  line  h  c  (made  by  continuing  out  of 
each  of  the  aforesaid  parallels)  draw  right  lines  to  the  extreme 
points  of  the  aforesaid  perpendiculars,  as  from  g  to  h.  This 
being  done,  if  the  line  g  ii  be  laid  off  in  the  parallel  o  x. 
eontinued  out  from  h  to  i,  and  the  rest  of  these  lines  last 
drawn  be  laid  off  in  the  respective  continuations  of  the 
parallels,  the  extreme  points  of  these  lines  being  joined,  will 
form  the  curve  ci ;  which,  when  set  in  its  due  position,  will 
hang  [)erpendicular  over  the  arch  c  F,  having  its  points  coin- 
ciding with  the  extremities  of  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from 
the  extremities  of  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  the  divisions 
of  the  arch  c  f." 

Figure  G. — "  The  centre  tohereon  the  arch  of  a  bow-window 
is  turned  being  given,  how  to  find  another  centre  that  shall 
answer  parallel  to  it,  according  to  the  upper  edge  of  the 
surface  of  the  arch. — First,  describe  the  arch  b  k  c,  according 
to  the  directions  laid  down  in  the  last  problem,  and  set  the 
width  of  the  flat  surface  of  the  arch  from  b  to  a,  and  from  c 
to  D ;  and  draw  the  lines  a  d,  b  c,  and  halve  them  at  f  and  e, 
from  whence  draw  a  perpendicular  of  a  length  at  pleasure  to 
H.  Then  in  any  convenient  place  [Figure  G,  No.  2)  draw  a 
line  at  pleasure,  as  from  a  to  g,  and  from  a  draw  to  a  o  the 


perpendicular  a  f.  Then  take  e  i,  in  No.  I,  and  set  it  fi-om 
a  to  B,  No.  2,  and  f  i  from  a  to  c.  This  being  done,  take  the 
semi-diameter  b  e,  or  e  c,  No.  I,  and  set  it  from  a  to  d,  \o.  2. 
Also,  take  a  b,  or  c  d,  and  set  it  from  n  to  e,  and  draw  the 
line  E  c,  which  set  in  the  line  e  h,  from  f  to  g.  Again,  take 
the  width  of  the  flat  surf  ice  of  the  arch  a  b,  or  c  i>,  and  set 
it  in  the  line  e  ii,  from  k  to  7,  and  divide  the  remainder  from 
7  to  g,  into  seven  equal  parts.  Also,  divide  the  arch  b  k,  into 
seven  equal  parts.  Then  take  k  1.  in  the  line  e  h,  between 
your  compasses,  and  setting  one  foot  in  1,  with  the  other 
strike  the  arch  1'  at  pleasure :  then  take  k  2,  and  strike  the  arch 
2:  also  take  k  3,  k4,  k  5.  and  k  G,  severally,  and  strike  the 
arches  3,  4,  5,  and  C.  When  this  is  done,  open  your  com- 
passes, and  divide  from  a  to  g,  keeping  the  points  of  them  on 
those  arches,  till  you  have  gotten  seven  equal  distances  from 
A  to  g  ;  at  the  points  of  which,  if  nails  be  stuck  in,  and  a  thin 
rule  be  bent  round  them  from  a  to  y  along  the  edge  thereof 
the  arch  a  g  may  be  drawni.  And  in  like  manner  may  the 
arch  D  g  be  drawn." 

This  description  is  so  far  intelligible,  that  we  perfectly 
understand  his  geometrical  process ;  but  it  is  so  void  of  truth, 
that  no  geometrical  reasoning  can  be  applied,  unless  it  were 
to  prove  the  contrary  of  his  assertion  :  the  arch  which  would 
be  required  to  stand  perpendicularly  over  such  a  plan  upon 
a  semicircular  centre,  would  not  be  in  the  same  plane,  which 
is  the  case  with  the  one  he  has  found,  and  asserted  to  be 
right. 

In  the  construction  of  the  ribs  of  niches  for  plastering,  he 
is  extremely  obscure,  and  takes  only  the  most  common  and 
easy  cases ;  such  as  might  occur  to  every  one,  even  to  those 
who  are  not  much  in  the  habit  ofthinking,  as  the  reader  will 
observe  in  the  following  quotations  : — 

Figure  7. — '■  Hoiv  to  form  a  semicircular  niche  with  ribs, 
as  is  usual  when  it  is  to  be  plastered. — First,  describe  the 
semicircular  plate  a  c  b,  as  also  the  semicircular  front  rib, 
A  D  B,  equal  to  it,  and  fix  the  plate  a  c  b  level  in  the  place 
where  it  is  to  continue,  and  upon  it  set  the  front  rib  a  d  b 
perpendicular  on  a  b.  This  being  done,  describe  the  quad- 
rantal  ribs  d  c,  d  e,  d  f,  d  o,  and  d  h,  each  equal  to  a  d  or  b  d, 
and  place  them  about  %ir  inches  from  one  another,  on  the 
plate  A  c  B,  as  at  c,  e,  f,  g,  and  ii,  so  as  to  meet  in  one  point, 
at  D,  on  the  crown  of  the  front  rib  a  d  b  ;  and  thus  is  one 
half  of  the  jvork  finished.  And  after  the  same  manner  may 
the  other  be  done." 

Figure  8. — "  Hotv  to  form  an  elliptical  niche,  with  ribs 
for  plastering. — First,  describe  Figure  8,  No.  1  and  2,  k  n  m 
being  a  semi-ellipsis,  representing  the  plates  whereon  the  ribs 
stand,  and  being  equal  to  a  d  b,  or  a  e  b.  The  pricked  lines 
L  n,  L  o,  i.p,  Lq,Lr,  and  l  m,  represent  the  base  lines  of  the  ribs 
e  D,  /d.  g  D,  h  D,  i  D,  and  b  d  ;  so  likewise  do  the  lines  s  /,  s  u, 
s  V,  s  tv,  s  X,  and  s  y  ;  and  the  perpendiculars  a  t,  b  v,  c  v,  d  w, 
e  X,  and  fy,  do  represent  the  rising  of  the  ribs  e  d,/d,  y  d, 
/*  D,  (■  D,  and  b  n,  which  is  equal  in  length  to  c  n  ;  observing 
that  within  those  lines  the  different  arch  of  each  rib  is  to  be 
described,  viz.,  the  arch  s  n  is  a  quadrant  of  a  circle,  having 
t  for  its  centre,  and  is  equal  to  the  arch  of  the  rib  e  n : — The 
lines  s  u,  s  z,  equal  to  z  b.  h  n.  are  the.  .semi-transverse  and 
conjugate  axes  of  a  scmi-cUipsis,  whose  arch  s  h,  is  equal  to 
the  arch  of  the  rib  /  d,  which  m.iy  bo  struck  either  with  a 
Irammel,  or  by  the  intersection  of  lines.  Moreover,  the  lines 
s  2,  s  V,  ecpial  "to  v  c,  c  z,  are  the  semi-transverse  and  coMJ\igate 
axes  of  a  semi-ellipsis,  whose  arch  is  equal  to  the  arcli  of  the 
rib  (7  D  ;  and  so  of  the  rest. 

"  Now,  having  the  ribs  all  ready,  set  the  front  ril),  a  d  b 
perpendicular  on  the  plate  a  «  b,  as  at  a  b,  and  fix  the  feet 
of  the  short  ribs  on  the  plate  a  c  b,  as  at  e,f,  g,  h,  >,  which 
correspond  with  the  points  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  and  their  points 


CABFjE^MTIEY. 


I'L/ITE  m. 


Drawn  ij^  PXirholson, 


£n^%'.ltn>-M. 


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a,  b,  c,  (/,  0,  to  the  crown  of  the  front  rib  at  d;  and  thus 
may  you  finish  your  work." 

We  now  proceed  to  Sniitli's  Carpenter  s  Companion,  and 
though  he  presents  notiiing  new  in  geometrical  principles, 
his  observations  are  very  judicious  and  worthy  of  transcrip- 
tion ;  and  liis  practical  remarks,  though  perhaps  objectionable 
in  a  few  instances,  are  more  to  the  purpose  of  a  general 
(.onneetcd  detail  of  what  should  be  done  in  the  constructive 
part  of  carpentry,  and  more  systematic,  than  those  of  most 
other  writers  ;  though  the  examples  and  designs  which  he 
shows  are  not  generally  the  best.  He  begins  his  introduc- 
tion thus : 

"  Tlie  usefulness  of  carpenter's  work  in  building,  and  the 
little  notice  taken  of  it  by  authors  who  have  treated  of 
architecture,  and  the  few  there  be  that  rightly  understand  it, 
prompted  me  to  write  the  following  treatise. 

'■  Carpenter's  work  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  branches 
of  architecture  ;  it  was  contemporary  with  the  first  ages  of 
the  world  ;  and  with  the  know  ledge  of  this  art,  Noah  closely 
and  firmly  connected  those  timbers  in  the  ark,  which  were 
so  nicely  wrought,  that  they  not  only  kept  the  water  from 
penetrating  into  it,  but  were  proof  against  the  tempest  and 
the  rolling  billows,  when,  in  its  womb,  it  carried  all  the 
tenants  of  the  earth  and  air. 

"  Those  naval  preparations,  through  all  ages  of  the  world, 
as  well  as  those  stupendous  temples  and  edifices,  erected  in 
all  countries,  demonstrate  the  perfection  of  this  art.  The 
iniiumeiable  /?oa//)(_(/  hiiUdinijs,  which  roll  from  one  country 
to  another,  through  tempestuous  storms,  tossed  from  the 
mountain's  height  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  without  injuring 
the  vessel,  evidently  show  the  vast  use  and  judgment  of 
carpenter's  work. 

"  But  as  that  branch  of  it  which  relates  to  templar  or 
domul  uses,  is  the  subject  of  this  work,  I  shall  only  treat  of 
its  usefulness  in  them  ;  and  may  venture  to  affirm  that 
carpenter's  work  is  the  chief  tie  and  connection  of  a  building, 
supplying  the  ligaments  which  bind  the  walls  together. 

'■  The  bond-timbers,  which  strengthen  and  tie  the  angles 
of  a  building,  and  prevent  its  separating,  is  the  work  of  the 
carpenter.  Lintcling  over  doors  and  windows,  with  other 
dischargements  of  weight,  it  is  his  care  to  perform. 

"  Bond  timbers  in  cross  walls,  when  settlements  happen, 
if  they  are  well  applied,  prevent  the  cracking  of  the  walls, 
for  they  keep  the  whole  together,  and  every  part  settleth 
alike,  which  wiJuld  fill  the  buildings  with  gaps  and  chasms 
if  neglected. 

'■  Xe.xt  for  the  floors  ;  the  rightly  framing  them,  by  trussing 
the  girders,  by  placing  them  on  joists,  so  that  they  come 
near  no  funnels  of  chimneys ;  the  manner  of  tenanting, 
tusking,  framing  of  timbers  for  chimneys,  stairs,  &c.  1  say, 
all  these  it  is  the  business  of  the  carpenter  to  see  carefully 
performed. 

"Partitions  of  timber,  their  manner  of  trussing  to  prevent 
cracking,  settlements,  &:c.,  and  the  discharge  of  weight  of 
gilders,  beams,  or  cross  walls,  is  carpenter's  work  ;  as  is, 
likewise,  the  framing  of  timber  bridges. 

"  Uoofs  of  various  sorts,  for  common  houses,  large  edifices, 
or  churches,  their  manner  of  framing,  the  height  of  their 
pitch,  their  strength,  usefulness,  &c.,  with  the  various  manner 
of  performing  all  these  works,  is  the  subject  of  this  treatise, 
which  I  have  rendered  intelligible  to  every  capacity,  by 
designs  of  several  sorts,  and  have  described  thein  in  such 
a  manner,  as  will  render  the  work  useful  to  carpenters; 
particularly  to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  manner 
of  performing  these  O[)erations  of  framing. 

"The  first  thing  which  the  carpenter  must  consider,  for 
the  carrying  on  a  building,  is  the  plan,  in  which   you  are  to 


prepare  your  timber,  in  having  it  cut  into  proper  scantlings, 
which  shall  1)C  hereafter  noted. 

"You  are  to  prepare  for  lintelings  and  bond-timbers  ;  for 
lintels  over  doors  or  windows,  stntl'  of  five  inches  thick  and 
seven  broad,  and  it  is  a  slight  way  of  building  to  put  in  any 
of  less  scantling;  as  tiir  door-cases  their  manner  of  making, 
and  scantlings  of  stuff,  it  is  needless  to  speak  of;  it  is  the 
best  w.ay  to  have  them  put  in  when  the  foundations  are 
brought  up  high  enough  for  them.  Bond-timbers  should 
be  dovetailed  at  the  angles  of  the  building  and  cross  walls. 
And  here  note,  that  it  is  a  durable,  though  expensive  way, 
to  have  all  fir  timber,  which  is  laid  in  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing, to  be  pitched  with  pitch  and  grease  mixed  together;  the 
quantity  of  grease,  one  pound  to  fouv  pounds  of  pitch.  All 
these  things  are  the  care  of  the  carpenter. 

"  Bond-timbers  should  be  four  or  five  inches  thick  for 
cross  Willis,  and  in  the  angles  of  a  building,  six  or  seven 
inches,  and  proportionably  broad  ;  six  or  eight  feet  long  in 
each  wall ;  and  it  would  not  be  amiss  to  place  them  six  or 
eight  feet  distant  all  the  height  of  the  building,  in  every 
angle  and  cross  wall ;  these,  if  a  building  be  on  an  infirm 
foundation,  cause  the  whole  to  settle  together,  and  prevent 
the  cracks  and  fractures  which  happen,  if  this  be  neglected. 

"  We  come  now  to  the  floors,  in  win'ch  these  things  are 
to  be  observed — the  magnitude  of  the  room,  the  manner  of 
framing,  and  the  scantlings  of  the  timber.  For  the  first, 
you  are  to  observe  to  lay  the  girders  always  the  shortest 
way,  and  not  to  have  a  joist  at  any  time  exceeding  twelve 
feet  in  length. 

"  The  first  common  method  of  framing  floors,  is  wherje 
the  joists  are  framed  flush  with  the  top  of  the  girder." 
(77(6  trimming-joists  svp2)osed  to  come  at/ainst  cliimneys  and 
stairs,  are  always  thicker  than  common  joists,  being  weakened 
by  mor/isiiig.)  "  The  scantling  of  joists,  when  a  floor  is  framed 
in  this  manner,  ought  to  be  as  followeth  : 


Common  Joists. 

Tnmmers. 

ft.  long. 

Scantling 
in  inches. 

ft.  long. 

Scantling 
in  inches. 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

7     by     2i 
7     by     2i 

7  by     24 

8  by     3 
8     by     3i 

8  by     Si 

9  by     4 

5 
6 
7 
'8 
9 
10 

7     by     3 
7     by     4 

7  bV     5 

8  by     4 

8  by     5 

9  by     6 

"These  are  such  proportions  as  will  render  the  work 
sufficiently  capable  of  sustaining  any  common  weight. 

"The  next  manner  of  framing  floors  is  with  binding-joists 
framed  flush  with  the  under  side  of  the  girder;  and  about 
three  or  four  inches  below  the  top  of  the  girder,  to  receive 
the  bridgings,  which  are  those  which  lie  across  the  binding- 
joists,  and  are  pinned  down  to  them  with  pins  of  wood,  or 
spikes  of  iron.  These  binding-joists  should  be  framed  about 
three  feet,  or  three  feet  six  inches  distant  from  one  another, 
and  their  thickness  four  or  five  inches,  or  in  the  proportion 
to  the  length  of  their  bearing,  as  trimming-joists. 

"These  floors,  if  they  settle  out  of  a  level  with  the  build- 
ing, are  made  level  whin  the  bridgings  are  put  in,  which  is 
generally  after  the  building  is  covered  in,  and  near  com- 
pleted ;  they  are  generally  double-tenanted.  The  binding- 
joists  are  chased,  and  the  ceiling-joists  tenanted  into  them, 
and  put  in  generally  after  the  building  is  up.  These  ceiling- 
joists  should  be  13  or  14  inches  apart,  and  the  scantling 
2  or  .3  inches  square,  and  in  large  buildings  3  and  4.  As  for 
the  bridgings,  which  lie  on  the  top  of  the  binding-joists,  they 


CAR 


88 


CAR 


may  be  placed  12  or  14  inches  distant,  their  scantling  3  and 
4,  or  3^  and  5,  their  bearing  being  only  from  l)inding-joist 
to  joist,  which  is  3  feet,  or  3  feet  six  inches,  and  these  are 
laid  even  witii  the  top  of  the  girder,  to  receive  the  boarding. 
We  come  now  to  speak  of  girders ;  and  first,  for  their 
scimtling,  take  these  proportions  : 


ft.  long. 

Scantling  in 
inches. 

B. 

D. 

10 

8 

by     10 

12 

Si 

by    10 

U 

9 

by     10  J 

16. 

n 

by     lOi 

18 

10 

by     11 

20 

11 

by     12 

22 

11+ 

by     13 

24 

12 

by     U 

"  And  observe,  that  as  every  weight,  added  to  the  weight 
of  the  timber  in  the  floor,  in  itself  occasions  it  to  settle,  the 
girders  shoidd  be  cut  camber  ;  if  a  10  feet  bearing,  half  an 
inch  camber  ;  if  20  feet  bearing,  an  inch  camber,  &c.,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  length  of  the  bearing. 

"And  farther  to  strengthen  the  girder,  and  prevent  its 
sagging,  as  it  is  called  among  workmen,  that  is,  its  bending 
downwards,  I  have  given  you  several  ways  of  trussing  gir- 
ders, which  have  been  most  of  them  practised. 

"The  manner  of  trussing  these  girders,  is,  first,  to  saw 
the  girder  down  the  middle,  the  deepest  way  ;  then  take  two 
pieces  of  dry  oak,  about  4\  or  five  inches  wide,  and  4  inches 
thick  ;  let  half  the  piece  lie  let  into  one  side  of  the  girder  and 
half  into  the  other. 

"  Another  way,  which  is  by  cutting  the  girder  through, 
and  driving  a  wedge  again,st  the  ends  of  the  trusses.  When 
these  are  thus  prepared,  bolt  them  together  with  iron  bolls 
and  keys  ;  or  much  rather,  a  screw  at  the  end  of  the  bolt. 

"Somee  carpentrs  cut  their  girders  down  the  middle,  and 
bolt  them  together,  without  trussing,  only  changing  the  ends 
dilferent  from  what  they  grew,  \\  hereby  the  grain  of  the  wood 
is  crossed,  and  it  becomes  much  stronger  tiian  if  it  had  con- 
tinued without  sawing  down  the  middle,  and  thus  putting  it 
together. 

"Some,  in  trussing  girders,  make  use  of  otlier  trusses. 

"The  girder  being  thus  trussed  and  put  together,  proceed 
in  framing  the  joists,  as  in  common  floors.  The  stronge.st  way 
being  double-tenanting  and  tusking,  as  is  shown  in  the  bincl- 
ing-joists.  Before  I  leave  this  part  of  floors,  I  shall  observe 
to  you,  that  the  best  and  most  workmanlike  manner  of 
framing  floors,  is  to  plane  the  upper  edge  of  your  joists 
straight ;  for  the  straigliter  and  truer  your  joists  lie,  the  truer 
your  boarding  will  lie,  which  is  a  great  ornament  to  a  mag- 
nificent room  ;  but  if  you  frame  without  binding-joists,  and 
lay  on  bridgings,  plane  the  biidgings  and  lay  them  very 
straight  and  level  ;  this  care  taken  will  save  a  great  deal  of 
tio\ible  in  laying  down  the  boarding,  which  you  are  often 
foiced  to  clip  and  fur  up,  to  make  them  lie  even,  and  those 
fuirings  are  not  only  troublesome,  but  are  apt  to  give  way, 
and  occasion  the  creaking  of  the  boards  as  you  walk  on  them. 
It  Would  be  a  good  way  to  turn  arches  of  brick  over  the  ends 
of  the  girders  of  the  floors,  because  if  any  alteration  happens, 
they  are  easily  taken  out. 

"  I  come  now  to  partitions  of  timber,  with  their  manner 
of  framing.  Timber  partitions  have  these  properties  attend- 
ing them  :  they  take  up  less  room,  and  are  cheaper  than  those 
of  brick. 

"  As  to  roofs,  there  is  a  plate  to  go  round  a  building,  which 


may  or  may  not  be  deemed  a  part  of  the  roof;  it  may  be 
deemed  the  foundation  and  tie  of  the  roof  and  walls  ;  or  it 
may  be  taken  as  only  that  on  which  the  roof  lieth.  These 
plates  are  to  be  dovetailed  at  the  angles,  and  tenanted  toge- 
ther in  their  length,  several  ways.  The  beams  of  the  roof, 
which  serve  as  girders  to  the  ceiling-floors,  (and  into  which 
all  the  principal  rafters  of  the  roof  are  tenanted.)  are  dove- 
tailed, or  what  by  workmen  is  termed  cor/ried  down,  to  the 
plate,  which  prevents  its  flying  out  from  the  foot  of  the 
rafter,  whose  butment  is  against  it ;  and  in  the  angles  of  a 
building,  pieces  dovetailed  across  the  angles  of  I  lie  plate, 
serve  to  keep  it  from  spreading,  and  is  the  foot  of  the  hip. 

'•  The  common  pitch  of  roofs  is  to  have  the  rafter's  length, 
if  it  span  the  building  at  once,  to  be  three- fourths  of  the 
breadth  of  the  building.  Some  make  them  flatter,  as  a  pedi- 
ment pitch  ;  and  the  old  Gothic  way  was  to  make  them  the 
whole  breadth. 

"The  common  pitch  is  not  only  unpleasingto  the  eye,  but 
is  attended  with  this  inconvenience  ;  if  there  is  a  gutter 
round  the  building,  the  steepness  of  the  roof  occasions  the 
rain  to  come  with  so  sudden  a  velocity  into  the  pipes  which 
are  to  convey  the  waters  from  the  gutters,  that  they  fill  the 
gutter  ;  and  sometimes  so  fast,  that  the  water  runneth  over 
the  covering  of  the  roof,  and  does  great  injury  to  the  tim- 
ber, &c.,  of  the  building:  and  the  steeper  the  roof  is,  the 
longer  the  rafters,  and  the  greater  quantity  of  timber  must 
be  used  in  the  roof,  as  well  as  the  more  weight  fiom  the  great 
quantity  of  timber  and  the  weakening  the  principal  timbers,-! 
by  .adding  more  to  its  own  weight. 

"And  the  pediment  pitch  is  inconvenient,  in  lying  too 
flat,  -for  those  climates  so  frequently  subject  to  rain,  and 
heavy  snows,  which  last  would  press  and  vastly  incommode 
the  building,  and  would  lie  much  longer  on  the  roof,  its 
declivity  being  so  small ;  besides,  in  keen  winds,  attended 
with  rain,  the  rain  would  drive  in  under  the  coveiiiig  of  slate 
or  tiles,  and  create  much  decay  in  the  timber. 

"  Proportion  of  beams  whose  bearing  varieth ;  take  the 
following  rule : 


Length 
of  Beam 

Scantling  in 
inches. 

in  feet. 

12 

6 

bv       8 

16 

6} 

bv       8.5- 

20 

6+ 

by       9 

2-t 

7 

by     n 

28 

7i 

by      n 

32 

8 

by     10 

36 

8+ 

by    loi 

40 

8| 

bv     11 

44 

9 

by     12 

"  The  principal  rafter  should  be  nearly  as  thick  at  the 
bottom  as  the  beam,  and  diminish  in  its  length  one-fiflh  or 
one-si.\th  of  its  breadth  ;  the  king-posts  should  be  as  thick 
as  the  top  of  the  principal  rafter,  and  the  breadth  according 
to  the  bigness  of  the  struts  you  intend  to  let  into  them,  the 
middle  part  being  left  something  bioader  than  the  thickness. 

"Struts  may  diminish,  as  the  rafters  do,  one-fiflh  or  one- 
si.xth  of  their  length.  In  placing  struts  and  collar-beams,  the 
dividing  the  rafter  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  you  propose 
bearings,  is  the  rule,  because  every  part  of  the  principal  will 
have  its  equal  distant  bearings. 

"Purlins  are  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  principal  rafter, 
and  the  proportion  of  the  breadth  is  si.\  to  eight ;  that  is,  if 
the  rafter  be  six  inches  thick,  let  the  purlins  be  six  inches 
thick,  and  eight  inches  broad  ;  if  it  be  nine  inches  thick,  the 
breadth  of  the  purlins  is  twelve  inches  broad,  vkc. 


CAR  p|iv:v'i'  irv 


PLATHK 


n 


Fyl- 


i'-Vi 


riff  3 


§ 


Fig. 4. 


M 


Fig  S 


Fig. 6. 


Fig.l. 


SHff.a. 


Pig.  9. 


^ 


Fig.  10. 


< 


Fig. 11. 


Fip.l2. 


-L 


Fig. 13. 


^ 


\     ^X 


Fig.  14. 

^ 


Fig.  16. 


5^^ 


Fig.lS. 


Fig.  IT. 


Fig. 19- 


Fig.  20 


Fig. 


FW- 


Fig. 23. 


Fig  24- 


Drami  hi/ T" Nichub-on.. 


Fig. 26. 


En: 


CAR 


89 


CAR 


"  N.B.  The  purlins  are  those  pieces  into  which  the  small 
rafters  are  tenanted,  and  they  are  tenanted  into  the  principal 
rafter.  Length  of  purlins  is  generally  from  six  to  eleven  feet, 
not  exceeding  that  length. 

"  Small  rafters  :  their  scantlings  two  inches  and  a  half,  and 
four  inches;  three  inches,  and  four  inches  and  a  half ;  and 
three  inches  and  a  half,  and  five  inches  ;  according  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  roof  and  length  of  the  rafters.  Small 
rafters  should  not  exceed  seven  feet  in  length  in  a  purlined 
roof;  if  it  happen  that  the  length  of  the  principal  be  above 
fifteen  feet,  it  is  best  to  put  in  two  tier  of  purlins  in  the 
length  of  the  rafter." 

In  respect  to  the  construction  of  roofs  for  coves,  he  has  the 
folio winsi  observations  :  "  The  use  of  coving  a  room  of  con- 
siderable height,  is,  first,  the  making  of  it  much  lighter  than 
it  would  otherwise  be,  if  level  in  the  ceiling;  the  rays  of 
light  in  a  cove  are  reflected  back  again  into  the  room,  which 
would  be  otherwise  lost  and  confused  in  a  roof  with  a  flat 
ceiling. 

"  Likewise,  all  rooms  with  circular  roofs  or  ceilings  are 
more  commodious  and  useful  for  entertainment,  for  music, 
&o.  The  angles  of  incidence  are  always  equal  to  those  of 
reflection  ;  so  the  undulation  of  sounds  flying  on  any  cove  or 
spherical  part  of  a  building,  reverberate  on  the  audience  ;  and 
if  spherical,  no  part  of  the  sphere  can  receive  the  vibration, 
but  it  will  return  in  the  same  direction  from  whence  the 
undulation  first  began.  The  reflecting  rays  of  light,  and  the 
reverberation  of  sounds,  proceed  from  the  same  cause,  and 
from  incidents  naturally  affecting  the  eye  and  the  ear." 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  state,  that  though  the  reflection 
of  sound  is  analagous  to  that  of  the  rays  of  light,  the  laws 
and  modifications  by  which  sound  is  propagated  to  the  ear, 
are  less  perfectly  understood  :  it  may,  however,  be  observed, 
that  in  vaulted  apartments,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  pitch 
«)f  the  voice,  and  to  speak  slowh'  and  distinctly.  The  best 
writers  recommend  the  ceilings  of  theatres  to  be  arched,  as 
has  been  practised  in  some  of  the  most  distinguished  edifices 
of  this  kind  in  Europe. 

This  author  likewise  gives  the  method  of  finding  the 
length  of  hips,  both  with  and  without  a  plan,  as  shown  by 
Godfrey  Richards,  at  the  end  of  his  Translation  of  tlie  First 
Book  of  Palladia. 

The  work  of  Mr.  Smith  contains,  in  all,  thirty-three  plates 
of  Civrpontry,  arranged  in  the  same  order  as  he  has  treated 
the  subject.  Of  these,  twenty  are  plates  of  roofs,  some  of 
which  are  tolerably  good  examples,  and  at  the  end  are  five 
plates  of  timber  bridges.  His  methods  of  joining-work  are 
shown  in  the  following  descriptions  and  their  corresponding 
diagrams. 

Plate  IV.  shows  his  method  of  cocking  beams  down  upon 
the  wall-plates ;  Figure  1,  by  two  dovetails,  and  Figure  2,  by 
three  dovetails.  Dovetailing  is  a  very  bad  method  at  the 
best ;  for,  when  the  taper  is  small,  the  shrinking  of  the 
timber  allows  the  beam  to  be  drawn  out  of  the  socket  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  to  which  it  is  reduced  in  its 
breadth.  The  fewer  the  number  of  dovetails  in  the  breadth, 
the  weaker  will  the  end  of  the  beam  be,  or  otherwise  they 
must  hvae  less  taper;  and  if  the  number  of  dovetails  are 
increased,  the  parts  of  them  formed  on  the  end  of  the  beam 
will  be  apt  to  split  off.  But,  in  modern  Carpentry,  the 
beam  can  never  be  drawn  from  the  wall-plate,  as  the  abutting 
parts  are  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the 
beams. 

Figure  3,  shows  his  method  of  framing  wall-plates  at  the 
angles,  with  the  diagonal  and  dragon  pieces,  where  all  the 
timbers  appear  to  be  let  in  flush  with  each  other.  This 
mode  is  much  inferior  to  the  present  practice,  where  both  the 

12 


angle-tie  and  dragon-piece  are  fixed  above  the  plates,  which 
position  not  only  allows  a  much  firmer  hold  one  to  another, 
but  also  a  much  better  support  for  the  hip-rafter  to  stand 
upon. 

Figure  4,  represents  four  different  methods,  shown  by  him, 
for  naked  flooring.  "  The  first  method  of  framing  is  that 
marked  A,  where  the  joists  are  framed  flush  with  the  top  of 
the  girder ;  the  two  cross  joists,  marked  a  and  b,  are  called 
trimming-joists  ;  that  marked  a  is  supposed  to  come  against 
a  chimney  ;  that  marked  h  is  the  stairs."  Here  he  shows 
that  the  joists  a  and  b,  should  be  thicker  than  the  common 
joists,  because  of  the  mortising  ;  but  with  equal  reason  he 
should  have  allowed  the  joists  c,  d,  e,  into  which  the  joists  a 
and  b  are  framed,  to  have  also  been  stronger ;  for  one  mortise 
in  the  middle  of  a  beam  will  weaken  the  beam  as  much  as  if 
it  had  been  cut  full  of  mortises.  He  gives  no  name  to  the 
joists  c,  d,  e,  which  should  have  been  named,  in  order  to  trans- 
fer the  idea  from  one  to  another,  without  circumlooution,  or 
having  recourse  to  description.  His  next  manner  of  framing 
floors  is  that  shown  at  b.  "The  six  joists  marked  b  are  the 
binding-joists  framed  flush  with  the  under  side  of  the  girder, 
and  about  three  or  four  inches  below  the  top  of  the  girder,  to 
receive  the  bridgings,  which  are  those  marked  m  in  the  floor, 
and  which  lie  across  the  binding-joists,"  at  c.  In  the  other 
compartment,  d,  are  shown  the  ceiling-joists,  re,  the  bridgings 
being  supposed  to  be  removed  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
them. 

Figures  5,  6,  7,  8,  he  says,  show  the  manner  of  tenoning 
the  binding-joists,  the  tenons  being  generally  made  double. 

Figures  9,  10,  11,  12,  he  observes,  are  common  tenoning, 
which  seems  to  imply  a  less  suflicient  method  than  the  former. 
These  last  four  examples,  with  the  single  tenons  on  the  end 
of  each,  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  double  ones  on  the 
ends  of  Figures  5,  6,  7,  8,  which  are  not  only  difficult  to 
execute,  but  are  calculated  to  weaken  the  mortised  piece, 
which  is  to  receive  them,  by  the  slanting  shoulders  of  the 
tenons ;  his  observation  is  the  very  reverse  of  what  is  now 
asserted,  as  he  observes,  in  page  17  of  his  work,  "  the 
strongest  way  being  double  tenanting  and  tusking,  as  is  shown 
in  the  binding-joists." 

Figures  13,  14,  15,  and  16,  are  exhibited  in  the  third  plate 
of  his  work,  but  he  does  not  describe  them  ;  we  suppose  them 
to  show  the  method  of  lengthening  beams.  The  two  methods, 
Figures  15  and  16,  are  extravagant  ideas,  being  not  only 
difficult  to  execute,  but  weak  as  a  tie,  and  incapable  of  making 
a  sufficient  resistance  to  a  longitudinal  strain. 

Figures  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  are  various 
methods  which  he  shows  for  trussing  girders.  He  observes, 
that  the  trussing  pieces  or  cores  are  let  half  into  each  flitch, 
and  the  scantlings  of  these  pieces  to  be  about  A\  or  5  inches 
wide,  and  4  inches  thick.  Figure  18,  he  says,  "is  another 
way,  which  is  by  cutting  the  girder  through,  and  driving  a 
wedge  against  the  ends  of  the  trusses,  as  the  wedge  d ;  when 
these  are  thus  prepared,  bolt  them  together  with  iron  bolts 
and  keys,  or,  much  rather,  a  screw  at  the  end  of  the  bolt." 
This  method,  though  not  the  best,  is  certainly  a  tolerable 
approximation  to  what  may  be  called  good.  He  does  not 
mention  how  the  pieces  a,  a,  are  to  be  tightened  in  Figure  17. 
He  observes,  that  "  some  in  trussing  girders,  make  use  of 
other  trusses,"  as  in  Figures  20  and  21.  These  hardly  de- 
serve comment,  being  the  weakest  forms  that  can  be  con- 
ceived. The  trussed  girders,  represented  by  Figures  24  and 
25,  he  claims  as  his  invention,  with  one  inverted  arch,  which 
he  proposes  to  be  of  iron.  Nothing  could  be  more  unmean- 
ing than  these  examples. 

The  ol)servation  which  he  makes  in  respect  to  Figure  24, 
is  void  of  principle,  and  contrary  to  mechanical  strength  ; 


CAR 


90 


CAR 


his  words  are,  "  The  upper  arched  one  I  take  to  be  of  great 
strength,  though  the  trusses  arc  inverted  ;  for  the  pressure 
being  upon  an  arch  whose  butnient  is  good,  I  think  a  great 
weight  can  no  way  occasion  the  bending  of  the  girder." 

We  come  now  to  tiio  British  Carpenter.  Though  Mr. 
Price's  order  of  treating  his  work  is  not  so  reguhir  as  the 
method  adopted  by  Smith,  his  descriptions  and  observations 
are  very  correct ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  references, 
there  is  hardly  anything  wrong. 

This  author  begins  with  the  scarfing  of  beams,  as  repre- 
sented in  Plate  V.  of  bur  Work,  Figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  He 
says  that  the  methods  shown  by  the  diagrams  3,  4,  5,  6,  are 
the  strongest ;  perhaps  in  consequence  of  their  being  tabled 
into  one  another;  and  that  represented  by  Figure  6,  has  this 
property,  that  the  pieces  may  be  put  together  without  any 
waste  at  the  ends;  he  observes,  that  it  is  not  his  intention  to 
limit  the  lengths  of  these  scartings,  but  only  to  show  the  man- 
ner of  tabling  the  pieces  together  :  he  might  also  have  said, 
that  though  nothing  determinate  with  regard  to  the  lengths 
of  sc^irfuigs  could  be  done,  the  greater  the  extent  of  the 
joint  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  beam,  the  more  will 
it  be  disposed  to  resist  separation,  though  there  will  be  a 
greater  waste  of  timber.  Those  represented  by  Price  are 
much  superior  to  those  iu  Smith's  work. 

He  then  describes  the  method  of  trussing  girders  of  greater 
extent  than  2t  feet,  as  we  have  shown  in  Figures  7  and  8; 
and  proposes  that  the  pieces  which  are  to  constitute  the  core 
be  made  of  gootl  dry  straight-grained  English  oak,  4  inches 
by  3,  or  (>  by  4,  as  the  strength  may  require,  and  let  half  into 
each  piece ;  the  pieces  of  the  core  being  inserted  in  the  one 
half,  so  as  to  abut  firmly  at  the  ends,  and  the  two  flitches  put 
together  so  that  the  internal  braces  may  abut  firmly  at  the 
ends  of  the  other  flitch,  and  then  bolted  together,  will  com- 
plete the  girder ;  he  prefers  that  of  Figure  8,  to  Figure  7,  as 
being  divided  into  three  parts,  it  raises  the  pitch  of  the  braces, 
and  though  the  middle  part  is  left  untrussed,  it  may  be  looked 
upon  as  an  inflexible  solid,  as  the  proportion  of  the  breadth 
to  the  length  is  reduced  much  nearer  to  a  ratio  of  equality 
than  the  (limensions  of  the  whole  beam,  the  depth  being  the 
same  in  both  cases.  The  flitches,  he  observes,  maybe  mor- 
tised through  at  the  lower  end  of  each  tmss,  and  the  core 
tightened  by  wedges  driven  therein.  Girders  constructed  in 
the  manner  of  these  two  examples  are  much  better  calculated 
to  perform  their  oflice,  than  those  before  given  by  Smith, 
which  are  void  of  every  principle  of  mechanical  science. 

This  author  then  speaks  of  the  method  taught  by  Alberti, 
as  follows:— "  Take  two  pieces  or  flitches,  being  well  dried, 
and  turn  the  but  end  of  the  one  to  the  top  end  of  the  other, 
without  trussing  at  all,  and  bolt  or  screw  them  together." 

Mr.  Price  then  proceeds  to  the  various  joints  in  roofing,  as 
in  Figure  1).  which  represents  the  junctions  of  the  struts  and 
principals  with  a  king-post. 

Figure  10,  is  another  mode,  which  he  uses  where  the 
bre.idth  of  the  bottom  of  the  truss-post  will  not  allow  a  right- 
angled  abutment  to  the  direction  of  the  strut :  he  makes  the 
angle  on  the  end  of  the  tenon,  with  good  reason,  equal  to  the 
angle-  made  by  the  shoulder,  but  on  the  contrary  side,  so  that 
the  two  abutments  may  contract  each  other's  efforts  in  moving 
the  strut  up  or  down  on  the  side  of  the  said  post. 

Figure  1 1,  represents  his  method  of  forming  the  end  of  the 
tie-beam  and  lower  end  of  the  principal,  so  as  to  forma  joint 
with  doidilc  mortise  and  tenon,  which,  he  says,  presents 
greater  resistance  than  when  made  with  single  mortise  and 
tenon. 

Figure  12. — No.  1  and  2,  show  the  proportion  which  the 
mortise  or  tenon  ought  to  have  to  the  breadth  of  the 
stull",  either  for  the  joints  of  roofs  or  truss  partitions,   by 


making  the  tenon  or  the  mortise  one-fourth  of  the  breadth  of 
the  whole,  and  keeping  the  mortise  and  tenon  in  the 
middle. 

Figure  13.  No.  1  and  2,  another  mode  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, not  much  in  request  at  the  present  time. 

Figure  14.  No.  1  and  2,  the  manner  of  joining  the  binding, 
joists  and  girders  in  floors,  the  same  as  used  iu  the  present 
time,  with  a  tusk  or  sloping  shoulder,  and  the  double  resist- 
ance or  bntment. 

Figure  15.  "No.  1  is  called  a  bridging-floor,  as  being 
framed  with  a  binding  or  strong  joist  iu  every  three  or  four 
feet  distance,  and  flush  to  the  bottom  of  the  girder,  so  that 
when  the  house  is  covered  in,  you  pin  down  your  bridgings 
thereon,  and  flush  with  the  top  of  your  girder  ;  and  this  is  the 
best  way  of  carcase-flooring."  The  section  of  this  floor  taken 
transversely  across  the  binding-joists  is  shown  at  No.  2, 
Figure  15.  Mr.  Price  observes,  that  the  best  way  to  lay 
girders,  "  is  not  to  lay  them  over  doors  or  windows,  nor  too 
near  chimneys ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  have  the  boards  lie 
all  oneway  ;"  and  hence  the  oblique  position  of  the  girder,  as 
here  represented,  is  occasioned  by  the  fireplace. 

Figure  16.  No.  1,  a  carcase-floor  with  single  joists,  or 
without  bridging-joists.  These  are  framed  flush  with  the 
top  of  the  girder,  "  and  have  every  third  or  fourth  joist  the 
depth  of  the  girder,  and  those  between  more  shallow."  No.  2 
shows  the  ends  of  the  joists,  and  the  ceiling-joists  framed 
into  the  deep  joists.  No.  3,  the  sides  of  the  deep  joists,  with 
the  pulley-mortises,  in  order  to  receive  the  ceiling-joists. 

!Nir.  Pi'ice  then  proceeds  to  lay  down  the  sides  of  roofs  in 
piano,  and  shows  the  backings  of  the  hips  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  has  been  detailed  by  Godfiey  Richards  in  tlie  former 
part  of  this  article,  according  to  Pope's  principle. 

We  shall  here  transcribe  one  of  his  examples,  in  which  he 
attempts  to  show,  for  the  first  time,  a  method  for  finding  the 
joints  of  purlins  upon  hip-rafters:  his  process,  which  is  as 
follows,  is  tedious  ;  his  diagram  and  explanation  are  both 
obscure  and  defecti%'e,  but  show  some  novelty  of  form  and 
geometrical  skill  in  lines. 

"  Admit  the  plan  (Plate  Vl.,  Figure  1,  No.  1)  was  required 
to  be  enclosed  with  a  hipped  roof:  first,  find  the  middle  of 
it,  as/;  then  draw  the  bases  of  your  several  hips,  as  af,  bf, 
cf,  df,  and  ef;  resolve  on  some  pitch  or  height,  as  in  No.  2, 
at  fg  ;  to  this  section  bring  all  the  bases  of  your  respective 
hips,  as  the  letters  of  reference  show ;  this  gives  you  the 
length  of  each  respective  hip ;  therefore,  from  the  section 
No.  2,  you  describe  the  skirts  round  the  plan  No.  1,  asn  bg, 
beg,  cdg,  deg,  and  e  a  g,  which  form  the  roof  required. 

"To  find  the  back  of  any  hip,  do  thus:  Draw  a  line  at 
pleasure,  crossing  the  base  of  the  hips  at  right  angles,  as  the 
line  h  i,  which  crosses  the  base  of  the  hip  cf;  observe  where 
it  passes  through  the  sides  of  the  plan;  on  the  base  line  of 
this  hip,  raise  its  section  from  No.  1,  as  eg/;  lastly,  place 
one  foot  of  your  compasses  in  the  intersection,  as  at  y  ;  open 
the  other  foot,  till  it  touch  the  hip  c^  at  its  nearest  distance; 
draw  a  small  section  till  it  cross  the  base,  as  at  k ;  so  is 
h  kk  i  the  back  of  that  hip  ;  and  is  the  most  exact,  and  easiest 
method  that  ever  was  deli vered  for  this  purpose;  the  shadowed 
part,  o,  is  the  section  of  the  supposed  timber  the  hip  is 
shaped  out  of,  being  cut  off"  at  right  angles  with  its  side  and 
back.  What  is  said  of  this  explains  the  hip  af,  whose  back 
is  I  m  n,  and  its  section  p  is  shaped  so  as  to  have  the  purlin 
come  square  against  it ;  the  letters  of  reference  show  the 
rest." 

"  To  find  the  side  joint  of  a  purlin  (in  case  the  hip  be 
not  shaped  as  aboue)  so  as  to  cut  it  bg  a  templet,  supposing 
there  he  no  room,  or  occasion  to  frame  it  into  the  hip. — For 
example,  take  any  two  hips  from  the  plan  No.  1,  as  <?/and 


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a  f,  which  to  keep  from  confusion  is  transferred  as  to  No.  3, 
and  admit  tlic  jilan  of  the  purlin  to  be  o  p ;  first,  raise  the 
sections  of  the  hips  from  No.  "2,  as  ef<i  and  ufff,  as  the  letters 
show  ;  then  raise  perpendiculars  at  o  and  p  to  the  back  of 
the  hips,  as  o  q  and  p  r  ;  lastl\-,  draw  a  line  fiom  the  point  q, 
and  at  right  angles  from  the  liaik  of  the  hip  e  g  (as  it  is  so 
near  to  a  square,  or  else  it  should  be  drawn  from  the  back  of 
a  rafter  standing  at  right  angles  with  the  sides  of  the  plan) 
observe  where  it  cuts  the  base  line,  as  at  s  ;  draw  the  line  «  t 
parallel  to  the  purlin  :  lastly,  draw  the.  line  t  r.  From  all 
■which  you  take  the  templet  q  in  t  (see  No.  4)  in  the  follow- 
in"  manner :  Draw  the  lino  u  w  in  No.  3  at  right  angles 
from  the  side  a  e,  which  transfer  to  No.  4,  as  u  w ;  take  from 
No.  3  the  distances  m  s  and  u  t,  and  transfer  them  to  No.  4  ; 
take  .also  the  distances  x  o  and  x  p  m  No.  3,  and  transfer 
them  to  No.  4  ;  take  also  the  distances  x  q  in  No.  3,  and 
transfer  to  No.  4,  as  s  o ;  lastly,  take  from  No.  3  the  dis- 
tances t  r,  and  transfer  to  No.  4,  as  t  j) ;  so  that  q  is  the 
templet  to  cut  the  side,  and  the  skirt  e  a  rf  is  the  templet  to 
cut  the  back.  I  think  any  farther  explanation  needless,  be- 
cause by  a  little  serious  inspection,  the  reader  may  see  that 
all  the  lines  necessary  to  be  undeistood  in  a  roof,  are  con- 
tained in  this  Plate. 

"  That  is,  all  the  parts  of  a  roof  may  be  cut  by  templets, 
as  these  lines,  and  the  explanations  of  them,  do  direct ;  and 
although  I  have  shown  but  one  example  for  the  cutting  of 
any  purlin  that  comes  against  a  hip,  as  explained  in  h  k  i. 
(Figure  1,  No.  1)1  hope  it  will  be  sufJicient,  because  the 
meth(jd  in  I,  tn,  n,  cuts  ofi'all  such  difficulties,  and  is  equally 
strong." 

In  this  description,  he  is  unintelligible,  vague,  and  errone- 
ous :  there  is  a  certain  tendency  towards  the  principle,  but 
he  loses  sight  of  it.  He  is  negligent  in  directing  his  reader 
to  raise  perpendiculars  at  v  and  p,  the  bases  of  the  two  hip- 
rafters,  instead  of  raising  a  section  at  right  angles  to  the  base 
and  to  the  wall-plate  a  e.  He  tells  us  to  "  draw  the  line  u  w 
in  s  (which  is  here  No.  3)  at  right  angles  from  the  side  a  e, 
which  transfer  to  t  (or  No.  4)  as  ti  w ;"'  but  he  makes  no  use 
of  this  line,  which  is  the  line  on  which  the  width  of  the  tem- 
plet should  have  been  extended.  Then  he  says  :  "  Take 
from  s  (No.  3)  the  distances  u  s  and  u  t,  and  transter  them 
to  T  (No.  4) ;  take  also  the  distances  x  o  and  x  p  in  s  (No.  3), 
and  transfer  them  to  t  (No.  4) ;"  but  he  does  not  show  how 
the  distance  between  the  lines  p  o  and  t  s  arc  obtained  in  t 
(No.  4) ;  and  thus,  after  a  long  and  tedious  description,  he 
leaves  the  construction  vague,  and  obtains  nothing  but  uncer- 
tainty. We  shall  here  complete  what  he  has  unsuccessfully 
attempted. 

Let  the  same  plan  a  f  e  be  laid  down  at  No.  5,  as  at  No.  3  ; 
draw  /  w  perpendicular,  and  /  g  parallel  to  a  e  ;  make  /  g 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  roof,  and  join  g  w  ;  let  p  o  be  the 
place  of  the  purlin,  parallel  to  a  e,  meeting  the  bases  of  the 
hips  "at  o  and  p  ;  produce  ^  o  to  meet  w  g  vlI  q  ;  draw  q  u 
perpendicular  to  iff  g,  meeting /«)  at  u  ;  parallel  to  a  e,  draw 
t  u  s,  meeting  the  bases/a  and/*-  of  the  hips  at  t  and  s. 

In  No.  6,  draw  u  x,  which  make  equal  to  u  q,  No.  5  ; 
draw  T  u  s  and  p  x  o  perpendicular  to  u  x  ;  make  u  s,  u  t, 
X  o,  X  p,  respectively  to  u  s,  u  t,  x  o,  x  p,  and  join  t  p  and 
s  o  ;  then  p  o  s  T  is  the  templet  required,  or  any  parallel  por- 
tion of  its  breadth. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  this  is  found  by  much  fewer 
lines ;  and  there  is  no  occasion  for  luising  the  sections  of  the 
hips,  but  only  the  section  of  the  rafter  at  right  angles  to  the 
wall-plate. 

No.  7  is  another  invention  of  the  author  of  this  Dictionary, 
founded  upon  the  same  principle  as  No.  5  aiid  6  ;  but  the 
construction  is  confined  to  one  diagram,  thus  :  Let  a  b  c  be 


the  seat  of  the  part  of  the  roof;  describe  the  section  c  d  e  as 
before  :  draw  c/ perpendicular  to  (/  e,  cutting  d  e  in/;  from 
c  (/  cut  of  c  g  equal  to  c  /";  parallel  to  \  d  draw  k- /.  cutting 
A  c  and  B  c  in  X-  and  /;  likewise  draw  h  i  )>arallel  to  a  b  ; 
perpendicular  to  k  I  draw  k  m  and  I  n,  cutting  h  i  at  m  and 
n  ;  and  join  c  m  and  c  «  ;  then  will  the  angles  at  in  and  n 
of  the  triangle  c  m  n  be  those  required  for  forming  the  end 
of  the  purlin,  in  order  to  form  a  junction  with  the  hip-rafter. 

We  now  return  to  Mr.  Price,  who,  in  laying  down  the 
framing  of  roofs  in  piano,  or  in  ledgement,  begins  thus: 
"  Every  man  who  frames  roofs,  does  first  pifce  his  plates, 
cock  or  dovetail  down  his  beams  on  the  said  plates,  and  pre- 
pare pieces  on  which  his  hips  are  to  stand  ;  as  appears  in 
this  plan  q,  at  y  and  z."     (See  Figure  2.) 

"  Then  he  frames  his  principals,  as  r,  and  likewise  his 
hips,  as  s,  into  pieces  prepared  for  them  to  stand  on  ;  and 
althonsh  all  these  respectively  are  framed  for  the  generality 
on  the  (locjr.  and  when  in  practice  is  tlie  best  way,  they  are 
here  placed  by  themselves  to  avoid  confusion. 

"  I  hope  the  pricked  lines  are  enough  to  show  that  the 
slirts  T,  V,  w,  X,  are  laid  out  agreeably  to  the  plan  q  ;  and  in 
which  are  shown  that  one  purlin  lies  above  the  strut,  and  the 
other  below  it :  for  if  they  werc-all  to  lie  in  a  right  line,  in 
the  first  place  it  cuts  the  stuff  to  pieces,  so  as  to  weaken  it 
still  more,  and  at  the  same  time  \  ou  lose  your  pinning. 

"  Here  is  shown  a  method  to  turn  up  your  hips  without 
backing  at  all;  and  is  thus:  your  hips  being  first  framed 
into  the  pieces  they  are  to  stand  on,  take  a  broad  board,  or 
small  panel,  lay  it  on  the  place  where  your  respective  hip 
stands,  and  there  mortise  it  as  if  it  was  your  beam ;  cut  off 
the  corners  of  it,  so  as  to  make  its  angles  agreeable  to  your 
plan,  whether  square  or  bevel ;  lastly,  when  you  come  to 
turn  up  your  hip  in  framing  the  skirts,  slip  this  mould,  as  y, 
upon  the  tenon  at  the  foot  of  your  hip,  and  then  give  it  a 
tack  with  a  nail,  and  the  angles  of  that  board  will  turn  up 
a  hip  as  desired,  and  is  fai-  preferable  to  any  other  method 
whatever. 

"  But  because  sometimes  buildings  must  be  level,  and 
necessity  requires  the  beams  to  be  laid  so,  to  miss  some 
chimney  or  window  ;  therefore  let  a  {Figure  3)  represent 
a  bevei  plan,  whose  beams  also  lie  bevel  at  the  time  of 
framing;  and  that  is  just  as  much  as  half  the  beam  that  the 
rafter  "stands  on ;  the  skirts  b,  c,  d,  e,  are  the  same  way 
shown  as  before. 

"  I  hope  it  will  not  be  taken  ill,  my  saying  that  a  man 
must  be  deprived  of  sense,  who  would  run  into  almost  endless 
trouble  of  cutting  his  timbers  all  bevel,  unless  some  unavoid- 
able necessity  require  it,  but  rather  use  the  method  I  propose 
in  plate  e."     (That  is,  Figure  2  of  this  article.) 

The  method  of  laying  roofs  in  piano  is  first  shown  by 
Price.  It  seems  to  have  been  much  practised  in  his  time, 
and  indeed  till  lately ;  but  to  perform  the  work  in  this  way, 
requires  the  most  ample  space,  and  the  utmost  care  of  the 
carpenter  in  placing  his  timbers;  without  this  it  will  be 
difficult  to  bring  the  work  together  with  exactness.  In  the 
present  practice,  the  timbers  may  be  all  cut  to  their  lengths 
and  angles  before  they  are  applied  to  their  places,  and  then 
they  may  be  fitted  together  on  the  ground  before  they  are 
raised  on  the  building. 

In  roofing,  his  rufes  for  finding  the  pitch  of  the  rafters 
for  diffiirent  coverings,  are  these  (page  15  of  his  work): 
"  A  leaden  covering  requires  the  height  two-eighths  or  one- 
fourth  of  the  breadth  of  the  beam;  a  pantile  covering,  three- 
eighths;  and  plain  tiles,  four-eighths  or  one-half,  which  brings 
the  vertical  angle  of  the  roof  to  a  square." 

But  in  the  following  plate,  h,  of  his  work,  he  is  not  very 
consistent ;    he    delivers  different   rules,  which   are  to   the 


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following  purpose  :  divide  the  breadth  into  six  equal  parts 
for  pantiles,  into  seven  for  slates,  and  into  eight  for  plain 
tiles  ;  then  in  each  of  these  the  whole  number,  wanting  two, 
■will  be  the  height  of  the  roof;  that  is,  pantile  ^,  slates  I, 
and  plain  tiles  f,  of  the  breadth  of  the  beam." 

The  following  observations,  with  respect  to  the  trusses  of 
roofs,  are  very  judicious  : 

"  That  the  less  in  number  the  divisions  or  pieces  are,  that 
compose  each  truss,  the  stronger  it  is  ;  for  even  the  shrinking 
of  the  wood  will  let  a  well-framed  truss  sag  or  drop  in  pro- 
cess of  time  ;  for  which  reason  1  cannot  help  recommending 
English  oak,  particularly  for  king-posts."  lie  recommends 
square  bolts  iu  preference  to  rouncl  ones;  "  for  this  reason  : 
if  you  use  a  round  bolt,  it  must  follow  the  auger,  and  cannot 
be  helped  ;  by  this  helping  the  auger-hole,  that  is,  taking 
off  the  corners  of  the  wood,  you  may  draw  a  strap  exceed- 
ingly close,  and  at  the  same  time  it  embraces  the  grain  of 
the  wood  in  a  much  firmer  maimer  than  a  round  one  can 
possibly  do."  With  respect  to  strapping,  he  observes  :  "  If 
it  be  olijected  that  there  is  too  much  trust  reposed  on  the 
iron-woik,  may  it  not  be  asked,  if  any  common  strap  at  the 
bottom  of  a  king-post  was  ever  known  to  break  by  continual 
pressure  1  Witness  the  straps  in  a  theatre,  to  which  is  fixed 
a  prodigious  weight."  With  respect  to  timbers,  he  says, 
"  If  purlins  are  used,  they  ought  to  be  agreeable  in  number 
to  their  supports  ;"  ''  but  if  bridged,  need  not  be  regarded." 

The  following  designs,  which  he  shows  for  the  fronts  of 
buildings,  which  are  required  to  have  the  ground  story  open, 
and  supported  with  story -posts,  may  be  useful  to  some : 

"  In  Figure  4,  is  shown  the  manner  of  a  timber  front, 
supposed  to  be  open  underneath,  in  form  of  an  arcade.  And 
for  such  open  fronts,  the  foundation  should  be  laid  on  reversed 
arches,  wiiich  will  strengthen  it  very  much ;  by  this  means, 
the  ground  bears  between  one  post  or  pillar  and  the  other, 
as  well  as  imder  the  same. 

'■  If  on  it  3'ou  would  have  brickwork,  or  even  stone,  then 
support  the  bressummer,  as  is  shown  in  Figure  5,  which 
manner  of  framing  renders  it  as  strong  between  the  posts 
or  pillars  as  it  is  directly  on  the  same,  and  this  seems  suffi- 
cient to  explain  proper  bearings  for  partitions." 

Mr.  Price  then  proceeds  to  circular  domes,  and  in  their 
construction  shows,  for  the  first  time,  how  the  purlins  are  to 
be  squared  ;  his  description  is  as  follows  : 

"  Of  what  lias  liitherto  been  described,  nothing  appears  so 
beaulifid  when  done,  as  domes  or  circular  roofs  ;  and,  as  far 
as  I  can  ]icrccive,  nothing  has  appeared  so  difficult  in  doing, 
therefore  it  will  be  proper  to  speak  something  of  them." 

Flute  Vll.  Figure  1. — "  Let  B  represent  a  plan,  in  which 
let  6,  h,  b,  be  the  plate  on  the  supposed  wall ;  and  let  c,  c,  c, 
be  the  kirb  on  which  stands  a  lantern,  or  cupola  ;  also  let 
a,  a,  (I,  represent  the  principal  ribs. 

"  From  the  plan  b  make  the  section  a  ;  in  which  the  kirb 
or  plate  h  should  be  in  two  thicknesses;  as  also  that  of  c ; 
by  whieh  it  is  made  stronger ;  and  indeed  the  principal  ribs 
would  be  much  better  to  be  in  two  thicknesses.  The  best 
timljer  for  this  use  is  English  oak  ;  because  abundance  of 
that  naturally  grows  crooked.  As  to  the  curve  or  sweep 
of  this  dome  a,  it  is  a  semicircle ;  although  in  that  point, 
every  one  may  use  his  pleasure  ;  and  in  it  are  described  the 
purlins  (/,  e,  from  which  perpendicidars  are  dropped  to  the 
plan  b;  so  that /is  the  mould  the  lower  purlins  are  to  be  cut 
out  by,  before  they  are  shaped  or  squared  for  use  ;  and  that 
off/  is  the  mould  for  the  upper  purlins.  I  rather  show  it 
with  purlins,  because  under  this  head  may  be  shown  the 
manner  of  framing  circular  roofs  in  form  of  a  cone. 

"  To  shape  these  purlins,  oV)serve,  in  a,  as  at  d  and  c, 
they  are  so  squared,  tliat  the  joints  of  the  supposed  small 


ribs  are  equal.  Observe,  as  at  e,  the  corners  of  the  purlin, 
from  which  the  perpendiculars  are  let  fall  to  the  plan  b. 
So  that  your  purlin  being  fir.st  cut  out  to  the  thickness  re- 
quired, as  appears  in  c,  and  also  to  the  sweep  /;  so  that  k 
is  the  mould  for  the  bottom,  and  /  the  mould  for  the  top  ;  by 
which,  and  the  lines  for  the  corners  of  the  said  purlin  e,  the 
same  may  be  tridy  shaped  and  squared. 

"  i\.B.  This  particular  ought  to  be  well  digested,  it  being 
a  principal  observation  in  a  circular  roof 

"  From  the  purlin  d,  in  the  section  a,  perpendiciilai-s 
are  dropped  to  the  plan  b  ;  in  which  it  appears  that  h 
is  the  mould  for  the  top,  and  i  the  mould  for  the  bottom ; 
so  may  this  be  squared,  which  completes  the  performance. 
As  to  other  particulars,  due  inspection  will  explain  them. 
If  any  should  say,  a  dome  cannot  be  done  so  safe  without 
a  cavity  as  usual,  let  them  view  St.  Stephen's,  Wall)r<jok, 
Stoek's-market,  built  by  that  great  architect.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren." 

He  then  shows  the  method  of  covering  polygonal  buildings : 

Plate  Vn.  Figure  2.  "  Let  a  be  the  plan,  the  upper  part 
of  which  is  half  an  octagon.  It  is  observable  that  a  circular 
roof,  as  b,  should  extend  no  farther  than  the  upright  of  its 
support,  and  there  made  so  as  to  carry  off  the  water  ;  whereas 
an  ogee  roof,  as  c,  may  extend  to  the  extremity  of  the  cor- 
nice, without  injury  to  its  strength,  or  offence  to  the  eye  of 
the  most  curious  :  also,  a  hollow  roof,  as  d,  may  extend  to 
the  extremity  of  the  cornice. 

"  It  appears  to  me,  that  many  angles  of  a  cupola  give  it 
beauty  ;  therefore  the  sweep  e  (Figure  2)  is  a  regular  curve, 
the  base  line  /  k  being  taken  from  the  angle  of  the  octagon 
in  the  plan  a,  as  at  /  k.  This  curve,  e,  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  equal  parts,  in  order  to  trace  the  common  rib,  f, 
from  the  said  angular  rib,  e  :  observe,  in  a,  the  base  of  the 
common  rib,  //,  which  is  placed  in  f,  as  from  I  to/;  con- 
tinue the  perpendicular,  I,  at  pleasure ;  take  the  base  I  k  in 
E,  on  which  are  the  perpendiculars  dropped  from  the  curve, 
and  observe  to  place  that  distance,  k  I  in  e,  from/in  f,  to 
any  part  where  it  cuts  the  perpendicular  I  in  f,  as  at  ;/* ; 
from  these  divisions  raise  jierpcndiculars,  so  by  continuing 
the  base  lines  from  the  divisions  in  e,  to  these  perpendiculars 
in  F,  their  intersection  or  meeting  is  a  curve,  or  sweep, 
exactly  agreeable,  and  which,  indeed,  may  serve  as  a  standard 
rule  to  trace  any  moulding  whatever. 

"  To  back  the  said  angle-bracket,  d,  observe  to  describe 
the  thickness  of  it  on  your  plan,  as  in  a  at  k,  which  shows 
how  much  your  mould  must  be  shifted,  as  may  ajipear  in  d. 
Tills  also  may  be  observed  to  be  a  general  rule  for  the  back- 
ing of  any  bracket." 

These  methods  are  certainly  founded  on  truth,  but  his 
diagrams  are  not  laid  down  in  the  most  obvious  way  ;  being 
so  scattered  as  not  only  to  be  tiresome  to  the  eye,  but  to 
occasion  also  a  long  and  tedious  description.  He  then  pro- 
ceeds with  the  centerings  of  groins,  as  follows  : 

Figure  3.  "  Let  a  be  the  plan  of  a  vault  to  bo  centered 
for  groins.  At  a,  b,  r,  d,  are  piers,  generally  prepared  in 
with  the  foundation,  which  bear  the  weight  of  the  brickworlc 
First,  resolve  on  the  curve  you  would  have,  as  d  e  c,  being  a 
semi-circle,  which  is  shown  by  the  section  b.  Begin  in  a  at 
dec;  centre  through  as  it  were  a  common  vault,  and  board 
it ;  which  being  done,  to  make  your  groin  set  centres,  as  from 
a  to  c,  and  from  4  to  c/,  divide  the  curve  dec  into  four  equal 
parts,  as  at  g  and/;  so  arcp  e/ small  centres,  you  will  want 
to  nail  on  the  centres  first  boarded,  whose  place  or  plan  is  at 
h  ;  these  small  centres  may  be  put  in  at  pleasure,  according 
to  the  bearing  of  your  boards,  that  i-;,  as  to  the  distance  be- 
tween each  centre.  To  make  your  groin  straight  on  its  base, 
at  some  little  height  over  the  centres,  strain  a  line  from  b  to  c, 


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or  from  d  to  a,  from  which  drop  perpendiculars  on  your 
boarding,  first  fixed  at  as  many  places  as  you  please  ;  there 
drive  in  nails,  and  bend  a  straight  rod  till  it  touch  them  all ; 
and  then,  with  a  pencil  or  chalk,  describe  the  curve  so  formed, 
to  which  bring  the  boards  to  be  nailed  on  these  little  centres, 
and  their  joints  will  form  a  straight  groin." 

Figure  4.  "  Let  c  be  a  plan  of  greater  extent,  and  which 
suppose  to  be  supported  by  tw'o  piers,  as  /j  I.  The  section  d 
is  composed  of  entire  semicircles,  then  consequently  your 
curses  in  the  section  e  will  be  elliptical,  as  h  ii  d,  and  may 
be  described  with  a  trammel.  Wiiat  was  said  in  a  explains 
this  at  one  view. 

"  If  these  pillars  should  be  in  the  way,  view  the  plan  and 
sections  again :  first,  form  the  principal  curve,  as  v>  a.\.  a  g  h  b, 
being  an  ellipsis,  so  that  the  centres  will  be  a  Gothic  sweep 
against  the  windows,  SlS  e  g  a:  trace  the  curve  d  h  b  in  e, 
agreeable  to  e  ^  a  in  d,  with  which  centre  it.  as  shown  in  a, 
and  make  good  ^our  groins  to  the  sides  :  lastly,  make  a  flat 
centre,  as  at  g  h  i  k,  which  flatness  is  shown  in  cither  of  the 
profiles  or  sections  d  and  e,  and  fi.x  it  on  your  centres  before 
completed,  which  doubtless  due  inspection  will  make  plain, 
and  herel)y  you  avoid  the  pillars,  which  are  equally  firm. 

"  N.B.  The  cause  of  these  centres  against  the  windows 
being  a  Gothic  arch,  proceeds  from  their  making  part  of  the 
whole  sweep  or  arch,  which  though  it  does  not  add  to  its 
beauty,  it  does  to  its  strength  in  a  particular  manner." 

After  showing  how  to  find  the  groined  lines,  as  it  were  by 
a  mere  mechanical  process,  the  method  of  finding  the  groined 
lines  on  the  body  centre,  he  then  shows  how  the  same  may 
be  found  upon  true  geometrical  principles,  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  the  foundation  of  all  kinds  of  cylindrical 
soffits. 

"  Regarding  ^aiiety,  I  have  given  here  another  method 
for  vaults,  and  which,  indeed,  may  give  more  pleasure  to  the 
reader,  as  being  a  curiosity  never  before  published,  and  may 
appear  more  intelligible  than  that  in  the  foregoing." 

Figure  5.  "  View  the  plan  g  and  its  section  n,  which  is 
composed  of  entire  semicircles,  as  bfe:  see  also  the  section  i, 
which  is  an  ellipsis  traced  from  b/e  in  h;  but  for  use, 
nothing  is  more  true  than  the  trammel. 

'•  See  this  plan  again,  and  also  its  section  i,  from  which  is 
described  the  curvilinear  face  k,  and  also  the  face  of  the 
semicircular  arches,  as  l,  all  being  alike.  And  this  is  what 
1  call  a  more  accurate  method  for  finding  the  groin,  so  as  to 
be  straightover  its  base,and  at  the  same  time  gives  astandard 
rule  whereby  to  account  for  any  curve,  or  face  of  a  ceiling 
whatever.  The  curve  in  i  is  divided  regularly,  though  seem- 
ingly into  unequal  parts,  which  being  drawn  to  the  groin  in 
the  plan  g,  as  appears  by  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  T,  8,  9, 
and  which  are  transferred  into  l  at  1,  2,  3,  &c.  Also  the 
circle  bfe  in  h  is  divided  into  eighteen  equal  parts  ;  the  half 
consequently  into  nine,  which  appears  from  6  to  e  in  l.  This 
method  doubtless  will  be  plain,  and  therefore  needs  no  far- 
ther explanation. 

'■  That  of  K  belongs  to  the  section  i,  extended  as  it  were, 
and  that  of  l  belongs  to  one  of  the  small  arches  of  h,  also 
stretched  out,  they  being  all  alike." 

^  Here  it  must  be  observed,  that  he  has  stretched  out  the 
piers,  which  are  of  no  use,  the  covering  only  being  wanted, 
and  he  has  extended  all  the  compartments  of  the  plan  in 
piano  at  k,  which  is  absurd,  one  of  each  being  all  that  is 
necessary  ;  for  they  cannot  be  extended  in  contiguity,  nor 
any  two  contiguous  parts  on  the  plan,  though  each  adjoining 
part  may  be  done  separately. 

"-N.B.  To  find  the  groin  by  a  more  common  method,  do 
thus  :  Erect  a  straight  piece  of  a  board,  or  the  like,  on  the 
corner  of  the  pier  the  groin  springs  from,  and  drive  in  a  nail 


at  the  point  of  the  groin's  meeting,  on  which  fasten  one  end 
of  a  chalked  line,  straining  it  light,  slide  it  down  the  side  of 
the  said  straight  piece,  and  it  will  form  the  groin  so  as  to 
stand  perpendicularly  over  its  base." 

Mr.  Price  then  proceeds  to  the  methods  of  covering  the 
parts  of  coved  ceilings  adjoining  the  angles,  and  also  the 
coverings  of  domes,  as  follows  : 

Plate  VIII.  Figure  1.  "  Suppose  m  to  be  the  plan  of  a 
ceiling,  as  a  b  c  d,  and  it  is  required  to  have  a  large  frame, 
gulochi,  or  panel. — First,  produce  some  side  or  end  of  the 
room,  .as  n.  Let  it  be  required  to  describe  the  curvilinear 
face  of  the  cove.  The  extent  of  the  end  of  the  said  room 
is  a  bfe,  and  it  is  coved  one-fourth  part  of  the  height, 
at  m  b.  The  said  frame  or  panel  hieing  g  h  ;  the  quarter 
circle  m  g  is  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  which  are  trans- 
ferred to  p,  so  that  m  g  h  I  \s  the  face  of  o,  as  stretched  or 
extended  out,  on  which  any  thing  proposed  to  be  described 
therein  may  be  truly  performed. 

Figure  2.  "  In  q  is  shown  the  plan  of  a  niche,  or  dome  ; 
if  a  niche,  let  it  be  demanded  to  be  fineered  with  walnut- 
tree,  &c.  If  a  dome,  let  it  be  required  to  be  covered  with 
boards  or  lead.  Divide  it  into  any  number  of  parts,  as  here 
into  nine,  which  transfer  to  s,  as  appears  from  h  to  I.  Describe 
the  section  also,  as  r,  being  a  quarter  of  a  circle,  which 
divide  into  any  number  of  parts,  as  here  into  five,  as  is 
shown  in  the  figure  from  h  to  i,  which  transfer  in  the  plan  q 
from  a  to/;  middle  some  one  division,  as  from  4  to  5  ;  then 
take  those  distances  from  r,  and  transfer  them  to  s,  as  from 
/to  5,  so  that  each  division  is  halved  or  middled, as/«, /a.- 
on  these  lines  place  the  distances  from  Q,  as  at  c,  d,  c,  b, 
to  1,  2,  3,  4,  in  s,  and  these  will  form  such  curves  as 
shall  meet. 

"  N.B.  The  more  parts  it  is  divided  into,  the  better  and 
truer  it  will  be  performed." 

In  this  description,  he  is  far  from  being  clear,  as  we  shall 
here  explain.  "  J'ake  the  distances  from  r,  atid  transfer 
them  to  s,  as  from  f  to  5."  But  the  extent  of  the  line  from 
/to  a  at  s  does  not  contain  the  whole  stretch  of  the  arch  k  i 
of  the  section  r,  as  it  contains  only  four  of  the  equal  parts, 
whereas  there  are  five  ;  one  part  should  have  been  described 
to  be  below  the  line///',  &:c.,  as  the  diagram  s  shows.  The 
words  ^''  so  that  each  division  is  halved,  as,  fa,  fa,"  etc.,  have 
no  meaning.  "  On  these  lines  place  the  distances  from  Q,  as 
at  e,  d,  c,  b,  to  1,  2,  3,  4,  in  s,  and  these  ivillform  such  curves 
as  shall  meet:"  this  is  extremely  obscure,  and  ought  to  have 
been  thus  described  :  From  the  points  b  c,d  e,  in  q,  describe 
the  several  arcs  meeting  each  of  the  radii  rt/and  o  4  ;  then 
at  s,  through  the  divisions,  1,  2,  3,  4,  draw  lines  at  right 
angles;  upon  these  lines,  and  on  each  side  of  the  said  points, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  set  off"  the  several  arcs  at  q,  beginning  with/4, 
at  the  bottom  of  s,  and  through  the  points  on  each  side  of  the 
line /a  describe  the  two  curves,  and  the  space  comprehended 
between  them  and  the  bottom  line  is  the  board  required. 

It  must  be  observed,  that  though  it  is  sometimes  conve- 
nient to  detach  the  paits  of  a  diagram  when  it  would  occupy 
too  much  space,  it  is  by  no  means  so  obvious  as  one  con- 
nected figure.  In  this  respect,  Mr.  Piice  is  very  obscure,  in 
transferring  to  so  many  dillerent  figures. 

He  then  shows  the  nature  of  oblique  or  rampant  arches, 
the  tracing  oC,  and  the  manner  of  finding  the  base  or  seat  of 
the  angle  ribs  of  an  annular  groin,  as  follows: 

Figure  3.  "That  of  a,  is  supposed  to  be  the  mitre-bracket 
of  a  cove,  whose  projection  is  6  c  ;  and  the  height  thereof 
\s  a  b  ;  the  curve  being  a  segment,  or  part  of  a  circle,  let  it 
be  demanded  to  trace  a  curve  from  it,  as  d,  which  shall  be 
agreeable  thereto,  if  applied  as  a  common  bracket,  e  d  being 
its  height,  as  before,  and  ef  its  projection  ;  first,  divide  the 


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given  cun'e  a,  into  a.  number  of  parts,  or  take  points  thereon 
promiscuously,  wiiicli  will  answer  as  well.  From  these  divi- 
sions, or  points,  drop  perpendiculars  to  some  straight  line,  as 
that  of  a  c,  observing  their  meeting  with  the  said  line  a  c ; 
and  in  practice  take  off  all  these  distances  on  a  lath,  or  rod, 
applying  the  proper  end  thereof  to  the  projection  of  the  com- 
mon bracket  b,  as  /  observing  where  the  other  end  passes 
through  the  perpendicular  line  e  d,  as  at  (j ;  there  raise 
indefinite  perpendiculars  from  the  said  points,  then  draw 
the  line  d  f.  Lastly,  transfer  the  distances,  as  from  the 
straight  line  a  c,  in  a,  to  the  figures,  to  that  of  d  f  in  b  ; 
which,  no  doubt,  inspection  will  explain,  more  especially  if 
the  letters  and  figures  be  duly  observed. 

"  Now  view  the  same  figure  a  again;  and  admit  it  were 
the  curve  of  a  common  bracket,  let  it  be  demanded  to  trace 
a  mitre  or  angle  bracket  from  it,  as  c  ;  </  h  being  its  height 
as  before,  and  /i  i  its  projection  (the  method  of  finding  which 
in  either  case,  no  doubt,  will  be  well  known  to  every  one  :) 
take  the  line,  as  a  c  in  a,  which  in  practice  (as  was  before 
observed)  I  suppose  to  be  on  a  rod,  or  lath,  with  its  divisions, 
or  points  on  it,  and  transfer  it  to  c,  as  (/  k ;  then  draw 
the  line  g  i  ;  lastly,  from  the  said  points  on  the  line  g  k,  draw 
base  lines,  observing  their  meeting  the  line  g  i ;  at  which 
respective  places  raise  perpendiculars,  and  transfer  your 
several  heights  from  a,  as  before,  observing  to  place  each  in 
its  due  position.  And  although  the  abundance  of  points 
should  render  this  method  somewhat  confused,  it  may  be 
evaded  by  making  but  few  points,  and  driving  nails  therein, 
round  which  a  straight  lath  being  bent  till  it  touch  them  all, 
the  curve  may  be  described  with  a  pencil,  &c. 

"N.B.  This  may  serve  as  a  general  rule  for  all  such 
curves  as  are  not  regular,  or  cannot  be  formed  with  a  tram- 
mel, supposing  either  to  be  the  given  curve.  The  principal 
curve  being  foi-med  on  any  plain  superficies,  it  may  be  taken 
oft' on  a  lath,  as  before  was  observed  ;  and  by  it  the  required 
curve  may  be  described  on  a  piece  of  slit  deal,  d:c.,  of  a  width 
equal  to  the  deflection  of  the  arch  from  a  straight  line,  with 
an  allowance  of  wood  capable  of  holding  it  together. 

Figure  4.  "  That  of  d,  represents  a  common  bracket  for 
a  plastered  cornice,  whose  shape  the  plasterer  ought  always 
to  be  consulted  for :  let  it  be  required  to  trace  a  corner,  or 
angle-bracket  from  it,  as  e  ;  first,  draw  base  lines  from  the 
respective  angles  a,  h,  c,  d,  to  the  line  t  r,  as  1,  2,  3,4;  also 
perpendiculars  to  the  line  r  s,  as  5,  6,  7,  8 ;  and  (because  an 
example  for  finding  the  projecture  of  the  angle  or  mitre 
bracket,  may  be  re(inired)  observe  to  make  r  u  equal  to  r  s  ; 
so  is  u  s  the  projecture  of  the  said  angle  or  mitre  bracket; 
and  the  points  will  be  w^x,  y,  z  ;  so  that  by  transferring  this 
said  line  with  its  points  as  before  to  e,  as  also  those  of  the 
height  as  before,  draw  perpendicular  and  base  lines,  when,  as 
no  doubt  inspection  .--hows,  their  meeting  gives  the  shape  of  the 
bracket  as  desired,  and  this  also  may  serve  as  a  standard  rule 
in  any  such  case.  As  to  shifting  this  mould  (in  practice)  -so 
as  to  give  the  said  angle-bracket  its  true  back,  there  seems 
to  have  been  enough  said  in  plate  p. 

"  Such  things  as  the  construction  and  use  of  lines,  are  not 
conceived  by  every  one  ;  therefore,  because  I  would  omit 
nothing  that  I  think  would  prove  useful,  I  have  inserted 
several  more  examples  of  tracery,  the  knowledge  of  which 
seems  indispensably  necessary. 

Figure  5.  "  That  of  t  is  a  regular  semicircle, asah  c,  fioin 
which  is  traced  the  raking  (or  rampant)  one  u  ;  that  of  w  is 
a  regular  ellipsis,  as  d  e  /,  from  w^iich  is  traced  the  raking 
one  X  ;  that  of  y  is  a  regular  segment  (or  part  of  a  circle) 
as  g  h  i,  from  which  is  traced  the  raking  one  z ;  the  man- 
ner whereof  being  so  plain,  a  farther  explanation  seems 
needless. 


"  As  to  the  particular  use  of  this  kind  of  arches,  I  must 
leave  to  the  determination  of  the  curious,  and  have  nothin" 
firrther  to  say  on  that  he.ad,  than  that  if  occasion  require 
either  of  them  to  be  executed,  there  is  no  other  true  way  to 
describe  them. 

Figure  6.  "That  of  f  is  a  plan  of  circular  groins,  whose 
extent  Is  a  b  c  d,  an  example  of  which  may  be  seen  in  St. 
Clement's  Danes,  Strand,  and  in  several  other  circular  build- 
ings ;  and,  in  my  opinion,  is  a  curiosity  worthy  of  regard.  To 
find  the  plan  of  these  groins,  do  thus  :  Divide  from  a  to  A,  into 
a  number  of  parts,  as  into  ten  ;  the  lines  a  b  and  d  c  being 
continued,  meet  in  a  point  as  g,  being  the  centre  of  the 
curves  a  d  and  be;  from  which  strike  curves  from  the  points 
in  a  b  io  d  c :  divide  also  from  o  to  </,  into  ten  parts,  which 
being  drawn  to  the  centre  g,  divides  the  line  b  c  into  the  same 
numjaer  of  parts  equally  ;  so  that  the  meeting  of  these  lines  is 
the  plan  of  the  groins,  as  a  e  c  and  b  e  d,  and  their  upright  is 
H,  I,  K,  L,  each  being  traced  from  the  semicircle  a  b/\n  o, 
being  the  principal  curve.  As  to  the  method  whereby 
it  is  done,  enough  has  been  said  of  the  foregoing  examples 
to  explain  it;  the  letters  of  reference  show  plainly  what  part 
of  the  plan  each  curve  belongs  to,  which  being  bent  agree- 
able thereto,  will  strictly  correspond  with  each  other. 

"N.B.  If  the  principal  curve  had  been  a  segment,  or  part 
of  a  circle,  or  an  ellipsis,  the  method  of  performing  would 
have  been  the  same. 

"  This  plan  would  be  difficult  in  performance,  if  required 
to  be  ribbed  with  timber  for  plastering,  but  if  to  be  centered 
for  brickwork,  it  would  be  much  easier ;  because  the  centres 
might  be  placed  as  from  the  line  a  b  to  that  of  c  d,  as  in  a 
common  vault.  The  curves  of  each  centre  would  be  dif- 
ferent, on  account  of  its  being  taper,  but  the  height  is  equal ; 
these  centres  should  be  boarded  as  others  are,  the  boards 
requiring  to  be  taper  only. 

"To  make  groins  so  as  to  hang  over  the  pl.in,  the  sides 
a  b  e  and  c  d  e  must  not  be  centered  as  usual  ;  but  have  ribs 
agreeable  to  the  plan,  and  placed  horizontally,  so  that  the 
boards  would  stand  as  it  were  upright;  as  in  domes,  which 
was  explained  in  the  foregoing  plates,  which  shows  the  method 
for  finding  the  curvilinear  form  of  any  ceiling. 

"  N.B.  The  foregoing  must  be  well  understood,  in  order 
to  describe  on  the  centres  first  boarded,  the  accurate  curve 
of  the  groin  ;  which  can  be  done  by  no  other  method  than 
is  there  shown. 

"  If  this  plan  were  to  be  executed  with  ribs  of  timber  for 
plastering,  then  the  groins  must  be  performed  by  the 
methods,  as  will  be  hereafter  inserted,  for  the  twisted  rails 
for  staircases,  on  account  of  their  plan  not  being  a  regular 
curve." 

ITiis  method  of  constructing  an  annular  groin,  is  of  no 
other  use  than  that  of  finding  the  seats  of  the  lines  of  con- 
course of  the  meeting  of  the  curved  sides.  It  does  not  show 
how  the  boarding  is  to  be  formed  geometrically,  neither  does 
it  give  the  least  idea  of  constructing  the  ribs  of  a  plaster 
groin.  The  line  of  concourse  of  the  two  sides  may  be 
obtained  by  plumbing  up  from  the  base,  but  even  this  cir- 
cumstance is  not  mentioned  by  'Mr.  Price,  nor  an\'  other 
a[iplication  of  this  construction.  If  it  were  required  to  con- 
struct the  ribbing  for  a  plaster  groin,  the  method  here  shown 
is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  formation  of  the  ribs  in  thick- 
nesses, as  the  whole  of  the  ribs  round  the  curves  are  extended 
in  piano.  But  the  glueing  up  of  the  ribs  in  thicknesses  is 
altogether  nugatory,  when  applied  to  the  purposes  of  car- 
pentry. Another  mode,  which  we  would  propose,  in  order 
to  bring  this  method  into  use  in  groin  ribbing,  is,  to  get  the 
ribs  cut  into  two  thicknesses,  say  H-inch  stuti;  and  kerf  each 
of  them  from  one  side ;  then  put  the  two  kerfed  sides  toge- 


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thcr,  and  nail  or  bolt  them  to  the  curve:  to  prevent  them 
from  extending  before  they  are  fi.ved,  nail  a  temporary  piece 
across  the  two  e.xtreniilies,  and  set  them  in  their  phices  ; 
then  when  the  other  ribs  are  nailed  against  them,  tlicy  will 


remain  firm,  and  this  without  much  trouble  of  construction. 
— In  this  operation,  tlie  kerfs  must  run  in  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  the  base,  otherwise  they  will  not  bend  to  tlie 
plan. 


A  TABLE  FOR  THE  SCANTLINGS  OF  TIMBER. 


A  Proportion  for  Timbers  for  email  Buildings. 

A  Propoi-tion  for  Timbers  for  large  Buildings. 

Bearing  P 

Height 
if    8  feet 
10 
12 

osts  of  i"ir 
Scantling 
4    in.  square 
5 
6 

Bearing  Posts  of  Oak 
Heiglit               Scantling 
if  10  feel               6    in.  square 
12                       8 
14                     10 

Bearing  Posts  of  Fir 
Height               Scantling 
if    8  feet               5    in.  square 
12                       8 
16                      10 

Bearing  Posts  of  Oak 
Height                Scantling 
f    8  feet               8    iu.  square 
12                     12 
16                      16 

Girder 
Bearing     ^ 

if  16  feet 
20 
24 

9  of  Fir 

Scantling 

8    in.  by  11 

10               12i 

12               14 

Girders  of  Oak 

Bearing              Scantling 

if  16  feet             10    in.  by  13 

20                     12               14 

24                      14                15 

Gu-dera 
Beai-ing 
if  16  feet 
20 
24 

ofFu- 

Scantling 

9i  iu.  by  13 

12*             14 

ISi             15 

Girders  of  Oak 

Bearing               Scantling 

if  16  feet              12    in.  by  14 

20                     15               16 

24                     18               16 

Joists 
Bearing 
if    6  feet 
9 
12 

of  Fir 

Scantling 
5    in.  by    24 
6J               2i 

8            a 

Joists 
Bearing 
if    6  feet 
9 
12 

of  Oak 

Scantling 

5    iu.  by    3 

7i               3 

10                 3 

Joists  of  Fir 
Bearing              Scantling 
if    6  feet              5    in.  by    3 
9                     71              3 
12                     10                 3 

Joists  of  Oak 
Bearing              Scantling 
if    6  feet               6    in.  by    3 
9                       9                 3 
12                     12                 3 

Bridgiugs  of  Fir 

Be.iring              Scantling 

if    6  feet               4    in.  by    2+ 

8                       6                 2f 

10                       6                 3 

Bridgings  of  Oak 
Bearing              Scantling 
if    6  feet               4    in.  by    3 
8                       5i               3 
10                       7                 3 

Bridgings  of  Fir 
Bearing              Scantling 
if    6  feet               4    in.  by    3 
8                       5i               3 
10                       7                 3 

Bridgings  of  Oak 
Bearing              Scantling 
if    6  feet               5    in.  by    S^ 
8                       6^               Si- 
lo                     8                 Si 

Small  Ra 
Bearing 
if    S  feet 
10 
12 

'ters  of  Fir 
Scantling 
3iin.by    2i 

4i          n 

•  5J                2i 

Small  Raf 
Bearing 
if    8  feet 
10 
12 

ters  of  Oak 

Scantling 

4+ in.  by    3 

si               3 

6J               3 

Small  Ra 
Bearing 
if    8  feet 
10 
12 

Hers  of  Fir 

Scantling 

4i  in.  by    3 

H              3 

6i              3 

Small  Rafters  of  Oak 

Bearing              Scanth'ng 

if    8  feet              5i  in.  by    3 

10                       7                 3 

12                       9                 8 

Beams  of  Fir,  or  Ties 
Length               Scantling 
if  30  feet               6    iu.  by    7 
45                       9                8i 
60                     12               11 

Beams  oT  Oak,  or  Ties 
Length               Scantling 
if  30  feet               7    in.  by    8 
45                     10               IU 
60                     13               15 

Beams  of  Fir,  or  Ties 
Length                Scantling 
if  30  feet               7    ia  by    8 
45                     10               IU 
60                     IS               15 

Beams  of  C 
Length 
if  30  feet 
45 
60 

)ak,  or  Ties. 

Scantling 

8    in.  by "  9 

11               12i 

14               16 

Principal  Rafters 

Scantling 

Length          Top 

if  24  ft.       5  iu.<fe  6 

36            6i          8 

48             8          10 

of  Fir 

Bottom 
fi  in.  cfe  7 
8          10 
10        12 

Princi 

Length 
if  24  ft. 
36 
48 

)al  Rafters  of  Oak 
Scantling 

Top      1    Bottom 

7  ia  <fe  8  1  8  in.  cfe  9 

8  9     9       lOi 

9  10     10        12 

Pi-incipal  Rafters  of  Fir 

Scantling. 

Length           Top           Bottom 

if  24  ft.       7  in.  &  8     8  in.  <fe  9 

36            8             9     9        lOi 

38            9           10     10      12 

Princi 

Length 
if  24  ft. 
36 
48 

pal  Raftei-s  of  Oak 
Scantling 

Top          Bottom 

8  in.  <fe  9     9in.&.10 

9  10  1  10        12 

10  12  1  12        14 

"  Although  this  table  seems  so  plain  as  to  need  no  expla- 
nation, it  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe  some  particulars,  such 
as  that  all  binding  or  strong  joists  ought  to  be  half  as  thick 
again  as  common  joists  ;  that  is,  if  a  common  joist  be  given 
three  inclK'S  thick,  a  binding-joist  should  be  four  inches  and 
a  half  thick,  although  the  same  depth. 

"  Observe  also,  that  if  conveniency  do  not  allow  of  posts 
in  partitions  being  square,  in  such  cases,  multiply  the  square 
of  the  side  of  the  posts,  as  here  given,  by  itself;  for  ii;stanee, 
if  it  be  six  inches  square,  then  as  six  times  six  is  thirty-six, 
consequently  to  keep  this  post  nearly  to  the  same  strength, 
find  some  number  that  shall  agree  thereto ;  as  suppose  the 
partition  to  be  four  inches  thick,  then  let  your  post  be  nine 
inches  the  other  way,  so  that  nine  times  four  is  thirty-six, 
being  the  same  as  six  times  six  ;  so  that  the  strength  is 
nearly  the  same,  although  being  equal  in  its  squares  is  best 
for  the  strength. 

"  Posts  that  go  the  height  of  two  or  three  stories,  need 
not  hold  this  proportion,  because  at  every  floor  it  will  meet 
with  a  tie;  admit  a  post  was  required  of  thirty  feet  high, 
and  in  this  height  there  were  three  stories,  two  of  ten  feet, 


and  one  of  eight.  Look  for  po=;ts  of  fir  of  ten  feet  high,  their 
scantling  is  five  inches  square,  /.  e.  twenty-five  square  inches; 
■which  double  for  the  two  stories. 

"  And  take  also  that  of  eight  feet  high,  being  four  inches 
square,  i.  e.  sixteen  square  inches,  all  which  being  added 
together,  make  sixty-four  square  inches  ;  so  that  such  a  post 
would  be  eight  inches  square.  On  occasion  it  may  be  lessened 
in  each  story  as  it  rises. 

"  I  do  not  insist  that  the  scantlings  of  timber  ought  to  be 
exactly  as  by  this  table  is  expressed,  but  may  be  varied  in 
some  respects,  as  the  workmen  shall  see  fit ;  the  reason  of 
its  being  inserted,  is  in  consideration  of  the  scantlings  of 
timber,  as  formerly  settled  by  act  of  parliament,  and  which, 
if  compared,  will  prove  the  necessity  and  use  of  this  fable. 

"  As  to  plates  on  walls,  or  bressummcrs  to  support  walls, 
I  do  not  find  they  can  come  into  any  regular  proportion,  as 
the  rest  do,  therefore  must  be  left  to  discretion. 

'■  And  as  I  have  herein  described  a  great  varietj'  of  the 
principal  things  requisite  to  be  known  by  every  carpenter,  1 
shall  conclude  this  part  with  my  wishes  that  it  may  prove  as 
useful  as  my  earnest  endeavours  have  been  to  make  it  so." 


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It  is  singular  that  in  tiie  foregoing  table,  the  oali  scantlings 
arc  greater  than  those  of  fir.  Oak  is  more  cohesive  than  fir, 
but  fir  is  less  compressible  by  forces  acting  in  the  flircetion 
of  the  fibres  ;  oak  is  therefore  more  fit  for  ties,  and  fir  for 
struts,  or  straining  pieces.  But  Mr.  Price,  in  this  table, 
inionsiilcrately  and  indiscriminately  makes  the  oak  scantlings 
larger  than  those  of  fir. 

The  following  observations,  in  the  introduction  to  Price's 
work,  are  very  judicious,  and  worthy  of  transenption. 

"  Nevertheless,  it  may  not  be  improper,  in'  this  place,  to 
mention  some  general  observations.  There  is  a  moisture  in 
all  timber;  therefore  all  bearing  timber  ought  to  have  a 
moderate  camber,  or  roundness  :  for  till  that  moisture  is  in 
some  sort  dried  out,  the  said  timber  will  sag  with  its  own 
■weight ;  and  that  chiefly  is  the  reason  girders  are  trussed  when 
used,  as  in  its  place  will  be  shown.  But  here  observe,  that 
girders  are  best  trussed  when  they  are  first  sawn  out,  for  by 
their  drying  and  shrinking,  it  tightens  the  trusses  in  them 
yet  more. 

"  Observe  also,  that  all  beams,  or  ties,  be  cut,  or  forced  in 
framing,  to  a  camber,  or  roundness,  such  as  an  inch  in  the 
length  of  eighteen  feet ;  and  that  principal  rafters  be  also 
cut,  or  forced  up  to-  a  camber,  or  roundness,  as  before :  the 
reason  of  this  is,  all  trusses,  though  ever  so  well  framed,  by 
the  shrinking  of  the  timber,  and  weight  of  the  covering,  will 
sag,  and  sometimes  so  much  as  to  offend  the  eye  of  the 
beholder;  so  that  by  this  preparation  your  truss  will  ever 
appear  well. 

"  Also  observe,  that  all  case-bays,  either  in  floors  or  roofs, 
do  not  exceed  twelve  feet  if  possible;  that  is,  do  not  let 
your  joists  in  floors,  your  purlins  in  roofs,  &c.,  exceed  twelve 
feet  in  their  length,  or  bearing  ;  but  rather  let  the  bearing  be 
eight,  nine,  or  ten  feet ;  which  should  be  observed  in  forming 
a  plan. 

"  Also,  in  bridging-floors,  do  not  place  your  binding  or 
strong  joists  above  three,  four,  or  five  feet  apart;  and  that 
your  bridgings  or  common  joists  arc  not  above  ten  or  twelve 
inches  apart,  that  is,  between  one  joist  and  the  other. 

"  Here  also  observe,  never  to  make  double  tenants  or  tenons 
for  bearing  uses,  such  as  binding-joists,  common  joists,  or 
purlins ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  it  weakens  very  nmch  what- 
ever you  frame  it  into  ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  is  a  rarity 
to  have  a  draught  in  both  tenons,  that  is,  to  draw  your  joint 
close  by  the  pin  :  for  the  said  pin,  by  passing  through  both 
tenons,  (if  there  is  a  draught  to  each,)  must  bend  so  much, 
that  without  the  pin  be  as  tough  as  wire,  it  must  needs  break 
in  driving,  and  consequently  do  more  hurt  than  good." 

We  are  now  come  to  Mr.  Batty  Langley,  in  whose  nume- 
rous publications  arc  to  be  found  many  particulars  relating 
to  Carjientry.  In  his  Biiilder^s  Complele  Assistant,  published 
1738,  page  147,  the  fourth  edition,  he  has  the  following 
observation : — 

"  When  partitions  have  solid  bearings  throughout  their 
whole  extent,  they  have  no  need  to  be  trussed  ;  but  when 
they  can  be  supported  but  in  some  particular  places,  then 
they  require  to  be  trussed  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  whole 
weight  shall  rest  perpendicularly  upon  the  pl.aces  appointed 
for  their  support,  and  nowhere  else.  Partitions  are  made  of 
difll'rent  heights,  to  carry  one,  two,  or  more  floors,  as  the 
kinds  of  buildings  require. 

"The  first  things  to  be  considered  in  works  of  this  kind 
are — the  weight  that  is  to  be  supported,  the  goodness  and 
kind  of  timber  that  is  to  be  employed,  and  proper  scantlings 
necessary  for  that  purpose." 

So  far  his  observations  are  toleralde ;  but  his  subsequent  rea- 
sonings are  drawn  rather  from  his  own  caprice,  than  from  the 
principles  ofscience,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  quotations: 


"The  strength  of  timber  in  general  is  always  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  it  contains.  The  quan- 
tity- of  solid  matter  in  timber  is  always  more  or  less,  as  the 
timber  is  more  or  less  heavy;  hence  it  is,  that  all  heavy 
woods,  as  oak,  box,  mahogany,  lignum-vitx,  &c.,  are  stronger 
than  elder,  deal,  sycamore,  &c.,  which  are  lighter  or  (rather) 
less  heavy  ;  and,  indeed,  for  the  same  reason,  iron  is  not  so 
strong  as  steel,  which  is  heavier  than  iron  ;  and  steel  is  not 
so  strong  as  brass  or  copper,  which  are  both  heavier  than 
steel.  To  prove  this,  make  two  equal  cubes  of  any  two 
kinds  of  timber,  suppose  the  one  of  fir,  the  other  of  oak ; 
weigh  them  singly,  and  note  their  respective  weights  ;  this 
done,  prepare  two  pieces  of  the  same  timbers,  of  equal 
lengths,  suppose  each  five  feet  in  length,  and  let  each  be 
tried  up  as  nearly  square  as  can  be,  but  to  such  scantlings, 
that  the  weight  of  a  piece  of  oak  may  be  to  the  weight  of 
a  piece  of  fir,  as  the  cube  of  oak  is  to  the  cube  of  fir  ;  then 
those  two  pieces  being  laid  horizontally  hollow,  with  equal 
bearings,  and  being  loaded  in  their  middles  with  increased 
equal  weights,  it  will  be  seen  that  that  they  will  bend  or  sag 
equally,  which  is  a  demonstration  that  their  strengths  are  to 
each  other  as  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  contained  in 
them." 

This  is  reasoning  only  from  conjecture,  and  therefore  the 
consequence  must  be  erroneous.  The  relation  between  weight 
and  strength  is  not  general.  In  some  instances  the  very 
reverse  takes  place  to  what  this  author  asserts. 

"  As  the  whole  weight  on  jiartitions  is  supported  by  the 
principal  post,  their  scantlings  must  be  first  considered,  and 
this  should  be  done  in  two  different  manners,  viz.,  first, 
when  the  quarters,  commonly  called  studs,  are  to  be  filled 
with  brickwork,  and  rendered  thereon  ;  and,  lastly,  when  to 
be  lathed  and  plastered  on  both  sides. 

"  When  the  quarters  are  to  be  filled  between  with  brick- 
work, the  thickness  of  the  principal  posts  should  be  as  much 
less  than  the  breadth  of  a  brick,  as  twice  the  thickness  of  a 
lath  ;  so  that  when  these  posts  are  lathed  to  hold  on  the  ren- 
dering, the  laths  on  both  sides  may  be  flush  with  the  surfaces 
of  the  brickwork.  And  to  give  these  posts  a  suflicient 
strength,  their  breadth  must  be  increased  at  discretion  ;  but 
when  the  quarters  are  to  be  lathed  on  both  sides,  or  when 
wainscoting  is  to  be  placed  against  the  partitioning,  then  the 
thickness  of  the  posts  may  be  made  greater  at  jileasurc.  The 
usual  scantlings  for  the  principal  posts  of  fir,  of  8  feet  in 
height,  is  4  or  5  inches  square  ;  of  10  feet  in  height,  5  or  G 
inches  square  ;  of  12  feet  in  height,  Gor7  inches  square  ;  of 
14  feet  in  height,  7  or  8  eight  inches  square  ;  of  16  feet  in 
height,  from  9  to  10  inches  square.  But  these  last,  in  my 
opinion,  are  full  large,  where  no  very  great  weight  is  to  be 
supported.  As  oak  is  much  stronger  than  fir,  the  scantling 
of  oak-posts  need  not  be  so  large  as  those  of  fir;  and  there- 
fore the  scantlings  assigned  by  Mr.  Price,  in  his  Treatise  of 
Carpentrt/,  are  absurd,  as  being  much  larger  than  those  he 
has  assigned  fi)r  fir-roofs.  To  find  the  just  scantling  of  oaken 
posts  that  shall  have  the  same  strength  of  any  given  fir-posts, 
this  is  the  rule : 

"As  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  fir  is  to  the  weight  of  a  cube  of 
oak  of  the  same  magnitude,  so  is  the  area  of  the  square  end 
of  any  fir-post  to  the  area  of  the  end  of  an  oaken  post,  and 
whose  square  root  is  equal  to  the  side  of  the  oaken  post 
required." 

He  might  as  well  have  asserted,  that  as  the  weight  of  a 
cube  of  steel  is  to  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  lead,  so  is  the 
area  of  the  square  end  of  any  steel  bar  to  the  area  of  the  end 
of  any  leaden  bar  ;  which  proposition  would  have  led  to  mani- 
fest liilsehood.  In  the  rule  he  has  not  mentioned  the  length, 
which,  if  taken  into  the  consideration,  would  bring  a  very 


different  result;  as  timber  is  considerably  wealtened  by  its 
length.  The  rule  is  therefore  not  only  erroneous,  but  defec- 
tive also. 

With  respect  to  Mr.  Price's  table,  we  have  only  to  observe 
that  as  there  are  no  details  of  experiments  on  the  strength  of 
oalc  and  fir,  when  employed  as  posts,  we  cannot  decide  in  this 
matter.  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  the  fibres  of  fir 
are  straight,  whilst  those  of  oalv  are  very  crooked;  whence  it 
is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  a  body  with  straight  fibres  is 
better  adapted  to  resist  compression  than  one  whose  fibres 
are  crooiied  ;  and  this  supposition  is  strengthened,  if  not  con- 
firmed, by  the  experiments  of  Muchenbreuk,  who  asserts, 
that  though  oak  will  suspend  half  as  much  again  as  fir,  it 
will  not,  as  a  pillar,  support  two-thirds  of  that  load.  Now  if 
we  can  put  any  dependence  on  these  experiments,  fir  should 
be  used  in  cases  of  compression,  as  in  story-posts,  partitions, 
&c.,  and  oak  in  cases  of  tension,  as  ties,  truss-posts,  &c. 

"  The  distances  of  principal  posts  are  generally  about  ten 
feet,  and  of  the  quarters  about  fourteen  inches ;  but  when 
they  are  to  be  lathed  on  both  sides,  the  distances  of  the  quar- 
ters should  be  such  as  will  be  agreeable  to  the  lengths  of  the 
laths,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  great  waste  in  the  laths.  The 
thicknesses  of  ground-plates  and  risings  are  generally  from 
two  inches  and  a  half  to  four  inches,  and  are  scarfed 
together." 

With  respect  to  lintels,  bond-timbers,  and  naked  flooring, 
he  observes  as  follows  : 

"  For  the  better  disposing  of  the  weight  imposed  on 
girders,  lintels  should  always  be  firmly  bedded  on  a  sufficient 
number  of  short  pieces  of  oak,  laid  across  the  walls,  vul- 
garly called  templets,  which  are  of  excellent  use. 

"  Let  girders  be  laid  in  piers,  or  in  lintels  over  windows; 
it  will  in  both  these  cases  be  commendable  to  turn  small 
arches  over  their  ends,  that  in  case  their  ends  are  first 
decayed,  they  may  be  renewed  at  pleasure,  without  disturb- 
ing any  part  of  tlie  brickwork  ;  and  for  their  preservation, 
anoint  their  ends  with  melted  pitch  and  grease,  viz.,  of  pitch 
four,  of  grease  one ;  and,  indeed,  were  lintels  to  be  covered 
with  pitch  and  grease  also,  it  would  contribute  very  greatly 
to  their  duration. 

"  In  the  carrying  up  the  several  walls  of  buildings,  it 
should  be  carefully  observed,  to  lay  in  bond-timbers  on  tem- 
plets, as  aforesaid,  at  every  six  or  seven  feet  in  height, 
cogged  down  and  braced  together  with  diagonal  pieces  at 
every  angle,  which  will  bind  the  whole  together  in  the 
most  substantial  manner,  and  prevent  fractures  by  unequal 
settlement. 

"The  distances  of  girders  should  never  exceed  twelve 
feet,  and  their  scantlings  must  be  proportioned  according  to 
their  lengths;  as  by  experience  it  is  known  that  a  scantling 
of  11  inches  by  8  inches  is  sufficient  for  a  fir-girder  of  10  feet 
in  length,  the  area  of  whose  end  is  88  inches,  it  is  very  easy 
to  find  the  proper  scantling  for  a  girder  of  any  greater  length, 
suppose  30  feet,  by  this  rule:  As  10  feet,  the  length  of  the 
first  girder,  is  to  88,  the  area  of  its  end,  so  is  20  feet,  the 
length  of  the  second  giider,  to  176,  the  area  of  its  end. 

"  Now  to  find  its  scantlings,  that,  being  multiplied  into  each 
other,  shall  produce  176  inches,  the  area  found,  one  of  them 
must  be  given,  viz.,  either  the  depth  or  thickness.  In  this 
example,  the  given  depth  shall  be  12  inches,  therefore  divide 
176  by  12,  and  the  quotient  is  14  inches  and  two-thirds, 
which  is  the  other  scantling,  or  breadth  required." 

In  this  example,  the  length  is  regarded  ;  but  in  the  first 
instance,  in  the  dimensions  of  the  given  piece,  he  does  not 
say  which  of  them  is  the  depth.  This  shovild  have  been 
noticed,  as  the  strength  of  a  piece  of  wood  with  its  greater 
dimension  disposed  vertically,  is  to  the  strength  of  the  same 

13 


piece  with  its  less  dimension  in  the  same  position,  as  the 
greater  dimension  is  to  the  less.  Another  uncertainty  will 
arise  from  the  proportion  ;  for  if  the  scantlings  are  not  in  the 
same  ratio,  the  strength  will  be  more  or  less  in  the  one,  as 
the  vertical  dimension  may  be  greater  in  proportion  to  the 
horizontal  than  those  of  the  other  piece.  ^Ir.  Langley  should 
have  noticed  this  also.  He  has  assumed  12  inches  as  the 
depth,  then  finds  the  breadth  to  be  14  inches  and  two-thirds, 
by  dividing  176  by  12  ;  but  this  is  only  guessing  at  the  pro- 
portion, which  might  he  properly  stated  by  the  rules  of 
algebra,  as  follows :  What  two  numbers  are  those,  whose  pro- 
duct is  176,  and  whose  proportion  is  in  the  ratio  of  11  to  8? 
Take  x  for  the  greater,  and  y  for  the  less  of  the  two  num- 
bers ;  then  we  have 

xy  :=  176 
X     :     y    :  :     11 
8^;  =  lly 

From  the  first  equation  we  have 

176 


and  from  the  second, 


Therefore, 


lly 

8"' 
lly': 


y 
lly 


176 


y 

1408 

y»=    128 

consequently,  y  =  (128)  J  =  11.3  nearly  ; 

and  by  dividing  by  11.3  inches,  the  depth,  we  should  then 
have  the  breadth.  We  have  here  taken  it  for  granted,  that 
the  former  part  of  his  proposition  is  true,  but,  indeed,  nothing 
can  be  more  erroneous  ;  for  their  lengths  are  not  in  the  ratio 
of  the  areas  of  their  sections,  when  the  pieces  are  of  equal 
strength,  but  their  lengths  are  in  the  ratio  of  the  breadth 
multiplied  into  the  square  of  the  depth ;  or  if  their  sections 
be  similar  figures,  the  lengths  will  be  in  the  same  ratio  as 
the  cubes  of  their  vertical  dimensions.  By  this  method,  if 
two  pieces  of  timber  were  of  the  same  thickness,  and  of  equal 
strength,  the  lengths  would  be  as  the  depths ;  whereas  they 
are  as  the  square  of  the  depths.  So  that,  besides  the  ambi- 
guity of  his  rule,  allowing  the  data  to  be  properly  fixed,  the 
results  would  give  the  dimensions  of  the  section  much  too 
great,  in  calculating  from  a  given  beam  of  less  length  to  one 
of  a  greater ;  and  much  too  small  in  calculating  from  a 
greater  length  to  a  smaller  one.  In  calculating  the  strength 
of  beams,  it  is  material  to  recollect  the  loss  of  strength  in 
large  beams,  occasioned  by  their  weight,  as  the  strength  of 
beams  is  not  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  stress  occasioned  by 
their  weights,  but  in  a  much  less  degree:  but  as  we  shall 
hereafter  discuss  this  subject,  under  the  article" Strength  of 
Materials,  we  shall  for  the  present  take  leave  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  return  to  our  author. 

"To  prevent  the  sagging  of  short  girders,  it  is  usual  to 
cut  them  camber ;  that  is,  to  cut  them  with  an  angle  in  the 
midst  of  their  lengths,  so  that  their  middles  shall  rise  above 
the  level  of  their  ends,  as  many  half  inches  as  the  girder 
contains  times  ten  feet.  And,  indeed,  girders  of  the  greatest 
length,  although  trussed,  should  be  cut  camber  in  the  same 
manner." 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  notice,  that  the  cambering  of  gir- 
ders does  not  prevent  them  from  sagging,  though  perhaps  it 
may  obviate  their  becoming  concave  on  the  upper  side.  With 
re"ard  to  trussing  girders,  the  flitches  should  not  be  cut  to  a 
camber,  but  brought  into  this  state  in  the  act  of  trussing. 


CAR 


98 


CAR 


"The  next  order  is  joists,  of  which  there  are  five  kinds, 
viz.,  common-joists,  binding-joists,  trimming-joists,  bridging- 
joists,  and  ceiling-joists.  First,  common-joists  are  used  in 
ordinary  buildings,  whose  scantlings  in  fir  arc  generally  made 
as  follows,  viz.  : 


Common  joists,  as  used  in 
smaU  buiidin'^s. 


Length 
in  feet. 

Scantling  in 
inclies. 

6 

9 

12 

6i     by      2i 
H     by      2i 
8        by     2i 

In  this  table,  it  may  be  observed,  the  increase  is  not  very 
regular:  why  should  the  scantling  of  the  joist  9  feet  in 
length,  be  no  more  than  that  of  0  feet  1  This  must  be  a 
mistake 

"  But  in  large  buildings,  the  scantlings  are  much  larger, 
•where  it  is  common  to  make  joists  of  the  following  dimensions: 


Common  joists,  as  employed 
iu  large  buildings. 


Length 
in  feet 


6 

9 

12 


Scantling  in 
inches. 


5       by     3 

7i     by     3 

10       by     3 


"  As  oak  is  much  heavier  than  fir,  it  is  customary  to  make 
the  scantlings  of  oak-joists  larger  than  those  of  fir  ;  but  1 
believe  it  to  be  entirely  wrong,  for  the  reason  before  given, 
relating  to  the  strength  of  timber. 

"  Secondly,  binding-joists  are  generally  made  half  as  thick 
again  as  common-joists  of  the  same  lengths ;"  and  "  are  framed 
flush  with  the  under  surface  of  the  girders,  to  receive  the 
ceiling-joists,  and  about  3  or  4  inches  below  their  upper  sur- 
faces, to  receive  the  bridging-joists  ;  so  that  the  upper  surfaces 
of  the  bridging-joists  may  be  exactly  flush  or  level  with  the 
girder  to  receive  the  boarding. 

"  The  distances  that  binding-joists  should  be  laid  at,  should 
not  exceed  6  feet,  though  some  lay  them  at  greater  distances, 
which  is  not  so  well,  because  the  bridging  and  eciling-joists 
must  be  made  of  larger  scantlings  to  carry  the  weight  of  the 
coiling  and  boarding,  and  consequently  a  greater  quantity  of 
timber  must  be  employed.  But,  however,  as  this  particular 
is  at  the  will  of  the  carpenter,  I  shall  only  add,  that  the 
scantlings  for  bridgings  of  fir,  to  their  several  lengths,  are 
as  follow :    . 


Bridgings  of  fir. 


Bearing. 

Scantling. 

feet 

6 

8 
10 

inches  by  inches 

4  by      3 

5  by      S 
7      by      S 

secured  at  the  beam  with  iron  straps,  to  prevent  their  flying 
out,  in  case  that  the  tenons  should  fail ;  but  as  I  apprehend 
this  method  was  capable  of  improvement,  1  therefore  con- 
sidered, that  if  under  the  lower  parts  of  principal  rafters, 
there  be  discharging  struts  framed  into  the  beams  and  pricked 
posts,  they  will  discharge  the  principal  rafters  from  the 
greatest  part  of  the  whole  weight." 

This  is  certainly  an  improvement,  but  not  of  his,  as  it  is  to 
be  found  in  Price's  Carjycniry,  among  his  designs  of  roofs; 
it  gives  an  additional  security  to  the  principal  rafters,  so  that 
if  the  outer  abutment  should  tail,  the  roof  will  still  be  sup- 
ported by  the  inner  one. 

He  gives  the  scantlings  of  fir-timbers  in  a  roof,  as  follows  : 


"  Tlieir  distances  from  each  other,  about  12  or  14  inches." 

He  then  proceeds  witli  roofs,  as  follows  : 

"  As  the  common  method  of  iVaming  the  trusses  of  prin- 
cipal rafters  of  large  roofs,  is  to  lay  the  whole  weight  of  the 
beam  and  covering  upon  the  feet,  they  therefore  should  be 


Beams. 


Length. 

ScantUng. 

feet 
30 
45 
60 
75 
90 

inches  by  inches 

6       by       7 

9       by       7 

10       by       8} 

lOi     by     10 

12       by     lOi 

Piincipal  Rafters. 


Length. 

Scantling  at  Top. 

Scantling  at  Bottom. 

feet. 

inches  by  inches. 

inches  by  inches. 

24 

5     by     6 

7       by       6 

36 

7     by     6 

9       by       7 

41 

9     by     7 

10       by       7i 

60 

10     by     7i 

10       by       9 

72 

10     by     9 

11       by       9i 

SmaU  Rafters. 


Length. 

ScantUng. 

feet 

8 

10 

12 

inches  by  inches. 
ii,     by      3 

5  by      3 

6  by      3 

Besides  the  formation  of  the  end  of  a  purlin,  attempted 
by  Price,  Langley  also  notices  the  bevels  of  the  jack-rafters. 
We  now  come  to  the  description  of  his  diagrams. 

"  The  Figures  1  and  2,  Plate  9,  are  examples  of  floors 
made  of  short  lengths,  which  I  have  given  for  the  diversion 
of  the  curious." 

These  floors  are  of  a  similar  construction  with  those  shown 
in  the  works  of  Dr.  Wallis.  Godfrey  Richards,  our  first 
author,  has  also  inserted  two  kinds  of  floors  of  this  nature, 
one  constructed  of  hexagons  and  triangles,  the  other  consist- 
ing of  squares  laid  diagonally  in  respect  of  the  plan,  with  a 
hexagon  in  the  middle.  These  examples  were  executed  at 
the  old  Somerset  House,  and  were  at  that  time  a  novelty  in 
England.  This  species  of  naked  flooring  may  be  seen  in  the 
works  of  Serlio.  It  had  its  origin  in  Italy,  and  was  thence 
transported  to  this  country.  Though  from  the  priticiplcs  of 
construction,  the  timbers  mutually  support  each  other,  this 
species  of  joisting  has  not  been  found  advantageous,  cither 
in  saving  of  expense,  or  with  respect  to  strength,  but  the 
contrary ;  it  has  therefore  in  modern  works  been  dis- 
continued. 


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Figure  3,  "  represents  the  section  of  a  girder  ;  h  b,  &c., 
parts  of  two  binding-joists,  tenoned  into  the  girder ;  a  «,  &e., 
the  ends  of  bridging-joists  ;  e  e,  boarding  on  the  bridgings  ; 
d  d.  &c.,  mortises  in  the  binding-joists  to  receive  the  tenons  of 
the  ceiling-joists  ;  as  also  the  mortises  4  c,  6  r,  &e.,  but  these 
last  are  those  whieii  are  called  pullcij-morthes,  into  which  the 
ceiling-joists  are  slid.  To  understand  this  more  plainly,  (see 
Figure  4,)  the  figures  f  f  f  f  are  added,  which  represent  the 
sections  of  so  many  binding-joists  ;  g  g,  &c.,  the  sections  of 
small  joists  between  them;  z  x,  a,  side  view  of  a  bridging- 
joist  ;  h  h  h,  ceiling-joists  tenoned  into  the  binding-joists, 
flush  with  their  bottoms,  as  aforesaid,  to  receive  the  lath  and 
plaster." 

Figures  5  and  6  are  parts  of  Figures  3  and  4,  enlarged. 

The  joists  g  g,  in  Figure  4,  add  considerable  expense,  with- 
out being  of  adequate  service. 

Figures  7,  8,  9,  10,  are  scarfings  shown  in  plate  50,  of  his 
work  ;  but  he  takes  no  notice  of  them  in  the  text,  and  indeed 
they  are  not  deserving  of  it ;  we  have  already  noticed  those 
in  Smith's  work,  to  which  these  of  Langley's  have  a  near 
affinity. 

Figure  11,  represented  in  plate  53  of  his  work,  is  not 
noticed  in  the  text,  but  the  following  words  are  written  over 
the  top  of  the  figure  :  "  A  new  method  for  trussing-beams, 
girders,  &c.,  by  Batty  Langley." 

The  showing  of  such  ridiculous  constructions  in  carpentry, 
has  certainly  lessened  the  credit  of  this  author,  as  permitting 
fancy  to  take  the  place  of  judgment,  in  cases  where  strength 
alone  was  the  object. 

Figure  12  is  his  method  of  laying  roofs  in  ledgement ;  he 
only  differs  from  Price  in  this  particular,  that  he  lays  all  the 
rafter  feet  next  to  the  wall-plates,  whereas  Price  lays  them 
the  contrary  way.  Price's  disposition  is  more  convenient  in 
practice,  but  Langley's  more  rwitural  for  building  up. 

Figures  13  and  14  are  his  methods  of  tracing  angle- 
brackets,  and  are  the  same  in  principle  as  that  shown  by 
Halfpenny,  which  was  an  example  for  a  right  angle.  But 
Langley,  always  profuse  in  his  figures,  and  pompous  in  his 
text,  has  not  only  shown  the  description  of  angle-brackets  for 
right  angles,  but  also  for  obtuse  and  acute  angles,  likewise 
for  ovolos,  cavettos,  cimarectas,  and  cima-reversas,  as  if  the 
same  principle  did  not  apply  to  all  forms  alike. 

In  Figure  15,  his  description  is  as  follows  :  "  The  curva- 
tures of  hip-rafters  to  polygonal  roofs,  that  is,  those  whose 
plans  are  polygons,  are  also  found  by  transposing  the  ordi- 
nates  of  a  principal  rafter  (which  must  be  given)  upon  the 
base  of  a  hip-rafter. 

"  Suppose  in"  {Figure  15)  "■  a  d  to  be  the  base,  over  which 
the  cavetto  principal  rafter  c  d,  is  to  stand  :  and  let  a  e  be  the 
base  of  a  hip-rafter :  divide  a  d  into  equal  parts,  and  draw 
the  ordinates  2,  1 ;  4,  3,  &c.,  on  the  line  ad;  divide  a  e  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  d,  and  on  the  line  o  e  draw  the  ordi- 
nates 1,  2;  3,  4  ;  5,  6,  &c.,  and  from  the  point  b,  through 
the  points  2,  4,  6,  8,  &c.,  trace  the  curve  of  the  hip-rafter,  as 
required." 

This  disposition  of  confining  the  parts  into  one  connected 
diagram  is  more  obvious  to  learners  than  Mr.  Price's,  but 
even  this  of  Langley's  is  not  shown  to  the  utmost  advantage ; 
for  why  divide  the  bases  into  equal  parts,  as  this  equality 
causes  the  curvature  of  the  ribs  and  the  curving  sides  of  the 
covering  to  be  divided  unequally?  Though  the  covering  is 
shown  in  the  figure,  he  has  given  no  description  of  it  in 
the  text. 

Figure  16,  shows  his  method  of  covering  niches  or  domes, 
explained  as  follows  :  "  Let  a  /  c  be  the  plan  of  the  head  of 
a  semi-circular  niche,  and  complete  the  circle  a  /  c  d.  Draw 
the  diameters  a  b  c  and  d  4 /continued  out  towards  «  at  plea- 


sure. Make  /  r  and  fs  each  equal  to  one-fourth  of  a  f ;  then 
r  s  will  be  equal  to  half  a  /,  and  draw  the  lines  r  h  and  s  b, 
divide  b  d  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  draw  the  ordi- 
nates 1,  8;  2,  S);  3,  10,  &c.,  and  on  the  points  where  those 
ordinates  cut  the  semi-diameter  b  rf,  with  the  radius  of  each 
semi-ordinate,  describe  semi-circles,  as  the  dotted  semi-circles 
in  the  figure.  Make  e  f  equal  to  the  curve  a  f;  make  /  p 
equal  to  a  1  ;  /o  equal  to  «  2 ;  /n  equal  to  a  3  ;  /m  equal 
to  a  4  ;  //  equal  to  a  5 ;  f  k  equal  to  a  6  ;  and  f  g  equal  to 
al.  On  the  point  c  describe  the  arches  13, 14;  11, 12;  9,10; 
&c.  Bisect  the  half  part  of  each  of  the  dotted  semi-circles, 
as/c  in  one  ;  1,  8,  in  two;  3,  9,  in  four  ;  5, 10,  in  six;  7, 11, 
in  eight;  9,  12,  in  ten;  11,  13,  in  twelve;  and  13,  14,  in 
fourteen  ;  make  /  h  and  /  g  each  equal  to  half  the  arch  / »  ; 
p  1  and  p  2  each  equal  to  half  the  arch  1,2;  o  3,  o  4,  each 
equal  to  half  the  arch  3,  4 ;  and  so,  in  like  manner,  n  5  and 
M  6,  to  the  half  arch  5,  6,  &c.  From  the  point  f,  through  the 
points  12,  11,  9,  7,  &c.,  and  14,  12,  10,  &c.,  trace  the  curves 
e  h  and  eg;  then  four  such  pieces  as  e  ^r  A  will  cover  the  head 
of  the  niche,  as  required." 

This  is  certainly  a  very  tiresome  method,  as  each  of  the 
semi-circles  must  be  divided  into  equal  parts ;  but  why  divide 
each  quadrant  into  two,  which  he  has  directed  ?  as  the  more 
the  parts,  the  truer  the  covering  will  be.  If  the  arches  a  rfand 
c  d  had  been  divided  into  equal  parts,  the  covering  could 
have  been  traced  with  more  exactness,  as  there  is  a  very- 
long  space  beginning  with  the  point  e,  without  any  guide, 
and  is  as  much  as  the  three  lower  spaces  taken  together  :  an 
equality  of  the  parts  in  a  d  and  c  d  would  have  been  produc- 
tive of  the  parts  e  g,  g  k,  k  I,  &c.,  also  equal  to  each  other, 
and  consequently  the  distances  of  the  points  in  the  curves 
e  h  and  e  g,  though  not  exactly  equal,  would  have  been 
neaily  so. 

The  description  given  by  Mr.  Price  for  the  covering  of 
domes,  is  defective  ;  but  his  aim  was  at  a  much  more  con- 
venient method  than  this  of  Langley's,  which  requires  ample 
space,  and  is  very  troublesome  and  tedious  in  practice,  with- 
out obtaining  any  greater  accuracy.  The  reader  must  observe, 
that  in  strictness  of  principle,  no  flat  surface,  however  thin, 
can  be  made  to  comply  with  a  spheric  surface  ;  yet  if  com- 
paratively a  very  small  portion  of  the  flat  surface  be  taken, 
it  may  be  made  so  nearly  to  coincide  with  the  spheric,  as  not 
to  be  detected  by  the  eye,  which  is  as  near  as  we  ever  need 
in  practice  ;  and  thus  the  narrower  the  board,  the  more 
nearly  will  its  surface  comply  with  the  spheric  surface  ;  but 
as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  this  in  another  place, 
we  shall  leave  it  for  the  present,  and  proceed  to  show  his 
methods  of  finding  the  coverings  of  solids. 

Figure  17,  "  represents  the  manner  of  covering  the  outside 
of  a  cone;  the  arch  e  a  being  made  equal  to  the  circumfer- 
ence e,  which  is  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cone:  this  figure  is 
exhibited  here  to  show,  that  the  soflits  of  a  semi-circular 
headed  window,  whose  splay  is  continued  all  round,  is  no 
more  than  the  lower  superfices  of  a  semi-cone ;  for  if  the 
splay  were  continued,  it  would  meet  in  a  point." 

In  this  respect  he  is  right ;  but  no  covering  can  be  more 
easy  to  conceive,  except  that  of  a  right  cylinder.  The 
method  of  coveringan  oblique  cylinder  he  never  could  obtain, 
as  the  edges  which  should  coincide  with  the  elliptic  sections 
are  all  exhibited  in  straight  lines.  See  Plate  74,  at  the  end 
of  his  Builder's  Cumplele  Assistant  ;  neither  has  he  ever  been 
able  to  obtain  the  covering  of  the  ungula  of  a  right  coue, 
or  of  its  complement  when  cut  to  produce  an  elliptic  sec- 
tion, so  that  the  edge  of  his  Cftvering  may  coincide  with  the 
said  elliptic  sectiftn,  and  iU  surface  with  the  curved  surface 
of  the  cone, 

Figure  18.  "  The  superficies  of  these  frustrums  are  laid  out 


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as  follows."  "  On  a  describe  the  arch  c  m  I,  &c.  e  equal  to 
the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cone,  which  divide  into 
eight  equal  parts,  at  the  points  7«,  /,  k;  i,  &c.  and  draw  the 
lines  a  m,  a  I,  a  k,  &c.  Draw  b  1,  parallel  to  d  c,  and  divide 
i  c  into  four  equal  parts.  Make  a  5,  a  II.  each  equal  to 
a  4 ;  make  a  6,  a  10,  each  equal  to  a  3 ;  make  a  7,  a  9,  each 
equal  to  «  2  ;  make  a  8  equal  to  a  1.  Through  the  points 
11,  10,  9,  8,  and  7,  6,  5,  trace  the  curves  e  8  and  8  c ;  then 
the  figure  c  8  e  i  c  is  the  superficies  of  the  side." 

What  has  the  division  of  the  line  i  c  to  do  with  the  prin- 
ciple'? This  equality  is  not  founded  upon  any  part  of  the 
construction  of  the  solid,  and  consequently  the  method  can 
never  obtain  a  true  cover  or  envelope  ;  indeed,  it  is  so  void 
of  science  as  not  to  deserve  any  farther  notice.  In  the  next 
place,  he  attempts  to  find  the  envelope  of  a  j)art  of  a  semi- 
cuneoid,  contained  between  two  concentric  cylindric  surfaces, 
or  of  the  covering  or  lining  of  the  soffit  of  a  window  turned 
upon  a  centre,  which  has  either  an  elliptic  or  circular  section, 
everywhere  panillel  to  its  end,  and  to  coincide  with  the 
superficies  of  a  circular  wall,  or  the  head  of  an  aperture 
splaying  on  the  sides,  and  level  at  the  crown.  But  are  we 
now  to  expect  that  this  will  be  accomplished,  unless  by  acci- 
dent, when  he  has  already  failed  in  obtaining  methods  for 
the  description  of  much  more  simple  envelopes,  viz.  for  cylin- 
ders and  cones  cut  obliquely  ?  The  reader  will,  however, 
attend  to  his  description,  which  is  as  follows,  and  then 
judge  for  himself. 

The  descriptions  of  the  following  diagrams  are  equally 
deficient  in  method,  and  void  of  principle :  his  diagrams, 
also,  are  full  of  redundant  lines.  He  begins  the  text  without 
aimouncing  the  purpose  of  the  operation,  so  that  the  reader 
must  be  kept  in  the  dark  till  the  conclusion. 

Plate  X.  FUjure  1.  "  Of  straif/ht,  circular,  and  elliptical 
arches  in  circular  walls. — The  first  work  to  be  done,  is  the 
making  of  the  centres,  to  turn  these  kinds  of  arches  upon, 
which  may  be  thus  performed  :  Let  o  ii  i  k  be  the  plan  of 
a  circular  building,  and  at  Figure  6,  it  is  required  to  make 
a  centre  for  a  semi-circular  arch  to  the  w'indow,  whose  diameter 
without  is  a  d,  and  within  »  m.  Bisect  a  d  inf,  and  describe 
the  semi-circle  ap  d.  Divide  a  d  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts  at  the  points  G,  4,  2,  &c.  and  di'aw  the  ordinates  0  6 ; 

4,  4;  2,  2,  &c.  Divide  n  m  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts,  and  make  the  ordinates  6,  5 ;  4,  3 ;  2,  1,  &c.  equal  to 
the  ordinates  6,  6 ;  4,  4 ;  2,  2,  &;c.  and  through  the  points 

5,  3,  1,  A',  &c.  trace  the  curve  n  k  m,  then  a  p  d  and  n  k  m 
will  be  the  two  ribs  for  the  centre  :  this  being  done,  place 
the  ribs  perpendicular  over  the  lines  a  d  and  n  7ii,  and  cover 
them,  as  centres  usually  are,  a?id  then,  applying  the  edge  of 
a  plumb-rule  to  the  divers  parts  of  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  window's  bottom,  the  top  of  the  rule  will  give  the 
several  points  at  which  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  covering 
is  to  be  cut  off,  so  as  to  stand  exactly  over  the  inside  and 
outside  of  the  building,  and  then  the  centre  will  be  completed 
as  required." 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  anything  so  unscientific 
as  this  description.  In  describing  and  forming  the  centre 
for  the  head  of  the  required  aperture,  he  is  accurate;  but 
when  we  are  told  to  apply  "the  edge  of  a  plumb-rule  to  the 
divers  parts  of  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  window's  bottom," 
and  that  "  the  top  of  the  rule  will  give  the  several  points  at 
which  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  covering  are  to  be  cut 
ofl',  so  as  to  stand  exactly  over  the  inside  and  outside  of  the 
building;  and"  that  "the  centre  will  be  completed  as  required," 
he  is  altogether  intolerable;  for  besides  being  tedious  to  an 
extreme,  it  is  no  more  than  every  mechanic  could  have  easily 
conceived.  In  forming  the  centre,  it  would  be  better  to  tbrm 
the  inside  curve  with  a  trammel,  which  would  obviate  the 


tedious  work  of  dividing  the  base  of  each  curve  into  equal 
parts,  as  well  as  the  transferring  of  the  ordinates  of  the  semi- 
circle to  those  of  the  ellipses,  and  then,  at  last,  either  tracing 
the  elliptic  curve  by  hand,  or  bending  a  thin  slip  of  wood 
round  pins  or  nails  stuck  in  the  points.  At  all  events,  even 
in  the  operation  of  tracing,  the  dividing  of  the  bases  into 
equal  parts  is  a  very  bad  practice,  as  it  always  leaves  so  large 
and  so  quick  a  portion  of  the  curve  at  each  extremity  to  be 
guessed  at ;  but  here  it  is  admissible,  on  account  of  the  fol- 
lowing diagrams  connected  therewith. 

"  To  divide  the  courses  in  the  arch  of  this  leindow. — On  a 
flat  panel,  &c.  draw  a  line,  as  b  e,  in  Figure  7,  make  a  f  o 
equal  to  the  curve  a  c  d,  also  make  a  b  and  o  e  each  equal 
to  the  intended  height  of  the  brick  arch.  Make  f  p,  in 
Fi'jure  7,  equal  to  f  p,  in  Figure  6;  also  make  «  b  and  o  e, 
in  Figure  7,  each  equal  to  b  a,  in  Figure  G ;  then  the  points 
b  and  e  will  be  the  extremes  of  the  arch.  Make  p  r,  in 
Figure  7,  equal  to  b  a,  the  given  height  of  the  arch,  and 
through  the  points  b  r  e  and  a^o  describe  twosenu-ellipses, 
which  divide  into  courses  as  before  taught,  and  which  will 
be  the  face  of  the  arch  required." 

This  operation  produces  nothing,  as  he  does  not  show  its 
application  to  practice,  in  the  formation  of  the  stones  or  bricks 
to  their  proper  shapes. 

"  To  find  the  angles  or  bevels  of  the  under  pari  of  each 
course. — Continue  the  splay  backs  of  the  window  m  d  and 
n  a  until  they  meet  in  f.  On  f,  with  the  radius  f  «  and 
F  a,  describe  the  arches  n  y  v  and  af  s,  making  n  g  v  equal 
to  the  girt  of  the  arch  n  k  m.  Make  n  C,  n  4,  n  2,  n  y,  &c. 
on  the  ■  arch  n  y  v,  equal  to  n  6,  n  4,  n  2,  n  y,  &;c.  on  the 
curve  n  k  m,  and  draw  the  lines  6  f,  4  f.  2  f,  y  f,  &c. 
Make  the  ordinates  6,  5  ;  4,  3 ;  2,  1  ;  y  x,  &c.  oft  the  lines 
6  f,  4  f,  &c.  equal  to  the  ordinates  5,  G  ;  3,  4 ;  1,2 ;  h  i,  &c. 
on  the  line  n  in  and  through  the  points  5,  3,  1,  x,  &c.  trace 
the  curve  v  x  n.  In  the  same  manner  transfer  the  oidinates 
5,  6;  3,  4 ;  1,2;  c  f,  &c.  on  the  line  a  d  to  the  arch  sf  a, 
as  from  5  to  G,  from  4  to  3.  &e.  and  trace  the  cuive  s  c  a  ; 
and  then  will  the  figure  n  x  v  s  c  a  be  the  soffito  of  the  window 
laid  out,  and  which  being  divided  into  the  same  number  of 
equal  parts,  as  the  under  part  of  the.  arch  a  p  o.  Figure  7, 
and  lines  drawn  to  the  centre  f,  as  is  done  in  Figure  2,  to 
the  centre  a,  by  the  line  2,  2,  2,  &c.  those  lines  will  give 
the  bevel  of  every  course  in  soffito,  as  required." 

Here  is  an  attempt  to  find  the  lining  or  envelope  of  a 
cuneoid  or  cono-cuneus,  in  a  circular  wall,  for  the  soffits  of 
the  stones  or  bricks;  and  had  he  succeeded,  his  endeavo\irs 
would  have  been  so  far  right :  but  the  method  which  he 
follows  has  no  relation  to  the  construction  of  the  centre 
itself,  and  is  therefore  extremely  erroneous.  Nor  can  the 
same  method  be  applied  to  the  covering  of  a  cone,  though 
the  affinity  or  relation  is  much  nearer  in  the  latter  solid  thiin 
in  the  former,  and,  consequently,  the  envelope  here  found 
would  cover  a  cone  more  nearly  than  the  surface  of  a  cuneoid. 
But,  indeed,  though  very  near  approaches  have  been  made 
to  the  cuneoidal  surface,  its  determinate  figure  has  never 
been  exactly  shown  on  a  plane:  however,  the  geometrical 
construction  may  be  laid  out  on  the  surface  of  the  solid  itself, 
and  all  curves,  corresponding  to  given  ones  on  the  plan, 
found  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  The  other  parts  of  Figure!, 
are  not  described  in  the  text,  but  seem  to  contain  lines  with- 
out meaning.  The  following  is  all  that  is  said  of  Figures 
1,  2,  4,  and  5: 

Figure  5  "  is  another  example  of  a  semi-elliptical  arch, 
whose  front  is  Figure  2.  Also  Figure  4,  is  a  third  example 
of  a  scheme  arch,  whose  front  is  Figure  8.  .\nd  Figure  1, 
is  a  fourth  example  of  a  straight  arch,  which,  in  general,  arc 
performed  by  the  aforesaid  rule." 


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Ilevc  the  text  is  unintelligible,  and  the  discovery  of  the 
principles,  by  inspection,  still  more  so. 

Passing  from  the  Tlie  BuiUer^s  Complete  Assistant,  we 
come  next  to  The  DuiUhrs  and  Workmaii's  Treasnry  of 
Denigiis,  by  the  same  Authoi'.  The  portion  of  this  work 
which  treats  of  carpentry,  is  contained  in  an  appendix  at  the 
end,  consisting  of  fourteen  plates. 

In  I'lale  XI.  Figures  1  and  2,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  of  each  Figure, 
are  shown  two  methods  of  lengthening  beams  :  but  there  is 
no  other  description  than  what  is  exhibited  at  the  top  of 
the  plate,  viz.,  "The  splicing  or  lengthening  of  beams 
explained." 

The  two  pieces  aie  tabled  together,  by  a  very  diiferent 
method  to  what  any  former  author  has  exhibited.  The  tables 
are  concealed,  show  ing  on  the  outside,  when  bolted  together, 
as  in  No.  3  of  each  Figui'e,  an  oblicjue  continued  joint.  The 
construction  is  ingenious,  as  it  prevents  their  separation  with- 
out breaking  the  tables  by  a  longitudinal  strain  ;  butthedifli- 
culty  of  fitting  them  together  with  accuracy,  and  the  tedious 
process,  rendeis  them  unfit  for  practice. 

Langley's  Geometrical  Principles  of  Roofing  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  preceding  author  ;  but  for  the  sake  of  show- 
ing the  terms  applicable  to  different  purposes,and  his  method 
of  treating  the  subject,  we  shall  extract  a  few  of  his  descrip- 
tions :  '^abcd  [Figure  3)  plan  of  the  raising;  e/ the  cen- 
tral line;  im,  I  o,  base  lines  of  the  outward  principals, 
a  g,  g  c,  b  li,  h  d,  base  lines  of  the  hips  ;  g  h  base  of  the  ridge  ; 
kn  base  line  of  the  middle  pair  of  principals;  eg,  lif  base 
lines  of  the  single  principals,  which  meet  the  hips  in  the 
points  jr  Ay  i /:/,  m  «  o,  dovetail  mortises  in  the  raising,  to 
receive  the  dovetails  or  cauks  1,  2,  3,  of  the  beams  abc  ; 
{Figure  10)  jay),  dovetail  mortises  to  receive  the  angle-braces, 
as  p,  p.  Figure  4.  D,  a  ciuik  or  dovetail  at  laige  ;  e,  the 
dovetail-mortises  in  the  raising,  to  receive  the  dovetail  or 
cauk  D." 

Figure  4.  "abed,  plan  of  the  raising  ;  fg,fg,fg,  beams 
cauked  down  on  the  raising;  j^  1>,  P P,  &c.,  angle-braces 
cauked  down  in  like  manner  ;  a  e,  be,  c  e,de,  dragon-pieces  to 
receive  the  foet  of  the  hip-rafters;  ah,  bh,  ch,  dh,  hip- 
rafters  ;  a  h  k,  the  angle  at  the  top  ;  and  h  a  k  the  angle  of 
the  foot  of  the  hip  ah." 

Figure  5.  '■  To  jind  the  angle  of  a  hip  in  any  regular 
or  irregular  building. — Rule.  On  any  part  of  its  base  line, 
as  c,  draw  a  right  line  at  right  angles,  asfg;  set  up  the  hip, 
as  h  A,  and  from  c  draw  c  d  perpendicular  to  the  hip  h  b  ; 
make  ce  equal  to  c  d,  and  draw  the  lines/*,  eg  ;  then  the 
angle  feg  is  the  angle  of  the  back  required." 

These  descriptions  are  tolerably  clear  ;  the  technical  terms 
used  by  him,  are  raising,  base-line,  hips,  back  of  the  hip, 
princijials,  dovetail-mortises,  cauks,  angle-braces,  and  dragori- 
pieces.  liaising  is  used  by  Moxon,  in  his  Mechanical  Exer- 
cises,  but  is  vaguely  defined  by  that  author;  base-lines,  hips, 
back  of  the  hip,  and  principal  rafters,  are  used  by  Godfrey 
Richards,  in  his  Constructions  of  Hoofs,  in  finding  the  lengths 
and  backings  of  hijvrafters.  This  last-mentioned  author 
names  the  diagonal  beams  under  the  hips,  dragon-beams  ; 
Langley  calls  them  dragon-pieces.  What  Langley  spells 
cauks,  I'rice  spells  cocks.  Angle-braces  are  not,  that  we  have 
observed,  named  by  any  author  belbre  Langley,  who  also 
names  jack-rafters,  in  Plate  5,  of  his  Builders  and  Work- 
man's Treasury. 

There  is  a  work,  not  mentioned  in  the  list  of  authors,  by 
Edward  Oakley,  Architect,  which,  in  point  of  priority,  ought 
to  have  stood  even  before  Smith's  Carpenter's  Companion,  it 
being  dated  in  the  title-page  1730:  another  work  was  like- 
wise published  by  Edward  Hoppus,  Surveyor,  the  second 
edition  of  which,  as  appears  from  the  title-page,  was  published 


in  1738;  when  the  first  edition  was  published  we  do  not 
know,  but  probably  about  the  same  time  as  Oakley's,  or 
before.  With  respect  to  carpentry,  these  two  works  arc  nearly 
alike,  as  to  the  number  of  the  problems,  their  order,  the 
method  of  treating  them,  and  the  end  intended  ;  one  seems  to 
have  been  copied  from  the  other,  and  the  first  of  the  two 
to  have  been  taken  from  \h\\i\)c\my'%  Art  of  Sound  Building, 
with  the  exception  of  a  problem,  which  is  exhibited  in  a  plate, 
and  explained  in  each  of  these  a\ithors,  for  covering  of  the 
head  of  a  niche  or  dome,  with  boards,  to  bend  with  their 
joints  in  vertical  planes,  passing  through  its  axis.  This  pro- 
blem is  thus  explained  by  Oakley  : 

Figure  6.  "  To  make  a  niche  or  globe,  with  thin  boards  ; 
or  to  cover  them  ivilh,  paper  or  pasteboard. — Admit  afl 
(No.  1)  to  be  the  plan  of  a  semi-circular  niche  ;  c  efd  (\o.  2) 
to  be  the  board,  paper,  or  pasteboard,  of  a  given  width,  c  d 
or  ef.  Divide  the  semi-circle  afl  into  equal  divisions,  accord- 
ing to  the  breadth  of  (No.  2)  as  a  b,bc,cd,de,e  g,  g  h,  h  i,  i  k, 
and  k  I ;  draw  the  lines,  b  u,  c  ti,  d  u,  e  u,  g  v,  h  u,  i  v,  k  n, 
and  let  fill  perpendiculars  on  the  line  a  I,  from  the  points 
b,  Cj  d,  e,  g,  h,  i,  k.  Upon  the  centre  u,  with  the  intervals, 
m,  o,  r,  and  t,  describe  semi-circles  ;  set  the  girt  of  the  arch 
af  or  //,  on  the  board,  g  c,  (No.  2)  as  c  a  and  db,  which 
divide  into  so  many  equal  parts  as  there  are  semi-circles,  as  in 
(No.  2.)  Divide  (No.  2)  in  the  midst,  as  by  the  line  u  w  ; 
take  the  arch  a  b,  and  set  it  equally  on  each  side  of  the  line 
u  w,  as  at  a  b  ;  set  the  arch  m  n,  in  like  manner,  on  u  w,  as 
at  mn,  and  so  on  to  Is;  then  by  sticking  in  small  tacks  at 
the  points  a,  m,  o,  r,  I,  and  «,  on  the  one  side  of  u  w,  and 
at  the  points  b,  n,  p,  q,  and  s,  on  the  other  side  of  ?/  w,  by 
applying  a  thin  ruler  from  a  to  u,  and  b  to  u,  the  curve  lines 
on  each  side  will  be  given,  w  hich  may  be  described  by  a  pen- 
cil, &c.,  which  is  the  true  mould  for  every  piece  in  a  globe  or 
niche,  which  was  required." 

Here  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  division  of  the  semi- 
circle (No.  1)  is  erroneous  ;  for  if  the  quadrant  a/or  //  be 
considered  as  a  vertical  section  of  the  dome,  it  is  evident  it 
should  have  been  divided  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as 
the  length  of  the  board  (No.  2;)  and  the  several  lengths  of 
the  one  equal  to  those  of  the  other;  but  af  or  fl  is  only 
divided  into  4^  equal  parts,  while  the  board  is  divided  into 
5 ;  which  inequality  causes  the  board  to  be  too  narrow  towards 
the  top,  and  to  swell  out  too  much  at  the  bottom,  as  shown 
in  the  following  figure. 

In  The  London  Art  of  Building,  written  by  Salmon,  there 
is  nothing  new  in  construction.  His  geometrical  principles 
of  roofing  are  like  those  by  Godfrey  Richards ;  besides  which, 
he  treats  of  no  other  subject,  except  a  few  designs  of  roofs. 

The  British  Architect,  the  production  of  Mr.  Abraham 
Swan,  is  not  very  abundant  in  curious  constructions  of  car- 
pentry, yet  there  are  some  ideas  worthy  of  notice. 

Figure  7,  No.  1,  "  Shows  the  backing  of  the  hip."  "  Divide 
the  thickness  of  the  hip  into  two  equal  parts;  then  having 
found  the  pitch  of  your  hip,  as  is  shown  in  (No.  2)  set  one  of 
these  parts  upon  the  base  line,  from  b  to  a,  and  it  shows  what 
wood  is  to  be  taken  off. 

"  If  the  side  of  the  building  comes  in  with  a  bevel,  as  the 
dotted  line  /;,  in  (No.  1)  then  transfer  half  the  thickness  of 
the  hip,  from  d  to  c,  in  (No.  3)  and  take  the  distance  fe,  in 
(No.  1)  and  set  it  from  c  tog,  in  (No.  3.)  This  will  show  how 
much  is  to  be  taken  oft'  the  hip,  when  the  building  bevels." 

It  is  strange  that  this  author  should  have  departed  so  far 
from  Pope's  scientific  method,  as  first  shown  by  Godfiey 
Richards,  in  order  to  adopt  one  so  mechanical,  more  liable  to 
inaccuracy,  and  less  expeditious. 

With  respect  to  groins,  all  that  Swan  has  said  on  this  sub- 
ject, is  contained  in  the  following  words  : 


CAR 


102 


CAR 


Figure  8,  "  exhibits  an  arch  boarded  over,  wherein  the 
several  tigiiics  1,  2,  3,  &e.,  represent  so  many  ribs,  or  jack- 
rafters,  set  upon  the  circular  body  of  the  arch,  in  oi'der  for 
another  arch  to  intersect  it,  where  those  boarded  over  the 
groins  are  formed."  We  learn  notiiing  from  this,  but  the  man- 
ner of  placing  the  jack-ribs  on  the  body  of  the  arch.  Price 
describes  the  method  of  placing  these  low  ribs  upon  the 
boarding,  and  calls  them  small  centres  ;  but  his  diagram  is 
different,  and  not  near  so  clear. 

In  the  boarding  of  domes  with  the  joints  in  horizontal 
planes,  Swan  has  shown  the  first  ideas  of  the  subject : 
Flc/vre  9,  "represents  a  circular  body.  To  find  the  curve 
of  any  lath  or  margin  to  he  bent  round  this  body,  parallel  to 
its  base. 

"  Let  the  points  b  and  c  represent  the  margin  which  you 
intend  to  bend  round  ;  then  draw  a  right  line  through  tiiese 
points,  to  meet  the  perpendicular  or  diameter  produced,  as  in 
a,  and  it  gives  the  length  a  b  the  shorter,  and  a  c  the  longer 
radius  for  striking  the  curve  required." 

This  author  has  nothing  more  of  novelty  in  the  art  of 
carpentry. 

Our  next  author  is  Mr.  William  Pain.  In  his  British 
Palladio,  he  shows  the  methods  of  his  bracketing  for  coves, 
and  plaster  cornices,  as  follows  :  Plate  XII.  Figure  1,  "  d 
is  an  angle-bracket  for  an  internal  angle,  which  are  (is)  traced 
by  ordi nates."  Figure  2,  "e  is  an  angle-bracket  for  a  plaster 
cornice,  at  an  internal  angle;  f,  an  external  angle,  allowing 
one  inch  for  lath  and  plaster."  The  formation  of  angle-brackets 
is  so  easy,  that  a  very  little  reflection,  on  inspecting  the  figure, 
will  show  the  method  adopted,  without  description  :  but  still 
something  more  might  have  been  said  on  the  practical  part. 

From  The  Builder's  Golden  Mule,  the  following  diagrams, 
with  their  descriptions,  are  taken.  "  The  backing  of  curve- 
line  hip.f,  and  tracing  them. — Figure  3,  (No.  1)  is  the  rib  of 
a  dome,  and  (No.  2)  is  the  hip  traced  from  it.  Divide  the 
given  rib  (No.  1)  into  five  parts,  on  the  base  line,  and  draw 
the  ordinates  1,  1,  2,  2,  3,  3,  4,  4,  5,  5 ;  then  divide  the  base 
line  of  the  hip  into  the  same  mimber  of  parts;  take  them 
from  (No.  1)  and  set  them  on  (No.  2);  then  tack  in  nails 
at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  ;  bend  a  thin  slip  round,  and  mark 
as  that  curve  directs,  which  gives  the  hip-mould.  To  back 
the  hip,  take  from  (No.  3)  the  plan  of  the  hip,  1,  2,  and  set 
it  on  the  hip  at  the  bottom  1,  2;  then  shift  the  hip-mould 
to  2,  and  out  to  the  top  :  mark  it  by,  and  that  will  be  the 
wood  to  come  off'  for  the  backing  of  the  hip."  The  practice 
of  dividing  the  base  of  the  given  rib,  and  the  base  of  the 
required  rib  into  equal  parts,  was  first  shown  by  Halfpenny, 
and  now  by  our  present  author,  Pain  ;  and  though  the  prin- 
ciple is  true,  the  practice  is  bad,  as  it  leaves  so  great  a  por- 
tion of  the  curve  to  be  traced  by  the  eye,  where  it  rises  from 
the  base  ;  and  though  it  is  nut  necessary  that  each  base  should 
be  divided  into  equal  parts,  or  into  any  series  of  parts  which 
shall  have  a  given  proportion  to  each  other,  yet  it  would  be 
better  to  divide  the  curve  of  the  given  rib  into  equal  parts, 
then  divide  the  base  of  the  required  rib  in  the  same  propor- 
tion ;  and  the  arcs  of  the  required  lib  terminated  by  the 
upper  extremities  of  each  two  ordinates,  will  be  very  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  proportional;  that  is,  the  distance  between  the 
tracing  points  will  be  nearer  where  the  curve  is  quickest, 
and  where  the  greater  number  of  points  arc  most  required. 

Figure  4,  shows  "the  backing  for  a  straight  hip.  You 
are  to  observe  that  the  piece  of  wood  be  of  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  hips,  and  form  of  the  curve,  for  the  little  part  you 
want;  then  cut  it  to  the  pitch  of  the  hip  at  foot,  set  it  on 
the  plan,  and  mark  it  by  that,  which  will  give  the  backing 
exactly  ;  and  so  for  any  other.  Or,  if  you  draw  a  line 
parallel  with  the  base  line,  and  take  off  1,  2,  on  the  plan 


(No.  2)  and  set  it  on  the  said  lines  1,  2,  all  the  way  up, 
and  mark  by  the  mould,  it  will  give  the  backing  in  any  case 
required,  straight  or  curved." 

This  general  and  correct  principle  was  first  noticed  by  Price. 

Figure  5.  "  77te  method  of  coving  the  angles,  when  there 
is  a  circle  or  oval  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling. — Draw  the 
centre  part,  touching  the  sides  and  ends;  then  draw  another 
to  the  extreme  of  the  angles,  parallel  with  the  centre;  then 
draw  the  semicircular  arch  a,  and  from  that  trace  the  side 
arches  b,  n,  and  the  rib  c,  c,  c,  c,  which  is  a  mo\ild  to  cut 
all  the  brackets  for  the  angles ;  as  is  plain  to  inspection  by 
the  lines  on  the  plan." 

This  principle  is  erroneous,  and  the  description  deficient. 
There  is  no  respect  paid  to  the  elliptic  base  ;  but  the  brackets 
are  traced  upon  the  principle  of  angle-brackets.  The  sections 
of  any  body  must  depend  upon  the  construction  of  that  body, 
or  upon  its  properties;  thus,  if  a  body  is  intended  to  have 
this  property,  that  all  parallel  sections  are  to  be  similar 
figures,  and  if  the  method  of  forming  it  is  not  founded  upon 
this  principle,  the  body  is  not  what  it  was  intended  to  be, 
but  something  else  ;  the  construction  will  therefore  be  erro- 
neous. All  sections  of  a  body  must  be  found  by  describing 
the  seats  of  the  curves  of  as  many  parallel  sections  as  may 
be  thought  sufficient,  on  one  of  the  largest  of  them ;  then 
having  a  given  or  transverse  section,  that  will  cut  all  the 
parallel  sections  of  the  body,  all  other  sections  whatever  may 
be  found  :  but  our  author,  Mr.  Pain,  forms  the  section  of  all 
bodies  like  those  of  prisms,  without  attending  to  the  pro- 
perties of  the  body  required,  as  is  the  case  in  the  example 
before  us. 

In  the  first  edition  of  his  Practical  House  Carpenter,  he 
has  presented  the  diagram  of  an  interior  circular  dome,  fonned 
into  pendentives  by  bracketing  the  spandrels  above,  and 
traced  according  to  the  same  erroneous  principle  :  but  after 
the  publication  of  the  Carpenter's  New  Guide,  by  the  author 
of  this  Work,  the  error  was  corrected,  in  the  second  edition 
of  the  said  Practical  House  Carpenter,  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  legitimate  principle,  first  published  in  the  Carpenter's 
New  Guide :  his  description,  which  is  very  short,  is  partly 
contained  in  the  text,  and  partly  on  the  plate  :  in  the  text, 
he  says.  Figure  6,  "is  a  conical  skylight,  shi>wing  how  to 
bracket  the  angles  of  the  ceiling  under  the  kirb,  the  hip-mould 
gat  the  angle  is  traced  from  the  rib  i,and  that  mould  would 
do  to  cut  all  the  ribs  at  the  angles,  as  shown  at  the  angle  a." 

What  is  here  said,  refers  to  the  diagrams  in  the  first  edition  ; 
but  the  text  stands  in  the  sixth  edition,  as  in  the  first,  though 
the  diagram  is  altered  in  the  second  and  succeeding  editions. 
There  is  no  rib  b,  norangle  a,  shown  on  the  improved  diagram. 
On  the  plate  he  writes  thus  :  "  f  dome  with  a  skylight  on 
the  top.  g,  g,  moulds  for  the  ribs  of  the  dome  ;  a,  a,  the 
kirb  of  tiie  light."  This  latter  description  refers  to  the 
diagram  as  it  now  stands. 

The  skylight  on  the  top  is  exhibited  in  a  very  erroneous 
manner,  being  inconsistent  with  the  principles  of  any  kind 
of  projection  that  we  are  acquainted  with.  The  plan  of  the 
bracketing,  and  the  ribs  of  the  domical  part,  are  shown  by 
a  common  ichnographical  projection,  while  the  skylight  is 
exhibited  in  a  kind  of  lidse  perspective,  and  being  without 
any  connection  with  the  kirb  on  which  it  is  placed,  it  has 
the  appearance  of  being  raised  upon  its  edge,  resting  upon 
two  points  iu  the  kirb. 

Figure  7,  "  is  an  ogee  roof,  whose  plan  is  a  pentagon,  and 
shows  the  method  of  drawing  the  polygon  figure  to  any  given 
side  ;  make  a  radius  of  that  side,  and  draw  the  arches  2,  6  ; 
divide  one  of  these  arches  into  six  parts,  and  turn  them  to 
the  centre  line,  as  shown  by  the  letters  .md  figures  5  rf,  4  e,  &e.; 
the  centre  c  will  draw  a  circle  to  receive  the  side  5  times, 


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6  is  the  centre  to  receive  the  side  6  times,  d  seven  times,  and 
so  on  to  (',  wliicli  is  the  centre  to  draw  the  circle  to  receive 
the  side  twelve  times." 

This  probloin  should  have  been  classed  in  practical  geometry, 
as  it  has  no  reterencc  whatever  to  carpentry.  It  is  only  true 
in  the  he.xagon  and  dodecagon,  and  is  very  incorrect  tbrtlie 
description"  of  polygons  upon  a  given  straight  line,  which 
liave  fewer  sides  than  six.  In  iiis  diagram,  he  shows  the 
mothod  of  describing  the  hip  from  the  common  rib-  being 
given ;  but  the  text  contains  no  description  of  it. 

Figure  8,  "  is  a  dome,  whose  plan  is  a  hexagon,  and  yhows 
how  to  divide  a  circle  into  any  number  of  parts :  divide  one- 
fourth  of  the  circle  into  the  number  of  parts  you  would  have 
the  circle,  as,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  G,  and  always  take  four  of  them. 
To  find  the  backing  of  the  curve-lino  hips,  lay  down  the  plan 
of  tire  hip  at  the  angle,  as  a  ;  then  take  the  distance  1,  2,  at 
bottom,  tack  in  a  nail,  then  shift  the  hip-mould,  and  marking 
by  it,  as  1  2,  3  4,  5  6,  7  8,  9,  10,  will  show  the  wood  to  come 
off."  In  this  description,  Mr.  Pain  propo-ses  to  find  the 
division  of  a  circle  into  any  number  of  parts ;  but  as  he  does 
not  mention  any  fixed  ratio  of  these  parts,  they  may  be  taken 
at  pleasure,  without  rule ;  but  allowing  that  he  had  neglected 
to  name  this  condition,  under  which  the  circle  was  to  be 
divided,  and  suppose  that  he  meant  the  parts  to  be  equal, 
and  to  be  found  by  a  general  method ;  there  is  no  regular 
rule  of  performing  this  problem  but  by  an  approximation. 
If  we  allow  that  the  quadrant  can  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
we  must  also  allow  that  the  whole  circle  will  contain  four 
times  that  number  of  parts  ;  but  the  division  of  the  quadrant 
into  equal  parts  is  equally  impossible  with  that  of  the  whole 
circle  ;  the  rule  is  therefore  absurd,  and  consequently  it  is 
only  accomplishing  one  absurdity  by  another,  and  wasting 
the  reader's  time  to  no  purpose.  In  this  problem,  as  in  the 
last,  lie  has  also  neglected  to  inform  his  reader  how  the  hip 
is  found,  though  it  is  sufliciently  clear  on  the  plate  to  present 
the  idea  of  forming  it  to  any  intelligent  person. 

Figure  9,  "  is  a  dome  on  a  circular  plan  ;  a  and  b  show 
the  section  of  the  horizontal  rib." 

Figure  10,  "  is  a  dome  on  an  elliptic  plan;  the  centres  for 
the  mould  of  the  horizontal  ribs  d  d,  are  a  a,  b  b,c  c,  d  d ; 
the  place  of  that  rib  on  the  plan  is  found  by  dropping  dot 
lines  from  the  sections  dd :  c  c  on  the  top,  is  designed  for 
a  skylight."     These  descriptions  ai-e  unintelligible. 

Pla/e  XIII.  Figure  1,  "  shows  the  method  for  cutting  the 
boards  to  cover  the  dome ;  divide  the  dome  into  as  many 
parts  as  you  think  it  will  take  boards,  and  draw  lines  to  cut 
the  edges  of  each  board,  and  where  they  meet  the  centre  line, 
that  is  the  centre  for  the  edge  of  each  board.  This  is  drawn 
one  inch  to  a  foot."  This  has  already  been  shown  and 
described  by  Swan,  but  he  is  deficient  in  not  representing  the 
boards  as  Pain  has  done  ;  the  description  of  the  former,  how- 
ever, though  short,  is  much  clearer  than  that  of  the  latter. 

Figure  2,  is  taken  from  the  Practical  House  Carpenter, 
but  the  description  is  to  be  found  neither  in  the  text  nor  on 
the  plate.  It  must  therefore  be  left  to  the  sagacity  of  the 
reader  to  find  it  out.  We  suppose  the  diagram  to  represent 
the  method  of  covering  a  dome  by  bending  the  boards  with 
the  joints  on  vertical  planes  passing  through  the  axis.  This 
method  has  already  been  shown  by  several  of  the  preceding 
authors,  of  whom  Price  and  LangJey  are  the  most  accurate, 
and  dirtcr  most  as  to  the  mode  of  ascertaining  the  form  of 
the  board,  but  come  to  the  same  result  at  last. 

Oakley,  Hoppus,  and  Price,  perform  the  operation  by 
straight  ordinates,  whereas  Langley  and  Pain  do  it  by  curved 
ordinates  :  one  method  ascertains  the  form  with  as  much  ac- 
curacy as  the  other,  but  the  operation  with  straight  ordinates 
requires  much  less  trouble  than  the  other.     Pain  even  shows 


many  more  linos  than  are  sufficient,  which  superabundance 
makes  his  diagram  much  less  intelligible  to  the  understanding 
of  his  reader.  The  CJinccntric  arcs,  which  he  has  used  as 
ordinates,  are  erroneous  in  principle,  though  the  use  of  them 
docs  not  allcct  the  pi-actice,  as  we  shull  here  show. 

Figure  3.  "  Let  A  n  c  be  half  the  section  of  a  dome  passing 
through  its  vertical  axis  ;  divide  the  curve  a  n  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  the  number  of  boards  of  which  the  covering 
is  to  consist ;  through  each  point  in  the  circumference  draw 
a  line  to  the  centre  c ;  and  through  each  of  the  same  points 
draw  another  line  at  right  angUs  to  the  respective  radii,  and 
produce  them  upwards,  as  also  the  axis  c  b,  so  as  to  cut  each 
of  the  tangents  from  the  several  points  in  the  curve ;  then 
each  of  these  tangents,  so  limited,  are  the  radii  of  the  suc- 
cessive ordinates ;  the  tangent  at  the  bottom  is  of  infinite 
length,  the  next  is  limited,  and  the  succeeding  ones  become 
gradually  shorter  and  shorter,  till  the  tangent  and  the  arc 
become  nearly  of  one  length.  So  that  the  ordinates  of  the 
board  exhibited  in  Figure  4,  are  arcs  of  radii,  respectively 
equal  to  the  tangents ;  consequently,  the  bottom  ordinate  of 
the  board  is  a  straight  line,  the  next  is  the  arc  of  a  circle 
of  a  very  flat  curvature,  the  next  is  an  arc  of  greater  curva- 
ture, and  so  each  arc  becoming  quicker  and  quicker  in  its 
curvature,  till  they  reach  the  summit  of  the  board,  which  is 
the  last  centre." 

The  most  eligible  method  in  practice,  founded  upon  evi- 
dent principles,  is  to  suppose  the  dome  to  become  an  equi- 
lateral and  equiangular  pol3'gon,  and  suppose  the  axal  section 
ABC,  Figure  5,  perpendicular  to  one  of  the  sidesof  the  dome 
to  be  given,  and  the  curve  a  u  to  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
and  suppose  the  parts  to  be  extended  upon  n  c  produced  ; 
then,  if  lines  be  drawn  through  the  divisions  of  the  curve, 
and  through  the  points  of  division  in  c  n,  produced  perpen- 
dicular to  the  said  b  c  ;  and  if  b  d  be  drawn  perpendicular 
to  B  c,  equal  to  half  the  width  of  a  board,  and  n  c  joined, 
and  the  ordinates  produced  so  to  meet  d  c  ;  then,  if  the 
lines  parallel  to  b  d,  contained  within  the  triangle  b  d  c  be 
successively-  taken  towards  c,  and  applied  on  the  perpen- 
diculars from  and  on  «ach  side  of  c  d  produced  ;  then  if  curves 
be  drawn  through  the  points  at  the  extremities,  they  will  ter- 
minate the  edges  of  a  board,  which  will  accurately  cover  a 
side  of  the  polygonal  dome. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  number  of  sides  of  this  dome  to 
be  very  great,  then  the  sides  will  vary  only  in  a  very  small 
degree,  either  from  the  inscribing  or  circumscribiiist  sphere, 
and  this  variation  will  decrease  as  the  numl)er  ciBides  is 
increased,  and  the  excess  or  defect  would  become  insensible ; 
and  if  we  suppose  the  sides  to  be  infinite,  the  board  which 
covers  the  side  of  the  polygonal  dome  will  accurately  cover 
the  inscribing  or  circumscribing  spherical  dome.  This  latter 
method  is  founded  upon  principle,  but  that  of  forming  the 
bottom  ends  of  the  boards  into  curves  is  totally  destitute  of  it. 

Figure  G,  from  Pain's  British  Palladia,  which  he  says,  "is 
a  pentagon  to  be  covered  with  a  domical  roof.  To  find  the 
curve  of  the  boarding,  divide  the  girth  or  curve  of  the  rib  on 
the  back  into  as  many  parts  as  you  please,  as  here  into  four, 
and  draw  them  to  the  base-line  of  the  rib  e  a,  as  7,  8,  9  ; 
stretch  out  a  b,  the  middle  of  the  side,  and  9  9,  8  8,  7  7, 
parallel  thereto ;  then  take  one  of  the  divisions  on  the  girth 
of  the  rib,  and  set  off  from  e  to  7,  8,  9,  b,  and  where  that 
cuts  the  lines  7  7,  8  8,  9  9,  b,  there  tack  in  nails,  and  bend 
a  thin  slip  to  the  nails,  and  mark  from  e  to  b,  as  that  curve 
directs ;  this  will  be  one  edge  of  the  covering  :  prick  these 
marks  on  the  other  side  of  the  line  a  b,  and  proceed  as  before ; 
then  will  the  covering  or  boarding  be  complete.  The  cover- 
ing or  boarding  of  {Figure  7)  is  found  in  the  same  man- 
ner, which  is  very  plain  to  inspection ;   the  girth  of"  the 


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"rib   being  stieiched  out,  and  the  parts  set  on  as  above 
dircctofl." 

^\'  lien  he  says,  "  stretch  out  a  b,  the  middle  of  the  side,  and 
9  9,  8  8,  7  7,  parallel  thorcto,"  he  is  not  intelligible  ;  however, 
it"  we  understiiiKl  that  a  b  is  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  side 
e  d  oi  the  poh  gon,  and  9  9,  8  8,  7  7,  drawn  parallel  thereto, 
the  method  wliieh  he  uses  will  be  found  to  be  correct,  and, 
w'C  believe,  original. 

Figure  8,  "  shows  the  method  for  getting  out  the  veneer, 
or  cover  for  an  elliptical  dome  or  niche.  Divide  the  circum- 
ference of  one  quarter  of  the  plan  into  any  number  of  parts, 
as  here  into  8,  and  draw  them  to  the  centre  4  ;  let  the^irst 
line  from  the  tranj^verse  diameter  be  the  edge  of  the  veneer; 
the  second  line  will  be  the  middle  of  the  next  veneer;  the 
third  will  be  the  other  edge  of  it,  and  so  on  :  continue  this 
line  out  at  pleasure:  consider  this  line  as  a  base,  and  draw 
thereon  a  section  of  the  dome,  as  No.  1  ;  then  divide  the  cir- 
cumference into  four  parts,  draw  them  to  the  base-line  at  right 
angles,  and  transfer  those  distances  to  the  corresponding  line 
on  the  plan ;  then  take  the  four  parts  on  the  girth,  and  rini 
them  on  the  lino  stretched  out,  1,  2,  3,  4,  this  will  be  the 
length  of  the  veneer ;  set  the  compasses  on  the  plan,  and 
strike  .a  curve-line  of  this  radius  ;  then  continue  the  middle 
line  of  the  veneer,  and  where  it  intersects,  that  curve-line 
will  be  the  point  of  veneer  next  the  top  of  the  dome  ;  from 
this  point  set  off  the  divisions  1,2,  3,  on  the  circumference 
by  curve-lines  ;  then  take  the  width  of  the  divisions  1,  3,  8, 
from  the  middle  line  of  the  plan,  and  set  them  on  the  same 
line  stretched  out  to  cut  them  at  their  respective  distances, 
the  points  of  intersection  will  be  the  breadth  of  that  side  of 
the  veneer ;  connect  them  by  a  curve-line  from  the  plan  to  the 
point,  and  you  have  one  edge  complete,  Foi'  the  veneer  on 
the  transverse  diameter,  this  edge  will  serve  as  a  mould  ;  or 
you  may  set  the  half  of  the  veneer  to  the  other  side  of  the 
plan,  and  draw  a  chord-line  from  these  points;  set  this  off 
that  distance  of  the  arch  (the  little  curve)  to  be  outside,  and 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  chord-line,  on  which  set  off  the 
breadth  of  the  veneer  on  both  sides,  then  with  the  whole 
length  of  the  other  veneer  in  the  compasses,  set  one  foot  on 
that  breadth,  and  strike  a  curve-line  to  cut  the  middle  line 
on  the  transverse  diameter ;  or  repeat  the  curve  from  the 
other  side,  and  where  they  cross  will  be  the  point  of  that 
veneer,  from  whence  set  otf  the  divisions,  and  proceed  as 
before.  But  as  the  radii  of  an  oval  are  of  dilferent  lengths, 
to  get itie  other  edge  of  the  veneer,  make  a  section  as  before, 
(see  N^R)  and  set  off,  as  before,  the  divisions  on  the  base  and 
plan,  fma.  strike  the  divisions  on  the  girth,  from  the  point  of 
the  veiiecr  stretched  out,  intersect  them  from  the  plan,  and 
those  points  connected  will  give  the  other  side  of  that  veneer, 
whieh  will  be  a  mould  Ibr  the  next  adjoining  ;  proceed  again 
for  everv  veneer  by  transferring  that  length  from  the  plan, 
and  the  shortest  length  from  the  point;  repeat  the  same 
operation  for  every  veneer  required, 

Kote.  "The  conjugate  and  transverse  diameters  will  have 
the  two  sides  of  the  veneer  equal.  Observe,  only  four  parts 
are  used,  to  prevent  confusion  in  the  figure  ;  but  the  greater 
number  of  parts,  the  truer  the  line.  Again,  if  your  boards 
will  suit,  divide  the  plan  to  their  number,  and  proceed  as 
before  for  every  board  respectively." 

This  method  is  so  absurd  in  every  particular,  that  the 
coverings  obtained  are  erroneous  in  the  greatest  degree ; 
indeed,  it  leaves  no  room  for  argument,  and  we  shall  only 
observe,  that  in  the  true  form  of  the  boards,  between  the 
extremities  of  the  greater  and  less  axis,  in  any  one  of  the 
four  quarters,  one  side  of  the  board  would  be  concave  and 
the  other  convex,  where  the  dome  has  a  considerable  dill'er- 
ence  in  its  axis ;  and  the  greater  this  eccentricity  or  differ- 


ence, the  greater  will  be  the  degree  of  curvature  of  the  con- 
cavity and  convexity  of  the  sides  of  these  boards. 

Figure  9,  No.  1,  shows  groins  and  arches,  of  different 
descriptions,  from  the  Practical  House  Carpenter.  Pain 
divides  this  figure  into  several  others,  and  distinguishes  them 
by  letters  of  the  alphabet.  He  only  gives  the  following 
description  on  the  plate  :  "  k  centering  for  groins.  I.  is  a  half 
groin  cutting  under  pitch,  for  a  door  or  window,  o  a  Welsh 
groin  cutting  under  pitch,  m  is  the  method  of  tracing  the 
ribs  and  hips  for  a  groin  ceiling."  Figured,  No.  2,  "n  is 
a  mould  to  bend  over  the  body  range  ;  k  to  get  the  lines 
to  set  the  jaek-ribs  by."  The  reader  who  has  not  already 
acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  geometrical  lines,  will 
profit  but  little  from  this  description.  The  showing  of  the 
jaek-ribs  upon  the  diagram  is  an  improvement.  Swan  has 
shown  them  perspectively,  but  the  geometrical  method  of 
representing  them  is  more  serviceable  to  the  workman,  as  it 
shows  the  lengths  of  the  ribs  distinctly.  He  observes  that' 
"  G  is  a  Welsh  groin  cutting  under  pitch,"  but  he  docs  not 
show  how  the  crooked  line,  which  he  has  exhibited,  is  obtained ; 
and  even  if  he  had  shown  it,  the  method  of  constructing  the 
rib  would  still  have  been  wanting.  In  the  mould  n,  for 
groin-centering,  in  order  to  find  the  place,  or  curve-lines, 
on  the  boarding,  for  fixing  the  jack-ribs,  he  has  given  no 
description,  either  in  the  text  or  on  the  plate,  except  that  he 
writes,  "the  arch  line  a  stretched  out,"  and  "  half  the  base- 
line 6,"  upon  the  respective  sides  ;  and,  consequently,  we 
have  no  other  instructions  to  inform  us  how  the  mould  n  is 
found,  than  by  inspecting  the  figure  itself,  and  tracing  out 
the  operation  by  the  coimection  of  the  lines;  and  even  then 
we  are  left  in  the  dark  as  to  its  application.  The  moulds  for 
groin-centering  upon  this  principle,  were  first  shown  by 
Price,  as  well  for  finding  the  angles  of  the  jack-ribs,  as  the 
form  of  the  boarding. 

Figure  10,  from  the  Practical  House  Carpenter,  "  is  a  bevel 
roof;  the  sides  are  parallel  on  one  part  of  the  plan,  the  other 
bevels.  To  frame  this  roof  in  ledgement,  the  principal  rafters 
must  be  framed  to  a  level  base;  that  is,  the  ends  of  the 
beams  all  of  one  height  from  the  face  of  the  plate  ;  when 
you  come  to  lay  them  the  other  way,  to  frame  in  the  purlins, 
there  must  be  winding  sticks  held  to  the  bases  of  the  rafters, 
which  winding  sticks  must  be  all  out  of  winding;  and  as  the 
width  of  the  building  diminishes,  the  backs  of  the  rafters 
will  lie  in  winding,  as  they  will  when  in  their  places  ;  .and 
mind  that  they  are  backed  according  to  the  bevel  of  the  plan, 
for  turning  them  up  to  tumble  in  the  purlins ;  by  this  method 
the  business  may  be  well  completed,"  Allowing  that  the 
heels  of  the  rafters  are  cut  to  their  proper  bevels  with  the 
backs,  the  application  of  winding  sticks  to  such  short  dist.mces 
will  never  make  the  sides  fall  accurately  into  their  proper 
winding.  This  is  alt-ogether  a  mechanical  operation  ;  but  it 
would  have  been  no  difficult  task  to  have  shown  an  operation 
strictly  geometrical. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  be  found  to  contain  a  fair  and 
impartial  statement  of  the  geometrical  improvements  and 
errors  of  the  several  writers  on  Carpentry,  at  least  as  for  as 
they  have  come  to  our  knowledge  :  we  shall  now,  in  con- 
clusion, draw  a  general  result  from  the  whole  of  their 
theories,  and  endeavour  to  trace  the  progress  of  the  art 
towards  its  present  state  of  comparative  perfection. 

The  method  of  bracketing  hip-rafters,  whieh  is  said  to  be 
the  invention  of  a  Mr.  Pope,  of  London,  was  originally  pre- 
sented to  the  public  by  Godfrey  Richards,  who  also  first 
represented  roof  in  ledgements,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
several  lengths  and  angles  which  the  rafters  make  with  each 
other,  .    . 

The  use  of  the  trammel  in  common  cases;  the  description 


CATR'FENTM'Y  . 


I'l.vri-:  Mil 


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Drawn  iy  PNicholsan . 


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of  a  curve  through  points,  by  bending  a  lath,  or  slip  of  wood  ; 
covc-brackcting,  and  the  construction  of  ribs  in  groined 
ceilings,  disposed  in  vertical  planes,  were  first  shown  by 
Halfpenny.  In  the  latter,  however,  he  divides  the  bases  into 
equal  parts,  in  order  to  plaee  the  ordinates,  which  is  incon- 
venient ;  for  tiie  equi-distancc  of  the  ordinates  leaves  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  curves  at  each  extremity,  where  they 
are  quickest,  to  be  traced  only  by  the  eye.  This  writer  also 
first  described  the  formation  of  spherical  and  spheroidal  niches, 
upon  semi-circular  and  semi-elliptic  plans,  with  semi-circular 
and  semi-elliptic  faces,  under  tlie  names  of  sc?ni-circiihir  and 
elliptic  niches. 

To  Price  we  owe  the  mode  of  framing  roofs  in  ledgement, 
with  all  the  beams  and  rafters  laid  out  on  a  plane  ;  though 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  general  outline  had  been 
previously  described  by  Godfrey  Richards.  The  squaring 
of  the  purlin  of  a  circular  dome,  and  of  a  conic  roof  or  sky- 
light ;  the  backing  of  angle-brackets  (and  consequently  of 
ribs  in  general)  by  shifting  the  mould  of  the  rib ;  the  ordi- 
nai-y  construction  of  groiti-centering,  and  moulds  for  drawi]ig 
the  diagonal  lines  at  the  feet  of  the  jack-ribs;  the  covering 
of  domes,  by  bending  the  boards  from  the  base  to  the  vertex ; 
and  the  stretching  out  of  the  surfaces  of  coved  ceilings,  were 
also  first  described  by  this  writer. 

To  the  writings  of  Batty  Langley  we  are  indebted  for  the 
extension  of  the  superficies  of  polygonal  roofs  with  curvilinear 
rafters;  and  likewise  the  covering  of  the  frustum  of  a  semi- 
cone  for  a  soffit  in  a  straight  wall,  with  the  axis  of  the  cone 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  wall. 

The  principle  of  forming  boards  to  cover  a  dome,  with  the 
joints  running  in  horizontal  planes,  or  on  the  surface  of  a 
cone  with  a  vertical  axis,  was  laid  down  by  Swan. 

That  of  extending  the  superficies  of  a  semi-cylinder  on  a 
plane,  for  the  softit  of  an  aperture  in  a  circular  wall,  with 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  such 
wall,  so  as  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  contained 
between  the  two  walls  and  each  spring  of  the  aperture,  was 
first  exhibited  by  Pain ;  as  was  likewise  the  principle  of 
squaring  purlins  for  an  elliptic  dome,  though  very  imperfectly. 

The  sum  total  of  the  geometrical  constructions  by  these 
writers,  may  be  compiised  as  follows  :  the  use  of  the  trammel ; 
drawing  curved  lines  through  points ;  ascertaining  the  lengths 
of  rafters,  and  the  backing  of  hips  for  both  straight  and 
curvilinear  raflers ;  framing  of  roofs  in  ledgement,  whether 
rectangular  or  bevel  on  the  plan  ;  squ.-iring  purlins  fir  circular 
or  elliptic  domes  and  cones;  the  construction  of  curvilinear 
ribs  for  angle-brackets,  polygonal  roof-;,  and  plaster  groins  ; 
centerings  of  groins ;  forming  a  conic  soflfit  in  a  straight 
wall,  with  the  axis  of  the  cone  at  right  angles  to  its  surface ; 
forming  a  cylindric  soffit  in  a  circular  wall,  with  an  horizontal 
axis  ;  and  the  covering  of  polygonal  roofs  or  domes  with 
boards,  whose  joints  fill  either  in  horizontal  or  vertical  planes. 

These  inventions,  however,  are  far  from  being  laid  down 
in  the  most  happy  manner.  The  text  of  these  authors  is 
frequently  obscure,  and  their  diagrams,  which  have  little 
connection  with  it,  are  badly  projected,  and  little  calculated 
to  inform  :  they  have  lilcewise  so  far  neglected  the  requisite 
arrangement,  that  their  subjects  are  thrown  together  in  a 
promiscuous  jumble,  without  either  attention  to  the  affinity 
of  their  principles,  or  their  order  of  succession  in  practice. 

Of  tlie  several  works  quoted.  Price's  alone  can  justly  claim 
the  title  of  a  treatise  on  carpentry, 

Langley  is  in  general  tolerably  intelligent ;  he  has  treated  on 
all  that  has  been  done  by  his  predecessors,  and  has  attempted 
many  things  of  his  own ;  but  his  labours  have  not  been  suc- 
cessful. 

Li  the  diagrams  of  Pain,  we  find  some  useful  practical 
14 


hints ;  but  his  errors  are  numerous,  and  his  inventions  few. 
His  text,  also,  is  more  unintelligible  than  that  of  any  writer 
who  preceded  him  in  this  art. 

The  inventions  and  discoveries  of  the  writers  quoted,  may 
be  reduced  to  the  following  :  Sections  of  prisms  at  right 
angles  to  one  side  or  plane  of  the  prism  ;  coverings  of 
prismatic  and  conic  surfaces,  in  the  most  simple  cases;  and 
the  method  of  ascertaining  the  lengths  and  backings  of  hips. 
To  these  principles,  the  Author  of  the  Arcmitectukal 
Dictionary  has  added  those  of  the  intersection  of  one  plane 
with  another,  the  latter  resting  on  three  lines  pcipcndicular 
to  the  former ;  the  geometrical  construction  of  all  cases  in 
spherical' tn'gonometry,  by  solid  angles;  sections  of  a  prism, 
cone,  or  cuneoid,  through  any  three  given  points  ;  the  section 
of  a  prism  making  a  given  angle  with  a  given  parallelo- 
grammatic  section  of  such  prism,  and  passing  through  any 
given  line  on  the  said  section  ;  the  section  of  a  cone  passing 
through  any  line  on  a  given  axal  or  vertical  section,  and 
making  a  given  angle  with  that  section  ;  the  section  through 
any  three  given  points  on  the  surface  of  a  body,  of  such 
property  that  all  sections  parallel  to  a  certain  plane  will  be 
similar  figures,  having  the  seats  and  heights  of  the  points 
upon  one  of  the  similar  planes,  and  another  section  of  the 
body  in  a  given  position  to  that  plan,  cutting  all  the  said 
similar  sections  ;  the  sections  of  various  other  bodies,  whose 
properties  are  defined  ;  the  formation  of  the  edge  of  a  thin 
pliable  surfece,  which,  when  bent  upon  the  surfoce  of  a  prism, 
may  coincide  in  its  edge  w-ith  a  section  passing  through  any 
three  given  points  on  the  surface  of  the  said  prism  ;  the 
formation  of  the  edge  of  a  surface,  to  fit  a  conic  section, 
passing  through  any  three  given  points  on  the  surfixce  of  the 
cone,  while  such  surface  and  that  of  the  cone  coincide  ;  the 
formation  of  the  edge  of  a  thin  pliable  surface  to  fit  the  sec- 
tion of  a  body  cut  by  any  prismatic  surface,  while  the  pliable 
surface  coincides  with  that  of  the  section  made  by  the  pris- 
matic surfiice  ;  the  properties  of  the  body  being  such,  that 
all  sections  parallel  to  a  certain  ])Iane  will  be  similar  figures, 
given  a  section  of  the  body  parallel  to  one  <jf  these  sections, 
and  another  cutting  all  the  said  similar  sections  in  a  given 
position,  and  the  intersections  of  the  given  planes  on  each 
other. 

These  subjects  include  the  finding  of  the  sections  of  cylin- 
ders and  cones,  spheres  and  spheroids,  and  the  coverings  of 
these  bodies,  under  the  circumstances  already  stated.  To  those, 
the  author  has  added  the  following  inventions  or  discoveries, 
viz.,  the  method  of  extending  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  or 
cylindroid,  being  the  centre  of  an  arched  aperture  in  an 
oblique  wall,  terminated  by  the  faces  of  the  said  wall ;  and 
the  covering  of  the  surface  of  a  part  of  a  semi-cone,  being 
the  centre  of  an  aperture,  with  its  axis  oblique  to  the  surface 
of  the  wall  which  terminates  such  covering.  In  ascending 
groins,  he  has  likewise  shown  the  centering  for  brickwork, 
and  ribbing  for  plastering ;  the  construction  of  polygonal  and 
annular  groins,  both  level  and  ascending  in  a  spiral,  whether 
for  centering  or  ribljing ;  cylindro-cylindric  arches,  or  what 
are  commonly,  but  improperly,  denominated  Welsh  arches ; 
spherical  niches,  both  for  straight  and  circular  walls,  under 
any  circumstances :  the  true  methods  of  constructing  penden- 
tive  or  spandrel  ceilings,  either  spherical  or  spheroidal ;  the 
bevels  of  purlins  in  all  positions  to  the  common  rafters;  the 
formation  of  boards  for  covering  spherical  domes,  without 
laying  down  either  plan  or  section  of  the  dome,  entirely 
within  the  boards  themselves;  the  forming  of  the  lower 
boards,  without  centres,  in  the  covering  of  a  dome,  with  the 
joints  in  horizontal  planes ;  the  formation  of  boards  to  cover 
a  spheroidal  dome,  with  the  joints  of  the  boards  in  vertical 
planes ;  the  covering  of  an  elliptic  dome  with  one  mould 


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106 


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only  ;  the  covering  of  a  spheioidal  dome  with  boards  having 
their  joints  in  jiarallei  vertical  pianos;  the  construction  of 
a  dome  with  lioi'izontal  ribs,  without  taking  the  trouble  to 
squares  them  by  horizontal  and  vertical  faces;  the  method  of 
cutting  purlins  anil  jack-rafters  to  fit  the  hips,  without  laying 
the  roof  in  Icdgeinent ;  principles  for  the  equilibrium  of  poly- 
gonal roofs  without  ties,  so  that  the  rafters  may  obtain  a  given 
ratio  among  themselves,  provided  the  abutments  be  sufHcient; 
a  principle  lor  preventing  rafters  without  intermediate  tics, 
from  having  any  lateral  pressure; — these  two  latfer  inven- 
tions have  been  several  years  before  the  public,  in  the  archi- 
tectural plates  of  Rees's  Cyclopccdia.  To  these  might  be 
added  various  other  principles  of  less  importance,  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  recapitulate  in  this  place.  In  most  of  the 
subjects  above  alluded  to,  he  has  given  more  than  one  method 
of  operation,  and  in  some  instances  he  has  multiplied  his 
examples  to  five  or  six  different  modes  of  practice.  One  or 
two  of  the  inventions  in  the  foregoing  list,  he  acknowledges, 
are  only  his  own  by  their  now  application,  the  principles 
being  known  prior  to  his  time  ;  but  he  has  adapted  them  to 
stibjeets  to  which  they  were  never  before  applied  ;  and  he 
conceives  that  it  requires  at  least  as  much  ingenuity,  and  is 
frequently  attended  with  more  utility,  to  be  able  to  apply  an 
old  or  well-known  principle  to  an  useful  object,  as  to  discover 
a  principle  destitute  of  practical  application  :  he  has,  therefore, 
not  scrupled  to  include  them  in  the  list  of  his  discoveries. 
Nor  has  he,  while  thus  claiming  credit  for  himself,  denied  it 
to  others  ;  as  may  be  seen  in  his  remarks  on  Pain's  lining  of 
a  eyiindric  sodit  in  a  circular  wail,  the  principle  of  which  was 
previously  laid  down  by  Price,  in  his  centerings  of  groins. 
The  inventions  which  the  author  has  thus  appropriated  to 
himself,  are  the  following:  the  application  of  the  principle 
of  covering  the  surf  ice  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone  to  a  spheroidal 
dome,  with  the  joints  in  vertical  planes;  the  application  of  the 
princi(>le  of  covering  an  oblong  spheroidal  dome  by  one  mould 
only  ;  and  the  application  of  the  principle  shown  by  Price, 
in  his  centering  of  groins,  to  a  eyiindric  soffit  for  an  aper- 
ture in  a  straight  wall,  with  its  axis  -oblique  to  the  surface 
of  such  wall ;  which  latter  was  likewise  attempted  by  Pain, 
but  without  success. 

The  author  has  not  been  able  fully  to  satisfy  himself  as  to 
the  extension,  of  the  surAice  for  the  head  of  an  aperture, 
sj>laying  in  the  sides  and  level  on  the  crown,  so  that  the  aper- 
ture shiiU  form  a  semi-circle  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  and  a 
senii-cllipsis  on  the  other;  or  a  semi-ellipsis  on  each  side, but 
of  different  horizontal  dimensions,  though  of  the  same  height. 
lie  is,  however,  convinced,  that  tho\igli  the  f  jrm  be  not  geome- 
trically true,  it  is  much  more  correct  than  anything  attempted 
by  Langlcy  or  Pain  ;  and  on  it,  he  has  accordingly  founded 
the  principle  by  which  alone  the  nature  of  the  solid  itself 
can  be  understood.  And  though  unsuccessful  in  his  attempts 
to  extend  the  surface  exactly,  he  has  had  the  satisfaction  of 
laying  down  such  lines  as  will  apply  to  the  surface  of  the 
solid  with  far  gieater  accuracy  and  dispatch,  than  could  be 
obtained  by  the  mechanical  operation  of  plumbing  the  lines 
from  the  plan;  by  applying  the  distances  on  the  plan  upon 
their  respective  level  lines  on  the  surface  of  the  solid,  all 
diawn  t'rom  one  vertical  line  resting  on  the  point  where  the 
two  sides  of  the  splay  come  in  contact.  By  this  means  the 
line  of  every  wall  may  be  found  correctly  on  the  surface, 
whether  the  wall  be  straight  or  curved,  or  whether  the  axis 
of  the  solid  stand  oblicpie  or  at  right  angles  to  its  sur- 
face; which  cannot  be  done  by  any  other  method  hitherto 
attempted. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  observed,  that  writers  on  carpen- 
try iiave  frequently  been  unsuccessfid,  for  want  of  grounding 
tiieir  schemes  upon  the  simple  principles  of  the  bodies  they 


wished  to  construct ;  by  losing  sight  of  which,  they  have 
fallen  into  puerile  operations,  and  drawn  erroneous  infer- 
ences. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  we  shall  treat  of  the  several 
branches  of  the  building  art,  and  each  article  of  those 
branches,  in  a  manner  similar  to  this  on  Carpentry;  and  all 
invcntion.s,  as  well  useful  as  otherwise,  with  every  unsuccess- 
f  ul  attempt  at  geometrical  construction,  will  be  noticed  under 
their  respective  heads. 

It  is  now  only  necessary  to  observe,  briefly,  that  as  the 
arrangement  and  classification  of  the  subjects,  as  well  as  the 
mode  of  conceiving  and  presenting  them  in  the  diagrams,  are 
altogether  different  from  those  adopted  by  the  writers  who 
have  preceded  us  in  this  department,  so  it  is  believed,  that 
this  method  will  display  the  art  of  carpentry  in  a  novel  point 
of  view,  and  reduce  it  to  that  pure  scientific  form  it  has  never 
hitherto  acquired.  But  notwithstanding  all  th;it  has  been 
done,  and  the  great  advances  made  in  the  art  since  the  pub- 
lication of  the  various  works  we  have  been  examining,  it  is 
evident  that  the  subject  is  not  exhausted,  but  is  still  suscep- 
tible of  many  improvements.  Such  improvements  will 
doubtless  be  effected,  in  time,  by  the  labours  of  abler 
men  who  will  carry  to  perfection  the  science  and  prac- 
tice of  an  art  so  important  and  so  interesting  as  that  of 
Carpentry. 

CARPION,  a  Grecian  architect,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  Temple  of  Minerva,  in  the  citadel  of  Athens. 

CARRIAGE  OK  a  Wooden  Stair,  the  frame  of  timber- 
work  which  supports  the  steps. 

The  carriage  of  a  flight  of  steps,  supported  on  one  side  by 
a  wall,  generally  consists  of  two  pieces  of  timber,  inclined  to 
the  pitch  of  the  stair.  These  pieces  are  called  ruugh-stringa, 
or  Cdrriaffes. 

When  a  geometrical  stair  consists  of  two  alternate  flights, 
with  a  half  pace  between,  the  carriage  of  the  half  pace  con- 
sists of  a  beam  parallel  to  the  risers  of  the  steps,  and  several 
joists  framed  into  the  beam,  for  the  support  of  the  boarding. 
The  beam  which  sustains  the  joists,  is  called  the  apron-piece, 
and  that  which  sustains  the  rough  strings  at  the  upper  end 
is  called  a  pltchuKi-jnecc.  The  joists  of  the  half  pace  are 
sometimes  tenoned  into  the  pitching-piece,  and  sometimes 
bridge  over  it ;  but  the  steps  of  both  flights  are  supported  by 
string-pieces,  as  before.  The  upper  ends  of  the  string-pieces 
at  the  landing,  rest  upon  an  horizontal  piece  of  timber,  deno- 
minated an  apron-piece. 

-  If  the  steps  wind  round  a  circular  newel,  the  carriage  of 
the  circular  part  consists  of  uprights  and  bearers,  tlie  latter 
of  which  are  wedged  into  the  wall;  though  it  will  answer  the 
purpose  as  well,  to  frame  them  into  a  string  placed  against 
the  wall.  The  uprights  and  bearers  are  either  framed  with 
mortises  and  tenons,  or  are  dovetailed  together. 

When  the  staircase  is  of  the  dog-leg  kiud,  with  winders  and 
a  close  newel,  the  carriage  is  formed  of  bearers  let  into  the 
wall,  and  fixed  to  the  newel  post.  For  more  information,  see 
Staiu-Casin(;  and  Hand-Railing. 

(^AMTELLI.    See  Cartouches. 

CAKTON,  or  Cartoon  (a  French  term,  signif^ving  thick 
paper,  or  pa.sleboanl),  in  painting,  a  design  on  strong  paper, 
to  be  afterwards  chalked  through,  and  transferred  on  a  newly- 
plastered  wall,  which  is  to  be  painted  in  fresco.  The  word 
is  also  used  for  a  coloured  design,  that  is  to  be  wrought  into 
mosaic  or  tapestry. 

CARTOUCHES,  or  Cartoozes  (French,  from  the  Italian 
Cartoccio),  a  kind  of  blocks  or  modillions,  used  in  the  cornices 
of  wainscoted  apartments;  differing  from  modillions  in  being 
confined  to  the  interior,  whereas  modillions  are  applied  both 
externally  and  internally. 


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107 


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Cartouches,  arc  ornaments  representing  a  scroll  of  paper, 
usually  in  the  torm  of  a  tablet,  with  wavings,  whereon  is 
some  inscription  or  device. 

They  are  sometimes  drawn  on  paper,  as  in  the  titles  of 
maps,  &c.,  and  are  sometimes  made  of  stone,  bricii,  plaster, 
wood,  &c.,  for  buildings. 

Norden  uses  this  term  to  signify  the  winged  globe,  usually 
placed  over  the  miildlc  aperture  of  ICgyptian  buildings. 

CARVEL)  WORK,  all  thos.'  mouldings,  planes,  or  other 
surfaces  which  are  cut  into  ornaments,  representing,  in 
relief  or  in  recession,  foliages,  animals,  utensils,  historical 
events,  &e. 

Mouldings  are  generally  carved  with  leaves,  honeysuckles, 
lions'  heads,  beads,  egg  and  tongue,  egg  and  dart,  guilloches, 
reeds,  flutes,  &.C.  Tori  are  carved  with  guilloches,  reeds,  and 
flutes.  Astragals  are  carved  with  beads,  of  various  forms, 
strung  together. 

Ovolos,  with  egg  and  tongue,  and  at  the  comers  with  honey- 
suckles, as  in  Grecian  architecture ;  or  with  egg  and  dart,  and 
sometimes  with  leaves,  as  in  Roman  architecture. 

Sima-rectas,  with  honeysuckles,  of  various  forms,  con- 
nected with  scrolls  and  lions'  heads  at  certain  intervals,  as  in 
Grecian  architecture  ;  or  with  leaves  of  various  kinds,  as  in 
Roman  architecture.  Sima-iuversas,  with  leaves,  stalks,  &c., 
enclosed  in  borders. 

Facias  and  large  surfaces,  with  foliage  interwoven  or  wind- 
ing, or  with  historical  subjects  from  the  heathen  mythology, 
and  sometimes  with  flutes,  fillets,  &c. 

But  of  all  carved  work  none  is  so  beautiful  as  that  left  us 
by  the  Gothic  architects.  Of  the  styles  comprised,  under 
this  denomination,  carving  is  one  principal  feature,  and  it  is 
surprising  to  what  perfection  the  art  arrived  ;  during  this 
period  of  the  dark  ages,  as  they  are  called,  it  advanced  gra- 
dually, and  passed  through  many  stages  ere  it  arrived  at  its 
full  maturity,  from  the  simple  and  somewhat  barbaric  mould- 
ings of  the  Normans,  to  the  luxuriant  foliage  of  the  Deco- 
rated, or  the  elaborate  richness  of  the  Florid  styles ;  and  yet 
even  the  carving  of  the  earlier  periods  is  by  no  means  to  be 
despised  ;  the  specimens  belonging  to  the  Early  English 
stylo,  although  somewhat  stilf  and  harsh,  possessed  a  sim- 
plicity and  chasteness  which  was  never  afterwards  surpassed. 
The  Decorated  style  lays  claim  to  the  highest  rank  in  carved 
enrichment,  it  approaches  nearest  to  nature  ;  indeed,  it  is 
almost  nature  herself,  only  changed  in  substance  ;  everything 
connected  with  this  period  is  full  of  grace  and  elegance.  In 
the  next,  or  Perpendicular  style,  the  flowing  lines  of  the  pre- 
ceding period  were  deserted  for  the  straight ;  or  if  curved  lines 
were  introduced,  they  were  of  a  character  purely  geometrical ; 
the  method  adopted  was  rather  artificial  than  natural,  and  we 
see  but  few  examples  of  foliage  such  as  is  found  in  the  pre- 
vious styles;  there  was,  however,  an  elaborateness  and 
exuberance  at  this  period  never  before  attempted ;  in  some 
instances,  to  such  an  extent  was  carved  enrichment  employed, 
that  scarcely  any  portion  of  the  plane  surface  was  discernible. 
This  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  fan-work,  as  it  is  termed, 
which  was  introduced  into  the  vaulted  roofs ;  we  would  espe- 
cially cite,  as  an  example,  the  roof  of  Henry  the  Seventh's 
Chapel,  Westminster,  than  which,  we  suppose,  there  exists 
not  a  more  elaborate  specimen  of  carving,  at  least  in  a  work 
of  such  magnitude.  The  light  and  beautiful  pendents  of  this 
chapel  aftbrd  a  magnificent  specimen  of  the  most  enriched 
and  delicate  sculpture.  Other  examples  of  the  same  kind, 
are  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  the  Chapel  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge.  Equally  beautiful  specimens  of  carving, 
sometimes  even  of  a  more  minute  description,  may  be  seen 
in  works  of  a  smaller  kind,  such  as  fonts,  altar-screens,  &c., 
more  especially  in  the  latter,  in  some  of  which  the  elabo- 


ration is  carried  to  so  great  an  extent,  that  nothing  less 
than  a  close  and  diligent  inspection  will  suffice  to  unfold  its 
beauties. 

CARVEL-BUILT,  in  ship-building,  when  the  edges 
of  the  planks  join  each  other,  the  vessel  is  said  to  be  careel- 
built.  This  term  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  clink-er-built, 
which  is  when  the  edges  of  the  planks  are  lapped  upon  each 
other. 

CARVER,  an  artist  employed  in  the  carving  of  wood. 

CARVING,  in  general,  is  the  art  of  cutting  a  body  by 
recession,  in  order  to  form  upon  it  various  fanciful  represen- 
tations, as  foliages,  flowers,  fruit,  animals,  landscapes,  or  his- 
torical events,  either  in  relief,  or  recessed  within  a  general 
surface.  In  this  sense,  carving  comprehends  both  statuary 
and  engraving,  the  latter  upon  either  wood,  stone,  metal,  or 
any  other  material. 

In  a  more  particular  sense,  carving  is  the  art  of  cutting 
wood,  as  in  the  above  definition.     See  Carved  W  ork. 

CARYATIC,  whatever  relates  to  the  ancient  country  of 
the  Carians. 

Caryatic  Order,  an  order  of  architecture,  whose  entabla- 
ture is  supported  by  female  figui'es  instead  of  columns  :  the 
figures  themselves  are  called  Carijatldce,  Ciinjalcs,ov  Carians. 

The  Caryatic  order  differs  from  the  Persian  in  having  the 
enbiblature  supported  by  females,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  is 
suppoited  by  males.     See  Persian  Order. 

The  history  of  these  orders,  as  related  by  Vitruvius,  is  as 
follows : 

"  Caria,  a  city  of  Peloponnesus,  having  joined  with  the 
Persians  against  the  Grecian  states,  and  the  Greeks  having 
put  an  end  to  the  war  by  a  glorious  victory,  with  one  consent 
declared  war  against  the  Caryatides.  They  to(.ik  the  city, 
destroyed  it,  slew  the  men,  and  led  the  matrons  into  captiv- 
ity, not  permitting  them  to  wear  the  habits  and  ornaments 
of  their  sex:  they  were  not  only  led  in  triumph,  but  were 
loaded  with  scorn,  and  kept  in  continual  servitude,  thus  sufler- 
ing  for  the  crimes  of  their  city.  The  architects,  therefore,  of 
those  days,  introduced  their  effigies  sustaining  weights,  in  the 
public  buildings,  that  the  remembrance  of  the  crime  of 
the  Caryatides  might  be  transmitted  to  posterity.  The 
Lacedasmonians,  likewise,  under  the  command  of  Pausanias, 
the  son  of  Cleombrotus,  having,  at  the  battle  of  Platea,  with 
a  small  number,  vanquished  a  numerous  army  of  Persians, 
solemnized  the  triimiph,  by  erecting,  with  the  spoils  and 
plunder,  the  Persian  portico,  as  a  trophy,  by  which  to  trans- 
mit to  posterity  the  remembrance  of  the  valour  and  honour 
of  the  citizens  ;  introducing  therein  the  statues  of  the  cap- 
tives, adorned  with  habits  in  the  barbarian  manner,  supports 
ing  the  roof" 

Whether  this  account  is  correct,  in  any  respect,  seems 
doubtful;  it  is  certainly  incorrect  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the 
origin  of  the  order,  but  whether  its  distinguishing  appellation 
is  rightly  attributed  to  the  above  circumstances,  remains 
a  matter  for  consideration  ;  wo  rhink  the  evidence  is  decidedly 
against  Vitruvius.  In  the  first  place,  be  it  remembered,  there 
is  no  allusion  made  to  such  circumstances  by  the  Greek  his- 
torians ;  and  in  an  inscription  brought  from  Athens  by  Dr. 
Chandler,  containing  a  description  of  the  temple  of  Pandrosus, 
the  figures  are  called  Koqai,  or  damsels,  and  are  thence  natu- 
rally supposed  to  represent  the  maidens  engaged  in  the 
celebration  of  the  Panathcnaic  festival.  Mr.  Gwilt,  who  was 
the  first  to  remark  upon  the  incorrectness  of  the  account  of 
Vitruvius,  is  of  opinion,  that  the  figures  were  named  after 
the  goddess  Diana,  to  whom  the  title  Caryatis  was  given  by 
the  Lacedtemonians,  from  the  circumstance  of  her  having 
made  known  to  them  the  story  of  Carya,  daughter  of  Dion, 
king  of  Laconia,  who  was  turned  into  a  nut-tree  by  Bacchus. 


CAR 


108 


CAR 


With  respect  to  the  epithet,  Caryatis,  we  are  inclined  to 
think  rather  that  the  goddess  obtained  this  suniaine  from 
being  worsliipped  especially  at  Carya,  near  Sparta,  where  she 
had  a  teinjile,  and  where  also  the  I.accdainonian  virgins  cele- 
brated an  annual  festival  in  honour  of  her  ;  but  as  regards 
the  main  jioint  in  (piestion,  we  think  there  can  be  little  doubt 
but  that,  as  is  evidenced  by  an  old  commentator  on  Statins, 
the  term  Caryatides  was  apj>lied  to  the  virgins  employed 
in  the  service  of  Diana,  and  that  female  figures  were  first 
employed  in  the  architecture  of  the  Greek  temples  as  repre- 
sentations of  the  virgins  engaged  about  the  service  of  the 
deity  to  whom  the  temples  were  dedicated. 

That  the  figures  of  men  and  animals  were  used  for  the 
purpose  of  supports  in  the  place  of  columns,  long  before  they 
were  so  employed  by  the  Greeks,  is  well  known.  That 
they  were  not  uncommon  in  Kgypt,  we  learn  from  Diodorus 
Siculus,  who  informs  us,  that  the  roof  of  the  hall  in  the 
sepulchre  of  King  Osynumdyas,  was  supported  by  animals 
instead  of  pillars,  each  composed  of  a  single  stone,  and 
twenty-four  feet  in  height.  Psammeticus  also  employed 
colossal  statues  twelve  cubits  in  height  in  the  propyla>um 
which  lie  erected  on  the  east  side  of  the  temple  at  Memphis. 

lu  Denon's  Travels  in  £(jiipt,  we  find,  among  other  frag- 
ments, representations  of  five  insulated  pilasters  or  pillars, 
bearing  an  entablature ;  the  fronts  of  which  arc  decorated 
with  priests  or  divinities. 

We  find  several  instances  of  a  similar  application  of  men 
and  animals,  in  one  case  of  elephants,  in  the  temples  of 
India,  as  in  the  temple  of  Elephanta,  that  near  Vellore,  and 
several  others. 

The  molten  sea,  spoken  of  in  Holy  Writ,  was  supported 
by  twelve  bulls ;  and  in  the  Odyssey  of  Homer,  book  vii. 
verse  118,  we  find  the  effigies  of  animals,  both  rational  and 
irrational,  employed  as  decorations.  We  do  not  learn,  how- 
evei-,  that  these  latter  representations  were  employed  as 
columns  to  support  an  entablature  ;  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  they  were  nothing  more  than  ornamental  sculp, 
tures.  In  Stewart's  Aniiqiiilies  of  Athens,  we  find  a  most 
beautiful  specimen  of  Caryatic  figures  supporting  an  entabla- 
ture, consisting  of  an  architrave  cornice  of  a  very  elegant 
profile. 

The  examples  to  be  found  amongst  the  Greeks  are  those 
in  the  temple  of  Pandrosus,  and  five  specimens  out  of  six 
previously  existing,  supporting  an  entablature  adjacent  to 
the  temple  of  Ereetheus.  In  this  case  there  is  no  frieze,  but 
the  entablature  is  carried  to  an  extraordinary  height. 

Varicius  fragments  of  male  figures  are  also  met  with  among 
the  llunuui  antiquities,  which,  from  their  attitudes  and  orna- 
ments, appear  to  have  supported  the  entablatures  of  buildings. 

Besides  Caryatides  and  Persians,  it  is  sometimes  customary 
to  su]iport  the  entablatures  with  figures,  of  which  the  upper 
part  represents  the.  head  and  breast  of  the  human  body,  and 
the  lower  part  an  inverted  frustrum  of  a  square  pyramid,  with 
the  feet  sometimes  projecting  out  below,  as  if  the  body  had 
been  partly  cased  :  figures  of  this  form  are  called  Termini ; 
and  had  tlu-ir  origin  in  stones  used  by  the  .ancients  for  mark- 
ing out  the  limits  of  property  belonging  to  individuals.  Numa 
Ponq>iliiis,  in  order  to  render  these  boundaries  sacred,  con- 
verted the  Terminus  into  a  deity,  and  built  a  temple,  dedicated 
to  him,  on  the  Tarpeian  Mount,  wherein  he  was  represented 
by  a  stone,  which  in  the  course  of  time  was  sculptured  into 
the  form  of  a  human  head  and  shoulders,  with  the  lower 
parts  as  we  have  just  described.  On  particular  occasions, 
this  idol  was  adorned  with  garlands. 

Persian  figures  are  generally  charged  with  a  Doric  entab- 
lature ;  the  Caryatides,  with  an  Ionic  or  Corinthian  archi- 
trave cornice;  and  the  Termini,  with  an  entablature  of  any 


of  the  three  Grecian  orders,  according  as  they  were  them- 
selves decorated. 

^lale  figures  may  be  introduced  with  propriety,  in  arsenals, 
or  galleries  of  armour,  in  guaid-roorns,  and  other  places 
devoted  to  military  aflhirs  ;  they  may  either  represent  the 
figures  of  captives,  or  of  martial  virtues  ;  such  as  Strength, 
Valour,  Wisdom,  Prudence,  Fortitude,  &c. 

As  these  figures  should  be  of  a  striking  character,  they 
may  be  of  any  colossal  size  that  will  agree  with  the  archi- 
tecture of  other  parts  of  the  building. 

In  composing  Caryatides,  the  most  graceful  attitudes  and 
pleasant  features  should  be  chosen ;  and,  to  prevent  an 
appearance  of  stiffness,  the  drapery  and  features  should  be 
varied  in  the  different  figures  of  the  range  ;  at  the  same 
time,  a  general  uniformity  of  shape  should  be  preserved 
throughout.  They  should  always  be  of  a  moderate  size,  or 
they  will  appear  monstrous,  and  destroy  those  sensations, 
which  representations  of  the  fair  sex  ought  to  inspire. 

Le  Clerc  says  they  may  bo  ad\antageously  employed  for 
sustaining  the  canopy  of  a  throne:  in  which  case,  they 
should  be  represented  inider  the  figures  and  symbols  of  heroic 
virtues.  In  banqueting-roonis,  ball-rooms,  or  other  apart- 
ments of  recreation,  they  must  bear  such  characteristics  as 
are  calculated  to  inspire  mirth  and  promote  festivity. 

As  Termini  are  susceptible  of  a  variety  of  decorations, 
they  may  be  employed  as  embellishments  fiir  gardens  and 
fields  ;  where  they  may  represent  Jupiter,  the  jirotector  of 
boundaries ;  or  some  of  the  rural  deities,  as  Pan,  Flora, 
Pomona,  Vertumnus,  Ceres,  Priapus,  Faunus,  Sylvanus, 
Nymphs,  and  Satyrs.  They  are  also  much  employed  in 
chimney-pieces  and  other  interior  coinpositions. 

CASE  (from  the  French,  caisse,)  an  outside  covering, 
envelope,  box,  or  sheath  ;  applied  generally  tos\ieh  coverings 
as  completely  surround  the  object  enclosed.  In  building,  it 
means  the  shell  or  carcase  of  a  house. 

Case-Bays,  in  naked  flooring,  the  joists  framed  between 
a  pair  of  girders.  Flooring-joists  framed  with  one  of  their 
ends  let  into  a  girder,  and  their  other  ends  inserted  in  the 
wall,  are  called  tail-hays.  The  case-bays  of  floors  and  roofs 
should  not  exceed  ten  feet. 

Case  of  a  Door,  a  wooden  frame,  in  which  the  door  is 
hung  ;  door-cases  are  either  constructed  of  architraves  and 
linings,  or  wrought  framed,  rebated,  and  beaded  ;  in  the  latter 
case  they  are  called  door-frames. 

Case  ok  a  Stair,  a  name  given  to  a  wall  by  which  a 
staircase  is  surrounded. 

CASED,  a  term  in  masonry,  indicating  that  the  outside 
of  a  building  is  covered  or  faced  w  ith  materials  of  better 
quality  than  those  of  the  backing  or  inside  of  the  walls. 
Thus  "brick  walls  are  frequently  cased  with  stone,  or  with 
the  best  kind  of  bricks.     See  Wall. 

Cased  Sasii-Framf.s.  have  their  vertical  sides  hollow,  to 
conceal  the  weights  for  hanging  the  sashes.    See  Sasii-Frame. 

CASEMATE,  a  cove,  or  hollow  cylindrical  moulding, 
the  section  of  which  is  from  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  part  of 
a  circle. 

CASEMENTS,  sashes  or  glass  frames,  opening  on  hinges, 
and  revolving  upon  one  of  their  vertical  edges.  \\  hen 
a  casement  fills  the  whole  aperture,  it  is  called  a  simjle  ease- 
ment;  and  when  two  are  used,  they  are  called  double  case- 
ments, foldiug  caseiiieiits,  or  French  sashes. 

Casements  arc  more  liable  to  admit  rain,  wind,  or  snow, 
in  stormy  weather,  than  vertical  sliding  sashes,  particularly 
at  the  bottom,  when  they  open  from  the  inside. 

CASING  OF  TiMUKR  Work  is  when  the  outside  of  a 
timber  building  is  plastered  all  over  with  mortar  ;  after  whieh 
it  is  made  to  resemble  stone-work,  by  striking  it,  while  wet, 


CAS 


109 


CAS 


with  the  edge  of  a  trowel,  or  other  implement,  guided  by  a 
riiK'.  This  (>|)eration  is  best  jjerfoniiod  on  heart  laths,  becavisc 
tliL'  mortar  is  apt  to  cause  a  rapid  decay  in  sap  laths.  The 
coating  is  commonly  laid  in  two  thicknesses,  the  second 
being  applied  before  the  first  is  dry. 

CAST  (from  the  Danish,  l-ash'i;  to  throw),  in  plastering, 
a  jiiece  of  ijisnlated  plaster,  originally  formed  in  a  cavity, 
the  bottom  of  which  is  the  reverse  of  the  face  of  the  cast. 

The  operation  is  thus  performed  :  a  small  quantity  of 
plaster  ot  Par  is  is  mixed  w'ith  water  in  a  bason,  or  pan,  and 
stirred  up  witli  a  spatula,  till  thoroughly  incorporated  ;  more 
plaster  is  then  added  by  degrees,  till  the  mixture  assumes 
a  moderate  consistency,  such  as  to  flow  on  all  sides  when 
poured  on  a  horizontal  surface;  the  mould  being  slightly 
oiled  or  greased,  to  prevent  adhesion,  the  liquid  plaster  is 
poured  in,  so  as  to  fill  the  mould,  or  something  more.  When 
stitiened  in  a  small  degree,  the  supei'fluous  parts  are  scraped 
off  to  the  middle,  or  in  several  parts  at  the  edges;  when  it 
begins  to  heat,  which  happens  in  a  few  minutes,  it  will  be 
sufficiently  hard  :  then,  if  the  mould  be  made  of  wax,  it  may 
be  removed  by  bending  it  away  from  the  cast,  gently  at  the 
edges,  quite  round,  using  the  parts  left  on  the  surface  as 
handles ;  and  proceeding  gradually'  towards  the  centre,  till 
the  cast  is  quite  relieved  ;  but  if  the  material  of  the  mould 
be  brimstone,  a  slight  knock  on  the  back  will  relieve  it.  As 
this  operation  can  only  be  performed  in  the  direction  of  a 
straight  line,  no  part  of  the  cast  near  the  bottom  of  the  mould 
must  project  from  this  line  to  a  greater  distance  than  any 
part  more  remote,  otherwise  it  cannot  be  drawn  out  without 
breaking  such  projections.  If  more  relief  is  required,  than 
what  can  be  given  by  the  mould,  the  cast  must  be  undercut 
with  a  knife. 

If  the  impression  can  be  relieved  of  the  fnould,  the  cast 
may  be  of  one  piece ;  otherwise  it  must  be  made  in  several 
segments,  and  in  such  manner  as  maj'  best  conceal  the  joinings. 

Plaster  casts  are  sometimes  used  for  mouldings,  instead 
of  working  them  by  hand,  in  situations  whei'e  they  cannot 
be  conveniently  run  with  a  mould. 

An  exact  representation  of  an  original  piece  of  sculpture, 
or  even  of  a  living  animal,  may  be  taken,  whether  generallv 
concave  or  convex,  by  using  the  original  as  a  mould  ;  on 
which,  having  first  oiled  or  greased  the  parts  in  a  slight 
degree,  pour  the  plaster,  as  just  directed;  and  this  impression 
is  in  its  turn  to  be  used  as  a  mould,  and  will  give  afac-simile 
of  the  original. 

Pliny  mentions  the  casting  of  faces  from  nature,  as  being 
early  in  practice  among  the  Greeks. 

This  useful  art  supplies  the  painter  and  sculptor  with 
exact  representations  from  nature,  whether  of  men,  brute 
animals,  draperies,  or  plants ;  it  multiplies  models  of  all 
kinds,  and  is  now  brought  to  such  perfection,  that  casts  of 
antique  statues  are  made  perfectly  similar  to  their  prototypes, 
except  only  with  respect  to  colour  and  materials. 

The  introduction  of  plaster  in  architectural  decorations, 
dates  from  the  prevalence  of  the  style  called  by  us  the 
Elizabethan,  but  its  influence  is  more  conspicuous  durinc 
the  succeeding  or  Italian  style.  It  was  first  employed  in 
carved  and  paneled  wainscoting,  and  in  the  enrichment  of 
the  highly-decorated  ceilings,  which  were  a  prominent  feature 
in  buildings  of  the  period.  At  the  first  onset,  however,  the 
plaster  was  not  east,  but  each  individual  ornament  moulded 
by  hand,  fixed  in  the  situation  which  it  was  intended  after- 
wards to  occupy  ;  it  was  indeed  merely  the  s\ibstitution  of 
plaster  for  wood,  and  the  only  advantage  consisted  in  the 
facility  with  which  the  former  could  be  carved,  whereas 
the  execution  of  the  latter  was  difticult.  This  advantage 
was  further  extended  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 


century,  by  casting  the  plaster  ornaments  in  moulds  previously 
prepared  for  the  purpose,  so  that  from  a  single  mould  might 
be  p>roduced  a  number  of  casts,  thus  reducing  the  expense 
considerably.  Soon  afterwards  another  material  wasemployed 
in  similar  decorations;  this  was  the  pulp  of  paper,  which  was 
very  generally  used,  though  not  so  extensively  as  plaster; 
through  the  poverty  of  the  designs  in  this  material,  as  well 
as  the  imperfection  in  the  machinery  of  those  days,  it  fell 
into  disuse,  and  was  at  last  entirely  superseded  by  plaster. 
The  latter  material,  however,  could  not  produce  the  desired 
ultimatum,  it  answered  very  well  so  long  as  the  Greek  style 
of  ornamentation  prevailed  ;  but  when  this  was  superseded 
by  the  French,  Flemish,  and  Elizabethan,  its  defects  were 
seriously  felt :  it  was  by  no  means  calculated  to  express  the 
fantastic  forms  of  the  latter,  or  the  luxuriant  richness  of 
the  former  styles,  especially  when,  as  was  frequently  the 
case,  the  design  was  marked  by  bold  projection  and  deep 
undercutting.  This  difficulty  led  to  a  new  trial  of  the 
carton  pierre,  or  papier  mache  as  it  is  now  called,  which,  by 
the  aid  of  improved  machinery,  and  a  greater  knowledge 
of  chemical  and  general  science,  has  been  advanced  to  a  high 
state  of  excellence,  and  is  in  ever)-  respect  superior  to  plaster 
casts  previously  employed.  One  invaluable  advantage  it 
possesses,  is,  that  it  pireserves  the  indents  and  undercutting 
of  the  original  or  mould,  however  much  recessed  ;  in  fact, 
it  can  readily  be  made  to  assume  any  form,  however  intricate. 
Add  to  this  its  hardness  and  durability,  its  adaptation  to 
external  ornaments,  for  it  is  known  to  have  remained  unin- 
jured for  many  years,  though  expo.sed  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  weather;  its  indestructibility  by  vermin,  its  lightness, 
and  its  sharpness,  and  truth  of  outline,  and  its  superiority  to 
plaster,  will  not  be  for  a  moment  questioned.  In  many  of 
the  above  particulars,  it  is  superior  even  to  W"Ood,  to  which 
it  is  in  some  respects  similar,  for  it  may  be  cut  with  a  saw 
or  chisel,  bent  by  heat  or  steam,  and  even  planed  and  smoothed 
with  sand-paper.  Further,  its  lightness  will  allow  it  to  be 
fixed  in  any  situation,  without  fear  of  dispilacement,  and  it 
requires  but  nails  or  screws,  and  even  in  some  cases  only 
needle-points,  to  secure  it  firmly  in  its  position.  It  holds 
pre-eminence  over  plaster,  in  as  much  as  it  will  receive 
colour  very  readily,  and  gilding  much  more  so  than  the 
generality  of  materials  to  which  such  enrichment  is  applied. 
Another  article  which  has  of  late  been  introduced  as  a 
substitute  for  the  above  materials,  is  embossed  leather,  which 
in  some  instances  is  superior  to  either  of  them.  It  can  be 
made  to  assume  any  degree  of  relief  short  of  the  complete 
round,  and  it  preserves  all  the  sharpness  and  fineness  of  out- 
line possessed  by  the  mould  from  which  it  is  cast.  The 
moulds  in  this  process  are  of  metal,  into  which  the  leather 
previously  prepared  by  steaming,  is  forced  by  a  combination 
of  hydraulic  and  pneumatic  pressure,  by  which  extraordinary 
power  the  finest  lines  on  the  mould  are  repeated  with  the 
greatest  accuracy  on  the  copy.  It  might  be  supposed  fiom 
the  nature  of  the  material,  that  this  delicacy  of  outline  would 
be  deteriorated  by  time,  or  that  the  cast  might  be  altogether 
destroyed  by  damp ;  but  there  is  really  no  ground  for  ajipre- 
hensions  of  this  nature,  as  the  casts  are  found  under  all 
circumstances  to  preserve,  undiminished  in  the  minutest 
details,  the  form  transferred  to  them  from  the  original  mould, 
and  to  be  improved  and  hardened  rather  than  injured  by  age. 
This  material  has  an  advantage  in  the  facility  with  which  it 
can  be  made  to  imitate  old  carved  work  ;  indeed,  when  intro- 
duced in  the  restoration  of  such  works,  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  the  original  from  the  imitation ;  it  may  be 
coloured  or  gilded  as  desired.  It  is  applicable  to  all  kinds 
of  interior  decorations,  such  as  cornices,  friezes,  &c.,  and  has 
been  employed  even  in  the  entire  paneling  of  rooms. 


CAS 


110 


CAS 


Another  material  which,  until  very  recently,  was  entirely 
unknown  to  us,  hut  which,  since  its  first  introduction,  has 
come  into  extensive  use,  threatens  to  prove  a  furmidal)Ie 
rival  to  the  .above-mentioned  articles — we  allude  to  Uutta 
Percha.  This  substance  has  not  been  tested  sufficiently  to 
allow  us  to  speak  decidedly  as  to  its  applicability  to  the  pur- 
poses we  arc  considei-ing;  it  is  moulded  into  cornices,  panels, 
and  other  forms  of  architectural  decoration,  and  is  on  many 
accounts  eligible  for  such  uses  ;  it  can  be  moulded,  cast, 
stamped,  or  embossed,  into  an}'  form  however  elaborate,  and 
is  susecptiblc  of  colour  ;  it  has,  however,  disadvantages  which 
for  the  present  must  preclude  its  employment ;  for,  although 
it  promises  considerable  hardness,  it  is  readily  injured  by 
contact  with  any  sharp  body  ;  besides  this,  it  is  liable  to 
soften  and  liquify  when  exposed  to  an  elevated  temperature. 
This  last  defect  has  been  modified  by  a  process  to  which  the 
material  is  subjected  in  its  manufacture,  which  is  termed 
metallo-tliionising,  but  still  it  has  not  been  entirely  removed. 
The  properties  of  this  production,  however,  have  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  developed  to  decide  upon  its  capabilities; 
many  improvements  will  doubtless  be  introduced  into  its 
manufacture,  as  its  nature  becomes  more  fully  understood. 

Cast,  among  plumbers,  a  little  brazen  funnel  at  one  end 
of  a  mould,  for   casting  pipes   without   soldering,    through 
which  the  melted  metal  is  poured  into  the  mould. 
C.\ST,  RoiKjh.     See  Rough  Cast. 

CASTELLA.  or  Castles,  in  British  antir_juity,  one  of  the 
three  kinds  of  fortifications  built  along  the  line  of  the  wall 
of  Severus,  the  other  two  sorts  being  denominated  stations  and 
towers.  Tlie  Castelhi  were  neither  so  large  nor  strong  as  the 
stations,  but  much  more  numerous,  there  being  in  this  wall  no 
fewer  than  81.  The  figure  of  the  castellum  was  cubical,  60 
feet  in  each  dimension,  fortified  on  every  side  by  thick  and 
lofty  walls,  but  without  any  ditch,  except  on  the  north  side, 
where  also  the  wall  was  raised  much  above  its  general 
height,  and  with  the  adjoining  ditch  formed  the  fortification. 
The  castella  were  placed  in  the  intervals  between  the  sta- 
tions, generally  at  the  distance  of  about  seven  furlongs  from 
each  other,  and  guards  were  constantly  kept  in  them,  consist- 
ing of  a  certain  number  of  men,  detached  from  the  nearest 
stations.     See  Castle. 

Castella,  in  Roman  antiquity,  also  denoted  the  reservoirs, 
in  which  the  waters  fiom  the  aqueducts  were  collected, 
whence  the  citv  was  supplied  by  leaden  pipes. 

CASTELLATED  HOUSES,  those  mansions  which  sue- 
ceeded  the  castles  and  fortified  residences  of  the  feudal 
barons ;  they  still  preserved  the  appearance  of  strength, 
although  in  reality  incapable  of  defence  against  a  regular 
force.  These  buildings  were  provided  with  battlements  and 
turrets,  rather  for  ornament,  however,  than  for  practical 
purposes. 

Tlic  windows  are  generally  closed  horizontally  with  labels, 
over  them  ;  the  apertures  are  sometimes  divided  by  mullions, 
consisting  of  one  or  more  munni<jns  in  the  breadth,  and  one 
or  two  transoms  in  the  height,  by  which  the  great  opening  is 
divided  into  several  smaller  apertures,  sometimes  arched  un- 
der the  lintels,  and  sometimes  also  under  the  transoms.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  edifices  is  Haddon-Hall, 
Derbyshire. 

CASTING,  the  act  of  taking  the  impression  of  any  sur- 
face, whether  plain  or  sculptured,  by  pouring  a  liquid  matter 
on  that  surface.     See  Cast. 

Casting,  in  joinery  and  carpentry,  is  said  of  a  piece  of 
timber,  when  its  sides  are  bent  or  twisted  from  their  original 
surfaces,  by  the  fibres  being  unequally  heated,  dried,  or 
moistened  ;  or  by  being  naturally  disposed  in  dilVerent  direc- 
tions ;  or  the  twist  may,  perliaps,  arise  from  difterent  degrees 


of  hardness  in  the  body,  occasioned  by  knots,  &c.    This  effect 
is  otherwise  called  warping. 

Castixg  of  Bkick  or  Stone  Walls.  See  Rouoh  Cast. 
Casting  of  Bronzes,  is  thus  performed  :  The  figure  to  be 
cast  from  must  have  a  mould  made  on  it,  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  plaster-of-paris  and  brick-dust,  in  the  proportion  of 
not  more  than  one-third  of  the  former,  to  two-thirds  of  the 
latter.  The  thickness  of  this  mould  must  be  according  to  its 
length  and  breadth,  in  order  to  be  sufficiently  strong.  Little 
channels,  tending  upwards,  should  be  cut  in  various  parts  of  the 
joints,  to  give  vent  to  the  air  forced  out  by  the  metal  as  it  riuis 
into  the  mould.  After  the  mould  is  made,  a  thin  layer  of  clay 
is  spread  smoothly  and  uniformly  over  its  inner  surface,  of  the 
intended  thickness  of  the  bronze  ;  the  mould  is  then  closed, 
and  its  cavity  filled  with  a  composition  of  two-thirds  brick- 
dust  and  one-third  plaster,  mixed  with  water,  to  form  the  core ; 
previous  to  which,  should  the  work  be  of  any  magnitude,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  insert  strong  irons  bars  within  the  mould, 
to  secure  it  from  accidents,  and  to  facilitate  the  removal  of 
the  core.  The  mould  being  then  opened,  and  the  clay 
removed,  is  with  the  core  thoroughly  dried  ;  to  cflect  which 
more  perfectly,  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  charcoal 
fire  or  lighted  straw ;  great  attention  is  required  to  this  part 
of  the  process,  for  should  the  least  moisture  be  sutTercd  to 
remain,  the  mould  will  burst,  and  the  cast  be  blown  to  pieces, 
to  the  great  danger  of  the  lives  or  limbs  of  the  workmen. 
When  the  mould  is  finally  closed,  the  cord  must  be  supported 
in  its  place  by  short  bars  of  bronze,  running  from  the  mould 
into  the  core.  The  whole  then  is  bound  round  with  iron 
bars,  proportioned  in  strength  to  the  weight  of  the  cast,  and 
laid  in  a  proper  situation  for  receiving  the  metal,  supported 
by  dry  materials,  as  sand-stones,  &c.,  to  prevents  accidents. 
In  placing  the  mould,  due  care  must  be  taken  to  connect  its 
mouth  with  the  reservoirs,  by  means  of  a  channel  on  an 
inclined  plane,  that  the  liquid  metal  may  run  freely.  The 
form  of  the  furnace,  and  mode  of  running,  are  similar  to 
those  practised  in  bell-founding. 

Casting  of  Lead.     See  Plumdino. 

CASTLE  (from  the  Latin,  castellum,  a  diminutive  of 
castrum),  in  ancient  writers,  a  town  or  village  surrounded 
with  a  ditch,  and  wall  fui-nished  with  towers  at  intervals,  and 
guarded  by  a  body  of  troops. 

Castellum  originally  seems  to  have  signified  a  smaller  fort, 
for  a  little  garrison.  Though  Suetonius  uses  the  word  where 
the  fortification  was  large  enough  to  contain  a  cohort. 

According  to  Vegetius,  the  castella  were  often,  like  towns, 
built  on  the  borders  of  the  empire,  where  there  were  con- 
stant guards,  and  fences  against  the  enemy. 

Ilorsley  takes  them  for  much  the  same  with  what  were 
otherwise  denominated  stations.     See  Castella. 

Castle,  in  a  modern  sense,  is  a  place  fortified  either  by 
nature  or  by  art,  in  a  city  or  country,  to  keep  the  people  in 
their  duty,  or  to  resist  an  enemy.  In  the  more  extensive^ 
interpretation  of  the  word,  it  includes  the  various  methods  of 
encampment,  but  in  its  stricter  meainng,  it  is  usually  applied 
to  buildings  walled  with  stone,  and  intended  for  residence  as 
well  as  for  defence.  Few  br.anehes  of  historical  research  have 
been  so  little  attended  to,  as  that  which  relates  to  military  archi- 
tecture.  Castles,  indeed,  such  as  we  now  see  them,  were  of 
late  introduction  to  the  world.  Whether  we  m.ay  rank  them 
with  the  accommodations  of  life  brought  by  the  crusaders 
from  the  East,  is  doubtful  :  but  this  much  seems  tolerably 
certain,  that  it  was  in  France,  i^ngland,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  Savoy,  that  the  system  of  castellation  first  prevailed. 
In  Italy,  till  the  Normans  got  possession  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
castles"  were  comparatively  few.  We  may  at  least  date 
their  general  adoption  in  Europe  with  the  feudal  system. 


CA  S 


111 


CAS 


The  early  British  fortifications  seem  to  have  boon  little  more 
than  mere  oittrenehnients  of  eartii.  Ciesar,  however,  penetra- 
ted not  far  enousih  to  know  the  true  nature  of  tiie  British  fort- 
resses ;  and  in  his  work,  De  Bella  Gatlico  (lih.  v.  section  17), 
has  given  only  the  description  of  a  lowland  camp.  In  all 
parts  of  England,  there  is  a  vast  nmnber  of  strong  entrench- 
ments of  a  very  peculiar  kind,  situated  chiefly  on  the  tops  of 
natural  hills,  ami  which  can  be  attributed  to  none  of  the  dif- 
ferent people  who  have  ever  dwelt  in  the  adjacent  coimtry, 
but  the  ancient  Britons.  That  they  may  have  been  used  at 
dillerent  times,  and  occupied  upon  emergencies,  by  the  sub- 
sequent iidiabitants  of  the  island,  i-:  no  more  than  probable  ; 
but  there  are  many,  and  undoubted  reasons,  for  deeming 
them  the  strong  posts  and  fastnesses  of  the  aboriginal  settlers, 
where  they  lodged  their  wives,  formed  their  garrisons,  and 
made  their  stand.  That  the  Britons  were  accustomed  to 
fortify  such  places,  we  have  the  authority  of  Tacitus,  who, 
describing  the  strongholds  fojnied  and  resorted  to  by  Carao- 
tacus,  says,  "  Tunc  moiitibus  arduis,  el  si  qua  clcmenter 
accedi  poteranl,  in  modum  valli  saxa  prcestriiit." — Annal. 
lib.  xii.  sect.  33.  One  of  these  entrenchments  still  makes  a 
formidable  appearance  on  a  mountain  hanging  over  the  vale 
of  Nannerch,  in  Flintshire,  called  Moel-Arthur.  But  their 
situation  being  so  high  that  they  could  have  no  supply  of 
water  except  from  the  clouds,  they  were  often  liable  to  be 
untenable  for  a  considerable  time  together. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  these  fastnesses  in  our  own 
country,  is  the  Herefordshire  Beacon,  situated  on  a  spot  that 
could  not  but  be  an  object  of  the  utmost  attention  to  the 
original  inhabitants  of  those  territories,  which  afterwards 
■were  deemed  distinctly  England  and  Wales,  from  the  very 
division  here  formed.  It  is  on  the  summit  of  one  of  the 
highest  of  the  Malvern  hills,  and  is  known  by  the  name  just 
mentioned.  It  has  been  by  turns  attributed  to  the  Romans, 
the  Saxons,  and  the  Danes,  but  its  construction  as  a  strong- 
hold shows  it  was  designed  as  a  security  for  the  whole 
adjacent  country  on  any  emergency.  Another  of  these  fort- 
resses is  at  Brutr,  in  Staffordshire,  which  has  been  described 
by  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Journey  from  Cliestcr,  p.  47,  and 
exactly  answers  the  account  of  Tacitus.  It  is  placed  on  the 
summit  of  a  hill,  surrounded  by  two  deep  ditches,  and  has  a 
rampart  formed  of  stone.  Other  instances  are  adduced  by 
Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Tour  in  Wales,  and  by  Mr.  King,  in  the 
fir,st  volume  of  the  Munimenta  Antiqua :  but  a  stronger 
instance  than  all,  perhaps,  is  given  by  Mr.  Gongh,  in  the 
Additions  to  Camden,  vol.  ii.  p.  404,  where  he  shows  that  the 
true  Caer  Caradoc,  the  very  fortress  alluded  to  in  the  sen- 
tence we  have  quoted,  which,  if  not  the  royal  seat  of  Carac- 
tacus,  seems  to  have  been  at  least  his  stronghold,  was  in 
Shropshire,  two  miles  south  of  C'lun,  and  three  from  Coxal, 
being  a  large  camp,  three  times  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  on  the 
point  of  a  hill,  accessible  only  one  way,  and  defended  on  the 
north  side  by  very  deep  double  ditches,  in  the  solid  rock ; 
whilst  on  the  east,  the  steepness  of  the  ground  renders  it 
impregnable.  On  the  south  it  has  only  one  ditch,  for  the 
same  reason  :  and  the  principal  entrance  is  on  the  west  side, 
fenced  with  double  works;  whilst  to  the  south-west  it  is 
even  fenced  with  triple  works.  The  most  extraordinary, 
however,  of  all  these  kinds  of  fortresses,  is  situated  in  Caer- 
narvonshire, called  Tre'r  Caerl,  or  The  Town  of  Fortresses. 
The  plan  and  elevation  of  this  ancient  stronghold  and  abode 
is  given  by  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Tour  in  Wales,  vol.  ii.  p. 
200.  On  the  accessible  side  it  was  defended  by  three  rude 
walls  of  stone  ;  the  upper  ones  being  lofly,  about  fifteen  feet 
high,  and  sixteen  broad;  exhibiting  a  grand  and  extensive 
front.  The  space  on  the  top  is  an  irregular  area;  but  the 
whole  is  filled  with  cells,  some  round,  and  some  oval,  and 


some  also  oblong  or  square.  Several  of  the  round  ones  were 
fifteen  feet  in  diameter  ;  which  brings  to  mind  the  houses  of 
the  ancient  Gauls,  described  by  Strabo  ;  and  of  those  that  were 
oblong,  there  was  at  least  one  even  thirty  feet  in  length.  Of 
the  same  kind  of  fortresses  were  Penmaen  Mawr,  in  Caernar- 
vonshire; Warton  Cragg,  in  Lancashire ;  Old  Oswestry,  in 
Shrop>hire  ;  the  irregular  encampment  of  Maiden  Castle,  near 
Dorchester:  and  pi-obably  t)ld  Sarum,  whose  character  was 
new-modelled  by  the  Itomans.  Mr.  King,  in  the  Munimenta 
Antiqua,  vol.  i.  p.  63,  considers  the  dens  in  the  mountains  and 
the  thickets,  of  Scripture,  as  str<ingholds  or  hill-fortresses 
of  the  kind  described.  When  Samson  had  made  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  Philistines,  we  are  told  he  went  and  dwelt 
in  the  top  of  the  rock  Elam  ;  where  we  find,  afterwards, 
three  thousand  men  of  Judah  went  up  to  confer  with  him. 
That  hill-fortresses  were  used  in  the  earliest  ages,  there  can 
be  little  doubt.  The  Israelites,  when  their  land  was  invaded 
by  Jabin,  the  king  of  Canaan,  in  consequence  of  an  exhorta- 
tion from  Deborah  the  prophetess,  assembled  to  make  their 
stand  upon  Mount  Tabor.  Among  the  Indians  of  South 
America,  strongholds,  of  a  similar  nature  to  those  of 
Britain,  have  been  frequently  discovered.  Ulloa's  Voyage  to 
South  America,  vol.  i.  p.  503-504.  And  a  very  curious 
instance  of  the  attack  and  surrender  of  one  in  Sogdiana,  in 
Asia,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  related  by 
Quintus  Curtius,  lib.  vii.  chap.  xi.  The  anecdote  is  worth 
the  reference  of  the  reader. 

The  British  mode  of  warfiire  appears  to  have  received  but 
little  alteration  from  the  introduction  of  Roman  tactics.  Till 
finally  subdued,  their  princes  showed  abilities  both  in  the 
command  of  armies  and  in  the  conduct  of  war;  the}'  chose 
their  ground  judiciously  ;  formed  able  plans  of  active  opera- 
tions ;  and  availed  themselves  of  all  the  advantages  of  local 
knowledge:  but  to  the  fortresses  described,  if  we  may  rely 
on  the  testimonies  of  our  ancient  writers,  they  did  not  very 
frequently  retire.  Their  deficiencies  both  in  the  attack,  the 
construction,  and  the  defence  of  such  places,  must  have  been 
very  obvious  even  to  themselves ;  and  as  they  delighted  to 
live,  so  they  usually  chose  to  fight,  in  open  plains.  Their 
impatient  courage,  and  their  aversion  from  labour,  made 
them  unable  to  endure  the  delays  and  fatigues  of  defending  or 
besieging  the  castles  of  their  time  ;  and  they  often  reproached 
the  Romans  with  cowardice,  for  raising  such  solid  works 
about  their  camps  and  stations.  See  Boadicea's  famous 
speech  to  her  army,  in  Xiphilin,  ex  Diane  in  Nerone. 

Of  the  Roman  military  works  in  this  coimtry,  they  were 
for  the  greater  part  temporary ;  many,  however,  were 
stationary  posts  ;  and  some  few,  to  the  retention  of  which  the 
greatest  importance  was  attached,  became  walled  caslra. 

Cajsar,  in  the  work  already  quoted,  Be  Bell.  Gall.  lib.  vii. 
describes  one  of  his  camps  as  fortified  very  much  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  walled  city.  A  few  of  the  Roman  stations  in  our 
own  country  assist  in  throwing  light  on  the  description  ;  and, 
in  short,  such  as  were  so  surrounded,  appear  to  have  been 
the  link  of  connection  between  the  British  earth-work  and 
the  feudal  castle. 

Richborough,  Portchcster,  and  Pevensey,  are  the  three 
greatest  fortresses  the  Romans  have  left  us.  Richborough, 
the  very  earliest  in  order  of  time,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
begun  in  the  year  43,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  ;  but  not  to 
have  been  completed  till  205,  under  the  direction  of  emperor 
Severus.  There  are  in  this  distinguished  fortress,  says  Mr. 
King,  {Munimenta  Antiqua,  vol.  ii.  p.  8)  still  plainly  to  be 
traced  all  the  principal  parts  of  one  of  the  very  greatestand 
most  perfect  of  the  stationary  camps.  The  upper  division 
for  the  general  and  chief  officers,  and  the  lower  division  for 
I  the  legion.     In  the  former,  the  prjBtorium  with  its  parade  ; 


CAS 


112 


CAS 


and  the  sacellum.  or  small  temple,  for  depositing  the  ensigns. 
In  tlie  walls  too  are  the  tra(;es  of  the  four  great  gates;  the 
decuman,  the  prretoriaii,  and  the  two  posterns.  The  great 
courses  of  stone,  with  whieh  the  wall  is  formed,  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  alternate  lasers,  composed  entirely  of  a 
double  course  of  bricks  each ;  as  in  the  walls  of  Yerulam, 
Silcliester,  and  other  of  our  IJoman  towns. 

The  lloman  remains  at  Portchester  are  not  perhaps  so 
clearly  to  be  traced  ;  since,  having  been  constantly  used  as  a 
fortress  in  succeeding  ages,  it  has  received  vast  and  extremely 
various  additions  :  and  presents  us  with  specimens  of  military 
architecture  in  almost  every  period,  from  the  Normans  to  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Similar  alterations  to  those  first  mentioned,  have  given  so 
strong  a  turn  to  the  general  character  of  Pcvensey,  that  its 
real  iera  has  been  sometimes  doubted  ;  though  portions  of  the 
Koinan  wail,  as  well  as  the  decuman  gate,  may  be  easily  and 
accuratfily  traced. 

Here  too  it  may  not.be  irrelevant  to  observe,  that  the 
castle  at.  Colchester,  in  Essex,  has  been  sometimes  taken  fur 
a  Roman  fortress.  And  this  not  only  because  it  has  many  of 
the  sam«  sort  of  tiles  which  are  found  in  Roman  walls,  but 
because  they  are  laid  in  the  same  manner,  with  bands. 
Though,  if  the  building  be  examined  with  attention,  there 
may  be  traced,  in  almost  every  part,  evident  marks  either 
of  the  later  Saxon  or  Norman  workmanship  :  and  though 
many  of  the  tiles  which  are  used  iu  It  may  have  been  gathered 
from  thii  remains  of  Roman  buildings,  the  greater  part 
appears  to  have  been  made  on  purpose.  See  l/ie  Archaolngia, 
vol.  iv.  p.  33. 

That  in  the  Roman  times,  however,  there  must  have  been 
many  other  such  walled  stations  as  those  at  Richborough, 
Portchester,  and  Pevensoy,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  The 
Saxons,  in  the  course  of  their  long  wars  with  the  IJritons, 
mav  be  fairly  supposed  to  have  destroyed  many  of  the  fortifi- 
cations which  had  been  thus  erected  :  and  after  their  final 
settlement,  they  neglected  to  repair  tho.se  which  remained,  or 
to  build  many  of  their  own.  IJy  these  means  the  country 
became  open  and  defenceless  ;  which  greatly  facilitated  the 
incursions  of  the  Danes,  who  met  with  little  obstruction  from 
fortified  places.  That  there  was,  however,  something  like  a 
castle  at  Bamljorough,  in  Northumberland,  we  have  the  eon- 
current  testimony  of  historians,  as  Matthew  of  Westminster, 
p.  103,  sub  ann.  547.  Saxon  Chronicle,  p.  19.  Roger 
Hoved.  p.  238,  b.  Hede,  lib.  iii.  chap.  vi.  p.  12  :  a  castle  at 
Corfe,  iu  Dorsetshire,  is  said  to  have  existed  in  the  days  of 
Edgar.  Go\igh's  Add.  to  Caiiideit,  vol.  i.  p.  49.  King's  Muni- 
menia  Antiquu,  vol.  iii.  p.  209.  Portchester  castle,  during 
this  period,  probably  retained  its  designation.  And  Mr. 
King,  Muuimenta  An/iqiia,  vol.  iii.  p.  211,  has  taken  consi- 
derable pains  to  prove  that  the  fortress  at  Castleton,in  Derby- 
shire, is  of  as  high  antiquity. 

Alfred  the  Great,  however,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  of 
our  piinces  with  whom  the  building  of  castles  became  an 
object  of  national  policy.  Thongli,  if  Asser's  authority  may 
be  received,  they  were  not  exactly  what  the  reader,  at  the 
first  mention  of  their  name,  might  take  them  for ;  since  they 
were  composed  not  only  of  stone,  but  of  wood  ;  Asser  de  lieb. 
geslis  Al/redi,  p.  17,  18.  Elfleda,  too,  liis  daughter,  gover- 
ness of  Mercia,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  only  person  in 
tlie  kingdom  who  properly  complied  with  the  commands,  and 
imitated  the  example,  of  her  illustrious  father,  and  who  in- 
herited more  of  the  wisdom  and  spirit  of  Alfred  than  any  of 
his  children,  not  only  followed  his  steps  by  fighting  many 
battles  with  the  Danes,  but  built  not  less  than  eight  castles 
in  the  space  of  three  years,  to  check  their  incursions.  Hen. 
Hunt.  Jlist.  p.  204.     A  still  more  remarkable  instance  of  the 


knowledge  of  castle-building  at  a  short  period  subsequent  to 
this,  may  be  found  in  William  of  Malmesbury,  chap.  vi.  when 
he  mentions  the  rebuilding  of  Exeter  by  Athelstan,  who  died 
in  941.  '■  Urhem  iyitur  iltam,"  says  the  historian,  "  qvani  cnn- 
taminatcT  nentis  repurgio defcccaveral,  turribus  mmiivit,  miiro 
ex  qundralis  lapidibiis  ciiixit."  And  from  the  few  remains  of 
the  fortifications  of  this  period,  we  find,  that  the  walls  pre- 
cisely answer  JIalmesbury's  description.  They  were  faced 
with  these  four-scj^uare  stones  both  within  and  without,  and 
the  intermediate  space  between  the  facings  was  filled  up 
with  rubble  or  rough  flint-stones,  mixed  together  with  a 
strong  and  permanent  cement.  It  is  to  this  period  too,  that 
the  most  judicious  of  our  writers  have  referred  the  castle  at 
Colchester,  which  has  been  already  mentioned.  Its  form  is 
four-sqnare,  flanked  at  the  four  corners  with  strong  towers, 
and  it  is  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  yards  in  circum- 
ference on  the  outside,  all  projections  and  windings  included  ; 
the  four  sides  neaily  facing  the  four  cardinal  points.  Some 
have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  call  this  venerable  ruin  British; 
others,  as  we  have  already  said,  have  attributed  it,  with  a 
greater  share  of  plausibility,  to  the  Romans  ;  but  Camden 
and  our  better  writers  ascribe  it  to  Edward  the  Elder,  who 
repaired  the  walls  and  rebuilt  the  town,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  10th  century. 

Still,  however,  the  paucity  of  strong  posts  in  the  island 
during  every  period  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  history,  may  be 
constantly  observed.  And  it  is  more  than  probable  that  to 
this  defect  we  may  attribute  the  defeat  of  llarold  ;  since  it 
became  necessary  that  all  sho\ild  be  risked  upon  the  issue  of 
a  single  battle.  The  Coniiueror,  himself  was  evidently  sen- 
sible that  the  want  of  fortified  places  in  England  had  greatly 
facilitated  his  conquest,  and  might,  at  any  time,  also  facilitate 
his  expulsion.  He  therefore  made  all  possible  haste  to 
remedy  the  defect,  bv  building  magnificent  and  strong  castles 
in  all  the  towns  within  the  royal  demesnes.  "  William,"  says 
Matthew  Paris,  "excelled  all  his  predecessors  in  building 
castles,  and  greatly  harassed  his  subjects  and  vassals  with 
these  works."'  Matthew  Paris,  His/,  p.  8.  col.  2.  And  his 
earls,  barons,  and  even  prelates,  imitated  his  example ;  and  it 
was  the  first  care  of  every  one  who  received  a  grant  of  an 
estate  from  the  crown,  to  build  a  castle  upon  it  for  his 
defence  and  residence.  The  disputes  about  the  succession, 
in  the  following  reigns,  kept  up  this  spirit  for  building  great 
and  strong  castles.  William  Rufus  was  still  agreater  builder 
than  his  father;  and  Henry  I.  was  not  idle  in  adding  to  their 
number.  "William  Rufiis,"  says  Henry  Knyghton,  col. 
2373,  "  was  much  addicted  to  building  royal  castles  and 
palaces,  as  the  castles  of  Dover,  Windsor,  Norwich,  Exeter, 
the  palace  of  Westminster,  and  many  others,  testify  ;  nor  was 
there  any  king  of  England  before  him  that  erected  so  many, 
and  such  noble  edifices."  Though  of  one  or  two  of  these, 
William  Rufus  was  only  the  improver.  But  the  rage  for 
building  castles  never  prevailed  so  much  in  any  period  of 
the  English  history  as  in  the  turbulent  reign  of  Stephen, 
between  1 13.5  and  1154.  In  this  reign,  says  the  writer  ot 
the  Saxon  Chronicle,  p.  238,  every  one,  who  was  able,  built 
a  castle  ;  so  that  the  jioor  people  were  worn  out  with  the  toil 
of  these  building.s,  .and  the  whole  kingdom  was  covered  with 
castles.  And  this  Last  expression  will  hardly  appear  too 
strong,  when  we  are  informed,  that,  besides  all  the  castles 
before  that  time  in  England,  no  fewer  than  eleven  hundred 
and  fifteen  were  raised  from  the  foundation,  in  the  short 
space  of  nineteen  years.  —  Rad.  de  Diceto,  col.  528.  "  Stephen," 
says  Holinshed,  vol.  iii.  fol.  50,  "  began  to  repent  himself, 
although  too  late,  for  that  he  had  granted  license  to  so 
many  of  his  subjects  to  build  castles  within  their  own 
grounds." 


CAS 


113 


CAS 


All  art,  Dr.  Henry  observes,  {History  of  Britain,  vol.  vi. 
p.  188,  Svo.)  so  much  practised  as  architecture  was  in  this 
period,  iimst  have  l)ecn  much  improved.  That  it  really 
was  so,  will  appear  from  the  following  very  brief  description 
of  tlie  most  common  form  and  structure  of  a  rnyal  (■a^tle,  or 
of  that  of  a  great  carl,  banui,  or  prelate,  in  this  period  ;  and 
as  these  castles  served  both  for  residence  and  defence,  this 
description  will  serve  both  for  an  account  of  the  domestic 
and  military  aichitecture  of  those  times,  which  cannot  well 
be  separated. 

The  situation  of  llie  castles  of  the  Anglo-Xorman  kings 
and  barons  was  most  commonly  on  an  eminence,  and  near 
a  river;  a  situation  on  several  accounts  eligible.  The 
whole  site  of  the  castle  (which  was  frequently  of  great 
extent  and  irregular  figuie)  was  surrounded  by  a  deep  and 
broad  ditch,  sometimes  filled  with  water,  and  sometimes  dry, 
called  the  fosse.  Before  the  great  gate  was  an  outwork, 
called  a  barlxican,  or  antemtira/,  which  was  a  strong  and 
higii  wall,  with  turrets  upon  it,  designed  for  the  defence  of 
the  gate  and  drawbridge.  On  the  inside  of  the  ditch  stood 
the  wall  of  the  castle,  about  eight  or  ten  feet  thick,  and 
between  twenty  and  thirty  feet  high,  with  a  parapet,  and  a 
kind  of  embrasures,  called  crennels,  on  the  top.  On  this 
wall,  at  proper  distances,  square  towers,  of  two  or  three 
stories  high,  were  built,  which  served  for  lodging  some  of 
the  firim-ipal  ofhcei's  of  the  proprietor  of  the  castle,  and  for 
other  purposes ;  and  on  the  inside  were  erected  lodgings 
for  the  common  servants  or  retainers,  granaries,  storehouses, 
and  other  necessai'y  offices.  On  the  top  of  this  wall,  and 
on  the  flat  roofs  of  these  buildings,  stood  the  defenders  of 
the  castle,  when  it  was  besieged,  and  from  tlience  discharged 
arrows,  darts,  and  stones,  on  the  besiegers.  The  great  gate 
of  the  castle  stood  in  the  course  of  this  wall,  and  was  strongly 
fortified  with  a  tower  on  each  side,  and  rooms  over  the 
passage,  which  was  closed  with  thick  folding-doors  of  oak, 
often  plated  with  iron,  and  with  an  iron  portcullis,  or  grate, 
let  down  from  above.  Within  this  outward  wall  was  a  hirae 
open  space,  or  court,  called,  in  the  largest  and  most  perfect 
castles,  tile  outer  huijk  or  hallium,  in  which  stood  commonly 
a  eJiurch  or  chapel.  On  the  inside  of- this  outer  bayle  was 
another  ditch,  wall,  gate,  and  towers,  enclosing  the  inner 
bayle,  or  court,  wilhiii  wliich  the  chief  tower,  or  keep,  was 
built.  This  was  a  v.  ry  large  square  fabric,  four  or  five 
stories  high,  having  small  windows  in  prodigious  thick  walls, 
which  rendered  the  apartments  within  it  dark  and  gloomy. 
This  great  tower  u ;.-  the  palace  of  the  prince,  prelate,  or 
baron,  to  whom  the  castle  belonged,  and  the  residence  of  the 
constable  or  governor.  Under  ground  were  dismal  dark 
vaults,  for  the  confinement  of  prisoners,  which  made  it  some- 
times be  called  th^  dungeon.  In  this  building,  also,  was 
tlie  great  hall,  in  which  the  owner  displayed  his  hospitality, 
by  entertaining  his  numerous  friends  and  followers.  At  one 
end  of  the  great  halls  of  castles,  palaces,  and  monasteries, 
there  was  a  [ilace  raised  a  little  above  the  rest  of  the  floor, 
called  the  dais,  where  the  chief  table  stood,  at  which  peisons 
of  the  highest  rank  dined.  Though  there  were  unquestionably 
great  variations  in  the  structure  of  castles  and  palaces  in  this 
period,  yet  the  most  perfect  and  magnificent  of  them  seem 
to  have  been  constructed  on  the  above  plan.  Such,  to  give 
one  example,  was  the  famous  dastle  of  Bedford,  as  appears 
from  the  fbllowing  account  of  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
taken  by  Henry  111.  a.  d.  1-2-24,  from  Matthew  Paris,  Hist. 
Angl.  p.  221-3.  The  castle  was  taken  by  four  assaults. 
"In  the  first  was  taken  the  barbacan  ;  in  the  second,  the 
outer  ballia;  at  the  third  attack,  the  wall  by  the  old  tower 
was  thrown  down  by  the  miners,  where,  with  great  danger, 
they  possessed  themselves  of  the  inner  ballia,  through  a  chink : 

15 


at  the  fourth  assault,  the  miners  set  fire  to  the  tower,  so  that 
the  smoke  burst  out,  and  the  tower  itself  was  cloven  to 
that  degree,  as  to  show  visibly  some  broad  ehir.ks  ;  where- 
upon the  enemy  surrendered." 

As  Britain  abounded  in  this  period  in  fortified  towns  and 
castles,  much  of  the  art  of  war,  of  course,  consisted  in 
defending  and  assaulting  strong  places;  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  application  of  them  in  this  jicriod  may  be  obtained 
from  the  relation  of  the  siege  of  Exeter  castle  by  king 
Stejihen,  in  the  year  1130.  Seethe  Ge.sla  Bcffis  Stcphcnii, 
apud  Duchesn,  ji.  034.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  consummate 
specimen  of  the  military  skill  of  that  age  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  And  it  may  be  enough  to  observe,  that  after 
this  picge  had  lasted  three  months,  and  king  Stephen  iiad 
expended  upon  it  in  machines,  arms,  ami  other  things,  no 
less  than  l.'),000  marks,  equal  in  efficacy  to  150,000  pounds 
of  our  money,  the  besieged  were  obliged  to  surrender  for 
want  of  water.     Henry's  Hist,  of  Britain,  vol.  vi.  p.  217. 

Berkeley,  which  was  originally  founded  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen,  is  one  of  the  best  remains  we  are  now  possessed 
of,  of  an  ancient  feudal  castle.  But  the  changes  which  almost 
all  these  buildings  have  undergone  in  subsequent  times,  may 
bo  judged  of  by  those  which  have  taken  ]>lace  at  Berkeley. 
The  buildings  within  the  inmost  only  of  the  three  gates  are 
said  to  have  been  the  work  of  Ilenry  II.  when  duke  of 
Normandy  ;  while  the  two  outermost,  with  all  the  buildings 
belonging  to  them,  except  the  keep,  are  referred  to  the  latter 
end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  and  to  those  of  the  second  and 
third  Edwards.  The  hall  and  the  two  chapels  are  of  the 
latter  period  ;  and  the  great  kitchen,  adjoining  to  the  keep, 
was  of  the  work  of  Henry  VII. 

Among  the  castles  which  ilr.  King  has  endeavoured  to 
appropriate  to  the  early  Norman  period,  are  those  of  Notting- 
ham, Lincoln,  and  Cliiford's  tower  at  York,  all  erected  by 
the  Conqueror:  Archxeol.  vol.  vi.  p.  257.  The  remains  of 
all  these,  he  observes,  fully  illustrate  the  Norman  mode  of 
constructing  such  edifices.  Tiekhill.  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Doncaster,  appears  to  have  been  another  of  these  castles, 
ihid.  267  ;  and  Pontefract  bespeaks  a  Norman  design,  with 
rude  and  imperfect  alterations.  All  of  those  appear  to  have 
been  erected  upon  artificial  mounts,  and  nearly  cover  the 
whole  area  of  the  summit  of  the  respective  hills  on  which 
they  are  situated. 

Tun  bridge  castle,  in  Kent,  built  by  Richard  de  Clare, 
about  the  time  of  William  Uufus,  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  King, 
as  a  specimen  of  the  later  Norman  structures  ;  and  he  has 
been  very  accurate  in  his  description  of  it ;  ihid.  270. 
Gundulph,  who  directed  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, in  1078,  and  the  castle  at  Ilochester,  he  describes  to  have 
introduced  a  great  man}-  judicious  alterations,  and  not  only 
to  have  increased  the  security,  but  the  magnificence  of  our 
military  piles ;  and  observes  that  the  castle  at  Rochester  is 
a  complete  specimen  of  all  that  he  ctfected.  Newark,  which 
Mr.  King  afterwards  mentions,  is  an  instance  of  a  prelate's 
castle  in  the  reign  of  Stephen  :  and  the  keep  of  Knaresborough, 
of  the  time  of  Ilenry  111.,  completes  the  specimens  it  may  be 
proper  to  mention  of  the  irregular  style  of  castle- building 
which  prevailed  during  the  interval  between  the  Norman 
Conquest  and  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

To  these  succeeded  the  m.'^niifieent  piles  of  Edward  1., 
more  convenient  and  more  stately,  and  containing  not  only 
many  towers,  but  great  halls,  and  sometimes  even  religious 
houses.  The  best  style  of  military  architecture  in  this  period 
was  displayed  in  the  castles  of "  Caernarvon,  Conway,  and 
Caerphilly  ;  and  it  is  singular  to  observe  that  many  of  our 
more  ancient  castles  were  then  increased  with  additions  in 
the  same  sumptuous  style. 


CAS 


114 


CAS 


After  the  age  of  Edward  I.  we  find  another  kind  of  castle 
introduced,  api)roaching  nearer  to  the  idea  of  modern  pahices. 
The  first  of  these  was  that  at  Windsor,  built  by  Edward  III., 
who  employed  William  of  Wykeham  as  his  architect.  This 
convenient  and  enlarged  style  of  building  was  soon  imitated, 
on  a  lesser  scale,  by  the  nobles  of  the  realm  ;  and  two 
remarkable  instances,  wherein  convenience  and  magiiiiicencc 
were  singularly  blended  at  this  period,  may  be  found  in  the 
castles  of  Ilarewood  and  SpofTord,  in  Yorkshire.  The  im- 
provements at  Kenilworth  afford  another  instance  of  the 
great  enlargement  which  our  castles,  during  this  age,  were 
accustomed  to  receive  :  and  Naworth,  in  Cumberland,  is 
another  of  the  best  specimens  that  can  probably  be  referred 
to.  Caistor,  in  Norfolk,  allbrds  the  style  of  Henry  the 
Sixth's  reign.  It  was  built  by  Sir  John  Fastolf,  who  died 
in  1450. 

To  these  venerable  piles  succeeded  the  castellated  houses ; 
mansions  adi)riied  with  turrets,  and  battlements  ;  but  utterly 
incapable  of  defence,  except  against  a  rude  mob,  armed  with 
clubs  and  staves,  on  whom  the  gates  might  be  shut ;  yet  still 
mansions  almost  quite  devoid  of  all  real  elegance,  or  com- 
fortable convenience,  and  fitted  only  to  entertain  a  herd  of 
retainers  wallowing  in  licentiousness.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  they  discover  marks  of  economy  and  good  manage- 
ment, which  enabled  their  hospitable  lords  to  support  such 
rude  revels,  and  to  keep  up  their  state  even  better  than 
many  of  their  more  lefined  successors.  Of  tliese  buildings 
one  of  the  most  perfect  and  most  curious,  now  remaining, 
is  ITaddon  House,  in  Derbyshire  ;  castellated  and  emliattled, 
in  all  the  apparent  forms  of  regular  defence  ;  but  really 
without  the  least  means  of  resistance  in  its  original  oonstruc- 
ti^)n.  The  description  Mr.  King  has  given  of  it,  Airlucol. 
vol.  vi.  p.  347,  is,  however,  too  long  to  bo  extracted,  and 
too  curious  to  be  abridged. 

After  this  kind  of  building,  the  magnificent  quadrangular 
houses  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  succeeded  ;  of  which 
the  most  beautiful  and  genuine  models,  perhaps,  were  those 
of  (^)wdray,  in  Sussex,  and  Penshurst,  the  seat  of  the 
Sidney  family,  in  Kent. 

Without  referring  to  the  stately  buildings  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  it  may  be  enough  to  say,  that  here  ends  the  history 
of  the  English  castle.  The  block-houses  of  Calshot,  Hurst, 
Sandown,  Sandgato,  and  S(nith  Sea,  arc  the  last  instances  of 
such  buildings  ever  intended  for  a  stand,  and  seem  strongly 
to  mark  the  revolution  which  has  taken  place  in  our  defen- 
sive system  of  war. 

Thi;  total  change  in  military  tactics,  brought  about  by  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  and  ai-tillery  ;  the  more  settled  state 
of  the  nation,  Scotland  becoming  part  of  the  dominions  of 
the  kings  of  England  ;  the  rcspectalilc  footing  of  our  navy, 
who-ic  wooden  walls  secure  ns  from  invasions  ;  and  the  abo- 
lition of  the  feudal  system, — all  conspired  to  render  castles  of 
litl  le  use  or  eonsequcnoc,  as  fortresses  :  so  the  great  improve- 
ment in  arts  and  sciences,  and  their  constant  attendant,  the 
increase  of  luxury,  made  our  nobility  and  gentry  build  them- 
selves more  pleasant  and  airy  dwellings ;  relinquishing  the 
uncient  dreary  mansions  <if  their  forefathers,  where  the  enjoy- 
ment of  light  and  air  was  sacriliecd  to  the  consideration  of 
strength ;  and  whose  best  rooms,  according  to  our  modern 
refined  notions,  have  more  the  appeai'ance  of  gaols  and 
dungeons  for  prisoners,  than  apartments  for  the  reception  of 
a  rich  and  powerful  baron. 

However,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  a  little  before  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  some  inquiry  into  the  state 
of  these  buildings  seems  to  have  taken  place;  for  on  the 
22nd  of  January,  163(5,  a  commission  was  issued,  appointing 
lieutenant-colonel  Francis  Coningsby,  commissionary-general 


of  and  for  all  the  castles  and  fortifications  in  England  and 
Wales,  with  an  allowance  of  13s.  4d.  a  day,  to  be  paid  out 
of  the  cheques  and  defalcations  that  should  be  made  by  him 
from  time  to  time ;  or,  in  default  thereof,  out  cif  the  Treasury. 
Whether  this  office  was  really  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
scrutinizing  into  the  .state  of  these  foi  tresses,  as  foreseeing 
the  events  which  afterwards  happened ;  or  whether  it  was 
only  formed  to  gratify  some  fiivourite,  does  not  appear. 
During  the  troubles  of  that  reign,  some  ancient  castles 
were  garrisoned  and  di'fended,  several  of  which,  particularly 
Corfe  castle,  in  Dorsetshire,  were  afterwards  destroyed,  by 
order  of  the  parliament :  since  '.hat  period,  they  have  been 
abandoned  to  the  mercy  of  time,  weather,  and  the  more 
unsparing  hands  of  avaricious  men.  The  last  have  proved 
the  most  destructive;  many  of  these  monuments  of  ancient 
magnificence  having  been  by  them  demolished  for  the  sake 
of  the  materials  :  by  which  the  country  has  been  deprived  of 
those  remains  of  antiquity,  so  essential,  in  the  eyes  of 
f()reigncrs,  to  the  dignity  of  a  nation  ;  and  which,  if  rightly 
considered,  tended  to  ins])ire  the  beholder  with  a  love  for  the 
now  happy  establishment ;  by  leading  him  to  compare  the 
present  with  those  times  when  such  buildings  were  erected: 
times  Avhen  this  unhappy  kingdom  was  distracted  by  intes- 
tine wars  ;  when  the  son  was  armed  against  the  father,  and 
brother  slauglitei-ed  brother  ;  when  the  lives,  honour,  and  pro- 
perty of  the  wretched  inhabitants  depended  on  the  nod  of  an 
arbitrai-y  king,  or  wei-e  subject  to  the  more  tyrannical  and 
capricious  wills  of  lawless  and  foreign  barons. 

The  fiiw  castles  existing  in  the  Saxon  time,  were,  pro- 
liably,  on  occasion  of  war,  or  invasions,  garjisoned  by  the 
national  militia,  and,  at  other  times,  slightly  guarded  l>y 
the  domestics  of  the  princes  or  great  personages  who  resided 
in  them ;  but  after  the  Conquest,  when  all  the  estates  were 
converted  into  baronies,  held  by  knight's  service,  castle-guard, 
coming  under  that  denomination,  was  among  the  duties  to 
which  particular  tenants  were  liable.  From  these  services 
the  bishops  and  abbots,  who,  till  the  time  of  the  Normans, 
had  held  their  lands  in  frank-almoign,  or  free  alms,  were,  by 
this  new  regulation,  not  exempted  ;  they  were  not,  indeed, 
like  the  laity,  obliged  to  personal  service,  it  being  sufficient 
that  they  provided  fit  and  able  persons  to  officiate  in  their 
stead.  This  was,  however,  at  first  vigorously  opposed  by 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  wlio,  being  obliged  to 
find  some  knights  to  attend  King  William  Kufiis  in  his  wars 
in  Wales,  complained  of  it  as  an  innovation  and  infringement 
of  the  rights  and  immunities  of  the  church. 

It  was  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  Conqueror,  and  the 
kings  of  those  da\s,  to  grant  estates  to  men  of  approved  fide- 
lity and  valour,  on  condition  that  thev  should  perform  castle- 
guard,  with  a  certain  number  of  )nen,  f)r  some  specified 
time;  and  sometimes  they  were  likewise  bound  by  their  te- 
nures to  keep  in  repair  son\o  tower  or  bulwark,  as  was  the 
case  at  Dover  castle. 

In  process  of  time,  these  services  were  commuted  for 
.annual  rents,  sometimes  styled  wnrd-pennij,  and  wai/l-fcc, 
but  commonly  castlc-iimird  rc/ils  ;  ]).ayablc  on  fixed  days, 
under  prodigious  penalties,  called  siir-sizcs.  At  IJochester, 
if  a  man  failed  in  the  payment  of  his  rent  of  castle-guard 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Andrew,  his  debt  was  doubled  every  tide, 
during  the  time  for  which  the  payment  was  delayed.  These 
were  afterwards  restrained  by  an  act  of  parliament,  made  in 
the  reign  of  King  Henry  VIII.,  and  finally  annihilated,  with 
the  tenures  by  knight's  service,  in  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
Such  castles  as  wei-e  private  property,  were  guarded  cither 
by  mercenary  soldiers,  or  the  tenants  of  the  lord  or  owner. 

Castles  wliich  belonged  to  the  crown,  or  fell  to  it  either  by 
forfeiture  or  escheat  ((•ire\nnstances  that  frequently  happened 


CAT 


115 


CAT 


in  tho  distracted  reigns  of  the  feudal  times)  were  generally 
coniniittcd  to  the  custody  of  some  trusty  person  who  seems 
to  have  been  indilVereutly  styled  governor  or  consktb/e. 
ISoinctimes  also  they  were  put  into  the  possession  of  the  sheritT 
(>f  the  comity,  who  often  eonvertod  them  into  prisons.  That 
oftieer  was  then  aceouiitahle  to  the  exdieiiuer,  for  the  farm 
or  produce  of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  places  entrusted  to 
his  care,  as  well  as  all  other  profits :  he  was  likewise,  in  case 
of  war  or  invasion,  obliged  to  victual  and  furnish  them  with 
munition  out  of  the  issues  of  his  county ;  to  which  he  was 
directed  by  writ  of  privy  seal.  Variety  of  these  writs, 
temp.  Edw.  III.,  may  be  seen  in  Madox's  Jlixlonj  of  the 
Eechequer ;  and  it  a])pcars,  from  the  same  authority,  that 
the  barons  of  the  exchequer  were  sometimes  appointed  to 
survey  these  castles,  and  the  state  of  the  buildings  and  works 
can-ying  on  therein. — Rees's  Ci/clupcJia. 

C.\8'rR.\,  the  Latin  name  for  a  camp. 

(J.^S'l'S.     See  Cast  and  Casting. 

CATAB.\SION  (from  KarajSaivu,  I  descend),  in  the 
Greek  church,  a  hollow  place  under  the  altai',  wherein  the 
i-elics  were  kept,  and  through  which  was  the  descent  into 
the  vaults  beneath. 

CATABULUM,  a  Ijuilding,  or  stable,  in  which  the  beasts 
of  burden  and  carriages  were  kept  for  the  public  service. 
The  ancient  Christians  were  sometimes  condemned  to  serve 
in  tlic  catabula. 

C.VIACAIISTIC  CURVE.     See  Caustic  Curve. 

CATACOAIB,  a  grotto  or  subterraneous  place  for  the 
interment  of  the  dead. 

In  Italy,  this  term  is  particularlj-  applied  to  an  assemblage 
vf  subterraneous  sepulchres,  three  leagues  from  Rome,  in  the 
Via  A]>iii.a.  Each  catacomb  is  three  feet  wide,  and  eight  or 
ten  feet  high,  running  in  the  form  of  an  alloy  or  gallery,  and 
conimuniciUing  with  each  other.  Sonre  authors  imagine  them 
to  be  the  cells  wherein  the  primitive  Christians  hid  them- 
selves ;  and  others  take  them  to  be  the  burial-places  of  the 
early  Romans,  before  the  practice  of  burning  the  dead  was 
introduced. 

The  most  celebrated  catacombs  are  those  of  Egypt, 
wherein  the  ancient  inhabitants  deposited  their  mummies. 
The  descent  into  them  is  thi'ough  a  square  aperture  with 
holes  in  the  sides,  for  the  feet,  somewhat  like  an  upright 
ladder.  These  excavations  are  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock, 
which  consists  of  free-stone,  and  the  walls  arc  adorned 
with  hieroglyphics,  and  representations  of  utensils  and  im- 
plements of  war.     See  Pocock,  Norden,  and  Denon. 

CATADROME,  an  engine  used  in  building,  for  lifting 
and  letting  down  great  weights. 

CATAFALCO  (from  the  Italian),  a  decoration,  of  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  or  painting,  raised  on  a  seaflbld,  on  which 
to  exhibit  a  coffin  or  cenotaph,  in  a  funeral  solemnity. 

CATCII-DRAIN,  in  the  construction  of  canals,  the  same 
as  counter-drain  ;  sometimes  it  also  implies  the  feeders  of  a 
reservoir. 

CATENARIA,  a  mechanical  curve,  which  a  heavj-  flex- 
ible body,  of  uniform  thickness,  would  form  itself  into,  if 
hung  freely  from  its  two  extremities.  The  famous  Galileo 
first  investigated  the  nature  of  this  curve,  and  supposed  it 
to  be  a  parabola.  This  problem,  after  being  proposed  by 
Mons.  J.  Bernouille,  was  first  solved  by  Dr.  D.  Gregory,  who 
also  affirmed,  that  the  inverted  catenaria  was  the  best  figure 
for  the  arch  of  a  bridge;  the  intrados  of  which,  however, 
must  depend  entirely  upon  the  curvature  of  the  extrados. 

CATHEDRAL,  (from  the  Greek,  KaOedQa,  a  chair; 
derived  from  Kadei^ofiai,  sedeo,  I  sit,)  the  head  church  of  a 
diocese,  wherein  is  the  see  or  seat  of  a  bishop. 

During  the  first  ages  of  the  church,  cathedrals  were  pro- 


bably more  numerous  than  other  churches,  as  we  know  that 
there  was  a  bishop  in  every  town  of  iin[)ortancc  wherever 
the  Christian  religion  prevailed.  The  bishoji,  the  head  of 
the  church,  was  assisted  in  the  services  of  religion  by  his 
priests  and  deacons,  the  bishop,  however,  retaining  the  more 
important  duties,  such  as  preaching  and  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  which  lie  seldom  delegated  to  the  assistant 
presbyters,  unless  necessitated  so  to  do.  In  process  of  time, 
as  occasion  ofl'cred,  other  churches  were  formed,  subject  to 
the  mother-church,  and  to  the  jurisdiction  of  its  bishop;  at 
this  early  period,  however,  it  cannot  be  doubted  but  that  the 
proportion  of  bishops  to  the  lower  order  of  the  clergy  was 
much  greater  than  at  the  present  day,  and  consequently  the 
number  of  cathedrals  or  bishops'  sees  must  have  been  more 
numerous.  It  is  not  our  intention,  however,  in  this  place, 
to  dwell  at  length  upon  the  general  suliject;  we  would  con- 
fine ourselves  more  especially  to  our  own  country,  and  will 
accordingly  proceed  to  investigate  the  accounts  we  have  leib 
us  of  the  early  cathedrals  of  (Jreat  Britain. 

No  one,  probably,  would  think  of  controverting  the  fact 
of  the  early  introduction  of  Christianity  into  this  country ; 
it  may  indeed  be  questioned  whether  Saint  Paul,  or  Saint 
Joseph,  or  the  British  king  Lucius,  be  the  benefactor  to 
whom  we  owe  its  introduction;  but  its  existence  here  during 
the  first  century  will  scarcely  admit  of  a  doubt.  We  know 
further  that  the  British  church  was  episcopally  governed,  for 
we  hear  iif  the  presence  of  British  bishops  at  the  council  of 
Aries,  as  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  centmy  ; 
and  we  have  consequently  every  reason  to  conclu<le  that 
the  episcopal  form  of  government  was  co-existent  with  the 
church,  and  further,  that  if  churches  existed  at  all,  some 
such  churches  must  have  been  cathedrals. 

We  cannot  speak  with  any  degree  of  certainty  of  the  date, 
form,  or  material  of  the  first  cathedrals.  Dr.  Milner  says, 
that  a  cathedral  was  erected  by  Lucius,  at  Winchester,  of 
the  enormous  length  of  600  feet,  as  early  as  the  close  of  the 
second  century.  Whether  the  dimensions  given  do  not  belie 
the  whole  statement  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  indi- 
viduals ;  but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  churches 
did  exist  at  this  period,  as  we  hoar  of  their  demolition  during 
the  Diocletian  persecution,  which  took  place  a.  d.  303. 

Upon  the  success  of  the  Pagan-Saxons,  the  Christian 
churches  of  England  were  of  course  destroyed,  whilst  those 
in  ^Valcs  and  south-west  of  England,  where  the  British 
Christians  had  retreated,  were  considerably  increased  ;  this 
was  especially  the  case  with  monasteries,  which  served  in 
a  measure  as  places  of  safety,  and  in  building  which  the 
Britains  followed  the  salutary  advice  of  Saint  Germain.  Upon 
the  conversion  of  the  Saxons  by  Saint  Augustine,  churches 
again  made  their  appearance  in  Kent,  as  we  learn  that  a 
cathedral  was  erected  by  that  missionary -bishop  at  Canter- 
bury, and  dedicated  under  the  title  of  Christ  Church.  At  a 
not  much  later  period  we  hear  of  the  foundation  of  the 
cathedral  churches  of  Saints  Paul  and  Andrew,  the  one  at 
Loudon  and  the  other  at  Rochester.  Shortly  after  Augus- 
tine's mission  in  the  south,  the  wonderful  success  of  Paulinus 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  island,  in  converting  the  king, 
Edwin,  and  his  pagan  subjects,  gave  rise  to  the  cathedral 
of  York.  It  is  stated  that  Edwin  first  erected  a  church  of 
timber  in  this  city,  but  afterwards  built  a  larger  church  of 
stone,  in  whii-h  the  timber  one  was  enclosed.  Paulinus, 
again  successful  at  Lincoln,  caused  to  be  erected  a  church 
of  stone,  of  "admirable  workmanship,"  as  Bede  tells  us. 

Stephen  Eddy,  a  writer  older  than  Bede,  informs  us  that 
Wilfrid,  bishop  of  York,  finding,  upon  taking  possession  of 
his  see,  that  the  old  church  built  by  Edwin  and  Oswald  was 
in  a  dilapidated  condition,  set  about  repairing  it — "  skilfully 


CAT 


116 


CAT 


roofiniT  it  with  lead,  and  preventing  the  entrance  of  birds 
and  rain  Ijv  putting  glass  into  the  windows,  yet  such  glass  as 
allowed  the  light  to  shine  within  ;"  and  our  author  goes  on 
to  state  that  the  same  Wilfrid  liuilt  a  new  chinch  at  Kipon, 
of  )H)li>hed  stone,  '•  with  columns  variously  oinamented,  and 
porches."  The  account  of  the  dedication  of  this  church  is 
given  in  full,  and  is  the  earliest  descrij)tion  of  the  kind 
extant. 

A  curious  and  somewhat  detailed  account  is  given  by  the 
Monk  of  lianisey,  of  the  construction  of  the  clunvh  at  liain- 
sey  existing  previously  to  the  one  dedicated  in  his  time.  lie 
says,  "it  was  raised  on  a  .solid  foundation,  driven  in  by  the 
battering-ram,  and  had  two  towers  above  the  roofs:  the 
lesser  was  in  front  at  the  west  end  ;  the  greater,  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  fom-  parts  of  the  building,  rested  on  four 
columns,  connected  together  by  arches  carried  fi-oin  one  to 
the  other."  He  further  adds,  that  this  church  was  obliged 
to  be  pulled  down,  and  a  new  one  erected  in  its  stead,  in 
consequence  of  a  settlement  in  the  central  tower,  which  ren- 
dered the  entire  building  unsafe. — That  this  church  was  of 
stone  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  after  perusing  the  above 
narrative ;  but  we  have  direct  and  exjilicit  mention  of  the 
fact,  for  the  same  author,  in  describing  the  labours  of  the 
workmen,  says :  "  Some  brought  tiie  stones,  others  made 
the  cement,  while  others  attended  to  the  maciiincs  for  raising 
the  stones ;  so  that  in  a  short  time  was  seen  the  sacred 
edilice  with  its  two  towers,  where  previously  there  had 
been  but  a  barren  waste." 

A  cin-ious  representation  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  church  is  to 
be  seen  in  an  lllmninaled  Pontifical  in  the  Public  Library 
at  lioiien,  containing  the  order  for  the  dedication  and  con- 
secration of  chuiciics  :  the  date  of  which  is  ascribed  bv  some 
to  the  eightii,  and  by  others  to  the  tenth,  century  ;  that  the 
manuscript  is  of  English  origin  has  never  been  doubted. 
Thi>  miniature  in  black  outline  represents  the  ceremonv  of 
dedication.  The  form  of  the  church  is  remarkably  similar 
to  that  of  our  existing  cathedrals,  which  is  more  especially 
noticeable  in  the  form  of  the  towers  and  spires,  the  symbol- 
ical cock  on  the  steeple,  and  the  ornamental  hinsres  of  the 
door. 

We  are  here  naturally  led  into  some  inquiry  respectuig  the 
materials,  foris,  and  disposition  of  these  early  catliedrals. 
The  materials  employed  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  seem  to  have 
been  wood  and  stone,  but  during  what  time  cither  material 
was  used  cannot  easily  be  determined  ;  whether  they  were 
both  tised  at  the  .same  period,  under  diHerent  circumstances, 
or  wheiher  at  any  point  of  time  the  one  was  .superseded  by 
the  other,  we  are  unable  to  learn.  It  has  been  supposed,  and 
with  some  plausil)ility,  that  wooden  churches  were  erected 
by  the  Scotch  and  Irish  missionaries,  and  the  more  substan- 
tial fabrics  by  those  from  Iloiue.  and  this  idea  seems  to  be 
borne  out  by  Bede,  who  states  "that  Adrian,  the  first  bishop 
of  l.indisfarne,  having  departed  this  life,  Finan,  sent  and 
ordained  by  the  Scots,  succeeded  him,  and  built  a  church  in 
the  island  after  the  method  of  the  Scots ;  which  was  built 
not  of  stone,  but  of  hewn  oak,  and  covered  with  reeds." 
This  writer  adds,  that  "  Eadbert,  the  seventh  bishop,  took  ofl' 
the  thatch,  and  covered  both  the  walls  and  roof  with  lead." 
It  seems  very  reasonable  likewise  that  the  Uoman  mission- 
aries, who  had  been  used  to  the  structures  of  Italy,  should 
not  feel  satisfied  with  mere  wooden  buildings.  It  is  true  it 
seems  to  be  noted  as  somewhat  unusual,  that  Wilfrid  built 
a  church  at  Kipon  of  polished  stone,  yet  the  novelty  may 
not  have  consisted  in  the  erection  being  of  stone,  but  rather 
in  the  fact  of  the  stone  being  smoothed  or  polished  ;  for  it 
is  proliable  that  the  first  bnililings,  after  the  llomnn  man- 
ner, were  of  rough  undressed  stone,  there  being  neither  time, 


meaiis,  nor  workmen  to  com|)lcte  a  more  finished  structure. 
It  is  very  probable  that  Wilfrid's  church  was  built  liy 
Italian  workmen,  as  we  know  that  he  had  frequented  Pome, 
and  was  a  man  too  zealous  in  promoting  the  temporal 
splendour  of  the  church,  to  allow  any  opportunity  of  for- 
warding his  object  to  slip  past  unimproved.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  in  process  of  time  the  enqiloyment  of 
stone  entirely  superseded  that  of  timber. 

No  inconsiderable  notion  is  aftbrded  ns  of  the  fin-ni  and 
disposition  of  the  parts  of  the  early  cathedraLs.  from  an 
account  already  referred  to — we  alludi-  ',-'i  that  of  the  church 
at  PamscN'.  From  this  description  \\.:  gather  that  the  plan 
of  the  church  was  cruciform,  with  a  tower  rising  from  the 
intersection,  and  another  at  the  west  i  nd  of  the  church. 

We  learn  from  Wolstan,  that  ther.  was  a  tower  at  the 
west  end  of  the  old  church  at  WinclKster,  but  that  in  the 
new  stiucture  the  tower  was  towards  the  eastern  extremity, 
and  of  the  last  it  is  related  that  it  consisted  of  five  .stories, 
in  each  of  which  were  four  windows  looking  towards  the 
cardinal  points. 

Further,  in  the  miniature  of  the  Lluminated  Pontifical 
above  described,  we  notice  that  the  tower  is  surmounted  by 
a  steeple,  a  fact  which,  were  it  not  for  other  consideration-, 
would  almost  tenqit  us  to  refer  the  mamiscript  to  a  much 
later  date,  as  we  know  that  such  additions  were  not  very 
frequent,  even  in  the  Norman  period  ;  indeed,  the  idea  of  a 
Saxon  cathedral  aflijrdcd  us  by  these  descriptions,  approaches 
very  nearly  to  actual  existing  specimens  of  much  later  date. 
We  must  not  conclude  from  these  accounts  that  all  churches 
of  this  date  were  crucifoirn,  for  we  learn  the  contrary  from 
Bede,  who  speaks  of  chun-hcs  as  scpiare ;  some  have  sup- 
posed that  Ramsey  was  the  first  instance  of  a  cruciform 
edilice,  but  this  was  not  the  case,  as  is  evinced  by  a  metrical 
description  of  a  cathedral,  written  long  bef  )re  its  erection. 

Having  thus  far  considered  the  nature  of  the  Saxon  cathe- 
drals, wo  arrive  at  the  Norman  era,  during  which  a  great 
nmnber  were  erected  ;  but  as  we  have  no  lack  of  existing 
examples  of  this  period,  we  do  not  think  it  requisite  to  pur- 
sue a  detailed  inquiry  any  further:  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
some  description  of  the  cathedrals  of  the  ]>resent  d.iy. 

The  term  Cathedral  includes  generally  the  whole  of  the 
buildings  connected  with  the  bishop's  see,  including  the 
ehm-eh,  chapter-house,  chapels,  cloisters,  dormitories,  refec- 
tories, residences  for  those  engaged  in  attendance  on  the 
bishop,  and  in  the  services  of  the  cathedral,  and  buildings  for 
a  variety  of  uses;  it  is  applied,  however,  in  a  more  especial 
sense,  only  to  the  church,  and  to  such  application  wc  shall 
confine  ourselves  in  the  following  icmarks. 

The  plan  of  our  old  cathedral  chm-ches  is  invariably  that 
of  a  Latin  cross,  having  the  nave  in  the  longest  arm,  the 
transepts  in  the  two  cross  arms,  and  the  choir,  com|n-ising  the 
remaining  length  of  the  church,  to  the  cast  of  the  n:ive -,  the 
Kngli.sh  always  placing  their  altar  at  the  east  end,  which  was 
more  frequently  square,  than  either  circular  or  multangular, 
as  in  the  continental  churches.  Not  unusually  the  plan  was 
extended  further  eastward,  to  provide  for  an  additional  chapel, 
dedicated  to  our  Liidye,  and  sometimes,  though  much  less 
frequently,  a  similar,"  but  smaller  projection,  was  added  at 
the  west  end  :  this  was  the  Galilee  porch,  so  named,  as  we 
learn  from  Ger\ase,  from  the  passage  of  Scripture-—"  He 
goeth  before  you  into  Galilee,  there  ye  shall  see  him,"-— 
this  being  the  place  where  the  monks  were  allowed  to  see  their 
female  relatives ;  here  was  also  the  station  of  catechumens, 
and  the  resting-place  of  corpses  previous  to  their  interment. 
In  some  instances  wc  find  a  double  transept,  east  and  west  of 
each  other,  as  at  Canterburv ;  the  additional  arm  is  accounted 
for  symbolically  as  representing  the  inscription  placed  above 


•j^j  vini^i^  c^ 


C^ 


^. 


a 


5 


CAT 


117 


CAT 


the  liL>,id  of  our  Lord  at  his  oriicitixion,  the  lower  symboliz- 
ing tho  eross-pioce  on  whioti  tiio  arms  were  extended.  It 
is  noticed  in  some  cathedrals  that  the  eastern  extremity  is 
not  in  the  same  line  witli  the  nave,  but  bent  on  one  side,  as  it 
were;  tliis  is  exphiined  in  a  siniihir  manner  as  marking  the 
inclination  of  the  head  of  our  Lord  while  on  tlic  cross.  At 
the  west  end  of  the  nave,  on  each  side  of  it,  were  situated  the 
towers,  and  another  at  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  tran- 
septs, all  of  which  were  in  some  cases  .surmounted  with  spires; 
sometimes  this  addition  was  restricted  to  the  western  towers, 
but  it  is  frequently  omitted  altogether,  when  the  towers  are 
usnalli'  capried  to  a  greater  elevation.  At  Exeter,  we  meet 
with  the  towers  forming  tlie  transept,  and  at  Peterborough 
with  one  at  tlie  northern  extremity  of  the  west  transept. 
Internally  the  nave  and  choir  are  divided  into  three  aisles, 
the  Ci'iitral  one  being  carried  up  above  the  others.  This 
tripartite  division  is  seldom  carried  out  in  the  transepts,  in 
which,  liowever,  we  sometimes  find  one  aisle  as  at  Durham, 
and  sometimes  two  as  at  Westminster  and  Bristol.  The 
aisles  arc  separated  from  the  body  of  the  church  by  an  arcade, 
immediately  above  which  the  vaulting  commences;  in  the 
body,  however,  between  the  arcade  and  vaulting,  are  inter- 
posed two  stories,  the  lower  one  consisting  of  a  gallery  called 
triforia,  opening  into  the  nave  and  choir  by  means  of  a  small 
arcade,  ami  supposed  to  have  been  appropriated  to  the  nuns; 
and  the  upper,  termed  the  clere-story,  in  which  were  placed 
the  windows  for  lighting  the  central  avenue  of  the  church. 
In  Bath  Cathedral,  the  Iritoria  are  omitted,  and  their  place 
sup[ilied  by  a  stiing-course. 

An  approximation  to  the  proportions  of  the  different  mea- 
surements of  cathedral  churches  is  given  by  Brown  Willis, 
as  follows:  — The  height  is  generally  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
the  nave  and  aisles;  the  cross,  in  which  the  traiLsepts  and 
intermediate  space  are  contained,  is  extended  half  the  length 
of  the  whole  fabric,  as  is  likewise  the  nave;  the  side-aisles 
equal  half  the  breadth  and  height  of  the  nave,  and  the  spires 
and  tower  have  a  mean  proportion  between  the  length  of  the 
nave  and  that  of  the  tiansept. 

The  above  description  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  con- 
struction of  our  eathedrals  ;  but  from  the  exceptions  already 
noticed,  it  will  be  understood  that  no  rule  applies  invariably 
to  all  l)uildings  of  the  kind  ;  for  although  the  plans  are  in  all 
cases  similar,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  edifice 
systematic,  yet  we  lind  not  one  cathedral  in  any  respect  a 
copy  of  aiwthcr. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  some  account  of  the  edifices 
of  this  rank  jJi-esirved  to  us  in  the  present  day,  of  which  we 
have  21  in  England,  and  4  in  Wales.  There  were  also 
13  in  ^Scotland,  and  'i2  in  Ireland.  In  addition  to  the  num. 
her  already  mentioned,  we  have  in  England  one  modern 
catheilral,  Saint  {'auTs,  London  ;  besides  which  the  collegiate 
church  at  Manchester  has  recently  been  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  a  bishop's  see ;  but  as  the  latter  was  never  con- 
structed for  such  a  purpose,  we  do  not  think  it  can  be 
correctly  included  with  the  others  as  an  architectural 
example. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  erection  of  cathedral 
churches  in  England,  and  additions  made  to  them,  arranged 
in  chronological  order:  — 

To  the  period  of  the  Anglo-Normans,  or  between  1066 
and  IITO,  including  the  reigns  of  William  I.  and  II., 
Henry  I.,  Stephen,  and  the  first  sixteen  years  of  Henry  II,, 
we  may  attribute  the  western  front  and  nave  of  Rochester 
cathedral  ;  the  nave,  north  aisle,  and  the  chapels  round  the 
choir  of  that  at  Gloucester ;  the  original  substructure  of 
E.xeter  cathedral,  with  its  transepts  and  towers  ;  the  central 
tower  and  transept  of  Winton  cathedral ;  the  nave  of  that  at 


Chichester ;  the  north  transept  of  that  at  Ely  ;  the  choir  of 
Peterborough  cathedral  ;  the  oldest  part  of  the  ■western  front 
and  central  tower  of  that  at  Lincoln  ;  the  central  church  of 
Durham,  excepting  the  additional  transept  on  the  east ;  the 
nave  and  tower  of  Norwich  ;  and  mitny  arches  of  Worcester 
cathedral. 

In  the  period  between  1170  and  1220,  including  the  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  and  the  reigns  of  liichanl  I. 
and  John,  the  older  Ladye  chapel  and  chapter-house  of  Bris- 
tol were  erected ;  as  were  likewise  the  choir  and  round 
tower  (called  Beckct's  Crown)  at  Canterbury  ;  the  nave  and 
chapter-house  at  Oxford  ;  the  nave  and  choir  of  Norwich 
cathedral  ;  the  western  towers  at  Ely ;  the  transepts  of 
Peterborough;  the  presbytery,  Chichester;  the  transept, 
tower,  and  ehoir  of  that  at  Hereford  ;  the  nave  and  choir  of 
Wells  cathedral  (begun)  ;   and  the  chapter-house  of  Chester. 

In  the  period  between  1220  and  1300,  including  the 
reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  part  of  Edward  I.,  were  erected 
the  nave  and  arches  beyond  the  transept  of  Lincoln  cathe- 
dral;  the  north  and  south  transepts  of  York  minster;  the 
choir  and  transept,  Eochester  ;  an  additional  transept  to  the 
cathedral  of  Durham;  the  tower  and  whole  western  front  of 
that  of  Wells  ;  the  choir  at  Carlisle ;  the  presbytery  and 
south  transept  at  Ely  ;  the  transept  and  choir  at  Worcester  ; 
and  the  whole  of  Salisbury  cathedral. 

In  the  period  between  l.'iOO  and  1400,  inchidiug  the  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  Edward  I,  and  the  reigns  of  Edward  II. 
and  111.  and  Richard  II.,  the  nave  and  choir  of  Exeter 
cathcdiaf  were  erected  ;  and  that  at  Liclitleld  was  built 
uniformly  ;  additions  were  made  to  the  centnd  tower  at  Lin- 
coln :  the  nave  of  Worcester  cathedral  was  built,  as  were  the 
nave,  choir,  and  western  front  of  York  minster  ;  also  the 
transepts  at  Canterbury  and  Gloucester ;  the  spire  and  tower 
at  Norwich  ;  the  spire  and  additions  to  Salisbury  cathedral ; 
tlie  cloisters  were  begun  at  Gloucester:  the  nave  and  choir 
were  erected  at  Bristol,  as  well  as  the  sjiirc  and  choir  at 
Chichester;  our  Lady's  chapel  at  Ely;  and  the  chapter- 
house and  cloisters  (now  destroyed)  at  Hereford. 

In  the  period  between  1400  and  1400,  including  the  reigns 
of  Henry  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.,  were  erected  the  choir  of  (ilou- 
cester  cathedral;  the  nave  of  that  of  Canterbury;  Bishop 
Beekington's  addition  to  Wells  cathedral ;  and  that  of  Lin- 
coln, from  the  upper  transept  to  the  great  east  window. 

In  the  period  between  1400  to  1547,  viz.,  from  the  reisn 
of  Edward  IV.  to  the  end  of  that  of  Henry  VIII.,  were 
erected  our  Lady's  chapel  at  Gloucester:  the  roof  of  the 
choir  of  Oxford  cathedral ;  the  choir  of  that  of  Chester  ; 
Alcoeke's  chapel  at  Ely;  the  Ladye  chajiel,  Peterborough; 
the  north  poivh,  Ileretijrd ;  and  the  exterior  of  the  choir  at 
Winchestc]'. 

The  following  particulars  respecting  the  English  Cathe- 
drals are  extracted  principally  from  the  works  of  Britton 
and  Dallaway  :  — 

Peccliarities. 
Bath  —  The  unusual  height  of  the  clere-story. 
Bristol —  Had  no  nave,  the  present  choir  being  formed  out  of 

the  Ladye  chapel. 
Canterbunj  —  The  grand  entrance  is  under  the  south  tower. 

The  marble  columns  of  the  choir  with  Romanesque  capi- 
tals, and  the  oetiuigular  chapel  called  Becket's  Crown. 
Chester — Extraordinary  size  of  the  south  transept. 
Chichcsler  —  Double  aisles  to  nave,  and  detached  campanile  at 

its  north-west  angle. 
Durham  —  The  chapel  of  our  Ladye  placed  at  the  east  end  as 

a  second  transept ;  the  Galilee  placed  before,  and  distinct 

from  the  facade. 
nil/  —  A  single  western  tower  connected  with  the  nave ; — the 


C  A  T 


118 


CAT 


octaiigiilai-  tower;  — the  Ladyc  chapel  detached  from  choir, 
and  a  Galilee  in  a  perfect  state. 

Exeter  —  The  skieen  before  the  west  front,  and  towers  at 
either  end  of  the  transept.  Tliis  cathedral  was  completed 
according  to  the  original  plan. 

Lincoln  —  The  aiclu's  in  the  west  fiont,  the  work  of  Renii- 
giiis;  the  (ialilec  and  double  transept. 

Lielijield — The  three  stone  spires. 

Norwich  —  The  roof  of  the  nave,  and  the  west  end,  with  the 
Erjiinghani  gatcw.iy. 

Peterhorowjh  —  The  ti-iple  arcade  before  the  west  front  eighty- 
two  feet  high;  the  doiiljle  lowers  with  .-spires  at  the  western 
angles;  tower  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  north-west 
transept,  and  the  (ialilee. 

Rochester  —  The  choir  longer  than  the  nave. 

Salisburij — The  complete  uniforniity  of  style;  the  height  of 
the  central  spire,  and  the  double  elliptic  inverted  arch 
under  the  tower,  as  at  Wells. 

Winchester  —  The  longest  nave. 

York  —  The  double  aisles  to  the  transept;  the  largest  win- 
dow; the  square  Iouvtc,  and  the  absence  of  cloisters. 
Remarkable  Parts. 

Ijitth  —  Tlio  tower  has  lour  turrets,  without  pinnacles,  and  is 
oblong  in  ])lan,  which  is  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the 
transept ;  the  aisles  are  very  low,  and  there  is  no  triforiuin 
in  the  nave,  but  merely  a  plain  string-course.  There  is  an 
alto-relievo  of  Jautib's  ladder  at  the  west  end. 

Bristol —  lias  no  external  Hying  buttressc-:,  the  walls  of  the 
nave  being  supported  by  the  roofs  of  the  aisles, 'which  are 
formed  of  coni[)licatcd  open  arches ;  the  aisles  and  nave 
;ire  of  equal  height,  only  forty-three  feet. 

Cuulerlunj  —  The  crypt,  which  is  of  greater  extent,  and  more 
lolly  than  any  other  in  England  ;  the  central  tower  and  the 
apsidul  form  of  the  east  end. 

Chester  —  The  unecjual  dimensions  of  the  north  and  south 
transepts,  the  latter  being  wider,  and  nearly  as  long  as 
the  nave,  with  aisles  on  each  side,  while  the  former  is 
unusually  short,  and  of  the  same  width  as  the  central 
tower  ;  the  aisles  of  the  choir  also  extend  beyond  it  east- 
wai'd,  and  form  the  aisles  of  the  Ladye  chapel. 

Chichester — Has  the  earliest  specimen  of  a  vaulted  roof;  its 
spire  greatly  resembles  that  of  Salisbury. 

Durham —  I'illars  of  nave  curiously   striated;  the  Galilee 
measures  50  feet  by  78  feet. 
^Exeter — Possesses  almost  the  only  example  of  a  group  in 


sculpture,   which   is   in   the    trilijria  of  the   transept,  and 
represents  a  concert  of  music;il  iiisti-umcnts. 
Ely — The  octangular  lantern,  which  is  71   feet  in  diameter, 
and  142  feet  from  the  ground,  sup[ilied  the  place  of  a  lolVv 
central  tower  which  fell  down  a  short  time  juevious  totlu^ 
erection  of  the  lantern.      There  exists  one  of  the  earliest 
specimens  of  the  iiointed  aicli  in  the  tower  and  transc|)t. 
Gloucester  —  The   eastern   termination   is  apsidal  ;  and    the 
cloisters,  the  most  perfect  and   beautiful  in  England,  un- 
usually situate  on  the  north  side  of  the  church. 
Lincoln  —  Old  west  front ;    the   large   and   beautiful   south 
porch,  and  east  facade  ;  the  (ialilee.     The  central  tower 
liad  a  spire  higher  than  Salisbury,  which  was  blown  down 
A.  u.  1547.     This  church  is  remarkable  for  its  sculpture, 
and  has  a  curious  bas-relief  of  the  Deluge  over  the  west 
door,  and  of  the  I^ast  Judgment  over  the  south  jioreh. 
Lichjield — Is  nearly  uniform,  and  was  completed  through- 
out on  the  original  plan.     The  cast  end  is  apsidal  in  jilau. 
JVorwich  —  The  end  of  the  choir  is  octangular,  and  the  clois- 
ters are  very  spacious. 
Peterhorough  —  The  gi'and  fay adc  and  portico,  rctnarkable  fi ir 
their  line  jiroportions ;  the  Galilee  and  aspidal  termination, 
also  the  west  ti'ansej)t,  which  is  placed  at  the  west  end. 
Rochester  —  The  west  fa^^ade  is  one  of  the  most  jjerfect  speci- 
mens of  Norman  ;  the  choir  is  longer  than  the  nave. 
Salisbury  —  Is  the  most  uniform  cathedral  in  England,  and 

has  a  lofty  and  beautiful  spire,  only  seven  inches  thick. 
Wells  —  The  west  front  is  noted  as  bearing  a  resemblance  to 
the  fa9ades  of  Continental    cathedrals;    it  is  filled  with 
st4Xtucs  ;  the  central  tower  is  supported  on  an  inverted  arch 
as  at  Salisbury. 
Winchester — Is  remarkable  for  its  fine  nave  ;  the  choir  is 

under  the  central  tower. 
Worcester  —  The  style  and  proportions  of  the  nave  are  con- 
sidered beautiful. 
York  —  The  aisles  surrounding  the  whole  church  arc  of  the 
same  dimensions  throughout  ;  the  rose   window,  which  is 
22  feet  C   inches  in   diameter,  is  the  finest  in  England  ; 
the  choir  is  under  the  tower,  as  at  Winchester. 
The  sul>joined  Tables  may  be  found  useful ;  the  former,  from 
the  works  of  Dallaway,  gives  the  dates  of  the  principal  por- 
tions of  the  ICnglish  Cathedrals;  the  latter,  compiled  princi- 
pally from  liritton's  Antiquities,  shows  their  dimensions.     It 
will  be   noticed  that  ilr.   Dallaway's  dales  do  not  agree  in 
every  case  with  those  above  given. 


Dates 

of  the  Principal  Portions  of  the  English  Cathedrals. 

Catliedrala 

Nave. 

Chou-. 

Aisles. 

Transepts 

Tower. 

Cathedrals. 

Nave. 

Choir. 

Aisles. 

Transept 

Tower. 

Bath 

1532 

1500 

1532  na. 

1500 

1500 

1295 

1295 

1295 

1295 

1295  W. 

1570  ch. 

1532 

1430  Cent 

Bristol 

1332 

1332 

1311  S. 
1463  N. 

1463 

Lincoln  

1200 

1200 

1200 

1300  W. 
1306  K 

1254  Cout 
1279  W. 

Canterbury 

1420 

1174 

1174 

1174  up. 
1379  Iwr. 

1070  N.W.I 
1400  S.W. 

Nonvich 

1171 

1195 

1171  na. 
1160  ch. 

1195 

1096 

1500  Cent. 

O-xford 

1120 

1120 

1120 

1122 

1222 

Cailisle 

1160 

1363 

1150  na. 
1363  ch. 

1353 

1400 

Peterborough . . . 

1176 

1160 

1175  na. 
1160  cb. 

1272  W. 

Chester 

1485 

1485 

1320  N. 

1508 

Rochester 

1080 

1227 

1080  na. 

1080 

Chichester 

1125 

1217 

1125  na. 

1217  N. 

1217  W. 

1227  cb. 

1217  cb. 

1329  S. 

1282  Cont 

Salisbury 

1217 

1230 

1217  na. 

1274 

1217 

Durham 

1093 

1233 

1230 

1230  W. 

12.'iOcb. 

1174 

1235 

1133  N. 

1295  Ceut 
1174  W. 
1328  Cent. 

Wells 

1239 
1394 

1239 
1493 

1239 
1394  nil. 

1239 
1070 

1450  W. 

EIv 

Winchester  .... 

1465  Cent 

1070 

Exeter 

1307 

1818 

1307  na. 

1280 

1128 

1493  ch. 

1318  cb. 

Worcester 

121S 

1218 

1218 

1218  Iwr. 

1372 

Gloucester 

1089 

1357 

1089  na. 

13.30  S. 

1457 

1380  up. 

1095 

1115 

1310  cli. 
1095 

1375  N. 
1095  up. 

1216  W. 

lYork 

1291 

1361 

1291  na. 
1361 ck 

1227 

1361  W. 

HcrcforJ 

1420  Cent 

1148  Iwr. 

CAT 


119 


CAT 


Admeasurements  of  tlie  principal  parts  of  the  most  remarkable  Cathedral  Churches  of  Great  Britain,  given  in  Enylish  feet. 

A  large  portion  of  this  Table  is  extracted  from  Britton's  Works. 


Catlicilrala. 


'  CaiitiMbury 


Y..ik 

Wi>U<\ 

Oirli-li' 

(::iifsi,r 

■■  (^liiVhcster 

Durham 

=  1% 

KxoUr 

Oloiii'osti'r 

■<  H.-ivn.ia 


•  l.itilifi.l.l. 
'  ]  jnct)ln  . . 


e  Niirwiili 

>■  Oxford 

'   IN'U'rlKtrougli  . . . 

'■  KiKlifstor 


Salislmry . 


WVll^ 

AVinclu'Sler  . 
™  Wiiroi'sd-r  . . 


"  St  Paul's 

»  Olil  St.  Paul's  . . . 

Wi'st.niiiistor  ) 
Ahlioy  Church  \ 

St.  .\s;l|ill 

]iani,nir 

St.  David 

P  IJaiulair 

1  Man 

'  SL  I'atri.k 

Dunlilauc 

•  Kliriii 

'  (ilasi;ii\v 

Joiia 

"  Kirkwall 


Extreme 
LcHirtli. 


515 

518 

2u:i 
'Hi 
375 
•110 
507 
5S5 
41  IS 
427 
350 

403 

505 

415 
IGS 
480 

383 

474 

415 
55G 
425 

512 
530 


370 


oil! 

4S0 
174 
210 
312 
3S« 
470 
517 
382 
40G 
326 

379 
440 

384 
15G 
427 

362 

450 

3S5 

520 
386 

462 
690 

475 

173 
214 
307 
270 
113 
300 
216 
2fi4 
3311 
1  GO 
256 


Extreme 
Breadth. 


.2 


1-70 

241 
127 
130 
112 
151 
194 
190 
155 
154 
174 

177 
242 

200 
116 
198 

170 

230 

155 
230 
145 

283 
215 


158 

220 
113 
116 
100 
131 
170 
179 
140 
142 
145 

149 
218 

180 
102 
184 

144 

206 

130 
208 
127 

228 
195 


Nave. 


t 


188 


210 


120 
146 
I  203 
203 
I  96 
!  160 
j   125 

143 
176 

205 

61 

234 

140 

196 

164 
240 
174 

170 

164 

119 
141 
124 


155 


I    •••   I, 


27 


43 


22 


.2    V 
■S.I 

"•I 


73 

no 


84 
100 
82 
74 
72 
35 
70 

66 

78 

70 
53 
79 

73 


70 
88 
78 

102 
130 

68 

68 
60 
76 
80 


62 


80 


93 


C5 

70 

66 
68 
63 

58 
81 

75 
45 
73 

55 

81 

68 
78 
67 

90 
102 

105 

60 
34 
46 


90 


70 


Chob-. 


132 

130 

76 

107 

80 

68 

93 

101 

123 

110 

76 

145 
118 

130 
54 
90 

145 

152 


113 
90 

97 
165 

136 

GO 
53 
80 


97 


:3- 


80 

100 
69 
72 
84 
60 
79 
74 
72 
S3 
72 

69 
80 

72 
52 
79 

85 

78 

32 
88 
73 

102 
42" 

72 

32 


62 


w 


76 

100 
54 


65 

70 
70 
66 
85 
60 

57 
75 

85 
45 


55 

81 

73 
67 
61 

90 

88 

105 
60 


Transept. 


168 
128 
220 
174 
116 
100 
131 
170 
179 
140 
142 
145 
106 
149 
218 
165 
180 
102 
183 

^oo 
90 
206 
145 
130 
208 
127 
121 
228 
248 

195 

108 

96 

148 


66 

157 

76 

114 

'70 


40 

34 

98 

29 

18 

44 

34 

59 

78 

30 

35 

53« 

35J 

45 

61 

37'3 

28 

21 

58 


73 


32 


Centre 
Tower. 


KH 


75' 
79'^ 
93 
50 


65 


72 
70 
60 

57 

74 

72 
45 
73 

55 

56' 

81 

81'9 

68 

80 

66 

66=' 

90 

105 


230 


200 
133 


300^ 

210 

170' 

153 

223 

160 

252" 
264 

309'^ 
145'5 
143 

166 

404» 

165 

148 
193 

360« 
534a 


93 


223» 

1982« 

220-s 

75 

133™ 


West 
Towers 


K 


1533 
190 


95s 
143 
216 


200' 
209 


150 
165'« 

95 


125 

210 

225 

60 

127 

90 


120 
84'" 
120'» 


West  Front. 


5  £ 


93 

140 


117 

142 

113 

95 

95 

100 
175 

S3 
153 

93 

112 

148 
128 

177 

no 


»Has  two  transepts:    '  E;ist  transept;    «  West 

transept;  '  South-west  tower. 
'• ''  InchiiMu;;  spire  ;  «  South-west  tower. 
'  '  <)i-ta^'oiial   lantini;  there  is  a  projeetir)n  or 

transopt  at  the  west  end.  forniiu^  a  ijalilee. 
''  '  North  end  with  aisle  ;    tliere  are  two  tran- 

sept<;  s  East  transept 
•  "  and  '5  With  spires. 
'  Has  two  transepts :  "  East  transept 
e '•■  WiUi  .spire.  ' 


^  "  With  spire. 

'  Has  projection  or  transept  at  the  western 
extremity ;  '*  tower  over  nortli-west  tran- 
sept. 

''  lias  two  transepts;  "  Ea.st  transept 

'  lias  two  transepts;  "  East  transept. 

"•  lias  two  transei>ts;  "  E.a3t  transept. 

"  ^=  Top  of  cross  over  dome. 

"  •'  To  top  of  spire ;  -*  without  aisles. 


n 


107 
137 


105 

112 

100 

88 


93 
132 


93 
115 


115 


115 

130 


138 
141 


I"  Has  two  western  towers. 

1  No  side  aisles. 

'  -'•With  spire. 

»^«With  spire;  "Without  sjiire;  lentil  of 
la<lye  chapel  eastward  'JS  feet,  extending  the 
whole  wicitli  of  the  eathednil. 

'  29  To  the  extremity  of  the  spire ;  ''  At  north- 
west angle. 

»  *»  AVith  spire. 


Afaiiy  cathedrals  of  architecture  siinilar  to  our  own,  arc 
to  be  seen  on  the  Continent,  of  the  more  noted  of  whieli  we 
sliall  give  a  short  description.  One  of  the  jri-eat  points  of 
distinction  between  the  Ennlish  and  forei<;n  cathedral-^  is 
the  superior  magnitude  of  the  latter,  «hich  is  evidenced 
more  ni  the  heiiiht  than  in  any  other  dimension:— a  circum- 
stance which  will  he  apparent,  when  it  is  told  that  the  west 
front  ot  ^ork  Ik[instcr  could  be  placed  beneath  the  choir- 
roofs  of  i'.eaiivais  or  Amiens  cathedrals  ;  the  length  of  the 
continental    buildings,   however,   does   not  bear  fo  "reat  a 


proportion  to  their  breadth  as  in  England,  so  that  they  lose 
that  per.spcctive  cfTect  aflbrded  by  the  long  vista  of  arcades 
which  forms  so  heautil'ul  a  feature  in  our  cathedrals.  Another 
distinguishing  characteristic  in  the  foreign  churches  is 
.afforded  in  the  magnificence  of  the  gr.and  facades,  of  which 
full  one  moiety  is  occu])ied  by  the  portal.  In  our  works 
the  entr.ance  is  of  small  dimensions,  .and  is  subservient  to 
the  window  above  it,  hut  in  theirs  it  forms  the  principal 
object,  being  splayed  from  the  door  to  the  e.xterlor  surface 
of  the  wall,  and  the  space  thus  liirmcd,  occupied  with  coin  mns. 


CAT 


120 


CAT 


uiclies,  statues,  and  other  embellishments ;  the  upper  part 
ofthissphiy  is  otVourseof  an  arched  form,  and  tlie  tympanum 
over  the  duor-hoad  is  Crefjuenrly  filled  with  large  groups  of 
sculpture.     The  upper  lialf  of  the  facade  is  occupied  by  a 


circular  or  rose  window  of  great  magnitude.  This  arrange- 
ment is  frequently  carried  out  in  the  ends  of  the  transepts. 
l-'urlher  we  have  to  notice  the  apsidal  f  >rms  of  the  cast  end, 
the  numerous  chapels  surrounding  the  choir,  and  the  great 
height  of  the  roof,  whieh  in  France  is  in  a  great  measure 
concealed  by  lofty  parapets,  but  in  Gcrnuniy,  where  it  is 
even  more  lofty,  is  left  exposed.  Internally,  the  foreign 
structures  are  remarkable  for  the  great  height  of  the  body 
and  aisles,  and  simplicity  of  the  vaulting  ;  for  the  apsidal 
termination  with  its  vaulted  roof,  and  the  size  of  the  rose 
windows  of  ihe  nave  and  transepts.  The  body  of  the  build- 
ing is  frequently  divided  laterally  into  five  parts,  having  a 
central  nave  with  a  double  aisle  on  each  side  of  it. 

The  following  cathedrals  are  remarkable  for  their — 

Entrance  Porches — Hheims,  Strasbnrg,  and  llouen. 
Rose  windows — Siiasliurg,   Notre   Dame,  S.   Ouen,  Koucn, 
and  Ilheims. 


Toicers  and  spires — Strasburg,  Mecidin,  Antwerp,  Ulm, 
Cologne,  Friburg,  Louvain,  and  Vienna.  The  height 
of  that  of  Strasburg  is  550  feet;  that  of  Louvain  (now 
fallen)  533  feet ;  and  that  of  Vienna,  465  feet.  Stras- 
buig,  Fiiburg,  and  Constance,  are  noted  for  their  spires 
of  open  work  or  pierced  ti-aeery. 

The  cathedrals  of  Freidbnrgh  and  Frankenburgh  have 
the  nave  and  aisles  of  the  same  height,  and  that  of  Freidburgh 
has  the  side  aisles  nearly  as  wide  as  the  nave.  St.  Lorenzo, 
Nuremburgh,  has  a  choir  loftier  than  the  nave,  and  the 
cathedral  at  Worms  is  celebi-ated  for  its  two  choirs. 

S.  Peter's,  Kome,  is  the  most  spacious  cathedral,  after  which 
follow  those  of  Cologne  and  Milan,  of  which  the  former  h;>.s 
never  been  completed  ;  it  was  commenced  in  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  choir  is  the  only  portion  that 
was  finished,  the  nave  is  cajried  up  only  half  its  intended 
height.  This  building,  if  entire,  would  be  perhaps  the  most 
magnificent  cathedral  in  existence,  but  there  seems  but  a 
remote  probability  of  its  completion  :  it  is  said  to  be  adorned 
with  4.073  pinnacles,  57(5  statues,  12S  windows,  100  flying 
buttresses,  104  pillars,  and  9  entrances,  while  Milan  boasts 
of  4,400  statues,  and  160  columns  of  white  marble. 


Admeasurements  of  some  of  the  more  remarkable  Continental  Cathedrals,  gifcn  in  Enylishfcet. 


4 

Nave. 

Choir. 

Aisles. 

Transept. 

0     . 
-   o 

1" 

S 
■3-1 

■of 

^1 

It 

^  o 

"  if 

N.inie  of 
Cathedral. 

.3 

.Ip 

3 

3 
1 

4 

1 

-J 

■S 
1-1 

415 
296 
S76 
4',t2 
439 
408 
416 
500 
532 
399 
416 
491 
493 
669 

220 
140 
2*^2 
244 

244 
279 

42 
48 
46 
42 
38 

34 

132 
76 

lOS 

lie 

90 

100 

ICO 

86 

140 

139 

130 

lis 

114 
157 

102 

42 
36 
46 
38 

129 

... 

160 

18 
17 
21 

22 
32 

80 
1 

180 
113 
195 

150 
164 
130 
230 
250 

294 
283 
442 

42 
40 
93 

150 
140 

166 

197 
396 

103 

93 
93 

224 

532« 
240 
460 
4.32 

463 
356 
432 

210 

^  Bajoii.\ 

«  Cliartres 

>■  Notre  Dame  .... 

•  Rbeims 

'  Rouen 

230 
3781 
221 
253 

K  S.  Ouen 

^  Antwerp 

360 
532 
372 
490 

JViburg 

Ulm  

'^  Florence 

Rome — S.  Peter  . 

*  Has  two  western  towers. 
••  Hsis  two  western  towei-s,  anil  a  central  oii.^. 
'  '  With  s|)ire.     Has  double  aisles  round  ohoir. 
^  Has  double  aisles  of  equal  dinicusious,  with 


galleries  over  them.    The  south  rose  window 

is  45  feet  6  inches  in  diameter. 
•'  Hivs  two  western  towers. 
'  -  With  spire. 


t  Ladye  chapel  62  feet  long. 

■"  Willi  spires. 

'  Has   double  aisles  continued  all  r.mnd   the 

chui'ch. 
^  Exterior  dome. 


CATIIERINF.  WIIEEl,,  n  large  ornament  in  the  upper 
compartment  of  the  windows  of  Gothic  structures  ;  of  a 
circular  outline,  filled  interiorly  with  a  rosette,  or  i-adiating 
divisions,  and  beautifully  variegated. 

Catherine-wheel  windows  a'-e  supposed  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  our  continental  neighbours,  in  the  14th 
century.  In  foreign  cathedrals,  such  windows  are  of  enor- 
mous magnitude,  and  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  as  they  arc 
commonly  met  with,  not  only  in  the  end  walls  of  the  transept, 
as  with  us,  but  also  in  the  w^estern  fafade  immediately  above 
the  entrance.  There  is  a  very  fine  one  in  the  c^ithcdral  of 
llhcims ;  and  in  the  .great  church  of  St.  Oiicn,  at  Koiien, 
are  two  ;  one  of  which,  of  great  diameter,  is  called  hi  rose. 
Winchester  catiiedral  has  likewise  a  very  large  one;  but  it 
is  still  exceeded  by  one  at  Cheltenham,' in  Gloucestershire. 


In  St.  Peter's  church,  Westminster,  there  is  one  in  each 
transept. 

CATIIETUS,  a  line  falling  perpendicularly  upon  another 
line  or  surface. 

C.\TiiETLS,  in  architecture,  according  to  Vitruvius,  is  a 
right  line  drawn  porpendieularly  from  the  under  arris,  or 
line  of  the  sirna-inversa  at  each  flank  of  the  Ionic  capital, 
to  the  centre  of  tiie  eye  of  each  volute.  It  must,  however, 
be  remarked,  that  the  cathetus  drawn  in  this  manner,  does 
not  apply  to  all  ancient  examples  of  this  order. 

CA'iTLE  SUED,  or  Catti.b  IIocse,  in  rural  economy, 
an  erection  for  the  purpose  of  containing  cattle  while  feeding, 
or  otherwise.  In  order  to  make  the  feeding  of  cattle  advan- 
tageous, it  is  most  important  that  the  cattle  sheds  should  be 
placed  in  the  most  convenient  situations  with  respect  to  the 


CAT 


1-21 


CAT 


fields  from  which  the  food  is  to  be  brougiit.  In  large  forms, 
moveable  sIumIs  with  teinjiorary  yards  may  be  erected  ac- 
cording as  diflercnt  fields  are  in  grass  or  roots,  and  a  great 
saving  of  carriage  thereby  eirected,  both  in  the  bringing  the 
food  to  the  cattle,  and  carting  the  dung  unto  the  land  ;  a  clay 
bottom  should  be  selected,  in  a  high  and  dry  spot,  if  possible, 
and  it  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  that,  with  cattle,  as 
with  luniian  beings,  cleanliness,  free  ventilation,  and  perfect 
drainage  are  indispensable  to  perfect  health  and  a  sound 
condition  of  the  body. 

Cattle  sheds  are  most  cheaply  constructed  when  placed 
iigainst  walls  or  other  buildings.  If  they  are  to  be  erected 
in  an  isolated  situation,  the  expense  of  the  double  >hed  will 
be  much  less  than  that  of  the  single  one,  to  contain  the  same 
inimbcr  of  cattle. 

Every  building  of  this  description  shoidd  be  capable  of 
being  well  aired,  by  a  free  ventilation  ;  and  so  constructed 
as  to  require  the  least  possible  labour  in  giving  the  food  and 
clearing  away  the  dung;  the  stalls  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
keep  the  cattle  dry  and  clean,  with  sufficient  drains  to  carry 
away,  and  reservoirs  to  receive  the  ordure.  The  greater 
number  of  the  air-holes  should  be  in  the  roof;  and  if  the 
building  have  gables,  there  should  be  a  window  in  each,  as 
high  as  possible,  with  moveable  boards,  or  air  flights,  as  in 
granary  windows,  which  may  be  easily  opened  or  shut,  by 
means  of  a  small  rope.  These  precautions  will  not  only 
conduce  to  the  health  of  the  cattle,  but  tend  to  preserve  the 
timbers,  which,  from  the  alternate  wetting  by  the  breath, 
and  drying,  would  otherwise  soon  go  to  decay. 

In  single  sheds,  the  cattle  are,  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
fastened  to  stakes  about  three  feet  distant  from  each  other, 
ranged  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  wall,  at  the  distance  of  about 
18  or  20  inches  from  it,  thus  leaving  suflicient  space  for 
laying  clown  the  food;  but  this  plan  is  inconvenient,  as  it 
obliges  the  tl-eder  to  pass  between  the  cattle  when  he  feeds 
them,  and  is  consequently  attended  with  loss  of  time,  and 
is  sometimes  dangerous. 

The  best  construction  is  that  which  admits  a  sufficient 
space  for  a  passage  before  the  cattle,  for  the  feeder  to  pass 
along  with  a  wheel-barrow,  when  he  distributes  their  food. 
In  single  sheds,  three  feet  will  be  sufficient  for  the  width  of 
this  passage  ;  and  in  double  sheds,  the  heads  of  the  cattle 
should  face  each  other,  and  the  breadth  of  the  passage  need 
not  be  increased  beyond  four  feet. 

Where  cattle  are  fed  from  the  outside,  through  holes  left 
for  the  purpose,  many  inconvem'ences  may  arise  from  wet 
weather,  a  severe  frost,  or  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  ;  but  when 
fed  within,  no  change  of  weather  can  have  any  influence  on 
their  feeding  ;  particularly  if  due  care  be  taken  to  keep  the 
provender  dry  and  under  cover. 

Ill  single  sheds,  it  would  be  convenient  to  have  a  provender- 
loft  above  the  cattle,  for  holding,  occasionally,  hay  and  straw  ; 
a  loft  of  this  kind  might  be  provided  with  "flaps"  in  the  floor- 
ing, furnished  with  hinges,  which,  when  opened,  would 
atiord  an  easy  access  for  putting  in  the  fodder  from  the  cart, 
and  enable  the  feeder  to  throw  it  into  the  racks  when 
required.  In  this  case  the  roof  may  be  supported  by  posts 
or  j.illars,  about  three  or  four  feet  high,  on  the  top  of  the 
wall,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  distant  from  each  other ;  the  flaps 
may  be  lifted  by  rings,  and  be  made  stationary  in  any 
required  position,  by  a  catch. 

In  numy  places,  cows  and  oxen  are  bound  to  stakes,  with- 
out any  stalls,  or  divisions  between  them.  In  some  parts, 
cows  are  bound  in  pairs,  with  a  slight  division  betweeti 
them  ;  in  others,  they  are  not  bound,  but  every  cow  or  ox 
has  a  separate  stall,  divided  from  the  rest  by  wooden  rails, 
so  that  they  cannot  get  out,  and  so  narrow  tliat  they  cannot 
16 


turn  round.  Many  feeders  think  the  cattle  thrive  better  in 
stalls  of  this  description,  than  when  they  are  bound.  At 
each  slake  there  should  be  a  trough  for  holding  provender, 
and  between  these  two  troughs  there  should  be  another  for 
water,  common  to  the  cattle  on  both  sides  ;  this  water-trongh, 
which,  as  well  as  the  others,  may  be  of  stone,  and  of  (Jiic 
piece,  may  be  supplied  by  a  pipe  from  a  cistern  or  reservoir ; 
and  over  them  should  be  a  perpendicular  rack  for  straw  or 
hay.  But  though  the  double  stalls,  here  rccommeiidi'd,  are 
much  used  for  milch  cows  in  dill'erent  parts  of  Kiiglaiid, 
they  have,  in  general,  only  one  provender-trough  for  each 
cow,  and  none  for  water. 

hi  paving  stalls  tor  cattle,  the  declivity  is  in  general  too 
great,  which  occasions  them  to  stand  uneasy.  Tlie  best 
mode  is  similar  to  that  of  paving  stables.  Wood  has  lately 
been  used  with  advantage  for  paving  stalls. 

In  many  places,  it  is  the  practice  to  fasten  the  heads  of 
the  cattle  between  two  stakes  ;  by  which  they  can  neither  lie 
down  in  comfort,  nor  dislodge  or  destroy  those  tormenting 
vermin,  which  frequently  prey  upon  them.  No  animal  can 
thrive  when  confined  in  this  manner. 

As  the  dung  of  cows  and  oxen  is  of  a  liquid  nature,  it  may 
pei'haps  be  carried  off  by  means  of  an  iron  grating,  placed 
behind  each  animal,  as  nearly  as  can  be,  in  the  spot  where  it 
usually  drops,  and  immediately  over  the  stall  drain,  or  over  a 
wooden  spout,  which  being  continued  in  a  sufficient  slope,  to  a 
pit  or  reservoir  without,  will,  with  the  assistance  of  water  occa- 
sionally thrown  down,cmpty  itself  therein.  Should  any  obstruc- 
tion occur,  the  aid  of  a  rake  or  a  hoe,  fitted  to  the  drain,  mav  be 
easily  applied  ;  especially  if  the  drain  be  only  covered  with  a 
strong  plank,  w  hich  may  be  taken  up  when  necessary.  The 
greater  part  of  the  dung  being  thus  carried  away,  the  remainder 
will  be  easily  removed.  Such  a  contrivance  would  save  much 
labour,  and  facilitate  the  keeping  of  cattle  clean  ;  it  would 
also  be  the  means  of  saving  a  great  deal  of  litter,  when  scarce 
or  dear.  On  this  part  of  the  subject  it  may  be  observed,  that 
the  waste  of  urine  and  dung,  too  often  seen  in  even  well-con- 
ducted farms,  is  much  to  be  deprecated  and  lamented — every- 
thing of  the  kind  is  valuable,  and  should  be  conducted  to 
proper  reservoirs  judiciously  constructed  and  arranged  for 
the  purpose,  to  be  afterwards  used  on  the  land. 

Where  a  great  number  of  cattle  are  kept,  the  erection  of 
sheds  or  feeding  houses  on  a  circular  plan,  proves  very 
economical,  and  saves  much  labour,  though  a  little  iiioie 
expensive  in  the  first  cost.  In  this  form  of  building,  the 
animals  stand  all  round  with  their  tails  towards  the  extei-nal 
wall,  leaving  a  sufficient  passage  or  gangway  behind,  for 
them  to  pass  to  and  from  their  stalls  ;  proper  openings  are 
also  to  be  left  in  the  wall,  for  discharging  the  dung,  which 
may  fall  into  covered  pits  on  the  outside.  The  openings 
should  be  so  contrived,  as  to  be  capable  of  being  shut  up  in 
severe  weather.  The  area,  or  space  in  the  middle,  is  con- 
verted to  the  use  of  feeding  and  attendance  ;  and,  to  render 
the  plan  complete,  there  should  be  a  room  above,  to 
store  up  the  different  sorts  of  food  that  the  cattle  may 
require. 

The  oblong  plan  likewise  admits  of  much  room  and  con- 
venience, and  is  a  form  in  which  many  cattle  houses  have 
been  lately  erected.  In  this  kind  of  shed,  the  length  of  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  affords  room  for  a  great  number  of  cattle.  "  The 
roof  is  made  shelving,  14  feet  in  the  highest  part,  and  six  or 
seven  in  the  lowest.  The  place  for  the  reception  of  the  cattle 
is  separated  from  that  wherein  the  dung  is  to  be  deposited, 
by  a  wall,  or  other  convenient  division,  and  may  be  about  18 
or 20  feet  within,  toaflbrd  good  room.  The  stalls  are  twelve 
feet  long,  and  from  4  feet  to  4  feet  0  inches  wide  ;  leaving 
gang  wajs  at  the  heads  and  behind  the  cattle,  3  feet  or  3^ 


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122 


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feet  in  breadth.  Each  stall  has  two  doors,  the  one  for  admission 
of  the  cattle,  liie  other  for  the  |iersons  who  attend  tlieui ;  and 
when  tile  Imildings  are  of  great  lengtli,  it  may  be  convenient 
to  have  additional  doors  at  each  end.  There  shoidd  likewise 
be  a  water-tioiigh  in  each  stall,  and  where  a  stream  can  be 
made  to  run  throngh  the  whole  range,  it  is  productive  of  great 
advantage.  Tlic  boxes,  or  mangers,  for  jiartieular  sorts  of 
loud,  as  well  as  racks  fur  hay,  are  also  necessary  to  render 
these  Iniildings  complete.  The  bottom  of  the  stalls  may  be 
tbrmed  of  strong  i)lanking.  laid  so  as  to  have  a  very  slight 
descent,  and  perforated  with  holes  for  the  passage  of  the  urine 
into  the  n^servoir.  There  should  also  be  openings  in  the  wall, 
behind  the  cattle,  between  (;\(;yy  two  stalls,  of  about  two  feet 
sijuare,  for  <lischarging  the  dung,  with  proper  shutters  fitted 
to  them.  Each  stall  should  likewise  have  a  wooden  window, 
of  about  the  same  size,  for  the  admission  of  light  and  for  free 
ventilation,  placed  as  high  as  the  Ittiusc  or  shed  will  admit. 
The  reservoir  for  the  dung  or  m-ine  siiould  extend  the  whole 
length  of  the  building.  l''or  further  particulars  on  this  subjeet, 
sev  Cow-lloisE. 

CAUKliNCi,  or  Cockino,  the  mode  of  fixing  the  tie-beams 
of  a  roof,  or  the  binding-joists  of  a  floor,  down  to  the  wall- 
plates.  This  was  formerly  done  by  dovetailing,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: — a  small  part  of  the  depth  of  the  beam  at  the 
end  of  the  under  side  was  cut  in  the  form  of  a  dovetail,  and 
a  curiesponiling  notch,  to  receive  it,  was  formed  on  the 
up[)er  si<je  of  the  wall-plate,  across  its  breadth  ;  making,  of 
eouisi',  the  wide  part  of  the  dovetail  towards  the  exterior 
part  ol'  the  wall,  so  that  the  beams,  when  laid  in  theirnotehes, 
and  the  roof  finished,  would  tend  greatly  to  [)revent  the  walls 
from  separating,  though  strained  by  inwai'd  pressure,  or  even 
if  having  a  tendency  to  spread  through  accidents  or  bad 
workmanship.  But  beams  lixed  nceording  to  this  mode, 
having  been  found  liable  to  be  drawn  to  a  certain  degree  out 
of  the  notches  in  the  wall-plates,  from  the  shrinking  of  the 
timber;  a  more  secure  mode  has  succeeded,  which  prevents 
all  possibility  of  one  being  drawn  out  of  the  other,  however 
unseasoned  thestulfmay  bo,  or  however  all'ected  by  changes 
of  weather.      See  Cocking. 

CAULICOLES  (from  runlin,  a  stalk  or  stem),  in  the 
Corinthian  capital,  eight  stalks  between  each  two  of  the 
upper  LOW  of  leaves,  ramifying  upwards,  each  into  two 
foliated  branches,  and  seeming  to  support  the  volutes  under 
the  abacus;  each  branch  supporting  one  of  the  sixteen 
volutes,  or  helices,  two  of  which  are  placed  at  each  angle, 
and  two  in  the  middle  of  each  face  of  the  abacus. 

(v'AlJLKl.NG,  in  ship-building,  the  operation  of  driv- 
ing a  quantity  of  oakum,  or  old  untwisted  ropes,  into 
the  seams  of  the  planks  in  the  sides  or  decks  of  a 
ship,  to  secure  the  interior  from  water.  After  the  oakum 
is  driven  very  hard  into  the  seams,  it  is  covered  with 
hot  melted  pitch,  or  rosin,  to  prevent  the  water  fiom  rot- 
ling  it. 

■  Caulkin(;  Ikons,  chisels  for  driving  the  oakum  into  the 
seams ;  in  caulking,  these  chisels  are  some  broad,  some  round, 
and  others  grooved. 

C.\l  Sli  WA  V,  in  the  most  usual  sense,  denotes  a  common 
hard  raised  way,  maintained  and  repaired  with  stones  and 
rubbish. 

It  also  signifies  a  massive  construction  of  stone,  stakes,  and 
fascines ;  or  an  elevation  of  fat  viscous  earth,  well  beaten  ; 
serving  either  as  a  road  a<M'oss  wet  marshy  places,  or  as  a 
mole  to  retain  the  waters  of  a  pond,  or  prevent  a  river  from 
overflowing  low  lands. 

CAl'8TK^  CUKVE,  in  the  higher  geometry,  a  curve 
formed  by  the  concourse  of  the  rays  of  light  reflected  from 
some  other  curve.     It  is  not  of  much  use  in   building,  as 


this  reflection  only  forms  one  of  the  known  curves,  which  are 
all  specified  under  their  respective  heads. 

CAV'/EDH  M  (from  the  I^atiii,  cant  and  (.vilium),  a  vacant 
space  within  the  body  of  a  building  ;  in  a  Uonian  house,  it 
was  what  we  now  call  a  court.  Aeeoiding  to  V'itruvius,  there 
were  five  kindsofcava'dia,  denominated  7'iisci.in,  Corinthian, 
tetrasti/le,  diapliiviiiahil.,  and  tcsttidinaled. 

'J'he Tuscan  cavasdinm  had  a  roof  jirojceting  from  ca<Oi  wall, 
leaving  an  aperture  in  the  niiddli^;  it  was  suspended  on 
the  walls  williout  the  intervention  of  any  support  from  pillars 
or  columns. 

The  Corinthian  eavicdium  was  similar  to  the  Tuscan,  excej)D 
that  the  roof  was  supported  by  columns. 

The  tctrastyle,  as  its  name  implies,  had  one  column  at  each 
of  the  four  angles  of  the  roof,  for  its  support. 

The  displuvinated,  being  without  any  roof,  admitted  a  free 
access  of  the  light  to  the  windows  of  the  surrounding  rooms, 
and  was  therefore  calculated  fur  winter  apartments. 

The  tcstudinated,  which  was  covered  with  a  vault  or  con- 
cave ceiling,  rising  from  the  walls,  wa>>  used  when  the  span 
or  impetus  was  not  very  great ;  the  space  aliove  being  used 
for  various  kinds  of  apartments.  'J'lie  latter,  however,  can 
hardly  be  deemed  a  court,  though  it  comes  under  the  general 
denomination  of  eavicdium. 

CWAZION,  Cavasiox,  or  Cavation,  an  excavation 
made  in  the  ground  for  tlu^  foundation  <jf  a  building. 

CAVE,  a  subterraneous  hollow  place,  or  the  space  dug  out 
f"or  Cellarage  and  other  purposes  below  the  basement  rooms  of 
a  house.  A  common  allowance  for  this  is  one-sixth  of  the 
height  of  the  building.  Caves,  without  doubt,  were  among 
the  first  habitations  of  men,  before  they  became  acquainted 
with  the  method  of  rearing  a  covering  for  shelter.  They 
were  also  used  in  the  early  ages  as  receptacles  for  the 
dead. 

CAVEA,  in  the  ancient  am|ihilheatres,  ]iro|>erly  signitled 
the  place  where  the  wild  beasts  were  kept;  but  the  word 
was  also  applied  to  the  middle  part,  called  the  arena,  and 
frequently  denoted  tlii\  whole  of  the  inti'rior  of  the  amphi- 
theatres, as  well  as  of  the  theatres. 

CAVETTO  (Italian,  a  diminutive  of  the  Lalin,  caviis, 
hollow),  a  conca\e  moulding  or  cove,  the  emvatme  of  whose 
sec^tion  does  not  exceed  the  quarter  of  a  circle  ;  its  |>rojecti(.n 
may  be  equal  to  its  altitude,  and  should  never  be  less  than 
two-thirds  of  it.  The  cavelto,  which  is  the  reverse  of  the 
ovolo.  or  quarter-round,  is  sometimes  used  in  the  bed  and 
crowning  mouldings  of  cornices;  and  forms  the  upper  mem- 
ber of  the  architrave  of  some  of  the  most  beautiful  (Jreeian 
Ionics.  The  hollow  moulding  used  in  the  bases  between  the 
tori,  &e.,  is  also  called  a  cavcilu. 

('EILING  (from  the  Latin,  ca'liim  the  sky,  or  celare,  to 
cover),  the  inside  of  the  roof,  or  top  of  an  apartment,  opposed 
to  the  surface  of  the  floor.  Ceilings  may  bo  either  flat,  or 
coved,  or  both.  Coved  ceilings  are  sometimes  concave  round 
the  margin  and  flat  in  the  middle,  or  otherwise  they  arc 
vaulted.  See  Vault.  The  former  occupy  from  one-filth  to 
one-fouith  of  the  height  of  the  room.  The  priiici]ial  sections 
of  vaulted  ceilings  may  be  of  various  segments,  e(pial  to,  or 
less  than  semicircles  as  may  be  most  suitable  to  the  height  of 
the  room. 

Flat  ceilings  are  adorned  with  large  compartments,  or 
foliages  and  other  ornaments,  tu'  with  both. 

Ci)m[iartment  ceilings  arc  either  formed  by  raising  mould- 
ings on  the  surface,  or  by  depressing  the  j)auels  within  a 
moulded  enclosure,  which  may  be  partly  raised  upon,  and 
partly  recessed  within  the  framing,  or  entirely  recessed.  The 
figures  of  the  panels  may  be  either  polygonal,  circular,  or 
elliptical.    The  ceilings  of  the  porticos,  and  of  the  interior  of 


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123 


CEL 


ancient  temples,  were  coinpai'ted,  and  the  panels  deeply 
i-ecesscd  ;  the  jirominent  parts  between  them  representing,  it 
is  said,  the  ancient  manner  of  framing  the  beams  of  wood 
which  composed  the  floors.  The  mouldings  on  the  sides  of 
the  panels  are  sunk  in  one,  two,  or  several  degrees,  like 
inverted  steps ;  and  the  bottoms  of  panels  are  most  frequently 
decorated  with  roses.  The  figures  of  these  compartments  are 
mostly  cf|uilatcral  and  eipiiangulnr.  Triangles  were  seldom 
used  ;  but  we  liiid  squares,  hexagons,  and  octagons  in  great 
abundance.  The  framing  around  the  panels,  in  (ircciau  and 
Kiunau  examples,  is  constantly  parallel,  or  of  equal  breadth; 
therefoie,  when  squares  are  introduced,  there  is  no  other 
variety  ;  but  hexagons  will  join  in  contiguity  with  one 
another,  or  form  the  interstices  into  lozenges,  or  equilateral 
triangles.  t)clagons  naturally  form  two  varieties,  viz.,  that 
of  its  own  figin-e,  and  squares  in  the  interstices;  this  kind  of 
coni|iartment  is  called  cojferin;/,  and  the  recessed  parts  cojl'ers, 
which  are  used  not  only  in  plain  ceilings,  but  also  in  cylin- 
drical vaults. 

The  Ijorders  of  the  coflering  are  generally  terminated  with 
belts,  charged  most  frequently  with  foliage;  and  sometimes, 
again,  the  foliage  is  bordered  with  guiUoches,  as  in  the  Tem- 
ple of  Peace,  at  iiome. 

In  the  ceiling  of  the  entire  temple  at  Balbec,  cofl'crs  are 
disposed  around  the  cylindrical  vault  in  one  row,  rising  over 
each  intercolumn,  and  between  cvei'y  row  of  cofiers  is  a  pro- 
jecting belt,  ornamented  with  a  guillochc,  corresponding  with 
two  semi-attached  columns,  in  the  same  vertical  plane;  one 
colnnui  supporting  each  springing  of  the  belt. 

The  ceilings  of  the  ancients  were  commonly  relieved  by 
colour  and  gilding  in  various  designs,  which  must  have 
greatly  added  tu  the  eflect  of  the  whole  edifice  ;  this  practice 
has  been  ado[ite<l  in  the  new  entrance-hall  of  the  British 
Museum  with  very  great  success. 

Ihe  moderns  follow-  the  practice  of  the  ancients  in  their 
cupolas  and  cylindrical  vaults,  ornamenting  them  with  cofiers 
and  belts;  and  the  bells  again  withfrets,  guiUoches,  or  foliages. 
Small  panels  are  ornamented  with  roses,  and  large  ones  with 
li)liage  or  historical  subjects.  The  grounds  may  be  gilt,  and 
the  ornaments  white,  partly  coloured,  or  streaked  with  gold  ; 
or  the  ornaments  may  be  gilt,  and  the  grounds  white,  pearl, 
straw-colour,  light-blue,  or  any  tint  that  may  agree  best  with 
the  ornaments. 

Some  ceilings  are  painted,  either  wholly  or  in  various  com- 
partments only.  When  a  ceiling  is  painted  to  represent  the 
sky,  it  ought  to  be  upon  a  plane  or  spheric  surface,  without 
being  coved  at  the  edges. 

Ceilings  plane  and  coved  are  much  employed  in  modern 
apartments;  they  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  medium  between  the 
horizontal  and  the  various  arched  forms  practised  by  the 
ancients:  they  do  not  require  .so  much  height  as  the  latter  ; 
but  they  are  neither  so  graceful  nor  yet  so  grand. 

\  aultcd  ceilings  are  more  expensive  than  plane  ones; 
but  they  are  also  susceptible  of  a  greater  variety  of  embel- 
lishments. 

\\  hen  a  ceiling  is  made  on  the  under  side  of  the  rafters  of 
a  roof,  it  is  said  to  lie  camp-ceileil,  or  tent-ceiled. 

The  timbers  of  ceilings  in  Gothic  edifices  are  seldom  plas- 
tered, although  examples  are  occasionallv  found,  as  at 
llochester  Cathedral,  of  the  Decorated  p'eriod,  which  is 
divided  by  moulded  ribs  of  wood.  The  timber  ceilings  are 
either  flat,  concave,  circular,  or  ranging  with  the  principal 
timbers  of  the  roof;  -sometimes,  however,  we  have  vaulted 
ceilings  of  timber,  as  at  Winchester  Cathedral.  When  flat, 
the  ceilings  are  divided  into  panels  by  moulded  ribs,  which 
at  their  intersection  are  enriched  with  bosses,  pendants,  or 
such  like  ornaments ;  sometimes  large  panels  are  subdivided 


by  mouldings  of  a  smaller  section.  The  concave  ceilings, 
which  present  the  form  of  a  barrel  vault,  have  most  frcijucntly 
only  a  single  rib  running  along  the  lop;  when  others  arc 
introduced,  it  is  but  sparingly.  In  all  cases,  ceilings  were 
enriched  with  gilding  and  colours  of  the  most  brilliant  kind, 
examples  of  which  are  constantly  being  brought  to  light 
during  the  restoration  of  old  churches. 

Plaster  was  very  much  used  in  the  ceilings  of  Elizabeth's 
time  and  the  succeeding  reigns,  in  which  period  the  ceilings 
were  generally  flat,  divided  into  panels  by  ribs,  which,  as  well 
as  the  panels  themselves,  were  of\en  adorned  with  an  exube- 
rance of  decoration  moulded  in  the  plaster,  of  which  we  have 
many  beautiful  specimens. 

Sofjil  amounts  to  nearly  the  same  thing  as  a  ceilinfi,  except 
that  the  former  is  applied  to  the  under  sides  of  apertures  and 
cornices,  and  the  latter  to  a  more  extended  space,  as  the  top 
or  side  of  an  apartment  opposite  to  the  floor.  The  under 
sui  face  of  an  arch  is  also  called  the  sotfil,  or  intrados,  whether 
it  be  the  head  cf  an  aperture,  or  extended  over  an  apartment. 

Arched  ceilings  are  described  under  the  arti('le  Vault. 

Ceilino,  is  also  understood  to  be  the  lath  and  plaster  at 
the  top  of  a  room,  or  on  the  under  side  of  common  or  ceiling 
joists. 

Ceiling,  in  carjicntry,  the  joisting,  ribbing,  or  bracketing 
for  sujiporting  the  lath  and  plaster  of  the  upper  surface,  or 
ceiling  of  a  room.  There  are  various  kinds  of  ceilings,  as 
plane  ceilings,  cove  ceilings,  and  plane  and  cove  ceilings. 
Under  cove  ceilings  may  be  classed  several  other  kinds,  as 
waggon-headed,  or  cylindrical  ceilings,  dome  ceilings,  gn)in 
ceilings, and  spandrel  ceilings.  For  bracketing  these  dillijient 
figures,  see  the  words  Hkacketino  and  Ribbing  ;  for  the 
definition  of  arch  ceiling,  see  Vault. 

Ckiling-Eloou,  the  joisting  and  ceiling  supported  by  the 
beams  of  the  roof. 

Ceiling-Joists,  small  beams,  which  are  cither  mortised 
into  the  sides  of  the  binding-joists  with  j'nlley-inortises,  or 
notched  npon,  and  nailed  up  to  the  under  sides  of  the  said 
joists.  'J'his  last  mode  takes  away  from  thi;  height  of  the 
room ;  but  it  is  easier  to  execute,  and  is  thought  to  be  less 
liable  to  break  the  plaster,  than  when  the  ends  of  the  ceiling- 
joists  are  inserted  in  piullcy-mortises.  \\  hen  girders  are 
introduced  in  the  floor,  the  under  sides  of  the  girders  must 
be  furred,  to  correspond  with  the  level  of  the  under  edges  of 
the  ceiling-joists. 

CELL,  in  carpentry.    Sec  Sill. 

CELLA,  in  lioman  anticinity,  was  variously  applied.  It 
denoted,  in  temples,  the  interior  or  most  retired  place,  called 
by  the  (ilreeks,  nuos ;  and  in  baths,  varifnis  apartments,  as 
the  frigidnria,  tepidaria,  ca/diiria,  &c.  It  was  also  used  to 
denote  the  apartments  of  jirostitutes,  and  the  bed-chambers 
of  domestics. 

Cella,  was  likewise  applied  to  monasteries,  to  denote 
a  lesser  one,  subordinate  to  a  greater  ;  and  was  even  applied, 
vice  versa,  to  rich  monasteries  not  dependent  on  any. 

CELLAR,  in  ancient  writers,  a  conservatory  for  provisions, 
whether  to  eat  or  drink.  The  term  comes  from  the  Latin 
celariiim,  and  is  of  the  same  import  with  rclla. 

Cellar,  as  now  used,  is  generally  applied  to  an  ajiartment 
in  which  liquors  arc  de])osited.  Cellars  are  commonly  ]>laced 
in  the  lower  story  of  the  dwelling-house,  sunk  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground  ;  sometimes  they  are  placed  under 
ground,  and  are  entered  from  the  area  before  the  building ; 
they  are  sometimes  also  placed  in  out-houses.  When  they 
are  placed  within  the  dwelling-house,  or  contiguous  to  an 
out-building,  they  should  have  a  north  exposure.  Cellars 
should  be  kept  cool,  and  consequently  remote  from  any  place 
that  would  communicate  heat,  and  care  should  be  taken  to 


CEL 


124 


CEL 


preserve  them  of  as  uniform  temperature  as  possible  ;  for  this 
purpose  they  should  be  constructed  with  double  walls  and 
double  vaults,  leaving  a  hollow  space  all  round. 

Cellars,  and  other  places  vaulted  under  ground,  were 
called  by  the  Greeks  fn/pof/tca. 

CELLAHAGE,  the  number  of  cellars  which  a  dwelling- 
house  requires,  whether  one  or  many. 

CELTIC,  or  Dhuidical  Arcuitectuke.  A  term  applied 
to  a  class  of  structures  composed  of  rough  unhewn  stniics  of 
great  size,  the  erection  of  which  is  generally  attributed  to 
that  family  of  mankind  classed  under  the  name  of  Celts, 
more  especially  to  the  Druids. 

These  erections  are  of  various  descriptions,  some  consist- 
ing of  a  single  stone,  others  comprising  many  hundreds ;  their 
arrangement  also  ditlers  very  greatly,  yet  at  the  same  time 
there  is  a  general  similarity  which  readily  marks  their  rela- 
tion. The  remains  are  more  numerous  in  this  ct)untry  than 
in  any  other,  but  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to  it,  similar 
erections  being  found  not  only  in  tlie  neighl)oiMing  islands, 
in  France,  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  i'ortugal,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  but  also  in  Phanicia,  Palestine,  India,  Mala- 
bar, Persia  and  China,  and  even  in  the  western  continent. 

To  account  for  the  existence  of  these  works  in  such 
remote  regions,  their  construction  has  been  attril)uted  to  the 
Cclt;e.  These  Celts,  or  Gauls,  as  they  were  termed  by 
the  Komans,  are  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  (iomer,  the 
son  of  Japhet,  whose  posterity  were  calkd  after  his  name, 
Gomerians,  a  title  which  is  identical  with  the  Cimmerians  of 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Cimbri  of  the  Latins.  That  the  Celta; 
were  a  branch  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Cimmerians,  is  gene- 
rally allowed,  and  it  would  seem,  that  they  followed  in  their 
migi-ations  a  isouth-westerly  course,  while  the  Cimtiierians 
]nusued  a  northern,  and  afterwards  a  westerly  direction. 
\\  hen  and  where  the  great  family  separated  is  not  so  univer- 
sally agreed  upon,  some  writers  asserting  that  thoy  divided 
before  they  took  their  departure  from  the  East,  others  main- 
taining that  the  separation  did  not  take  place  before  they  had 
ailvaiieed  some  distance  into  Europe.  The  latter  class  of 
writers,  who  rest  mainly  on  the  authority  of  Herodotus,  sup- 
pose that  the  two  branches  of  the  one  family  travelled  toge- 
ther until  they  were  overtaken  and  harassed  Ijy  the  Scy- 
thians, when  a  large  number,  the  Celtte,  ino\cd  southward, 
and  spread  westward  from  Asia  Minor  to  Italy,  and  after- 
wai-ds  to  Spain  and  Britain.  It  is  certain  that  the  Cimme- 
rians were  closely  followed  by  the  succeeding  horde  (jf 
emigrants,  the  Scythians,  and  were  by  them  continually 
pressed  further  westwards;  it  is  also  generally  allowed,  that 
Great  Diitain  was  peopled  principally  by  the  northern  hordes 
who  passed  through  Denmark  and  Gaul.  If  we  follow  the 
theory  of  those  who  place  the  separation  at  the  later  period 
on  this  side  the  Sea  of  Azo[)h,  we  shall  have  to  account  in 
sonic  other  manner  fin-  the  existence  of  Celtic  remains 
in  Syria  and  Phoenicia,  as  well  as  in  India.  This  difficulty 
is  obviated  by  attributing  the  introduction  of  such  a  mode  of 
building  into  this  country  to  the  I'haMiicians;  but  then  we  are 
left  to  account  for  the  appearance  of  the  same  in  the  north.  The 
su|i|uirters  of  this  opinion  ((note  the  statement  of  Ca.>sai-,  that 
Druidism  originated  in  Britain,  and  was  carried  thence  to 
Gaul ;  and  from  wiiom,  say  they,  are  the  Britons  likely  to  have 
learned  it,  but  from  the  Phanieians,  with  w  hotn  we  know  they 
carried  on  a  trade  in  tin,  and  who,  on  account  of  the  advan- 
tages obtained  from  that  traffic,  were  very  jealous  of  their 
knowledge  of  the  island  being  extended  to  other  nations ;  it 
is  allowed,  that  the  structures  wc  are  considering  were  closely 
allied  to  Druidism.  But  this  theory,  as  wc  said  befoie, 
raises  the  diliiculty  about  the  existence  of  similar  works  in 
the  north,  unless  it  be  admitted  indeed  that  the  Phoenicians 


and  the  northern  tribes  are  of  the  same  family,  and  if  so, 
we  allow  its  early  separation,  which  is  the  iact  for  which  the 
opposite  party  contend;  the  only  ditlercnce  being  this,  that 
in  one  case,  we  need  only  account  for  one  separation  ; 
while  in  the  other,  we  must  necessarily  suppose  a  second. 
The  fact  of  the  identity  of  the  Phccnicians  with  the 
northern  tribes  of  the  Cimmerians  does  not  rest  solely  on  his- 
toric evidence,  it  is  also  demonstrable  from  other  facts,  such 
as  the  common  origin  of  thi-ir  languages,  and  the  similarity 
of  their  customs  and  religious  observances.  As  far  as  the 
former  is  concerned,  there  seems  to  be  sufficient  evidence  to 
show  that  the  Hebrew,  Ph(enician,  Sanscrit,  Irish,  and 
Manx  languages,  arc  derived  from  the  same  soiu'ce;  and  as 
regards  the  latter.  Dr.  Borlase,  in  his  attempt  to  controvert 
the  opinion,  admits  that  the  customs  and  ceremonies  of  Asia 
and  of  Noitliern  Europe  were  known  and  practised  by  the 
British  Druids,  although  he  maintains  that  the  Britons  had 
several  observances  which  were  peculiar  to  themselves.  It 
would  indeed  seem  that  Druidism  appeared  in  a  more 
matured  and  systematic  form  in  these  islands,  than  else- 
where, and  this  is  but  reasonable,  for,  as  was  ben^re  remarked, 
the  Cimbrians  were  a  nomadic  race,  and  were  constantly 
being  driven  forward  by  the  Scythians ;  until,  as  a  last 
resource,  they  crossed  the  German  ocean  into  Britain  :  hei'c 
defended  on  all  sides  bj^  the  sea,  they  had  but  little  to  fear 
from  their  aggressors,  and  were  precluded  from  making  fur- 
ther movenu-nts  westward  ;  here  therefore  they  permanently 
settled,  and  betook  themselves  to  the  arts  of  peace,  and  thus 
was  their  religion  elaborated  and  reduced  to  a  system  ;  and  as, 
in  the  ease  of  Numa,  and  the  early  Romans,  religion  estab- 
lished peace,  so  in  this  instance  did  peace  establish  and 
extend  religion. 

Prom  the  above  observations,  we  think,  may  rea.«onably 
be  drawn  the  following  conclusions,  namely,  that  the  erection 
of  all  structures  of  this  kind  is  to  be  attributed  to  one  race 
of  people,  and  their  appearance  in  such  different  and  distant 
quarters  to  the  fact  of  that  race  being  migratory  or  noin.adie. 

The  monuments  erected  by  the  Celts  may  be  divided  and 
classed  as  follows: — Lithoi,  composed  severally  of  one,  two, 
and  three  stones,  to  the  first  of  which  is  applied  the  distin- 
guishing appellation  monolithon,  and  to  the  last,  that  of 
trilithon.  They  have  all  the  common  name  of  Cromlehs. 
After  these  come  the  kist-vaens,  or  chests,  composed  of  four 
stones,  and  lastly,  circles  comprising  a  large  number  of  stones. 
I'lirther,  we  have  logan,  or  rocking-stones,  tolmen  stones, 
cheese-rings,  and  cairns. 

The  most  simple  of  these  structures  are  the  monolithoi. 
or  single  stones,  of  which  we  find  a  great  nmnbcr  in  various 
parts  of  the  British  Islands.  Tlic  first  mention  of  such  stones 
we  find,  is  of  that  set  up  liy.lacob  after  his  dream,  which  l.e 
named  Bethel;  the  ne.\t  is  that  set  up  by  Joshua  under  an 
oak  by  the  sanctuary,  as  a  witness  unto  the  Israelites,  lest 
they  denied  their  God.  Another  stone  is  spoken  of  at  a  later 
period,  called  the  stone  of  Abel,  upon  which  the  ark  was 
rested  ;  and  another,  which  was  placed  by  Sannicl  lietween 

Mizpeh  and  Shcn  as  a  mei ial   of  the   Divine, assistance. 

We  read  also  of  the  stone  E/.el,  and  the  great  stone  in  Gibcon. 
Many  such  stones  arc  seen  in  Palestine  at  the  present  day,  hut 
not  in  the  places  mentioned  in  the  ( >ld  Testament.  The  same 
kind  of  stones  are  almost  universal  in  India,  few,  if  any,  of  the 
temples  being  without  them  ;  there  are  two  also  in  Tyre.  It 
is  suagested,  that  the  pillars  of  Hercules  were  of  this  class, 
and  with  some  probability,  as  Arrian  says,  that  "Gades  was 
built  by  the  Phanicians  ;  the  sacrifices  and  ceremonies  there 
perfoniied  are  all  after  the  I'hccnieian  maimer ;"  and  Strabo 
adds,  that  there  were  here  two  pillars  dedicated  to  Hercules 
Plato  mentions  a  pillar  connected  in  some  way  with  the 


CEL 


125 


CEL 


Amazons,  and  similar  lithoi  were  to  be  seen  at  Megara, 
at,  (heroiKoa,  in  'J'hessaly,  Ionia  and  Mainitania,  one  also 
within  the  walls  of  Athens.  Cyrus  erected  obelisks  over  the 
grave  of  Ahradates,  king  of  Susa,  and  over  those  of  his  wife 
and  oilicers.  Furtlier  north  we  find  such  stones  in  Denmark, 
Swollen,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  in  our  own  country. 
•  As  these  stones  arc  of  necessity  much  alike  in  all  cases, 
we  need  only  give  a  description  of  one,  to  atlord  a  general 
■dea  of  the  whole  of  them  ;  wc  select  that  of  liudstone,  in 
the  East  Hiding  of  Yorkshire.  It  stanils  about  four  yards 
from  the  north-east  ct)rner  of  Kudstono  Church,  and  rises 
above  the  ground  twenty-four  feet;  if,  as  is  slated,  it  mea- 
sures the  same  below  ground,  its  total  length  will  be  forty- 
eight  leet ;  its  lueadth  is  six  feet,  and  tliickness  two  feet; 
all  lour  sides  arc  slightly  convex.  The  stone  is  of  a  very  hard 
quality,  and  its  weight  is  calculated  at  above  fort}'  tons. 

The  uses  of  the  monolithoi  seem  to  have  been  various.  That 
some  were  used  as  sepulchral  monuments,  is  allowed  by  all  ; 
and  some  allow  them  to  have  had  no  other  use ;  such  was  the 
pillar  set  up  by  Jacob  over  Rachel's  grave,  also  those  erected 
l>y  Cyrus,  as  bofoie  mentioned.  Some  were  trophies  of  vic- 
tories, as  that  elected  by  Samuel  after  his  defeat  of  the  Phi- 
listines ;  some  were  witnesses  to  covenants,  as  that  set  up  by 
.lacob  and  Laban,  and  that  of  Joshua;  whilst  others  are 
meicly  boundary  stones. 

Similar  in  description  are  the  curious  round  towers  so  pre- 
valent in  Ireland,  which  are  generally  found  in  the  locality 
of  a  Christian  church,  a  situation  which  is  accounted  for  by  the 
supposition  that  the  C'hristian  missionaries  were  accustomed 
to  rear  their  edifices  near  the  spot  where  the  pagan  temples 
had  stood.  It  is  certain  that  these  towers  are  very  old,  as 
they  were  considereil  .ancient  even  in  the  twelfth  centuiy  ; 
lliey  vary  both  in  height  and  construction,  but  their  general 
:i|i|  carance  is  that  of  a  circular  ol)elisk  tapering  gradually 
lo.iards  the  summit,   and  finishing  in  a  conical  roof.     See 

KoLNIl  ToWEHS. 

These  obelisks  are  also  termed  Cromlehs,  a  word  signifvin" 
a  stmie  of  adoration  ;  also  Bothal.  which  donljtiess  is  the  same 
as  the  Hebrew,  I3ethel,  both  terms  signifying  the  House  of 
God.  I  iider  these  names  are  also  included  monuments 
of  two  or  three  stones,  the  fiu-mer  comprising  an  upright 
pillar  with  a  cross-piece  on  the  top,  and  the  latter  two 
u|>right  stones,  with  a  thii-d  at  the  top,  stretching  from  one 
to  the  other;  the  latter  are  named  likewise  trilithons. 

>iext  to  the  lithoi,  or  cromlehs,  stand  the  kist-vaens,  or 
monuments  of  four  stones,  consisting  of  three  uprights,  and 
one  horizontal  stone  covering  the  whole:  they  are  often 
found  in,  or  near  circles,  and  are  frequently  accompanied 
wit-h  iKirrows  of  various  kinds.  Kist-vaen  is  a  Welsh  term, 
ami  siguilies  stone-chest,  but  the  term  quoit  is  frequently 
applied  to  the  same  structures,  more  especially  in  Cornwall, 
and  there  is  one  near  Cloyne,  in  Ireland,  named  Carig-Croith, 
which  is  intcipr.-ted  Sun's  House.  Such  monuments  are 
found  in  abinidance,  and  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe;  we 
select  one  as  a  specimen.  Kit's  Coty  House,  Kent. 

This  monument  stands  near  to  the  village  of  Aylesford, 
and  IS  thus  described  by  Stowe  :— "  It  consists  of  four  flat 
stones,  one  of  them  standing  upright,  between  two  others, 
melosiug  the  edges  of  the  first,  and  the  fourth  laid  flat  upon 
the  other  three,  and  is  of  such  height  that  men  may  st.and  on 
either  side  the  ndddle  stone  in  time  of  storm  or  tempest,  safe 
from  wind  and  rain,  being  defended  with  the  breadth  of  the 
stones,  having  one  at  their  backs,  one  on  either  side,  and 
I  he  fourth  over  their  heads."  "  About  a  coit's  cast  from  this 
monument,  lieth  another  great  stone,  a  great  part  thereof  in 
the  ground,  as  fallen  down  where  the  same  had  been  aflixed.'' 
Ihis  description  answers  very  well  to  its  appearance  at  the 


present  day,  with  the  exception  that  the  separate  stone  last 
mentioned,  is  now  entirely  buried  in  the  ground.  The 
dimensions  are  given  as  follows  in  Grose's  Antiquities: — 
"  Upright  stone  on  the  north  or  north-west  side,  eight  feet 
high,  eight  feet  broad,  two  feet  thick  ;  estimated  weight,  eight 
tons  and  a  half.  Upright  stone  on  the  sc)uth  or  south-east 
side,  eight  feet  high,  seven  .and  a  h.alf  feet  broad,  two  feet 
thick  ;  estimated  weight,  eight  tons.  Upright  stone  between 
these,  very  irregular  ;  medium  dimensions,  five  feet  high, 
five  feet  broad,  ((_>urteen  inches  thick  ;  estimated  weight, 
about  two  tons.  Upper  stone  very  irregular;  eleven  feet 
long,  eight  feet  broad,  two  feet  thick  ;  estimated  weight, 
about  ten  tons  seven  hundred-weight." 

Monuments  of  the  same  description  are  to  be  seen  in 
Palestine,  the  following  account  of  some  of  which  is  given 
by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles: — "On  the  banks  of  the 
Jordan,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  we  observed  some  verv 
singular,  interesting,  and  certainly  very  ancient  tombs,  com- 
posed of  great  rough  stones,  resembling  what  is  called  Kit's 
Coty  House,  in  Kent.  They  are  built  of  two  long  side- 
stones,  with  one  at  each  end,  and  a  small  door  in  front, 
niostly  facing  the  north  ;  this  door  was  of  stone.  All  were 
of  rough  stones,  apparently  not  hewn,  but  (bund  in  flat  frag- 
ments, many  of  which  are  seen  about  the  spot  in  huge  flakes. 
Over  the  whole  was  laid  an  immense  flat  piece,  projecting 
both  at  the  sides  and  ends.  What  rendered  these  tombs  more 
remarkable  was,  that  the  interior  was  not  long  enough  for 
a  body,  being  only  five  feet.  This  is  occasioned  by  both  the 
front  and  back  stones  being  considerably  within  the  ends  of 
the  sides  only.  There  are  about  twenty-seven  of  these  tombs, 
very  irrcgnlaily  situated."  This  description  would  answer 
very  well  for  our  own  erections  of  the  kind,  were  it  not  tor 
the  second  stone  and  doorway,  no  traces  of  which  are  to  be 
found  in  these  islands.  Sir  liichard  Colt  Iloarc  gives  two 
representations  of  similar  stones  in  Malabar,  but  he  does 
not  accompany  thein  with  any  description. 

Numerous  monuments  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  through- 
out the  Hritish  Isles,  but  the}'  occur  most  frequently  in  Corn- 
wall and  Wales,  also  in  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  the  last  resort 
of  the  Druids,  and  in  Ireland. 

What  the  u.se  of  these  caves  were  is  not  agreed  upon, 
soine  claiming  them  as  sacrificial  altars,  others  as  tombs,  and 
others  again  as  simply  sacred  constructions  answering  to  the 
ark  or  sacred  chest  of  the  Jews.  The  former  position  is 
maintained  by  King,  who,  after  referring  to  the  account  given 
by  the  liomans  of  the  human  sacrifices  of  the  Druids,  con- 
tends for  the  peculiar  applicability  of  such  erections  to 
that  purpose  ;  but  his  o[iinioiis  do  not  seem  to  be  borne  out 
by  facts.  As  a  decisive  argument  in  the  matter,  he  cites  an 
instance  of  a  structure  of  the  kind  existing  in  the  county  of 
Louth,  Ireland,  which  is  called  the  killing-stone;  but  if  this 
hold  good  as  a  proof,  a  similar  one  may  be  advanced  for  the 
second  class  of  opinions,  in  the  case  of  the  Trevethy  Stone 
in  Cornwall,  the  word  Trevedi  signifying,  in  the  IJritish 
langu.age,  it  is  said,  the  Place  of  Graves;  and  besides  this, 
Kit's  Coty  House  is  transferred  into  Catigern's  house  of  coits, 
the  term  coit  being  translated  large  flat  stone.  This  place  is 
so  named,  it  is  averred,  from  the  fact  of  Catigern  being 
buried  there,  after  the  battle  with  Hengist  and  Ilorsa,  which 
occurred  at  Aylesford,  and  in  which  he'was  slain. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  largest  and  most  interesting 
class  of  monuments,  the  Druidieal  circles ;  they  consist 
of  one  or  more  circles  of  upright  stones  placed  at  short 
intervals  from  each  other  ;  the  circles  are  usually  concentric, 
but  we  have  not  unfrcquently  two  smaller  circles  placed  side 
by  side  within  a  larger  one,  and  the  whole  surrounded  with 
a  circular  ditch  and  vallum.     The  stones  composing  the  cir- 


CEL 


]2G 


CEL 


cles  are  not  always  single,  but  sometimes consistoftiilithons, 
RiiiiM'tiincs  of  kist-vacns.  Such  erections  are  found  in  various 
looulilics,  altliiMigli  more  frequently  in  this  country  than  else- 
where. Mention  is  made  of  them  in  the  Sacred  writings  in 
more  than  one  instance:  Moses  is  said  to  have  erected  an 
altar,  and  twelve  pillars,  according  to  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Isiacl,  ere  he  ascended  the  mount  to  receive  the  law;  he  also 
gives  directions  to  the  Israelites  at  a  later  period,  that  upon 
cro-ssing  Jord.an  they  should  set  up  in  mount  Klial  great 
stones,  and  plaster  them  with  plaster,  and  ^specially  orders 
that  they  should  be  whole  stones,  and  luiwiought;  we 
accordingly  find  Jo.shua  setting  np  twelve  stones  in  the 
miilst  of  Jordan,  and  taking  twelve  Anther  forward,  iind 
jiitching  them  in  Gilgal,  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan  ; — it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  word  Gilgal  signi- 
fies a  wheel  or  circle,  and  doubtless  the  place  was  so  named 
from  the  circle  of  stones  there  set  up.  Such  circles  arc  found 
likewise  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Denm:uk,  and  Iceland,  in 
which  last  place  they  are  termed  Doom  circles;  they  are 
spoken  of  by  Clarke  as  e.xisting  in  the  Troad,  and  Sir 
Williiini  Ouseley  gives  views  and  description  of  one  to  be 
sec'U  in  Persia;,  but  wh.at  is  most  remarkalile,  there  e.\ist 
three  in  America,  one  upon  a  high  rock  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  \Viniii|iigon. 

Such  structures  were  uiKjuestionably  temples  in  which  the 
])i-uidical  services  were  peitiirmed,  and  not  only  st>,  hut  they 
seem  to  have  been  the  jircjtotype  of  all  heathen  temples,  for 
we  gjither  from  authentic  sources,  that  the  mo.^t  ancient 
heathen  fanes  were  all  ojien  to  the  sky  without  roof  of  any 
kind.  It  is  argued  by  some,  that  they  were  used  merely  for 
civil  purposes,  or  that  some  of  them  at  least  were  exclusively 
so  employed  ;  that  they  were  all  so  employed  we  do 
not  fur  a  moment  doubt,  hut  we  contend  that  they  were  all 
likewise  einjiloycd  for  sacred  purposes  ;  indeed,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  people  was  so  implicit  with  their  religion,  that 
the  Druids  were  at  one  and  the  same  lime  both  piiests  and 
rulers. 

The  circles  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  closely  con- 
nected with  astrology,  and  indeed  the  agreement  of  the 
numlier  and  arrangement  of  the  stones  with  the  divisions 
of  the  ancient  cycles  is  lemaikable,  as  will  be  seen  hv 
referring  to  the  tables  of  Dr.  Stukeley,  which  arc  given 
in  the  following  page. 

'Ihe  most  remarkable  of  the  circular  erections  in  (jreat 
Hritain  are  those  of  Stonehenge  and  Abury,  both  of  which 
are  situate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Salisbury  I'lain.  'J  he 
former,  about  seven  miles  north  of  Salisbiny,  is  ajiproached 
by  a  bro.id  avenue  protected  on  either  side  by  a  vallum,  or 
long  nu)und  of  earth  ;  this  avenue  leads  into  a  large  circular 
]ilatliirni  three  hundred  feet  in  diameter,  enclosed  from  the 
surrounding  plain  by  means  of  a  vallum  fifteen  feel  in 
height,  with  a  ditch  on  either  side  of  it,  and,  as  some  sup- 
))ose.  Iiy  an  inner  circle  of  stones,  some  few  having  been 
found  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  other  circle.  In  the 
avenue,  at  a  distance  of  about  a  hundred  feet  from  the  cir- 
cular ditch,  is  a  large  stone  inclining  towards  you  as  you 
appriiMch,  and  a  similar  one  in  the  ditch  at  the  entrance. 
]'assi)ig  onwards  in  a  straight  direction  you  approach  a  large 
number  of  stones  composing  the  temple,  more  especially  so 
termed,  which  consists  of  an  outer  circle  of  stones  four- 
teen feet  in  height,  seventeen  of  which  still  remain,  six 
scattered  in  various,  parts  of  the  circle,  but  eleven  on  the 
mu-th-e.ast  side,  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  forming 
a  continuous  segment  of  a  circle,  thus  dem<jnstrating  the 
form  and  posiiiun  of  the  whole.  This  circle  consisted 
originally  of  ihirty  stones,  surmountedby  a  continuous  impost 
ot  large  (lat  stones,  which  were  fitted  on  to  the  upiighls  by 


mortise  and  tenon,  and  formed  a  complete  and  regular  circle. 
Within  this  enclosure  is  another  of  a  similar  figure,  and 
eighty-three  feet  in  diameter,  composed  of  the  same  mmiber 
of  stones,  which  however  arc  of  smaller  dimensions  and 
without  im])osts.  Within  this  again  were  five  .separate 
structures,  termed  trilithons,  each  consisting  of  two  large 
stones  surmounted  with  an  impost,  and  having  three  smalle'r 
stones  a  short  distance  in  advance.  These  structures  were 
situate,  one  immediately  opposite  the  avenue,  and  two  on 
each  side  of  it,  leaving  an  nnoccujned  space  for  an  entrance. 
The  larger  upright  stones  were  more  lofty  than  any  of  the 
others,  one  of  them  measuring  iqiwards  of  twenty-one  and 
a  half  feet  in  heighl;  thus  overtopping  all  the  outer  circles. 
In  front  of  the  central  trilithon,  is  placed,  by  Stukeley,  a  low 
flat  stone,  supposed  to  be  the  altar.  The  avenue  noticed  at 
the  commencement  of  this  description  is  continued  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  for  a  distance  of  about  a  third  of  a  mile, 

I  wheie  it  separates  into  two  branches,  the  one  leading  south- 
ward between  two  rows  of  barrows,  the  other  in  the  opposite 
direction  for  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  to  a  spot  called  the 
cnrsu.s,  which  is  a  flat  tract  of  land,  bounded  on  each  side 
by  banks  and  ditches,  and  at  its  extremities  by  barrows  or 
tumuli. 

The  erection  at  Abuiy.  althougli  of  more  rude  construc- 
tion than  Stonehenge,  is  of  more  stupendous  dimensions; 
few  of  the  stones  remain  at  the  i)resenl  day,  great  numbers 
having  been  employed  in  the  erection  of  the  neighbouring 

i  town,  yet  we  have  accounts  of  many  which  exist ed  at  a  pre- 
vious period,  with  the,,  aid  of  which,  and  of  his  own  experi- 
enced judgment.  Dr.  Stukeley  made  out  a  plan  of  the  original 
structure  entire.  It  consisted  of  a  large  circular  enclosure 
of  more  than  twenty-eight  acres,  surrounded  with  a  great 
vallum  and  ditch,  the  inner  slo])e  of  the  former  measuring 
eighly  feet,  its  circumference  at  the  apex  being  four  thous.-uid 
fiiur  hundred  and  forty-two  feet.  On  the  inner  side  of  the 
ditch,  and  close  upon  its  bank,  was  a  circle  thirteen  lunidred 
feet  in  diameter,  composed  of  one  hundred  immense  stones 
of  an  average  height  of  seventeen  feet,  and  placed  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  twenty -seven  feet  from  each  other.  Within 
this  outer  circle  were  two  smaller  ones,  situate  side  by  side 
on  a  diameter  running  from  north-west  to  .south-east,  of  the 
more  northerly  of  which  .some  stones  of  great  size  are  still 
standing.  These  circles  consist  of  two  concentric  rows  of 
stone,  within  which,  in  the  southern  circle,  was  a  central 
obelisk,  towards  which,  it  is  said,  the  worshippers  used  to 
turn  during  the  celebration  of  the  rites,  and  in  the  same 
position,  on  the  northern  circle,  a  structure  termed  a  cove, 
consisting  of  three  large  stones  placed  towards  each  other  at 
an  obtuse  angle.  The  distance  of  iho  centres  of  the  north 
and  siiuth  circles  is  given  at  five  hundred  and  eighteen  feet, 
and  the  distances  of  their  circumferences  at  eighty-six  t'eet, 
thus  determining  the  length  of  the  diameters,  four  hundred 
and  thirty-two  feel.  These  admeasurements,  however,  must 
be  received  w  ith  some  icserve,  as  the  remains  were  so  scanty 
at  the  time  they  were  taken,  as  to  leave  the  exact  position  of 
the  circles  or  their  cen1;res  a  matter  of  great  uncertainty. 
Of  this  structure,  which  it  is  calculated  could  originally 
boast  in  all  of  nuu-e  than  six  hundred  stoius,  but  few  portions 
remain,  the  rest  having  been  employed  either  in  the  erection 
of  the  town  of  the  same  name,  which  st.ands  within  its 
boundaries,  or  in  constructing  and  repairing  its  loads. 

From  two  entrances  on  the  southern  side  of  the  exterior 
circle,  extend  two  avenues,  each  formed  by  a  double  line  of 
upright  stones,  and  of  more  than  a  mile  in  length.  One 
of  them  miming  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  the  breadth  ot 
which  averages  fifty  feet,  led  loan  elliptical  piece  of  ground 
on  the  top  of  a  hill  called  the  Ilaekpen,  enclosed  within  two 


CEL 


127 


CEL 


huiidieil  upi-iglit  stones,  nnd  siirioiinded  on,  all  sides  with 
harrows.  The  soiilh-western  avenue,  consisting  of  about  two 
hundred  stones,  is  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and 
terminates  in  a  single  stone.  It  has  to  he  remarked,  that 
both  these  avenues  run  in  a  curved  direction,  and  are  hence 
bv  some  supposi'd  to  rej)resenl  a  serpent,  thus  connecting  the 
religion  of  the  Druids  with  the  early  and  prevalent  supersti- 
tion of  serpent-worship  ;  the  western  avenue  answers  to  the 
t;ii!  of  the  reptile ;  the  larger  circle  to  the  body ;  while  the  head 
is  represented  by  the  ILiekjH'U,  a  word  which,  in  some  lan- 
guages, signifies  serpent.  The  circles  of  this  portion  of  the 
structure  are  concentric,  the  outer  one  containing  forty  stones, 
having  a  diameter  of  one  hundred  and  lifly  feet,  and  the 
inner,  which  is  composed  of  eighteen  stones,  a  diameter  of 
forty-eight  feet. 

Between  the  two  avenuesjust  mentioned,  are  three  mounds, 
or  hills,  t>ne  of  w  Inch,  situate  at  the  extreme  south,  and  nearly 
midway  between  tl>e  extremities  of  the  avenues,  is  remark- 
able as  being  the  largest  artificial  mound  in  Europe;  it  is 
named  Silbury  Hill.  The  base  of  this  mound  covers  aspace 
of  five  acres  and  thirty-four  perches,  and  its  circumference 
is  two  thousand  and  twenty-seven  feet,  the  length  of  the 
slope  three  hundred  and  sixteen  feet,  and  the  diameter  of 
the  platform,  at  its  apex,  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet. 
Besides  this  and  other  erections  connected  with  Abury,  are 
a  variety  of  Druidical  remains  scattered  in  all  directions  for 
some  distance  round  the  great  circle. 

'J'he  mnnber  of  slones  employed  at  Abury  and  Stonehenge, 
with  their  distribution,  as  given  by  Dr.  Stukelcy  : — 


ABl'RY. 

Stones. 

Tlic  great  circU-coiitiiiiis 100 

Nortli  trniplo,  outer  circle. ...  30 
North  temple,  iiiner  circle. ...  12 
South  tetiiple.  outer  circle. ...  30 
South  temple. iuiier  circle. ...    12 

The  cove  anl  altar 4 

Olwli?!;  auil  iillar 2 

llie  e;isteru  avenue 200 

The  western  avernie 200 

llackijen.  outer  circle 40 

llackpcn,  inner  circle 18 

Loiii;  stone-cove  jambs 1 

Tin:  Kin^  stone 1 

Closiu!'  stone  of  tail 1 


STONEaENGE. 

Stones. 

Tlic  i^eatcircle  uprights 30 

The  jn'eat-circle  im|)0St3  ....   30 

Inner  circle 40 

Trilitlion  uprights 10 

TriUthonim[»osts 5 

bunoj^t,  stones 

Altar 

Stones  within  the  vallum. . 

Large  table  stone 

Distant  [lillar 

Stone  at  entrance 


19 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 


Total. 


.652 


Total 140 


Mr.  Toland  gives  the  following  account  of  a  remarkable 
structure  of  this  kind.  ■'  hi  the  isle  of  Lewis,"  he  says,  "  at  the 
village  of  Classirniss,  there  is  one  of  these  temples  very 
remarkable.  Tlie  circle  consists  of  twelve  obelisks,  about 
seven  feet  high  each,  and  distant  from  each  other  six  feet. 
In  the  centre  stands  a  stone  thirteen  feet  high,  in  the  perfect 
shape  of  the  rudder  of  a  ship.  Directly  south  fiom  the 
circle,  there  stand  four  obelisks  ruiming  out  in  a  line;  as 
also  another  such  line  due  east,  and  a  third  to  the  west,  the 
nuuibir  and  distatwes  of  the  stones  being  in  these  wings 
the  same ;  so  that  this  temple,  the  most  entire  that  can  be, 
is  at  the  same  time  both  round  and  winged.  But  to  the 
north,  there  reach,  by  way  of  avenue,  two  straight  ranges 
of  obelisks,  of  the  same  bigness  and  distances  with  those  of 
the  circle  ;  yet  the  ranges  themselves  are  eight  feet  dist;vnt, 
and  each  consisting  of  nineteen  stones,  the  thirty -ninth  being 
the  entrance  to  the  avenue."  Dr.  Borlase  mentions  three  cir- 
cles of  stone  ill  the  parish  of  St.  Clare,  Cornwall,  called  the 
riurlers,  which  are  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other,  but 
whose  centres  are  in  one  straight  line. 

Amongst  some  few  of  the  most  important  circles  besides 


those  already  mentioned,  may  be  classed  that  of  Stanton 
Drew,  consisting  originally  of  three  circles,  of  the  larger 
of  which  five  .stones  remain,  and  of  the  smaller,  a  larger  nuni- 
her  ;  the  stones  are  mueh  inferior  in  point  of  size  to  those 
already  described.  Kollrich  is  another  circle  of  st(jnes  near 
Chipping  iS'orton,  Oxfordshire,  the  highest  of  which  is  not 
more  than  five  feet  above  the  ground  ;  they  are  irregular,  and 
of  unecpuil  height.  Another  is  found  near  Penrith,  (.'umber- 
land,  which  consists  of  seventy-seven  stones,  each  ten  feet  in 
height,  and  before  them,  at  the  entrance,  stands  a  single  one 
by  itself,  fifteen  feet  high.  Similar  structures  are  found  in 
other  parts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  the  Isles,  but  none  of 
them  approaching  in  size  those  of  Abury  or  Stonehenge. 

There  exists  at  Carnac,  in  Brittany,  a  monument,  which 
in  size  approaches  nearer  to  Abury  than  any  other  such 
work,  but  which,  in  its  form  and  general  character,  is  p(-rfectly 
unique  ;  it  is  of  ruder  formation  than  either  Abury  or  Stone- 
henge, "  and  consists  of  eleven  rows  of  unw  rought  pieces  of 
rock  or  stone,  merely  set  up  on  end  in  the  earth,  without 
any  pieces  crossing  them  at  top.  These  stones  are  of  great 
thickness,  but  not  exceeding  nine  or  twelve  feet  in  height ; 
there  may  be  some  few  fifteen  feet.  The  rows  are  placed  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  paces  from  each  other,  e.xtendiiig  in  length 
— taking  rather  a  semicircular  direction — above  half  a  mile, 
on  unequal  ground,  and  towards  one  end  upon  a  hilly  site. 
When  the  length  of  these  rows  is  considered,  there  must  have 
been  nearly  three  hundred  stones  in  each,  and  there  :ire 
eleven  rows  ;  this  will  give  some  idea  of  the  immensity  of 
the  work,  and  the  labour  such  a  construction  required.  It  is 
said  that  there  arc  above  four  thousand  stones  still  remain- 
ing." This  account  is  taken  from  Mrs.  Stoddart's  Tour  in 
Normandy  and  Brittany  ;  but  a  French  writer  gives  the  size 
of  some  of  the  stones  at  twent\-one  and  twenty-two  feet, 
and  he  especially  alludes  to  one  specimen,  which  was  tw  eiily- 
two  feet  high,  twelve  broad,  and  six  deep  ;  its  weight  is  given 
at  two  hundred  and  fifty -seven  thousand  pounds. 

Logan  slones,  or  rocking-stoncs,  as  they  are  less  technically 
termed,  are  stones,  often  of  an  immense  size,  poised  on  others, 
or  on  natural  rocks,  in  such  a  peculiar  manner,  as  to  move  w  ith 
the  slightest  touch.  They  seem  to  have  been  erected  at  vari- 
ous times  and  places.  Tliey  were  known  to  the  Greeks,  and 
called  by  them  hOoi  ejixpvxoi,  or  live  stones,  also  named 
Petraj  Amiirosije,  fiom  the  ceremony  they  underwent  of 
being  anointed  with  oil.  Pliny  takes  notice  of  one  erected 
by  Lycippns,  at  Tarcntum,  and  also  of  one  at  C'yzicum, 
which  is  .«aid  to  have  been  left  by  the  Argonauts  ;  but  the 
most  celebrated  was  the  Gygonean  stone,  near  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  of  which  Ptolemy  Hcphicstion  relates,  that  it 
stands  near  the  ocean,  and  maybe  moved  with  the  stalk  of  an 
asphodel,  but  cannot  be  removed  by  any  force.  Pliny  like- 
wise says  of  one  at  Harpava,  in  Asia,  that  it  is  of  so  strange 
and  wonderful  a  nature,  that  if  even  a  finger  is  laid  oil  it,  it 
will  move,  but  if  you  thrust  it  with  your  whole  body,  it  will 
not  move  at  all. 

These  stones  are  very  common  in  Britain ;  there  are 
several  in  Cornwall  and  Yorksliire,  as  also  in  Scotland, 
where  they  are  c-allcd  Claca  Breath,  or  stoucs  of  judgment ; 
it  is  known  that  there  existed  formerly  several  in  the  island 
of  lona,  which  have  since  been  destroyed.  In  some  cases 
the  stoiie  rests  on  two  points,  in  others  on  one ;  it  is  said  that 
the  junction  was  formed  in  one  instance  in  Scotland,  where 
the  stone  had  been  removed,  by  a  protuberant  knob  in  the 
upper  stone  fitting  into  a  socket. 

A  stone  of  this  nature  is  that  near  Penzance,  Cornwall, 
named  Men-amber;  it  is  eleven  feet  in  length,  four  feet  in 
depth,  and  six  in  width.  Its  equilibrium  was  destroyed 
by  Cromwell's  soldiers,  by  breaking  off  a  portion.     Another 


CEL 


128 


CEM 


logan  stone  situate  at  Land's  End,  is  said  to  weigh  seventy 
tons ;  it  stands  on  one  of  a  stupendous  jjroup  of  granite  rocks 
which  rise  to  a  prodigious  altitude,  and  overhang  the  sea; 
it  was  thrown  down  l)y  a  ship's  crew,  liut  the  good  sense 
of  the  inhaljitants  obliged  them  to  replace  it. 

Hoilasc  was  the  first  to  notice  a  structure  of  a  somewhat 
diftl-rent  character  to  the  last,  called  Toimen,  or  Hole  of 
Stone,  consisting  of  a  large  stone  supported  at  two  points 
by  otiicis,  leaving  a  space  between  them,  throiijjh  which 
it  is  supposed  devotees  passed  for  religious  purposes.  Of 
a  similar  opening  at  the  extremity  of  ^Slalaliar  IIIll,  in  the 
island  of  JJombay,  a  writer  .says — "  This  place  is  used  by 
the  (ientoos  as  a  purification  for  their  sins,  which  they  s.iy 
is  eticcted  by  their  going  in  at  the  opening  below,  and 
emerging  out  of  the  cavity  above."  We  find  .stones  of  this 
kind  in  Cornwall  and  in  Ireland;  the  most  noted  is  that  in 
the  parish  of  Conslaiitiiic,  Cornwall,  which  is  thus  described 
by  Dr.  Borlase  : — "  It  is  one  vast  egg-like  stone,  placed  on 
the  points  of  two  natural  rocks,  so  that  a  man  may  creep 
under  the  great  one,  and  between  its  supporters,  through 
a  passage  about  three  feet  wide,  and  as  much  high.  The 
longest  diameter  of  this  stone  is  thirty-three  feet,  the  depth 
thirteen  feet,  and  the  breadth  eighteen  feet  si.\  inches. 
I  measured  one  half  of  the  circumference,  and  found  it, 
according  to  my  computation,  forty-eight  feet  and  a  half, 
so  that  this  stone  is  ninety-seven  feet  in  circunifeience, 
about  sixty  feet  across  the  middle,  and  by  the  best  informa- 
tion 1  can  get,  contains  at  least  seven  hundred  and  fifty  tons 
of  stone.  Getting  up  a  ladder  to  view  the  top  of  it,  we 
found  the  whole  suiface  worked  like  an  imperfect  or  mutilated 
honey-comb,  into  basons  ;  one  much  larger  th.in  the  rest 
was  at  the  south  end,  about  seven  feet  long  ;  another  at  the 
north,  about  five  ;  the  rest  .'■mailer,  seldom  more  than  one 
foot,  often  not  so  much :  the  sides  and  shape  irregular. 
!Most  of  these  basons  discharge  into  the  two  principal  ones 
(which  lie  in  the  middle  of  the  surface)  those  only  excepted 
which  are  near  the  brim  of  the  stone,  and  they  have  little 
lips  or  channels  which  discharge  the  water  they  collect  over 
the  sides  of  the  Toimen  ;  and  the  flat  rocks  which  lie  under- 
neath, receive  the  droppings  in  basons  cut  into  their  surfaces. 
This  stone  is  no  less  wonderful  for  its  position  than  for  its 
size,  for  although  the  under  part  is  nearly  semicircular,  yet 
it  rests  on  the  two  large  rocks,  and  so  slight  and  detached 
does  it  stand,  that  it  touches  the  two  under  stones,  but  as 
it  were  on  their  points. 

Wring-cheeses,  so  named  from  ihoir  resemblance  in  form 
to  an  ancient  cheese-press,  consist  of  large  masses  of  stone 
placed  one  upon  the  other  for  several  tiers,  the  whole  resting 
on  a  biiseof  much  smaller  dimensions  than  the  superincumbent 
mass.  By  some  it  is  contended  that  they  are  merely  the 
])roductioiis  of  nature,  but  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose, that  at  least  some  art  has  been  employed  in  their 
formation.  They  are  by  some  termed  rock-idols,  under 
the  supiHisition  that  they  were  worshipped  as  gods. 

One  such  monument,  situate  in  the  parish  of  St.  Clare, 
Coinwall,  Dr.  Borlase  thus  describes: — "The  rock  now 
calleil  Wring-cheese,  is  a  group  of  rocks  that  attracts  the 
admiration  of  all  travellers.  On  the  top  stone  of  this,  were 
two  regular  basons ;  part  of  one  of  whicli  has  been  broken 
off.  'I'ho  upper  stone  wa.s,  as  I  am  informed,  a  logan  or 
rocking-stone,  and  might,  when  it  was  entire,  be  easily  moved 
with  a  pole,  but  now  great  part  of  that  weight  which  kept 
it  on  poise,  is  taken  away.  The  whole  heap  of  stones  is 
thirty -two  teet  high,  the  great  weight  of  the  upper  part  and 
the  slenderness  ot'  the  under  part  make  every  one  wonder 
how  such  an  ill-grounded  pile  could  resist,  for  so  many  ages, 
the  storms  of  such  an  exposed  situation."     Mr.  Hay  man 


Rooke  mentions  one  situate  on  Brimham  Craggs,  Yorkshire, 
the  circumference  of  which  is  forty-six  feet,  and  the  pedestal 
on  w  hich  it  rests,  only  one  foot  by  two  feet  seven  inches. 

Cairns  are  conical  heaps  of  loose  stones  frequently  f<>und 
on  the  top  of  hills  or  artificial  tumuli  ;  the  term  is  derived 
by  Mr.  Roland  from  two  Hebrew  words,  signifying  cofcd 
heaps.  On  these  are  supposed  to  have  been  kindled  fires, 
at  which  certain  religiiius  ceremonies  took  place,  such  as 
that  mentioned  as  being  observed  by  the  Israelites  in  making 
their  children  pass  through  the  (ire,  in  imitation  of  their 
heathen  neighbours  ;  thus  connecting  the  customs  of  the 
British  Druids  with  those  of  Asia  and  Phcenicia.  From 
these  Druidieal  jiractices  may  have  arisen  perchance  the 
ordeal  by  fire  of  later  times. 

At  New  Grange,  near  Drogheda,  Ireland,  is  a  curious 
sepulchral  pyramid  of  stone,  formed  of  pebble  stones,  the 
weight  of  the  solid  contents  of  which  amounted  to  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  thousand  tons.  The  plan 
of  this  monument  is  curvilinear,  and  covers  about  two  acres 
of  ground,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  large  unhewn 
stones,  rising  about  seven  feet  above  the  ground  ;  the  height 
of  the  pyramid  is  calculated  at  seventy  feet.  A  great 
number  of  stones,  removed  for  paving  and  other  purposes, 
led  to  the  discovery  of  a  passage  leading  into  an  interior 
vaulted  apartment.  This  passage  began  about  forty  i'aet 
within  the  body  of  the  work,  and  is  entirely  composed  of 
large  flag  stones  ;  its  length  is  sixty-one  feet,  the  width  three 
feet,  and  the  height  varies  from  two  to  nine  feet.  This 
passage  leads  into  an  octangular  vaulted  apartment,  whose 
diameter  is  seventeen  feet,  and  its  height  twenty  ;  the  vault 
or  dome  is  remarkable  as  being  com])osed  of  overlapping 
horizontal  stones,  the  upper  ones  projecting  inwardly  beyond 
the  lower,  sustained  in  their  position  by  having  a  larger 
portion  of  each  stone  upon  the  one  beneath  it,  than  projects 
towards  the  interior;  this  construction  is  exactly  similar  to 
that  of  the  tomb  of  Agamemnon,  or  treasury  of  At  reus  at 
ISIycenn.  The  side  of  this  irregular  octagon  immediately 
opposite  the  entrance,  is  formed  into  a  niche,  as  are  also  two 
sides  at  the  right  and  left,  similar  to  the  erections  called 
kist-vaens,  the  last  two  containing  each  a  rock-bason.  This 
building  is,  we  believe,  the  only  one  of  its  kind  existing  in 
Britain. 

We  have  not  included  the  barrows  or  tumuli  in  the  list 
of  monuments  to  be  considered,  simply  because  they  can 
scarcely  be  considered  to  have  any  great  connection  with 
Architecture,  l)ut  as  they  are  closely  allied  to  the  structures 
we  have  been  considering,  wc  ought  not  to  pass  them  by 
without  notice.  They  are  mere  mounds  of  earth,  of  various 
shapes,  raised,  as  is  sujiposed,  over  the  graves  of  men  of  rank, 
and  arc  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
larger  monuments :  some  of  them  are  of  oblong  shape,  raised 
like  coped  tombs,  some  triangular,  some  circular  and  oval, 
of  which  again  some  are  convex,  some  concave.  Some  are 
of  the  shape  of  bowls,  and  some  of  bells,  while  others  are  of 
a  conical  form  ;  occasionally  two  are  formed  together,  and 
are  called  twiu-barrows,  but  more  frequently  they  are  seen 
separate.  Many  of  them  have  been  opened,  and  are  found 
to  contain  not  only  human  remains,  but  also  spear-heads  and 
other  implements  of  war,  besides  articles  of  domestic  use, 
such  as  earthen  vessels  and  the  like.  Their  contents  deter- 
mine as  well  their  use,  as  the  date  of  their  formation. 

CEMENT.  The  word  cement  may  be  defined  as  any 
glutinous  or  other  substance,  capable  of  uniting  bodies  in 
close  cohesion,  or  making  them  adhere  firmly  together,  so  as 
to  form  of  the  whole  one  solid  mass — as  mortar,  glue,  solder, 
asjihaltum,  ikc.  Cements  are  of  various  kinds,  but,  for  conve- 
nience, may  be  divided  into  natuk.^l  and  artificial. 


C  E  M 


129 


CEM 


Natural  certients  are  found  in  Russia,  France,  and  other 
countries,  and  indeed  the  substance  so  extensively  used  in 
Eu^l.-ind,  and  very  improperly  termed  Roman  cement,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  natural  cement,  resulting  fmiira  slight 
calcination  of  a  calcareous  mineral,  containing  about  31  per 
cent  of  ochrcous  clay,  and  a  few  hundredths  of  carbonate 
of  magnesia  and  mangaueso.  It  may  be  observed,  that 
when  the  proportion  of  clay  in  calcareous  minerals  exceeds 
27  to  30  per  cent,  it  is  seldom  converted  into  lime  by 
calcination,  but  they  then  furnish  a  kind  of  natural  cement, 
which  c;in  be  used  by  pulverizing  it,  and  kneading  it  with 
water. 

There  are  some  natural  cements  which  do  not  set  in  water 
for  many  days,  but  these  are  now  rarely  used;  those  which 
solidify  quickly,  being  generally  preferred.  The  adhesive 
power  of  some  cements  in  the  open  air,  is  very  remarkable  ; 
and  we  have  ourselves  seen  33  bricks  stuck  to  one  another 
by  Roman  cement,  and  projecting  at  right  angles  from  the 
side  of  a  wall. 

The  argillaceous  limestones,  and  the  artificial  mixtures 
of  pure  lime  and  clay,  in  the  proportions  requisite  to  con- 
stitute hydraulic  lime  by  the  ordinary  calcination,  become 
natural  or  artificial  cements,  when  they  have  been  subjected 
merely  to  a  simple  incandescence,  kept  up  for  some  minutes. 

Calcareous  cements  may  be  classed  according  to  the  three 
following  divisions,  namely,  simple  calcareous  cements,  water 
cements,  maltha,  and  mastics. 

1st,  Sitnple  calcareous  cements  include  those  kinds  of 
mortar  which  are  employed  in  land-building,  and  consist 
of  lime,  sand,  and  fresh  water. 

Calcareous  earths  are  converted  into  quick-lime  by  burn- 
ing, which  being  wetted  with  water  falls  into  an  impalpable 
po  .vder,  with  great  extrication  of  heat :  and  if  in  this  state 
it  is  beat  with  sand  and  water,  the  mass  will  concrete  and 
become  a  stony  substance,  which  will  be  more  or  less  perfect 
according  to  its  treatment,  or  to  the  quality  and  quantities 
of  ingredients. 

When  carbonated  lime  has  been  thoroughly  burned,  it  is 
deprived  of  its  water,  and  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  its  carbonic 
acid  ;  much  of  the  water,  during  the  process  of  calcination, 
being  carried  off  in  the  form  of  steam. 

Lime-stone  loses  about  g  of  its  weight  by  burning,  and 
when  fully  burned,  falls  freely,  and  will  produce  something 
more  than  double  the  quantity  of  powder,  or  slacked  lime,  in 
measure,  that  the  burnt  lime-stone  consisted  of 

Quick-lime,  by  being  exposed  to  the  air,  absorbs  carbonic 
acid  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  as  its  texture  is  less  or 
more  hard  ;  and  this,  by  continued  exposure,  becomes  unfit 
for  the  composition  of  mortar  ;  hence  it  is  that  quick-lime 
made  of  chalk,  cainiot  be  kept  for  the  same  length  of  time 
between  the  burning  and  slacking,  as  that  made  from 
stone. 

Marble,  chalk,  and  limestone,  with  respect  to  their  use  in 
cements,  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds — simple  lime-stone, 
or  pure  carlwnate  of  lime,  and  argillo-ferruginous  lime,  which 
contains  from  ^L  to  j'^  of  clay,  and  oxide  of  iron,  previous  to 
calcination  :  there  are  no  external  marks  by  which  these  can 
be  distinguished  from  each  other,  but  whatever  may  have 
been  the  colour  in  the  crude  state,  the  former,  when  calcined, 
becomes  white,  and  the  latter  more  or  less  of  an  ochrey 
tinge.  The  white  kinds  are  more  abundant,  and  when  made 
into  mortar  will  admit  of  a  greater  portion  of  sand  than  the 
brown,  consequently  are  more  geneially  employed  in  the 
composition  of  mortar  ;  but  the  brown  lime  is  by  fir  the  best 
for  all  kinds  of  cement.  If  white,  brown,  and  shell  lime, 
recently  slacked,  be  separately  beat  up  with  a  little  wat(ir 
into  a  stiff" paste,  it  will  be  foimd  that  the  white  lime,  whether 

17 


made  from  chalk,  lime-stone,  or  marble,  will  not  acquire  any 

degree  of  hardness ;  the  brown  lime  will  become  considerably 
indurated;  and  the  shell  lime  will  be  concreted  into  a  firm 
cement,  which,  though  it  will  fill  to  pieces  in  water,  is  well 
qualified  for  interior  finishings,  where  it  can  be  kept  drv. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  is  still  received 
among  our  modern  builders,  that  the  hardest  lime-stone  fur- 
nishes the  best  lime  for  mortar;  but  the  experiments  of 
Dr.  Higgins  and  Mr.  Smeaton  have  proved  this  to  be  a  mis- 
take, and  that  the  softest  chalk  lime,  if  thoroughly  burned, 
is  equally  durable  with  the  hardest  stone  lime,  or  even 
marble  :  but  though  stone  and  chalk  lime  are  equally  good 
under  this  condition,  there  is  a  very  important  practical 
difterence  between  them  ;  as  the  chalk  lime  absorbs  carbonic 
acid  with  much  greater  avidity;  and  if  it  be  only  partially 
calcined,  will,  on  the  application  of  water,  fall  into  a  coarse 
powder,  which  stone  lime  will  not  do. 

For  making  mortar,  the  lime  should  be  immediately  used 
from  the  kiln  ;  and  in  slacking  it,  no  more  water  should  be 
allowed  than  w'hat  is  just  sufficient:  and  for  this  purpose  Dr. 
Higgins  recommends  lime-water. 

The  sand  made  use  of  should  be  perfectly  clean  ;  if  there 
is  any  mixture  of  clay  or  mud,  it  should  be  divested  of  either, 
or  both,  by  washing  it  in  running  water.  Mr.  Smeaton  has 
fully  shown  by  experiments,  that  mortar,  though  of  the  best 
quality,  when  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  nnlim-nt 
clay,  never  acquires  that  hardness,  which,  without  this  addi- 
tion, it  speedily  would  have  attained.  If  sea-sand  be  used, 
it  requires  to  be  well  washed  with  fresh  water,  to  dissolve 
the  salt  with  which  it  is  mixed,  otherwise  the  cement  into 
which  it  enters,  never  becomes  thoroughly  dry  and  hard. 
The  sharper  and  coarser  the  sand  is,  the  stronger  is  the 
mortar;  also  a  less  proportion  of  lime  is  necessary.  It  is 
therefore  more  profitalde  to  use  the  largest  proportion  of 
sand,  as  this  ingredient  is  the  cheapest  iir  the  composition. 

The  best  proportion  of  lime  and  sand  in  the  composition 
of  mortar  is  yet  a  desideratum. 

It  may  be  affirmed,  in  general,  that  no  more  lime  is 
required  to  a  given  quantity  of  sand,  than  what  is  just 
sufficient  to  surround  the  particles,  or  to  use  the  least  lime, 
so  as  to  preserve  the  necessary  degree  of  plasticity.  Mortar 
in  which  sand  predominates,  requires  less  water  in  preparing, 
and  therefore  sets  sooner:  it  is  harder,  and  less  liable  to  crack 
in  drying;  for  this  reason,  that  lime  shrinks  greatly  in  dry- 
ing, while  sand  retains  its  original  magnitude.  We  are 
informed  by  Vitruvius,  lib.  ii.,  chap,  v.,  that  the  Roman 
builders  allowed  three  parts  of  pit  sand,  or  two  of  river  or 
sea  sand,  to  one  of  lime;  but  Pliny,  His/.  Nat.  lib.  xxxvi., 
prescribes  four  parts  of  coarse  sharp  pit  sand,  and  only  one 
of  lime.  The  general  proportion  given  by  our  London 
builders,  is  1^  cwt.,  or  thirty-seven  bushels  of  lime,  and  2^ 
loads  of  sand  ;  but  if  proper  care  were  taken  in  the 
burning  of  the  lime,  the  quality  of  the  sand,  and  in  temper- 
ing the  materials,  a  much  greater  quantity  of  sand  might  be 
admitted. 

Mr.  Smeaton  observes,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  mortar 
but  which,  if  the  lime  be  well  burned,  and  the  composition 
well  beaten  in  the  making,  will  require  two  measures 
of  sand  to  one  of  unslacked  lime;  and  it  is  singular,  that 
the  more  the  mortar  is  wrought  or  beat,  a  greater  proportion 
of  sand  may  be  admitted.  He  found  that  by  good  beating, 
the  same  quantity  of  lime  would  take  in  one  measure  of 
terras,  and  three  of  clean  sand,  which  seems  to  be  the 
greatest  useful  proportion. 

Dr.  Higgins  found  that  a  certain  proportion  of  coarse  and 
fine  sand  improved  the  composition  of  mortar;  the  best 
proportion  of   ingredients,  according  to  experiments  made 


CEM 


130 


CEM 


by  him,  is  as  follows,  bj'  measure  :  Lime,  newly  slaciced,  one 
Dart;  fine  sand,  three  parts;  coarse  sand,  four  parts.  He 
also  f  )und  that  an  addition  of  one-fourth  part  of  the  quantity 
of  lime,  of  burnt  bone-ashes,  improved  the  mortar,  by 
giving  it  tenacity,  and  rendering  it  less  liable  to  crack  in 
drying. 

The  mortar  should  be  made  under  ground,  then  covered 
lip,  and  kept  there  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  the 
longer  the  better  ;  and  when  it  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be 
biat  up  afresh.  This  makes  it  set  sooner,  renders  it  less 
liable  to  crack,  and  harder  when  dry. 

The  stony  consistence  which  it  acquires  in  drying,  is 
owing  to  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid,  and  a  coniliination 
of  part  of  the  water  with  the  lime  :  and  hence  it  is  that  lime 
that  has  been  long  kept  afterburning  is  unfit  for  the  purpose 
of  mortar,  for  in  the  course  of  keeping,  so  much  airbonic 
acid  has  been  inibil)ed  as  to  have  little  better  effect,  in 
a  composition  of  sand  and  water,  than  chalk  or  limestone 
reduced  to  a  powdi-r  from  the  crude  state,  would  have  in 
place  of  it. 

Giout  is  a  cement,  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  wafer 
than  is  employed  in  common  mortar,  so  as  to  make  it  suffi- 
ciently fluid  to  penetrate  the  narrow  irregular  interstices 
of  rough  stone  walls.  Grout  should  be  made  of  mortar 
that  has  been  long  kept  and  thoroughly  beat,  as  it  will  then 
concrete  in  the  space  of  a  day  :  whereas,  if  this  precaution 
be  neglected,  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  it  sets,  and  mav 
even  refuse  setting  for  ever.     See  Grout. 

Moitar  made  of  pure  lime,  sand,  and  water,  may  be 
employed  in  the  linings  of  reservoirs  and  aqueducts,  pro- 
vided it  have  sufficient  time  to  dry  ;  but  if  the  water  be 
put  in  while  it  is  wet,  it  will  fall  to  pieces  in  a  short  time  ; 
and,  covsequeiitly,  if  the  circumstances  of  the  building  be 
such  as  render  it  impractiaible  to  keep  out  the  water,  it 
should  not  be  used  :  there  are,  however,  certain  ingredients 
put  into  common  mortar,  by  which  it  is  made  to  set  imme- 
diately under  w'ater,  or  if  the  quick-lime  contain  in  itself  a 
certain  portion  of  burnt  clay,  it  will  possess  this  property. 

From  the  tnable  and  crumbling  nature  of  our  mortar, 
a  notion  has  been  entertained  by  many  j)ersons,  that  the 
ancients  possessed  a  process  in  its  fabrication,  which  has  been 
lost  at  the  present  day  ;  but  the  exi)eriments  of  Mr.  Smeaton, 
Dr.  Iliggins,  and  others,  have  shown  this  notion  to  be  un- 
founded, and  that  nothing  more  is  wanting  than  that  the 
chalk,  lime-stone,  or  marble,  be  well  burned,  and  thoroughly 
slacked  immediately,  and  to  mix  it  up  with  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  clean  large-grain  sharp  sand,  and  as  small  a  quantity 
of  water  as  will  be  sufKcient  ior  working  it;  to  keep  it 
a  considerable  time  from  the  external  air,  and  to  beat  it  over 
again  before  it  is  used  :  the  cement  thus  made  will  be  suffi- 
ciently hard. 

The  practice  of  our  modern  builders,  is  to  spare  their 
labour,  and  to  increase  the  quantity  of  materials  they  pro- 
duce, without  any  regard  to  its  goodness  :  the  badness  of  our 
modern  mortar  is  to  be  attributed  both  to  the  faulty  nature 
of  the  materials,  and  to  the  slovenly  and  hasty  methods  of 
using  it.  This  is  remarkably  instanced  in  London,  where 
the  lime  employed  is  chalk  lime,  iudiflerently  burnt,  con- 
veyed from  Essex  or  Kent,  a  distance  of  ten  or  twenty 
miles,  then  kept  many  days  without  any  precaution  to  pre- 
vent the  access  of  external  air.  Xow,  in  the  course  of  this 
time  it  has  absorbed  so  much  carbonic  acid  as  nearly  to  lose 
its  cementing  properties,  and  though  chalk  lime  is  equally 
good  with  the  harde>t  liriie-st'iue,  when  thoroughly  burned, 
yet.  by  this  treatment,  when  it  is  slacked,  it  falls  into  a  thin 
powder,  and  the  core  or  unburned  lumps  are  ground  down, 
and  mixed  up  in  the  mortar,  and  not  rcjcct^-d,  as  it  ought  to  be. 


The  sand  is  equally  defective,  consisting  of 'small  globular 
grains,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  clay,  which  prevents 
it  from  drying,  and  attaining  the  necessary  degree  of  hard- 
ness. These  materials  being  compounded  in  the  most  hasty 
manner,  and  beat  up  with  water  in  this  imperfect  state,  can- 
not fail  of  producing  a  crumbling  and  bad  mortar;  and  to 
complete  the  miserable  composition,  screened  rubbish,  and 
the  scraping  of  roads,  arc  thrown  in,  as  substitutes  for 
pure  sand. 

How  very  different  was  the  practice  of  the  Romans  !  The 
lime  which  they  employed  was  perfectly  burnt,  the  siuid 
sharp,  clean,  and  large-gr.iined  ;  when  these  ingredients  were 
mixeil  in  due  proportion,  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  the 
mass  was  put  iiito  a  wooden  mortar,  and  beaten  with  a  heavy 
wooden  or  iron  pestle,  till  the  composition  adhered  to  the 
mortar:  being  thus  far  prepared,  they  kept  it  till  it  was  at 
least  three  years  old.  The  beating  of  mortar  is  of  the  utmost 
consequence  to  its  durability,  and  it  would  appear  that  the 
effect  produced  by  it,  is  owing  to  something  more  than  a  mere 
mechanical  mixture.     See  Mortar. 

Water  cements  are  such  as  are  impervious  to  water  :  they 
are  generally  made  of  common  mortar,  or  of  pure  lime  and 
water,  with  the  addition  of  some  other  ingredient  to  give  it 
the  property  of  hardening  under  water. 

For  this  purpose  there  are  several  kinds  of  ingredients,  as 
puzzolana,  cellular  basalt,  or  wakke,  compact  basalt,  coal- 
ashes,  coal-cinders,  wood-ashes,  pumice-stone,  brick-dust, 
powder  of  quick-lime,  forge-s(!ales,  roasted  iron-ore,  &c. 

The  cement  employed  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  in  the  construction 
of  the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  was  composed  of  equal  parts, 
by  measure,  of  slacked  Aberthaw  lime  and  puzzolana  ;  this 
proportion  was  thought  advisable,  as  the  building  was  exposed 
to  the  utmost  violence  of  the  sea  :  but  for  other  aquatic 
works,  as  locks,  basins,  canals,  &c..  a  composition  made  of 
lime,  puzzolana,  sand,  and  water,  in  the  fallowing  proportion, 
viz.,  two  bushels  of  slacked  Aberthaw  lime,  one  bushel  of 
puzzolana,  and  three  of  clean  sand,  has  been  found  very 
effectual.  It  is  well  known,  that  sand  and  lime,  mixed  toge- 
ther with  c;ire,  will  incorporate  and  form  a  mortar  imper 
vious  to  water,  and  sufficient  even  for  the  linings  of  cisterns 
and  reservoirs  ;  but  then  the  mortar  must  be  haidened  before 
it  is  exposed  to  the  water,  or  otherwise  it  will  crumble  to 
pieces  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  situation  be  such  as  to  require 
the  mortar  to  be  dried  in  a  certain  time,  the  use  of  this 
cement  must  be  abandoned. 

Among  the  ancient  nations,  the  Romans  afipear  to  have 
been  the  only  people  who  practised  building  in  water  to  any 
great  extent,  jiarticularly  in  the  sea.  The  discovery  of  puzzolana 
is  attributed  to  the  following  circumstance,  among  this  great 
people.  The  Bay  of  Baite,  like  our  fashionable  watering- 
])laces.  was  the  summer  resort  of  all  the  wealthy  in  Rome  : 
the  inhabitants  of  this  place  did  not  content  themselves  with 
erecting  their  houses  as  near  the  shore  as  possible,  but  they 
even  constructed  moles  and  small  islands,  on  w-liich  they 
erected  their  summer-houses  in  the  more  sheltered  parts  of 
the  bay.  By  the  fortunate  discovery  of  an  earthy  substance 
at  the  neighbo\niiig  town  of  Puteoli,  they  were  enabled  to 
build  both  expeditiously  and  securely  in  water.  From  this 
circumstance,  the  earth  thus  discovered  was  called  putvis 
Puleolanvs,  "powder  of  Puteoli,"  "  Putcolean  powder,"  or, 
as  it  is  now  denominated,  puzzolana,  which  is  a  mineral  of 
a  light,  poro\is,  frialde  nature,  and  of  a  red  colour,  suppo-^ed 
to  be  formed  by  concretion  of  the  volcanic  ashes  of  V'esuvius, 
near  to  which  mountain  the  town  of  Puteoli  is  situated.  The 
original  material  seems  to  be  a  ferruginous  clay,  which, 
baked  and  calcined  by  the  force  of  volc:uiic  fire,  and  mixed 
with  comnK)U  mortar,  not  only  enables  it  to  acquire  a  remark- 


CEM 


131 


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able  hardness  in  the  air,  but  to  become  as  firm  as  stone  under 
water.  The  t>nlv  preparation  whieli  piizzolana  undergoes,  is 
that  of  ponndin;;  and  sifling,  by  whieh  it  is  reduced  to 
a  course  powder;  in  this  state  it  is  beaten  up  with  lime, 
either  with  or  without  sand,  whieh  forms  a  mass  of  remark- 
able tenacity,  that  sets  under  w\ater  with  great  celerity,  and 
at  last  acquires  a  strength  and  hardness  equal  to  those  of 
free-stone. 

Among  the  nations  of  modern  Europe,  none  have  practised 
the  art  of  building  under  water  to  so  great  an  extent  as  the 
Dutch,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  anol  her 
valuable  material,  admirably  adapted  for  aquatic  works: 
this  substance  is  called  terras,  or  frass,  and  is  nothing  more 
than  irakke,  or  cellular  basalt.  It  is  procured  chiefly  from 
Hoekenheini,  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  and  Andernaeh,  whence 
it  is  transported  down  the  Rhine,  in  large  quantities,  to 
Holland,  and  is  prepared  by  grinding  and  sifting,  so  as 
to  reduce  it  to  the  consistence  of  coarse  sand;  when  it  is 
mixed,  in  the  following  manner,  with  blue  argillaceous  lime 
from  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt.  They  take  such  a  quantity 
of  quick-lime  as  may  be  judged  sutRcient  for  a  week,  and 
spread  it  in  a  kind  of  bason,  in  a  stratum  about  a  foot  thick, 
and  sprinkle  it  with  water;  this  is  covered  with  a  stratum 
of  terras,  of  about  the  same  thickness,  and  thus  left  for  two 
or  three  days;  it  is  then  beaten  into  a  mixture,  and  left 
for  two  days  longer ;  after  which  such  portions  as  are  wanted 
for  daily  consumption  are  taken  from  the  mass,  and  beaten 
up  again  previous  to  being  used. — This  is  the  celebrated 
terras  mortar,  with  whieh  the  mounds  and  other  aquatic 
works,  used  as  a  defence  for  protecting  the  low  lands  of 
Holland,  against  the  incursions  of  the  sea,  are  consolidated. 

The  proportion  of  the  ingredients  for  terras  mortar,  as 
used  in  Britain  in  the  construction  of  our  water-works,  is 
the  same  as  practised  by  the  Dutch,  viz.,  one  measure  of 
quick-lime  and  two  of  slacked,  in  the  dry  powder,  mixed 
with  one  measure  of  terras,  and  well  beaten  together  to  the 
consistence  of  a  paste,  using  as  little  water  as  possible. 

Another  kind,  almost  equally  good,  and  considerably 
cheaper,  is  composed  of  two  measuies  of  slacked  lime,  one 
of  terras,  and  three  of  coarse  sand;  but  this  conqwsition 
requires  more  labour  in  beating  than  the  foregoing,  and  pro- 
duces three  ineasuresand  a  half  of  excellent  mortar.  When 
the  building  is  composed  of  rough  stones,  which  leave  irre- 
gular interstices  and  large  cavities,  the  joints  may  be  filled 
with  pebble  mortar,  which  is  thus  composed  :  Take  two  mea- 
sures of  slacked  argillaceous  lime,  half  a  measure  of  terras, 
or  puzzolana,  one  of  coarse  sand,  one  of  fine  sand,  and  (bur 
of  small  pebbles  screened  and  washed,  and  mix  them  toge- 
ther. Pebble  mortar  was  a  favourite  cement  among  the 
liomans,  and  has  been  used,  ever  since  their  time,  in  those 
works  wherein  a  large  quantity  of  mortar  is  required. 

Terras  mortar  will  only  acquire  its  proper  hardness  under 
water  ;  for  if  permitted  to  dry  by  exposure  to  the  air,  it 
never  arrives  at  the  same  degree  of  hardness  as  if  the  same 
lime  had  been  mixed  with  good  clean  common  sand,  and  is 
very  friable  and  crimibling  ;  but  when  kept  always  wet, 
it  throws  out  a  substance  something  like  the  concretion  in 
lime-stone  caverns,  called  stalactite,  which  substance  acquires 
a  considerable  hardness,  and  in  time  becomes  so  exuberant 
as  to  deform  the  ftvce  of  the  walls. 

Allliough  the  Dutch  terras  has  hitherto  been  prepared 
with  cellular  basalt,  it  appears,  from  the  experiments  of 
Morveau,  that  the  common  compact  basalt,  if  previously 
calcined,  will  answer  nearly  the  same  purpose.  Compact 
basalt  abounds  in  all  the  districts  where  coal  is  raisi'd,  and 
may  therefore  be  procured  easily,  and  calcined  with  the 
refuse  coal. 


In  some  ports  of  the  Low  Countries,  coal-ashes  are  sub- 
stituted for  terras  with  very  good  effect,  of  which  the  valu- 
able cendree  de  Toiiriiay  is  a  striking  instance.  The  deep 
blue  argillo-ferruginous  lime-stone  of  the  Scheldt  is  burnt 
in  kilns,  with  a  slaty  kind  of  pit-coal  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. When  the  ealeination  of  the  lime  is  completed, 
the  pieces  are  taken  oiit,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  dust 
and  small  fragments  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  kiln.  This 
refuse,  consisting  of  coal-ash,  mi.Ked  with  about  one-fourth 
of  lime-dust,  is  called  the  cendree,  and  is  thus  made  into 
mortar  with  lime :  Put  a  bu.she!  of  the  materials  into  any 
suitable  vessel,  and  sprinkle  it  with  as  much  water  as  is 
sufficient  to  slack  the  lime;  then  take  another  bushel,  and 
treat  it  in  the  same  manner  ;  and  so  on,  till  the  vessel  is 
filled.  In  this  state  it  remains  some  weeks,  and  may  be  kept 
for  a  much  longer  time,  if  covered  with  moist  earth.  A 
strong  open  trough,  containing  about  two  cubic  feet,  is  filled 
about  two-thirds  with  cement  in  the  above  state,  and  by 
means  of  a  heavy  iron  pestle,  suspended  at  the  end  of  an 
elastic  pole,  is  well  beaten  for  about  half  an  hour;  at  the 
end  of  this  time  it  becomes  of  the  consistence  of  soft  mortar, 
and  is  then  laid  in  the  shade  from  three  to  six  days,  according 
to  the  dryness  of  the  air.  W^hen  sufficiently  dry,  it  is  beaten 
again  for  half  an  hour,  as  before  ;  and  the  oftener  it  is 
beaten,  the  better  will  be  the  cement ;  thi'ee  or  four  hours, 
however,  are  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  the  consistence  of  a 
uniform  smooth  paste.  After  this  period  it  becomes  too 
stiff",  on  account  of  the  evaporation  of  its  water,  as  no  more 
of  this  fluid  is  allowed  to  enter  the  composition  than  what 
was  at  first  employed  to  slack  the  lime.  The  cement,  thus 
prepared,  is  found  in  a  few  minutes  to  unite  so  firmly,  upon 
brick  or  stone,  that  still  water  may  be  let  in  immediately 
upon  the  work,  without  any  inconvenience ;  and  by  keeping 
it  dry  for  twenty-four  hours,  it  has  nothing  farther  to  fear 
from  the  most  rapid  current. 

A  composition  of  a  similar  nature,  is  the  blue  mortar, 
commoidy  used  in  London,  for  setting  the  coping  of  buildings 
and  other  works  much  exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is  made 
with  coal  cinders  and  lime,  but  is  seldom  prepared  with  the 
requisite  attention. 

Ash-mortar  is  used  in  some  parts  of  England,  and  is 
prepared  by  slacking  two  bushels  of  fresh  meagre  lime,  and 
mixing  it  with  three  bushels  of  wood  ashes ;  this  mass  is  to 
lie  till  it  is  cold,  and  then  to  be  well  beaten  ;  in  this  state 
it  is  kept  for  a  considerable  time  without  i^njury,  and  even 
with  advantage,  provided  it  be  thoroughly  beaten  twice  or 
thrice  over  before  it  is  used.  This  cement  is  superior  to 
terras  mortar,  in  situations  alternately  exposed  to  wet  and 
dry;  but  under  water,  terras  mortar  has  the  advantage. 

The  scales  wdiich  are  detached  by  the  hammering  of  red- 
hot  iron,  have  been  long  known  as  an  excellent  material  in 
water-works.  Mr.  Smeaton  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
person  who  tried  the  relative  strength  of  mortar  made  of  the 
oxide  of  iron,  and  several  other  compositions.  The  scales 
being  pulverized  and  sifted,  and  incorporated  with  lime,  are 
found  to  produce  a  cement  equally  powerful  with  puzzolana 
moi  tar,  when  employed  in  the  same  quantity.  Mr.  Smeaton 
having  been  successful  in  his  experiments  on  these  materials, 
was  induced  to  try  others  of  a  similar  nature.  Having 
substituted  roastediron  ore  for  the  scales,  he  found  that  this 
also  gave  to  mortar  the  property  of  hardening  under  water, 
though  it  required  to  be  used  in  greater  proportions  than 
either  puzzolana  or  terras.  Two  bushels  of  argillaceous 
lime,  two  of  iron  ore.  and  one  of  sand,  being  carefully  mixed, 
produce  3.22  cubic  feet  cement,  fully  equal  to  terras  mortar. 
If  the  common  white  lime  be  employed,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  use  equal  quantities  of  all  the  three  ingredients. 


With  respect  to  the  water  used  in  the  preparation  of 
aquatic  cement,  that  of  rivers  or  ponds,  where  it  can  be 
procured,  is  to  be  preferred  to  sprinj^  water :  but  for  worlis 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sea,  it  is  usually  more  convenient, 
and  equally  advantageous  in  other  respects,  to  use  salt  water. 

The  Fjoriot  mortar  is  a  composition  which  at  one  time  had 
obtained  considerable  celebrity  in  France,  and  was  employed 
in  many  larsje  works.  It  was  invented,  about  seventy  years 
ago,  by  M.  Loriot,  who  imagined  that  he  had  discovered  the 
process  used  by  the  Romans.  The  principle  of  the  invention 
consisted  in  adding  to  any  quantity  of  mortar,  made  in  the 
u?.ual  way  with  lime  and  sand,  but  prepared  rather  thiimer 
than  usual,  a  certain  portion  of  quicU-lime  in  powder.  The 
lime-powder  being  well  incoi-poiated  with  the  mortar,  the 
mass  heated,  and  in  a  few  minutes  ac<iuired  a  consistence 
equal  to  the  best  plaster-of  I'aris;  at  the  end  of  two  days 
it  became  as  dry  as  an  ordinary  cement  at  the  end  of  several 
months  ;  and  when  the  ingredients  were  well  proportioned, 
it  set  without  any  cracking.  The  quantity  of  powder  varied 
from  ^  to  -g-  of  the  other  materials,  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  lime:  too  much,  burning  and  drying  up  the  mass;  and 
with  too  little,  its  peculiar  advantages  being  lost.  The  pro- 
portions are  essential,  but  can  only  be  determined  by  actual 
experiment. 

Loriot's  process  was  at  one  time,  as  we  have  observed, 
very  much  in  vogue,  but  has  now  fallen  into  disuse.  Founded 
on  the  filse  conception  that  the  induration  of  mortars  was 
the  mere  result  of  a  more  or  loss  rapid  desiccation,  and 
presuming  it  to  be  possible  to  obtain  this  end  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  powerful  absorbent,  it  met  with  the  usual  fate 
of  error,  and  sunk  into  disrepute. 

^Ir.  Smeaton  says  of  this  composition — "I  have  made 
trial  of  this  method,  both  in  small  and  in  large  ;  for  however 
little  likelihood  of  advantage  a  proposition  may  contain,  yet, 
when  this  concerns  a  physical  process,  nothing  can  be  safely 
concluded  but  from  actual  trial ;  and  I  must  candidly  own 
that  the  cflect  was  much  better  than  1  had  expected  ;  for 
1  found  the  composition  not  only  set  more  readily  than  mortar 
as  commonly  made  up,  but  much  less  liable  to  crack,  and 
consequently,  if  this  cement  was  made  use  of  in  water-build- 
ing, it  was  less  apt  to  re-dissolve,  because  it  would  more 
speedily  get  set  to  a  firmer  consistence,  and  so  as  more  ably 
to  resist  the  water  from  entering  its  pores ;  but  when  the 
■water  was  brought  upon  it,  in  whatever  stiite  of  hardness 
it  was  at  the  tiyae,  it  at  best  remained  in  that  state  without 
any  further  induration,  while  the  water  remained  upon  it ; 
and,  as  I  expect,  would  so  remain,  till  it  had  some  opportunity 
of  acquiring  hardness  by  further  drying." 

Indeed,  for  the  purpose  of  (piick  concretion,  various 
materials  are  recommended  to  be  added,  such  as  brick  and 
tile  powder,  and  forge  scales.  The  following  is  an  approved 
receipt :  one  measure  of  bricks,  fuicly  pounded  ;  two  mea- 
sures of  fine  river-sand;  old  slacked  lime  in  sufticient  quan- 
tity to  make  a  mortar  in  the  usual  matuier,  and  sufficiently 
liquid  to  quench  the  lime-powder,  which  is  added  to  the  same 
quantity  as  that  of  the  pulverized  bricks. 

It  is  somewhat  extraordinary,  that  a  process  similar  to  the 
composition  of  the  Loriot-mortar  is  described  in  A  Treatise 
on  Biiildiiir/  in  IVnter,  by  George  Senqile,  printed  in  Dublin, 
1776.  in  discoursing  on  the  good  qualities  of  the  roach- 
bme  of  Ireland,  Mr.  Semple  remarks,  that  "it  has  some 
useful  qualities,  not  much  known  among  the  generality  of 
workmen.  As,  for  instance,  our  lime-stone  will  make 
exceeding  good  terras  for  water-works,  for  which  purpose 
you  are  to  prepare  it  thus :  get  your  roach-lime  brought  to 
you  hot  from  the  kiln,  and  immediately  pound,  or  grind  it 
with  a  wooden   maul,  on  a  smooth   large   stone,  on   a  dry 


boarded  floor,  till  you  make  it  as  fine  as  flour;  then,  without 
loss  of  time,  sift  it  through  a  coarse  hair  or  wire  sieve,  and 
to  the  quantity  of  a  hod  of  your  setting  mortar  (which  on 
this  account  should  be  poorei  than  ordinary)  put  in  two  or 
three  shovelfuls  of  this  fine  flour  of  the  roach-lime,  and  let 
two  men,  for  expedition's  sake,  beat  them  together,  with 
such  beaters  as  the  plasterers  make  use  of)  and  then  use 
it  immediately.  This,  1  can  assure  you,  will  not  only  stand 
as  well,  but  is  really  preferable  to  any  terras."  The  memoir 
of  M.  Loriot  was  published  in  1774,  only  two  years  previous 
to  this  treatise  of  Semple,  who  a|ipears  to  have  been  a  man 
rather  of  practice  and  experience  than  of  reading ;  and, 
besides,  in  the  book  quoted  from,  he  expressly,  though 
incidentally,  mentions  his  ignorance  of  the  French  language. 
We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  stating  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  advantages  of  mixing  quick-lime  powder  in  mortar, 
was  not  confined  to  M.  Loriot,  though  it  might  have  been 
an  original  invention  in  him,  and  that  he  was  the  first  who 
drew  the  public  attention  to  the  process,  and  used  it  in  any 
considerable  works. 

We  have  now  to  notice  the  valuable  Treatise  of  M.  Vieat, 
the  celebrated  French  engineer,  on  the  Composition  of  Mor- 
tars and  Cements.  This  scientific  and  elaborate  work  has 
been  made  extensively  known  in  this  country,  by  the  able 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  translated  by  Captain  J.  T. 
Smith,  of  the  Madras  Engineers.  The  labours  of  this  gen- 
tleman have  given  increased  value  to  M.  Vicat's  work,  and 
the  numerous  notes,  tables,  and  other  information,  added  to 
the  original  work  by  Captain  Smith,  will  be  found  most  use- 
ful to  the  professional  man,  and  well  worth  his  careful  and 
attentive  study. 

In  this  place  we  shall  briefly  describe  the  mode  pursued 
by  M.  Vicat  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Artificial  Hydraulic 
Limes,  he  so  strongly  recommends.  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  return  to  his  work  hereafter,  when  on  the  subject  of 
Concrete. 

'J'he  practice  of  M.  Vicat  seems  to  have  been  principally 
directed  to  the  adoption  of  the  hydraulic  limes,  in  preference 
to  the  more  energetic  cements  so  generally  used  in  this  country, 
but  his  investigations  have  been  conducted  on  so  compre- 
hensive a  scale,  that  the  processes  laid  down  by  him  for  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  hydraulic  compounds  arc  capable  of 
application  to  almost  every  requirement  of  the  Architect  or 
Engineer,  or  to  almost  every  situation. 

The  opinion  so  decidedly  expressed  by  M.  Vicat,  that  the 
superior  adhesion  of  the  hydraulic  limes,  must  inevitably 
lead  to  their  general  adoption  in  this  country,  in  preference 
to  om-  (so-called)  Roman  cements,  has  been  much  combated 
by  practical  men.  It  may  be  said,  without  entering  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  (piestion,  that  it  appears  to  be  one  on  which 
a  contrariety  of  opinion  may  be  occasioned  by  a  difterenco  of 
situation  and  circumstances.  Thus,  in  comparing  the  merits 
of  the  two  systems,  it  is  important  to  consider,  that,  in  one, 
the  means  of  minute  mechanical  division  are  an  essential 
element,  in  the  other  that  it  is  unnecessary  ;  and  that  this 
element,  which  in  one  situation  may  be  ol>tained  at  a  cheap 
rate,  in  another  may  be  exponsive  and  unattainable. 

The  hydraulic  limes,  therefore,  which  do  not  require  to  be 
r/rouiid  previous  to  use,  are  at  all  events  most  suitable  for 
those  situations  where  the  facilities  of  mechanical  agency  can- 
not be  resorted  to,  while  the'  (iround  cements  are  better 
adapted  to  the  vicinity  of  a  large  capital,  where  it  is  of  little 
importance  that  the  builder  becomes  dependent  upon  others 
for  his  supply. 

The  diderence,  in  fact,  consists  in  this,  that  the  ground 
cements,  of  whatever  kind,  will  ever  be  furnished  by  manu- 
facturers, whereas  the  hydraulic  limes  may  at  all  times  be 


OEM 


133 


CEM 


prepared  by  the  common  workman,  without  machinery,  and 
at  a  cost  not  much  exceeding  that  of  common  lime. 

The  description  given  by  M.  Vicat  of  the  mode  in  which 
the  artificial  hydiaulic  limes  are  prepared  is  as  follows:  — 
"The  artificial  hydraulic  limes  are  prepared  by  two  methods: 
the  most  perfict,  Irut  alsothc  most  expensive,  consists  in 
mixing  with  rich  lime  slacked  in  any  way,  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  clay,  and  calcining  the  mixture  ;  this  is  termed  arti- 
ficial lime  twice  /ciliied." 

"  By  the  second  process,  we  substitute  for  the  lime  any 
very  soft  calcareous  substance  (such,  for  instance,  as  chalk), 
which  it  is  easy  to  bruise  and  reduce  to  a  paste  with  water. 
In  this  way  a  great  saving  is  effected,  but  at  the  same  time 
is  procured  an  artificial  lime  of  good  quality,  though  not 
equal  to  thiit  derived  from  the  first  process,  in  consequence 
of  the  rather  less  perfect  amalgamation  of  the  mixture." 

"  We  see  that  by  being  able  to  regulate  the  proportions, 
we  can  also  give  to  the  factitious  lime  whatever  degree  of 
energy  we  please,  and  cause  it  at  pleasure  to  equal  or  surpass 
the  n.itural  hydraulic  limes." 

"  We  usually  take  twenty  parts  of  dry  clay  to  eighty  parts 
of  very  rich  lime,  or  to  one  hundred  and  forty  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  This  refers  to  the  lime  in  the  unslacked  condition, 
or  to  the  uncalcined  mineral.  If  the  lime  be  slacked,  the 
proportion  should  be  increased  to  110  parts.  But  if  the  lime 
or  its  carbonate  should  already  be  at  all  mixed  with  clay  in 
the  natural  state,  then  fifteen  parts  of  clay  will  be  sufficient. 
Moreover,  it  is  pi-oper  to  determine  the  proportions  for 
every  locality." 

"  The  mixture  here  described,"  adds  Captain  Smith  in 
a  note,  "is  such  as  to  produce  the  hydraulic  limes,  whose 
properties  are  similar  to  the  Aberthaw,  the  analysis  of  which 
shows  it  to  correspond  nearly  with  the  proportions  here 
recommended,  as  it  consists  of  80.2  of  carbonate  of  lime  to 
11.2  clay,  (with  2.6  water  and  carbonaceous  matter),  being 
at  the  rate  of  18.2  parts  clay,  to  140  of  the  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  cements  now  in  use  in  England,  are  much  quicker 
setting  than  these,  and  differ  in  being  unslacked.  Tliev  con- 
tain a  greater  proportion  of  clay,  but  may  be  manufactured 
artificialfy  with  equal  ease,  by  combining  such  relative 
quantities  of  chalk,  or  lime,  and  clav,  as  will  suit  the  purpose 
intended.  Parker's  Patent  Cement,  as  analyzed  by  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  contains  4.5  per  cent  of  clay  to  .5.5  carbonate 
of  lime;  the  Yorkshire  cement,  34  clay  to  02  carbonate  of 
lime;  the  Sheppey.  .32  clay  to  66  carbonate  of  lime  ;  and 
the  Harwich,  which  is  a  quicker-setting  cement,  47  clay  to 
40  carbonate  of  lime."  It  seems  to  be  evident  from  the 
experiments  of  M.  Vicat,  that  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
cements  may  be  almost  infinitely  varied  by  the  admixture 
of  different  ingredients.  The  character,  quality,  and  propor- 
tions of  these  must  be  the  result  of  actual  practice  and 
experiment,  for  so  different  may  be  the  chemical  properties 
of  apparently  similar  materials,  that  no  results,  however 
successful  in  one  locality,  can  be  trusted  to  with  certainty 
in  another.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add,  that  in  all  cases, 
particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  perfect  amalgama- 
tion of  the  materials ;  and  the  degree  of  calcination  best 
suited  to  it  should  be  carefully  observed,  before  attempting 
the  manufacture  on  a  large  scale. 

The  process  made  use  of  at  a  manufactory  of  artificial  lime 
at  ISleudon.  near  Paris,  is  thus  described  by'AI.  Vicat — "  The 
materials  made  use  of  are  chalk  of  the  country,  and  the 
clay  of  Vaurigard.  which  is  previously  broken  up  into  lumps 
of  the  size  of  one's  fist.  A  millstone  set  up  edgeways,  and 
a  strong  wheel  with  spnkes  and  felloes,  firmly  attached  to  a 
set  of  harrows  and  rakes,  are  set  in  motion  by  a  two-horse 
gin,  in  a  circular  basin  of  about  two  metres  (six  feet  and  a 


half  English)  radius.  In  the  middle  of  the  basin  is  a  pillar 
of  masonry,  on  which  turns  the  vertical  arbor  to  which  the 
whole  system  is  fixed  :  into  this  basin,  to  which  water  is 
conveyed  by  means  of  a  cock,  they  throw  successively  ti)ur 
measures  of  chalk,  and  one  measure  of  clay.  After  an  hoiu' 
and  a  half  working,  they  obtain  about  1.-50  metres  cube 
(nearly  .53  cubic  feet  English),  of  a  thin  pulp,  which  they 
draw  off  by  means  of  aconduit  ])ierced  horizontally  on  a  level 
with  the  bottom  of  the  basin.  The  fluid  descends  by  its  own 
weight;  first  into  one  excavation,  then  into  a  second,  then 
a  third,  and  so  on  to  a  fourth  or  fifth.  These  excavations 
communicate  with  one  another  at  top  ;  when  the  first  is  full, 
the  fresh  liquid,  as  it  arrives,  as  well  as  the  supernatant 
fluid,  flow  over  into  the  second  excavation ;  from  the  second 
into  the  third,  and  so  on  to  the  last,  the  clear  water  from 
which  drains  off  into  a  cesspool.  Other  excavations,  cut  in 
steps  like  the  preceding,  serve  to  receive  the  fiesh  products 
of  the  work,  whilst  the  material  in  the  first  series  acquires 
the  consistency  neces.sary  for  moulding.  The  smaller  the 
depth  of  the  pans  in  relation  to  their  superficies,  the  sooner 
is  the  above-mentioned  consistency  obtained. 

"The  mass  is  now  subdivided  into  solids  of  a  regular  form, 
by  means  of  a  mould.  This  operation  is  executed  with 
rapidity.  A  moulder,  working  by  the  piece,  makes  on  an 
average  five  thousand  prisms  a  day,  which  will  measure  about 
six  cubic  metres  (211.8  cubic  feet  English).  These  prisms 
are  arianged  on  drying  shelves,  where  in  a  short  time  they 
acquire  the  degree  of  desiccation  and  hardness  proper  for 
calcination." 

These  artificial  limes  are  intended  to  supply  the  place  of 
the  natural  ones  in  those  countries  where  argillaceous  lime- 
stone cannot  be  obtained.  The  price  at  which  they  were 
sold  in  Paris  a  few  years  back,  was  about  £2  5s.  per  cubic 
yard  English. 

Malilia,  and  maslk,  are  cements,  whose  hardness  depends 
on  the  oily  or  mucilaginous  substances  that  enter  into  their 
composition.  The  use  of  these  is  at  present  very  limited  in 
Europe  ;  but  they  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients, 
especially  for  stucco.  Tlie  maltha  of  the  Greeks  seems  to 
have  been  mo^e  simple  than  that  employed  by  the  Eoman 
architects;  at  least  we  are  informed,  that  Pana;mas,  the 
brother  of  Phidias,  lined  the  inside  of  the  temple  of  Minerva, 
at  Elis,  with  stucco,  in  which  the  usual  ingredients  of  sand 
and  lime  were  mixed  up  with  milk,  instead  of  water,  some 
saflVon  being  added  to  give  it  a  yellow  tinge.  The  Roman 
maltha,  according  to  Pliny,  was  prepared  as  follows  :  Take 
fresh-burnt  lime,  and  slack  it  with  wine,  then  beat  it  up  very 
well  in  a  mortar,  with  hogs'  lard  and  figs :  this  cement,  if 
well  made,  is  excessively  tenacious,  and  in  a  short  time 
becomes  harder  than  stone  ;  the  surface  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied  is  to  be  previously  oiled,  in  order  to  make  it  adhere. 
Another  kind  almost  equally  strong,  and  considerably  cheaper, 
was  prepared  by  beating  up  together  fine  slacked  lime,  pul- 
verized iron  scales,  and  bullocks'  blood. 

In  the  preparation  of  maltha,  as  well  as  of  every  other  kind 
of  mortar,  so  much  depends  on  the  manipulation,  and  on  the 
care  and  loner  beating  of  the  ingredients,  that  those  countries 
in  which  labour  is  of  the  least  value,  possess,  m  general,  the 
best  mortar.  Hence,  no  doubt,  firincipally  arises  the  unrivaled 
excellence  of  the  mortar  made  by  the  Tunisians,  and  other 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa.  Dr.  Shaw  gives 
the  following  account  of  their  manner  of  preparing  their 
mortar:  One  measure  of  sand,  two  of  wood-ashes,  and  three 
of  lime,  being  previcuisly  sifted,  are  mixed  together,  and 
sprinkled  with  a  little  water;  after  the  mass  has  been  beaten 
some  time,  a  little  oil  is  added  :  the  beating  js  carried  on  for 
three  or  four  days  successively,  and,  as  the  evaporation  in 


CEM 


134 


CEM 


that  hot  climate  is  considerable,  the  cement  is  kept  in  a  proper 
degree  of  softness  by  the  alternate  addition  of  small  quantities 
of  water  and  oil.  The  cement,  beinj;  completed,  isap))lied  in 
the  usual  manner,  and  speedily  acquires  a  stony  hardness. 

'ITie  term  maltha  is  also  applied  to  a  variety  of  bitumen 
or  mineral  pitch  of  a  viscid  and  tenacious  character ;  unctuous 
to  the  touch,  arid  exhalinu;  a  bituminous  odour.  This  sub- 
stance, as  also  Asphalte,  (see  Asph.\lte,)  has  been  success- 
fully used  as  a  cement. 

The  celebrated  c/ninam,  of  India,  is  a  species  of  maltha 
vhich  has  been  used  in  that  country  from  time  immemorial. 
The  method  in  which  it  is  prepared  at  ^Madras  is  as  fallows  : — 

Take  fifteen  bushels  of  pit-sand,  and  fifteen  bushels  of 
stone-lime ;  slack  the  latter  with  water,  and  when  it  has 
fallen  to  powder,  mix  the  two  ingredients  together,  and  let 
them  remain  f  )r  three  days  untouched.  Dissolve  20  lbs.  of 
molasses  in  water,  and  boil  a  peck  of  grnmm,  (a  kind  of  pea,) 
and  a  peck  of  mirabolans  to  a  jelly  ;  mix  the  three  liipiors, 
and  incorporate  part  of  the  mixture  very  accurately  with  the 
lime  and  sand,  so  as  to  make  a  very  fluid  cement ;  some  short 
tow  is  then  to  be  beaten  well  into  it,  and  it  will  be  fit  f)r  use. 
The  bricks  are  to  be  bedded  in  as  thin  a  layer  as  possible  of  this 
mortar;  and  when  the  workmen  leave  oflf^  though  but  for  an 
hour,  the  part  where  they  recommence  working  is  to  be  well 
moistened  with  some  of  the  above  liquor  before  the  appli- 
cation of  fresh  mortar.  When  this  composition  is  used  for 
stucco,  the  whites  of  four  eggs,  and  four  ounces  of  butter- 
milk, are  to  be  mixed  up  with  every  half  bushel  of  cement, 
and  the  composition  is  to  be  immediately  applied. 

Mastic  is  an  external  composition  possessing  peculiar  pro- 
perties,  which,  in  some  cases,  render  it  superior  to  IJoman 
cement,  having  the  power  of  resisting  heat  and  adhering  to 
iron,  copper,  and  even  glass,  with  equal  tenacity.  It  is 
generally  applied  to  the  exteriors  of  mansions,  but  it  may 
also  be  very  beneficially  used  for  laying  the  floors  of  halls, 
kitchens,  &o. 

Mastic  was  first  introduced  from  France  by  Hamlin,  but 
is  now  sold  only  by  Messrs.  Francis  and  White,  at  Nine 
Elms.  It  is  composed  of  pounded  stone,  silver  sand,  litharge, 
and  red  lead,  and,  when  manufactured,  has  the  appearance  of 
very  fine  sand.  The  manner  of  working  Mastic  is  entirely 
ditferent  from  that  of  Roman  cement. 

To  one  cwt.  of  Mastic  add  one  gallon  of  linseed-oil,  and  let 
them  be  well  incorporated  by  the  labourer,  which  must  be 
effected  by  treading  them  together  with  the  feet  until  the 
amalgamation  is  com[ilete,  which  may  be  easily  ascertained  bv 
smoothing  a  portion  of  the  mixture  with  the  shovel  :  should 
any  bright  spots  be  observable,  the  tieading  must  be  again 
and  again  repeated  until  they  completely  disappear,  when  it 
is  considered  fit  for  use. 

The  manner  in  which  Mastic  is  used  is  as  follows  : — The 
joints  of  the  brickwork  being  well  cleaned  out,  the  work 
must  be  correctly  plumbed  up  by  means  of  Hal-headed  nails, 
and  screeds,  for  the  guidance  of  the  floating-rule,  formed  with 
Roman  cement,  and  kept  abdut  one  inch  in  breadth.  This 
being  done,  the  bricks  must  be  well  saturated  with  boiled  lin- 
seed-oil of  the  best  quality,  and  the  Mastic  laid  on  with  the 
hands,  assisted  occa-iionally  by  the  laying-trowel,  until  the 
space  between  the  screeds  be  covend  to  the  thickness 
retpiired.  The  ficiating-rule  is  then  passed  carefullv  over 
the  work  ;  and  when  the  space  between  the  screeds  is  suffi- 
ciently filled  up,  it  must  be  floated  with  a  hand-float,  com- 
posed of  sycamore  or  beech,  until  it  assumes  the  same 
apnearanee  as  highly-polished  stone.  Thus  a  space  of  larce 
dimensions  must  be  fodowed  up  until  the  whole  is  completed, 
when  the  screeds  must  be  cut  out,  their  places  filled  with 
Mastic,  and  compactly  hand-floated  into  the  rest  of  the  work. 


Within  the  last  few  years  various  compositirms  have  been 
invented  for  the  covering  of  the  exterior  of  buildings,  such 
as  Roman  Cement,  Terra  Cotta,  Bailey's  Composition,  and  a 
host  of  others,  all  more  or  less  patronized  by  the  public. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  give  descriptions  of 
all  these  compositions;  but  we  shall  shortly  explain  the 
mode  of  preparing  and  using  the  Roman  cement.  This  cement, 
familiarly  known  among  plasterers  as  Compo.  was  first  intro- 
duced to  public  notice  by  Messrs.  Parker  and  Wyatt,  who 
took  out  a  patent  for  it,  and  who  succeeded  in  obtaining  for 
it  an  extensive  sale. 

It  is  prepared  from  the  kind  of  stone  called  clay-balls,  or 
septaria,  by  being,  after  a  manner  of  manufacturing  plaster, 
first  broken  into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size,  slowly  calcined 
in  kilns  or  ovens,  and  afterwards  ground  to  a  fine  powder, 
and  put  into  proper  casks,  great  care  being  taken  to  preserve 
it  from  damp.  Two  parts  of  this  composition,  with  three 
parts  of  clean  grit-sand,  will  form  a  very  durable  substitute 
for  stone.  In  selecting  the  sand,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  procure  it  free  from  clay  or  mud,  and  of  a  sharp  and  bind- 
ing quality,  or  it  must  be  washed  until  perfectly  clean. 

This  composition,  when  it  is  intended  to  compo,  as  it  is 
termed,  the  exterior  of  a  building,  is  thus  used  : — 

After  the  walls  have  been  well  soaked  with  water,  the 
cement  must  be  prepared  by  the  hawke-boy  on  a  stiff"  board 
made  for  the  purpose,  adding  as  much  water  as  brings  it  to 
the  consistency  of  paste,  but  no  more  must  be  mixed  than 
can  be  used  in  ten  minutes.  It  must  be  laid  on  with  the 
greatest  possilile  expedition,  in  one  coat  of  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  after  being  well-adjusted  with 
the  floating-rule,  the  hand-float  must  be  incessantly  used  to 
bring  it  to  a  firm  and  solid  surface  before  it  sets,  which  it 
does  in  about  fifteen  minutes. 

The  work  should  then  be  drawn  and  jointed  to  imitate 
well-bonded  masonry,  and  afterwards  coloured  with  a  wash 
composed  of  five  ounces  of  copperas  to  every  gallon  of  water 
— a  sufllrieiit  quantity  of  fresh  lime  and  cement — and  to  the 
whole  adding  the  colours  necessary  to  imitate  any  particular 
stone  that  may  be  required. 

Terra  Cotta,  or  artificial  stone,  is  an  excellent  and  durable 
composition,  advantageously  used  at  the  present  day  for  all 
kinds  of  exterior  decoration.  It  is  a  compound  of  pipe-claj% 
stone-bottles,  glass,  and  flint,  well  pounded  together,  and 
sifted  through  a  fine  sieve,  a  small  portion  of  silver-sand 
afterwards  added. 

Bailey's  Composition  is  also  a  valuable  invention,  which  has 
been  used  with  greatadvantage  in  various  situations,  without 
being  at  all  injured  by  winter.  The  exteriors  of  many  of 
the  public  buildings  in  the  metropolis  are  covered  with  this 
composition,  amongst  which  is  the  Colosseum  in  the  Regent's 
Park. 

It  is  simply  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sand,  the  strength  of 
the  lime  being  preserved  by  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  it 
is  prepared.  In  its  manufacture,  chalk  should  never  be 
used  ;  it  ought  always  to  be  made  from  lime-stone,  or  car- 
bonate of  lime.  The  lime,  being  taken  before  being  slacked 
and  ground  to  powder,  must  be  placed  in  iron-bound  casks  to 
prevent  the  admission  of  air  or  damp.  When  used,  it  must 
be  mixed  with  one-third  its  quantity  of  sharp  river-sand,  the 
manner  of  working  it  being  the  same  as  that  of  Roman 
cement.     See  Mortar,  Grout,  Stucco,  and  Concrete. 

CEMETERY,  a  sacred  place,  set  apart  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead.  The  term  is  of  Greek  derivation,  signifying  "a 
place  of  rest  or  sleep,"  and  was  applied  by  the  early  Christians 
to  common  places  of  interment. 

The  subject  of  burial  in  towns  has  of  late  occupied  so 
prominent  a  place  in  public  estimation,  that  the  description 


CEM 


135 


cp:m 


of  a  few  of  the  great  receptacles  for  the  dead  lately  established 
ill  or  near  the  metropolis,  cannot  be  out  of  place  in  a  work  of 
this  kind;  the  more  especially,  that  the  profc&iional  talent 
of  the  architi'Ct  has,  not  unfrequciitly,  betn  called  into 
action,  to  furnish  designs  for  the  buildings  connected  with 
]nililic  cemeteries,  if  not  for  the  ornamental  gardens,  since  it 
has  become  the  fashion  of  the  day  to  make  these  "  cities  of 
the  dead." 

From  the  very  earliest  ages  the  disposal  of  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  has  been  a  necessary,  and  with  many  nations,  a 
saircd  duty.  Among  some  we  find  that  a  superstitious 
veneration  for  those  who  had  "  passed  away  ;"  the  necessity  of 
funeral  rites  to  secure  the  future  happiness  of  the  deceased; 
and  the  crime  attached  to  the  violation  of  the  tomli,  formed 
a  part  both  of  their  civil  and  religious  code._  The  practice  of 
burying  tlie  dead  in  the  earth  is  probably  the  oldest,  as  it  is 
thi;  simplest  mode  of  disposing  of  them  :  but  the  custom  of 
burning  the  body,  and  afterwards  collecting  the  ashes,  and 
depositing  them  in  a  tomb,  or  urn,  became  very  general 
amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Egyptians  do  not 
seem  to  have  ever  adopted  this  practice;  and  even  amongst 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  seems  likely  that  inter- 
ment in  the  earth  was  mostly  resorted  to  by  the  lower  orders. 
At  the  present  day,  all  European  nations  deposit  their  dead 
in  the  earth,  and  the  ceremony  of  burning  is  extinct. 

The  establishment  of  public  cemeteries  is  now  l)ecomiiig 
general  in  the  neighbourhood  of  large  cities;  a  practice  pro- 
bably suggested  to  us  by  the  customs  of  the  Orientals,  with 
whom  the  burial-places  of  their  departed  friends  are  objects 
of  peculiar  care,  and  who  cultivate,  with  e.\treme  affection 
and  s(jlicitudc,  the  flowers  and  trees  with  which  it  is  their 
delight  to  adorn  them. 

"Among  the  first  objects  that  present  themselves  to  a 
stranger  entering  Turkey,"  remarks  a  recent  writer,  "are 
llie  groves  of  cypress  extending  in  dark  masses  along  the 
chores.  'ITiese  are  the  last  resting-places  of  the  Turks;  and 
their  sad  and  solemn  shade,  far  more  gloomy  than  any  which 
Christian  usage  has  adopted,  informs  the  traveller  that  he  is 
now  among  a  grave  and  serious  people. 

The  situation  of  cemeteiies  is  of  great  importance,  both 
with  regard  to  the  public  health,  and  from  considerations  of 
convenience.  Among  the  Greeks  we  find  that  tht-y  were 
usually  without  the  cities.  Among  the  Romans  the  tombs 
were  generally  placed  by  the  sides  of  the  public  roads.  The 
early  Christians  ti)llowe(l  the  custom  of  the  Romans,  but  they 
at'terwards  transtiTreiJ  their  burial-places  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  churches,  and  within  towns.  This  insalubrious  practice, 
it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  soon  entirely  cease,  and  the  health  of 
the  living  be  no  longer  endangered  by  the  too  close  proximity 
of  the  graves  of  the  dead. 

Cemeteries  should  be  placed  on  high  ground,  and  to  the 
north  of  habitations,  so  that  southerly  winds  should  not  blow 
over  the  houses,  charged  with  the  putrid  exhalations;  low 
wet  places  should  be  avoided,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
bodies  be  not  interred  near  wells,  or  rivers,  from  which 
people  are  supplied  with  water. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  here  to  state  that  extra-mural 
or  suburban  cemeteries,  firmed  part  of  the  plan  of  the  cele- 
l)rated  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  for  the  rebuilding  (jf  London 
after  the  grea  tfire.  "  I  would  wish,"  says  he,  "  that  all  burials 
in  churches  might  be  disallowed,  which  is  not  only  unwhole- 
some, but  the  pavements  can  never  be  kept  even,  nor 
the  pews  upright ;  and  if  the  church-yard  lie  close  about 
the  church,  this  is  also  inconvenient,  because  the  ground 
being  continually  raised  by  the  graves,  occasions  in  time  a 
descent  bj  steps  into  the  church,  which  renders  it  damp,  and 
the  walls  green,  as  appears  evidently  in  all  old  churches." 


lie  then  proceeds  to  recommend,  that  a  piece  of  ground, 
being  purchased  in  the  fields,  should  then  be  "enclosed  with 
a  strong  brick  wall,  and  having  a  walk  round,  and  two  cross 
walks,  decently  planted  with  yew-trees.  'J"he  fimr  quarters 
to  serve  four  parishes,  where  the  dead  need  not  bo  di>turbed 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  sexton. 

"  In  these  places  beautiful  monuments  may  be  ere<'ted  ; 
but  yet  the  dimensions  should  be  regulated  by  an  architeet, 
and  not  left  to  the  fitncy  of  every  mason  ;  for  thus  the  rieh 
with  large  marble  tombs  would  shoulder  out  the  poor:  when 
a  pyramid,  a  good  bust,  or  statue  on  a  proper  pedestal,  will 
take  up  little  room  in  the  quarters,  and  be  properer  than 
figures,  lying  on  marble  beds  ;  the  walls  will  contain 
escutcheons  and  memorials  for  the  dead,  and  the  real  good 
air  and  walks  for  the  living." 

Though  the  cemeteries  which  have  been  formed  are  pro. 
nounced  to  be  only  improvements  on  the  places  of  burial  in 
this  country,  and  far  below  what  it  would  yet  be  practicable 
to  accomplish;  they  have  iiidisputaldy  been  viewed  with 
public  satisfaction,  and  have  created  desires  of  further 
advances  by  the  erection  of  national  cemeteries.  Abroad  the 
national  cemeteries  have  obtained  the  deepest  hold  on  the 
aliections  of  the  population.  They  have  been  established 
near  to  all  the  large  towns  in  the  United  .States.  To  some 
of  them  a  horticiiltui'al  garden  is  attached  ;  the  garden-walks 
being  connected  with  the  places  of  interment,  which,  though 
decorated,  are  kept  apart.  These  cemeteries  are  places  of 
public  resort,  and  are  there  observed,  as  in  other  countries, 
to  have  a  powerful  efiect  in  soothing  the  grief  of  those 
who  have  departed  friends,  and  in  refining  the  feelings 
of  all. 

At  Constantinople,  the  place  of  promenade  for  Europeans 
is  the  cemetery  at  Pera,  which  is  planted  with  cypress,  and 
has  a  delightful  position  on  the  side  of  a  hill  overlooking 
the  Golden  Horn.  The  greatest  public  cemetery  attached  to 
that  capital  is  at  Scutari,  which  forms  a  beautiful  grove.  In 
liussia.  almo-it  every  town  of  importance  has  its  burial-place, 
at  a  distance  from  the  town,  laid  out  by  the  architect  of  the 
iiovernment.  It  is  always  well  planted  with  trees,  and  is 
frequently  ornamented  with  sculpture.  Xearly  every  Ger- 
man town  his  its  cemetery,  planted  and  ornamented.  In 
Turkev,  Russia,  ard  Germany,  the  poorer  classes  have  the 
advantages  of  interment  in  the  national  cemeteries. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  cemeteries  in  Europe  is  that  of 
Pere  la  Chaise,  but  in  this,  as  in  all  the  cemeteries  of  Paris, 
it  has  been  a  subject  of  complaint,  that  the  gr.aves  of  the 
poor  are  neglected  and  little  cared  for,  amidst  the  splendid 
tiionuments  and  sculptured  ornaments  which  mark  the  tombs 
of  the  higher  classes. 

The  first  attempt  at  a  metropolitan  cemetery,  in  imitation 
of  that  of  Pere  la  Chaise,  was  made  by  the  General  Cemetery 
Company,  who,  in  the  year  1833,  opened  to  the  public  their 
new  and  extensive  burial-ground  at  Kensall  Green.  This 
cemetery  occupies  above  fifty  acresof  ground  ;  which  is  taste- 
fully laid  out  with  flowers  and  plants  ;  well-gravelled  walks 
lead  to  various  parts  of  the  ground ;  and  yews,  evergreens, 
and  shrubs,  deemed  appropriate  to  a  place  of  sepulture,  orna- 
ment and  diversif^y  the  landscape.  On  the  road  side,  the 
cemetery  is  bounded  by  a  high  wall,  affording  protection  and 
seclusion;  on  the  other  side,  towards  the  canal,  an  open  iron 
palisading  permits  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  country, 
which  here  presents  a  prospect  both  extensive  and  beautiful. 
At  the  entrance  there  is  a  handsome  gateway,  from  which  a  cen- 
tral walk  leads  to  the  church  in  the  comecrdted  jiortion  of  the 
cemetery.  In  this  building  are  soli  jnnized  the  funeral  rites 
according  to  the  Church  of  England.  In  front  of  the  church 
a  large  circle  is  appropriated  to  many  of  the  more  splendid 


CEM 


136 


CEN 


tombs  anJ  mausoleums,  and  beneath  it  are  extensive  cata- 
combs. 

In  tiie  viiconsecraled  part  of  the  cemetery,  set  apart  for  the 
burial  of  Dissenters  of  every  denomination,  a  neat  chapel  has 
been  erected  for  the  performance  of  service  according  to  their 
several  forms  of  worship.  The  principal  feature  of  this 
chajiel  is  a  rather  handsome  Docic  colonnade,  and  near  it  also 
are  catacombs. 

The  etablishment  of  the  cemetery  at  Kensall  Green  was 
immediately  followed  by  that  of  several  others  in  the  suburbs 
of  London  ;  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  those  is  Highgate 
Cemetery,  situated  on  the  rising  slope  of  the  hill  behind 
Highgate  Church.  Here,  the  natural  beauty  of  the  ground 
has  bfcn  tastefully  made  use  of,  and  the  result  produced  is 
pleasing,  if  viewed  as  a  pleasnre-garden,  though  certainly  con- 
veying but  little  of  that  solemnity  of  thought  and  feeling  we 
are  accustomed  to  associate  with  a  burial-place  for  the  dead. 

The  southern  entrance,  in  Swain's  Lane,  is  in  a  style  com- 
pounded of  Gothic  of  all  periods,  exhibiting  more  of  tawdry 
decoration  than  the  sobriety  which  should  have  characterized 
it.  The  Egyptian  style  has  been  selected  for  the  catacombs, 
which  are  approached  through  an  arched  avenue,  with  an 
entrance  flanked  by  two  obelisks.  This  passage,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  grounds,  is  lined  on  each  side  by  a  range  of 
sepulchral  chambers,  and  leads  into  another  avenue,  forming 
a  circular  walk  between  similar  chambers,  each  of  which  has 
its  Egyptian  doorway.  These  sepulchres,  amounting  alto- 
gether to  forty-six,  besides  eighteen  others  in  the  (irst  men- 
tioned avenue,  form  as  many  sides  of  two  polygons,  an  outer 
and  inner  one.  Midway  is  an  ascent,  first  by  a  single  flight 
of  steps,  and  then  by  others  on  each  side,  leading  to  a  lenace 
overlooking  the  catacombs,  from  which  they  present  a 
striking  appearance;  the  summit  of  the  inner  polygon 
being,  covered  with  earth,  and  having  a  large  cedar  in  the 
centre.  The  back  wall  of  this  terrace  is  in  a  semi-Gothic 
style,  crowned  by  a  fancy  open-work  para|)et,  placi-d  before 
another  terrace,  under  the  south  end  of  the  Gothic  Church, 
erected  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  Vulliamy.  The  pros|)ect  from 
this  terrace  is  exceedinglj'  beautiful. 

Norwood  Cemetery  occupies  about  forty  acres,  on  the 
north-we^t  side  of  a  hill  to  the  east  of  St.  Luke's.  Norwood. 
The  enirance  is  an  open  arch,  which,  with  the  lodge 
adjoiniiig  it,  are  in  much  better  taste  than  that  of  Highgate, 
although,  had  there  been  a  gateway,  the  design  would  have 
been  greatly  improved.  There  are  two  chapels — one  for 
members  of  the  Church  of  England,  the  other  for  Dissenters 
—  though  varying  somewhat  in  design,  there  is  great 
similarity  in  their  style,  which  is  a  sober,  but  correct 
Gothic.  The  principal  objection  is  the  injudicious  position 
of  these  two  buildings,  which,  from  being  too  near  together, 
neither  form  distinct  architectural  pictures,  nor  group  so  as 
to  form  one  design.     The  architect  is  Mr.  W.  Tite. 

Abney  Park  Cemetery  contains  about  thirty  acres,  and 
displays  evidence  of  a  simple  and  pure  taste,  in  its  buildings 
and  general  arrangement.  The  entrance,  if  wanting  in 
architectural  composition,  has  something  bold  and  etiective 
in  its  general  appearance.  The  four  piers  are  lofty  and  well- 
proportioned  masses,  constructed  of  Portland  stone,  upon 
granite  plinths,  and  are  surmounted  by  handsome  coved  cap- 
pings,  in  the  Egyptian  style.  The  lodges  are  in  the  same 
style,  and  exteiid  the  frontage  to  118  feet,  40  of  which  are 
occupied  by  the  piers  and  gates  in  the  centre.  The  etfect  of 
this  entrance  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  park-like  aspect  of  the 
grounds,  and  the  fine  old  trees  with  which  they  are  adorned. 
Nearly  in  a  line  with  the  entrance  is  the  chapel,  in  the  early 
pointed  style,  with  lancet  windows.  The  architect  is  Mr. 
W.  Hosking. 


The  South  London  Cemetery  comprises  fifty  acres  of  dry 
well-drained  land,  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  within 
the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis.  It  is  situate  at  Nunhead, 
between  Peckham  Rye  and  New  Cross.  The  grounds  are 
most  tastefully  laid  out — there  are  handsome  lodges,  a  resi- 
deuce  for  the  superintendent,  episcopal  and  dissenters' 
chapels,  and  extensive  catacombs.  The  architectural  ar 
rangements  were  superintended  by  Mr.  Runnings. 

The  West  of  London  Cemetery,  situate  at  Earl's  Court, 
consists  of  about  forty  acres.  The  buildings,  &c.  in  the 
Italian-Doric  style,  are  of  a  similar  character  to  those  pre- 
viously described,  and  the  grounds  arc  laid  out  in  the 
pleasure-garden  manner,  so  popular  with  those  who  have 
the  man.agement  and  designing  of  Cemeteries.  It  would  he 
well,  were  a  few  hints  taken  from  the  solemn,  beautiful 
tmrial-places  of  the  Orientals,  in  laying  out  such  establish- 
ments in  this  country. 

CENOTAPH  (from  the  Greek,  Ksvorac^tov)  an  honorary 
monument  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  dead,  when  the 
funeral  rites  have  been  performed  in  some  other  place. 

CENTAUR,  in  heathen  mythology,  a  fabulous  monster, 
with  the  head  and  breast  of  a  man,  and  the  body  of  a  horse. 

CENTERING,  the  act  of  making  a  centre,  or  the  centre 
itself     See  Centre. 

Centering  to  Trimmers,  the  centre  made  to  support 
a  brick  arch  suspended  between  the  wooden  trimmer  and 
the  wall,  for  supporting  the  hearth  or  slab. 

CENTRE,  or  Center,  (Greek,  Kevrpov,  a  point,  or  pun c- 
tiire,)  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  a  point  equally  remote  from 
the  extremes  of  a  line,  figm-e,  or  body;  or  the  middle  of  a 
line,  or  plane,  bv  which  a  figure  or  V)ody  is  divided  into  tuo 
equal  parts;  or  the  middle  point,  so  dividing  a  line,  plane,  or 
solid,  that  some  certain  efleets  are  equal  on  all  its  sides. 

CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY,  that  point  at  which  all  the 
•weight  of  a  mass  might  be  collected,  without  disturbing 
the  equilibrium  of  any  system  of  which  the  mass  forms  a 
part.  Thus,  if  a  lever  were  balanced  by  means  of  two  solid 
spheres  of  uniform  density  hung  at  the  ends,  the  equilibrium 
would  still  remain,  if  all  the  matter  of  either  of  the  spheres 
could  be  concentrated  at  its  centre.  The  centre  of  the 
sphere  is  then  its  centre  of  gravitv. 

CENTRE  OF  PRESSURE,  the  point  at  which  the  whole 
amoimt  of  pressure  may  be  applied,  with  the  same  etlect  as 
it  has  when  distributed. 

CENTRE,  in  building,  is  a  combination  of  timber-beams, 
so  disposed  as  to  form  a  frame,  the  convex  side  of  which, 
when  boarded  over,  corresponds  to  the  concavity  of  an  arch ; 
or  the  wooden  mould,  used  for  turning  an  arch  of  stone  or 
brick  during  the  time  of  erection. 

Centre  of  a  cylindric  or  cylindroidal  arch,  which  rises 
more  than  the  breadth  of  a  plank,  is  a  numlier  of  boards 
supported  transversely  by  one  or  more  vertical  frames,  or 
trusses,  as  the  length  of  the  cylinder,  or  that  of  its  axis, 
may  require. 

Centre  for  a  groined  arch  upon  a  rectangular  plan  is  thus 
constructed:  Make  the  centre  for  one  of  the  cylinders,  or 
cylindroids,  viz.  that  of  the  greatest  diameter,  when  there 
i.s  a  difl^ercnce,  as  if  there  had  been  no  other  cylinder  crossing 
it;  find  out  the  places  on  the  surface  of  this  cylindric  or 
cylindroidal  centre,  where  the  surface  of  the  transverse  vault 
woidd  intersect :  fix  the  whole  ribs  on  the  cross  vault,  and 
parts  of  ribs  on  the  surfiice  of  the  vault  already  completed, 
observing  to  keep  the  outer  edge  of  these  ribs  the  thickness 
of  the  boards  wi  hin  the  intended  surface  of  the  iutrados  of 
the  arch;  when  this  transverse  vault  is  boarded  over,  the 
boards  will  intersect  the  lines  drawn  on  the  first  centre, 
and  the  surfaces  of  the  boards  of  each  vault  will  form  the 


CEN 


137 


CEN 


true  surface  of  the  groined  centre,  on  which  the  stone  or 
brick  arch  is  to  be  turned. 

'Ihe  frames  or  trusses  wliich  support  the  lioardiiig  ai'c 
frequently  called  rihs ;  and  the  short  ribs  which  are  fixed 
to  the  boarding,  and  made  to  range  with  the  whole  ribs,  are 
called  jack-ribs. 

Under  the  word  Stone-Bridge,  &c.,  the  theory  and 
construction  of  arches  will  be  described  ;  in  the  present 
article  we  propose  to  show  how  the  arch-stones  are  supported 
till  the  arch  is  conipleted  ;  and  the  most  conmiodious  and 
least  expensive  manner  in  which  this  can  be  accomplished. 

The  projier  construction  of  such  supports,  or  the  best  mode 
of  framing  the  centres  for  large  works,  has  always  been 
considered  so  important  a  subject,  that  it  has  occupied  the 
attention,  and  exercised  the  talents,  of  the  most  eminent 
engineers  and  architects.  The  principal  object  to  be  kept 
in  view  is,  to  fix  the  various  parts  of  the  centering  in  such 
a  manner,  as  to  support,  without  change  of  shape,  the  weight 
of  the  materials  that  are  to  come  upon  them,  throughout  the 
whule  progress  of  the  work,  from  the  springing  of  the  arch 
to  the  fixing  of  the  key -stone.  This  object  has  not  always 
been  sufficiently  attended  to  by  the  professional  men,  either 
of  this,  or  of  other  countries;  for  in  many  instances  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  centres  of  bridges,  from  the  injudi- 
cious piinciples  of  their  construction,  have  changed  their 
shape  considerably,  or  entirely  failed,  before  the  arch  was 
complete  ;  and  in  con.scquenee  of  change  of  shape  only,  the 
arches  built  upon  them  have  varied,  both  in  form  and  strength, 
from  the  intention  of  the  engineer.  In  the  large  works  of 
this  kind,  however,  creeled  in  Great  Britain,  our  best  engineers 
have  constructed  their  centres  on  principles  calculated  to  sup- 
port eveiy  weight,  and  resist  every  strain  to  which  thev 
might  be  expused. 

•'The  qualities  of  a  good  centre,"  says  Tredgold,  "consist 
in  its  being  a  suflieient  support  for  the  weight  or  pressure 
of  the  arch-stones,  without  any  sensible  change  of  form 
throughout  the  progress  of  the  work,  from  the  springing  of 
the  areh  to  the  fixing  of  the  key-stone.  It  should  be  capable 
of  lieing  ea>iiy  and  safely  removed,  and  designed  so  that  it 
nuiy  be  erected  at  a  comparatively  small  expense." 

Ihe  centre  of  a  large  vault,  as  that  of  a  bridge,  is  con- 
stiiicted  of  trusses  di.sposed  equidistantly  in  vertical  parallel 
planes,  and  boarded  over  so  that  the  convexity  of  the  boarding 
may  coincide  with  the  intended  internal  intrados  of  the  arch. 
Ihe  distance  of  the  riljs  luay  be  disposed  at  from  three  to 
eight  feet,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  boarding  and 
Weight  of  the  areh.  In  very  large  works,  a  bridging  is  laid 
for  every  course  of  arch-stones,  with  blockings  between,  to 
keep  them  at  regular  distances.  The  ring-stones  do  not 
always  rest  upon  these  bridgings  ;  planks  being  sometimes 
put  between,  that  they  may  be  cut  away  afterwards,  to 
separate  the  centre  and  the  intrados  from  each  other,  in  order 
to  ascertain  whether  there  are  any  settlements,  to  repair  the 
damages,  and  put  the  arch  in  a  s;ate  of  equilibrium. 

\\  here  the  river  is  not  na\  igable,  the  trusses  may  be  con- 
structed with  a  beam  at  the  bottom  :  in  this  case,  there  is  no 
diHiculty.  The  forms  for  the  trusses  of  roofs  with  tie-beams, 
may  form  the  grand  or  principal  part  of  the  truss  for  the 
centre.  But  when  the  river  is  navigable,  the  centre  requires 
as  large  an  opening  as  is  consistent  with  its  strength,  in 
order  that  vessels  may  pass  under  it;  and  as  the  horizontal 
tie  is  interrupted,  this  disposition  of  the  timbers  will  require 
much  greater  skill  in  the  carpenter. 

If  the  river  over  which  a  bridge  is  to  be  built  be  not 
navigable,  the  manner  of  constructing  the  centre  is  so  easv, 
that  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  give  any  examples  here; 
but  where  the  river  is  navigable,  instead  of  the  horizontal 

"is 


tie,  a  numberof  ties  are  disposed  around  the  polygon,  forming 
the  interior  part  of  the  centre  ;  but  as  in  many  practical  cases 
the  most  judicious  and  well-skilled  theorist  might  be  deceived' 
as  to  the  equilibrium  of  the  arch  to  be  supported,  or  the 
points  in  which  it  has  the  most  tendency  to  fall,  it  would  be 
very  difficult  to  say  what  are  ties  and  what  arc  strutts ;  and 
even  if  the  true  pressure  of  the  arch  could  be  ascertained, 
the  knowledge  of  this  alone  would  not  be  sufficient ;  for  the 
same  parts  of  the  vaults,  in  the  process  of  execution,  vaiy 
their  pressure  in  every  succeeding  additional  part,  arid  what 
was  a  tie  at  one  time,  becomes  sometimes  a  strutt;  while  a 
strutt,  on  the  contrary,  will  become  a  tic,  either  in  building, 
or  at  the  completion  of  the  vault.  This  ought  to  be  well 
considered  ;  and  where  the  pressure  is  doubtful,  or  any  of 
the  lengths  of  timber  forming  the  centre  are  ascertained 
to  be  in  the  two  diftercnt  states  above  mentioned,  such 
timbers  should  be  made  to  act  in  either  case. 

Though  the  timbers  upon  which  the  vault  immediately 
rests,  cannot  be  supported  transversely  throughout,  the  other 
pieces,  which  support  the  areh  from  the  several  pressing 
points,  nuiy  all  be  made  to  act,  by  a  judicious  arrangement, 
in  the  direction  of  their  lengths.  The  abutting  joints,  which 
are  pressed,  will  be  sufficiently  resisted,  when  their  shoulders 
are  made  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  their  force,  and 
with  the  small  tenon;  but  if  the  timbers  are  drawn  in  a 
direction  of  their  length,  the  joints  ought  to  be  strapped. 

The  beauty  of  every  truss  is  to  have  as  few  quadrilaterals 
as  possible.  All  the  openings  should  be  triangles  :  the  inter- 
section of  the  timber  should  be  as  direct  as  possible.  Oblique 
directions  exert  prodigious  strains,  which  require  timbers 
of  very  large  sections  to  withstand  them,  and  press  upon  the 
abutments  so  much  as  to  make  the  whole  truss  sag  by  the 
compression  of  the  intermediate  joggles. 

If  proper  attention  be  paid  to  these  circumstances,  and 
the  bearings  of  the  timbers  be  well  ascertained,  a  centre, 
constructed  upon  .such  principles,  must  answer  its  intended 
purpose,  provided  a  proper  estimate  be  taken  of  the  com- 
municating forces  during  the  execution  of  the  vault,  and  the 
centre  be  well  secured  at  its  abutment. 

A  centre  for  the  arch  of  a  bridge  over  a  navigable  river, 
may  either  be  accomplished  with  one  centre  around  the 
interior  of  the  entire  arch,  supported  between  the  piers;  or, 
if  the  span  of  the  arch  will  admit,  the  aperture  may  be  sub- 
divided into  two  or  more  apertures,  by  one  or  more  supporters, 
each  consisting  of  one  or  more  posts  of  wood,  braced  together 
when  necessary  ;  these  supporters,  together  w-ith  the  sides 
of  the  stone  piers,  support  the  centre  of  the  aperture,  on 
which  the  stone  arch  is  to  be  erected  over  the  whole.  By  this 
mode,  the  centering  is  much  more  simple  in  its  constinction 
and  requires  fewer  timbers,  and  these  of  smaller  scantlings 
than  when  made  in  one  centre. 

If  a  centre  be  truly  constructed,  every  point  of  the  vault 
to  be  built  ought  to  be  supported,  without  giving  any  trans- 
verse strain  to  the  incumbent  part  of  the  centre  :  but  this  is 
impracticable  ;  for,  as  it  would  require  a  multiplicity  of  joints, 
it  would,  from  the  shrinking  of  the  timber,  be  less  sufficient 
than  if  composed  of  few  pieces,  supporting  only  a  certain 
number  of  points  disposed  at  judicious  distances,  leaving  the 
intervals  to  be  supported  by  timbers  in  which  the  super- 
incumbent part  of  the  arch  might  act  transversely,  but  still 
presenting  such  a  resistance,  as  not  to  be  materially  bent  or 
put  out  of  form  by  the  load  of  the  arch  above. 

By  these  precautions,  the  centre  will  be  constructed  so  as 
not  to  yield,  or  give  way,  though  the  load  should  vary  during 
the  erection  of  the  arch,  and  will  stand  as  firm  as  if  the 
whole  had  been  constructed  out  of  a  single  solid  :  the  only 
thing  to  be  attended  to,  as  before  observed,  being  to  make 


CEN 


138 


CEN 


the  timbers  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  either  tension 
or  compression. 

There  are  several  other  principles  of  constructing  the  ribs 
of  cintcjing ;  one  of  tiie-^e  may  be  that  of  a  large  truss, 
spanning  the  wliole  opening,  having  its  vertex  supporting 
the  summit  of  the  arch,  and  its  rafters,  or  principal  braces, 
supporting  other  suboidinate  trusses  which  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  arch  at  t)ther  intermediate  points. 

Of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  bridge  of  Orleans,  by  M.  Hupeau, 
one  of  the  boldest  centres  ever  executed  in  Europe.  Another 
principle  is  that  of  two  independent  trusses,  one  supporting 
the  sides  or  haunches  of  the  arch,  and  the  other  the  crown. 
Of  this  construction  was  the  centering  of  the  nave  and  tran- 
sej>ts  of  St.  Peter's  church,  at  Rome,  by  Michael  Angelo,  and 
two  centres  by  Pilot.  Another  principle  of  centering  is  that 
of  iiiscribed  ecjuilateral  pojvgons;  that  is,  the  exterior  beams, 
supporting  the  curve,  are  of  equal  lengths,  and  joined  toge- 
ther in  the  form  of  a  polygon:  another  polygon  is  formed 
within  this,  having  its  angles  in  the  middle  of  the  sides  of  the 
former,  and  so  on,  alternately,  until  there  are  as  many  poly- 
gons inscribed  as  will  make  the  centering  sufficii-ntlv  strong 
or  stirt".  This  mode  of  <-enteriug  may  be  of  two  kinds:  one, 
when  the  angles  are  fixed  at  their  junction  to  the  sides  of  the 
last  polv gon  with  bolts ;  bridles,  or  double  truss-pieces,  being 
put  over  the  angles  to  prevent  a  transverse  strain  at  the  sec- 
tion of  the  limbers  where  the  two  pieces  meet,  and  to  support 
the  ciu've  above.  The  other  kind  is,  when  the  polygons  act 
independently  of  each  other;  these  polygons  are  brought  into 
action  by  bridles,  which  support  the  curve,  and  act  upon  the 
angular  I  (lints  of  each  other's  polygon.  Of  this  kind  were 
the  centeiing  of  the  bridges  of  Cravant,  Nogent,  Mayence, 
and  Neuiliy.  constructed  by  Perronet.  Though  these  center- 
ings have  been  executed  to  very  large  spans,  the  last  men- 
tioned bi'ing  1"20  feet,  their  equilibiium  is  by  no  means  so 
secure  as  when  the  angles  of  the  inner  polygon  are  fastened 
to  that  imn\ediately  |ireceding,  as  is  evident  from  the  infor- 
mation given  of  the  erection  of  these  bridges,  by  the  ingenious 
architect  who  has  favoured  the  world  with  a  treatise  on  this 
subjf-ct. 

Another  principle  of  centering  is  that  of  Westminster  and 
Blackfriars  biidges,  London.  They  consist  of  a  series  of 
trusses,  each  supporting  a  point  in  the  arch,  the  principal 
braces  having  their  lower  cxtreinities  abutting  below,  at  each 
end  of  the  centering,  on  the  striking-plates,  and  at  the  upper 
end,  upon  apron-pieces,  which  are  bolteil  to  the  curve  that 
supports  l)ridgiiigs  for  binding  the  pieces  which  compose  them 
together  at  their  junction.  There  is  one  disadvantage  under 
which  this  mode  labours ;  that  is,  the  frequent  intersection  of 
the  principal  braces  with  each  other :  they  must  either  be 
halved  one  upon  the  other,  otherwise  they  must  be  discon- 
tiinied,  and  made  in  various  lengths.  Both  these  modes 
diminish  their  lateral  strength,  and  conse(|uently  make  them 
much  more  liable  to  buckle  than  when  whole;  but  of  the  two, 
that  of  halving  is  to  be  preferred  ;  as  by  the  braces  being  in 
one  length,  there  can  be  no  sagging  occasioned  by  interme- 
diate joggles,  and  the  braces  may  be  rendered  sufficiently 
secure,  laterally,  by  rinining  straps  longitudinally  across 
the  notched  jiait  on  each  side,  bolting  these  straps  to  the 
braces. 

La>tly,  another  mode  of  centering  may  be  that  of  a  number 
of  quadrilateral  frames  abutting  on  each  other,  having  their 
joints  radiating  to  a  centre,  in  the  nuinner  of  the  wedge-stones 
of  an  arch  in  masonry.  'J'hese  fraines  should  all  be  resolved 
into  triangles  by  one  or  two  diaj^ouals,  according  to  the  kind 
of  strain,  keeping. in  view  that  a  piece,  which  is  a  tie  in  one 
diagonal,  is,  in  rhe  other  diagonal  of  the  same  quadrilateral, 
a  -strutt ;  but  if  tlic  kind  of  strain  on  any  frame  be  not  well 


ascertained,  it  would  bo  better  to  place  two  diagonals,  halved 
upon  each  other.  The  frames  are  to  be  secured  with  keys  or 
bolts,  and  by  this  precaution  each  frame  will  be  rendered 
quite  immovable. 

The  general  principle  of  construction  is  a  scries  of  trian 
gles,  of  which  every  two  are  connected  by  a  common  side. 

Plate  I.,  Fifiure  1.  Let  a  b  c  d  e  f  g  be  the  curve  of  an 
arch  which  requires  a  centre  ;  let  the  points  a,  b,  c,  &c.,  be 
connected  so  as  to  form  the  cfjuilateral  polygon,  a  n  c  d  e  f  g, 
and  join  a  c,  c  e,  and  e  o  ;  the  timbers  thus  disposed  will 
form  three  triangles,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  so  many 
solids,  revolvable  about  the  angular  points  a,  c,  e,  g;  sup- 
pose now,  that  these  are  to  be  in  equilibrium,  the  smallest 
liiree  on  either  side  would  throw  it  down,  and  therefore, 
without  other  connecting  timbers,  it  would  be  unlit  for  the 
purpose  of  a  centre. 

Fiiinre'2.  Let  AncDEFobe  the  curve  of  an  arch  which 
requires  a  centre  ;  first,  form  the  equilateral  polygon,  a  B  c  D 
E  F  G,  with  the  timbers  A  B,  B  c,  c  D,  i.^c.,  and  fix  the  timbers 
A  c,  c  K,  E  G,  as  before,  which  will  form  three  triangles 
movable  round  a,  c.  b,  g  ;  let  the  timbers  b  d  and  d  f  bt 
fastened,  and  thus  the  whole  will  be  immutable  ;  so  that  it 
supported  at  the  points  a  and  g,  and  a  force  applied  at  any 
other  of  the  angles  b,  c,  d,  or  f,  the  timbers  will  be  all  in  a 
state  of  tension,  or  in  a  st-ite  of  compression,  and  the  whole 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  solid  body  ;  for  suppose  the  trian<;le 
A  b  c  to  be  supported  at  the  points  a  and  b,  the  point  c,  and 
the  other  two  sides,  b  c,  c  a,  will  be  fixed  ;  and  because  b  c  d 
is  a  triangle,  and  the  points  b  and  c  are  fixed,  the  point  n, 
and  consequently  the  sides  c  d  and  d  b  ;  in  like  maimer,  since 
c  D  E  is  a  triangle,  and  the  points  c  and  d  fixed,  the  point  e 
will  also  be  fixeil,  and  therefore  the  sides  D  E  and  e  c.  The 
same  may  be  shown,  in  like  manner,  for  the  points  f  and  o. 
Suppose,  then,  two  equal  and  opposite  forces  applied  at  the 
points  A  and  g,  in  the  plane  of  the  figure,  the  figure  can 
neither  be  extended  out,  nor  compressed  together.  1  he 
pieces  a  h,  h  b,  and  o  i,  i  f.  are  of  no  other  use  than  to  make 
the  centre  stand  firmly  on  its  base.  This  disposition  of  the 
timbers  will  cause  them  to  occupy  the  least  possible  space. 

If  the  timbers  are  fi.ved  at  the  points,  k,  I,  m,  «,  o,  p. 
Figure  2,  the  same  immutability  of  figure  may  be  demon- 
strated ;  for,  suppose  the  points  a  and  ii  to  be  fixed,  the 
point  k  will  also  be  fixed  ;  the  points  a  and  k  being  fixed,  the 
point  B  of  the  Iriansle  \k\i;  again,  the  points  b  and  k  being 
fixed,  the  point  /  will  also  be  fixed  :  in  the  same  manner,  all 
the  renuiining  points,  c,  m,  d,  ji,  e,  o,  f,  p,  g,  i,  w  ill  be  proved 
to  bo  stationiiiy  in  respect  of  the  points  a,  h  ;  and  the  whole 
figure  being  kept  in  equilibrio  by  any  three  forces,  acting  in 
the  plane  of  the  figure,  at  any  three  angles,  the  action  of  the 
forces  will  only  tend  to  compress  or  extend  the  tiniliers  in  a 
direction  of  their  length. 

In  the  construction  of  this  truss,  the  triangular  parts  may 
be  constructed  all  in  the  same  plaiu-,  as  in  Figure  1  ;  and  the 
pieces  n  d  and  u  f  may  be  halved  upon  the  pieces  c  a  and 
E  g;  but  the  utmost  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  the  several 
pieces  concurring  at  each  of  the  anghs,  by  bolting  or  iron 
straps,  as  no  dependence  can  be  put  in  any  such  joint  without 
iron:  but  perhaps  the  best  method  of  any  is  to  halve  the 
thickness  of  the  pieces  a  c,  c  e,  e  o,  at  the  points  c  and  e, 
and  also  the  pieces  a  b,  b  c  ;  c  d,  d  e;  e  f,  f  g  ;  at  the  points 
u,  D,  f:  then  bolting  the  ends  a  and  c  of  the  pieces  b  a,  b  c, 
the  ends  c  and  e  of  the  pieces  d  c  and  n  e,  and  the  ends  e 
and  G  of  the  pieces  f  e  and  f  g,  and  then  fixing  double 
braces  n  D,  D  F,  that  is,  fixing  b  d  upon  one  side  of  tin-  truss, 
and  another  upon  the  other  side  of  the  truss,  opposite  to  it, 
also  fixing  d  f  ujion  one  side,  and  another  opposite  to  it. 
The  disposition  of  the  timbers  forming  only  a  series  of 


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quadrilaterals,  gives  nothing  but  immutability  of  figure.  It 
can  only  derive  its  stillness  from  the  resistance  of  the 
jdints. 

Figure  3  shows  the  manner  of  forming  a  centre  b}'  two 
polygons,  of  which  the  interior  one  is  secured  to  the  exterior: 
in  this  there  is  no  occasion  for  double  trussing-pieces,  as  the 
parts  of  the  inscribed  polygon  act  either  as  strutts  or  tics  to 
that  of  the  circumscribing  one. 

Fif/uir  4  is  the  manner  of  forming  the  rib  for  a  centre,  by 
two  independent  trusses;  in  this  form  of  centering  there  is 
no  occasion  for  bridles,  or  double  trussing-pieces,  as  in  those 
of  Pitot,  of  the  same  construction. 

Fitjiire  5  is  the  manner  of  constructing  a  centre,  according 
to  Perronet,  with  four  polygons,  independent  of  each  other, 
but  with  this  improvement,  that  the  lower  extremities  of  each 
ring  of  polygons  are  framed  into  the  two  abutments  ;  this 
gives  a  nuicli  firmer  base  than  if  they  were  all  to  meet  at  the 
same  place,  and  renders  the  centre -much  stronger,  by  making 
the  angles  more  acute.  In  this  it  becomes  also  necessary  to 
have  bridles,  otherwise  the  exterior  polygon  only  would  be 
effective. 

Figure  G  is  the  manner  of  constructing  a  centre  with  three 
polygons,  which  are  all  secured  to  each  other.  In  this,  truss- 
pieces  become  necessary,  otherwise  the  angles  of  the  inner 
polygon  would  bend  the  sides  of  that  next  to  it. 

Plate  I!.,  Figure  1,  is  the  design  of  a  centre,  its  principle 
being  that  of  two  roofs  intersecting  each  other.  In  this 
example,  the  forces  which  are  eoinmuaieated  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  frame  are  resisted  longitudinally,  either  by  com- 
pression or  extension  ;  and  no  force  is  exerted  transversely 
on  any  part,  excepting  the  curved  pieces  in  contact  with  the 
boarding  supporting  the  arch-stones. 

Figure  'i  is  the  design  of  a  centre ;  it  is  first  framed  in  one 
large  truss,  like  a  common  roof,  with  two  principal  rafters, 
and  a  collar-beam  ;  each  of  the  rafters  becomes  a  tie  for  the 
two  small  trusses  above,  which  are  framed  in  the  manner  of 
a  roof,  with  qui^eii-posts  and  braces.  The  lower  angles  of 
the  principal  rafters  are  braced  from  the  lower  queen-post-;  to 
the  posts.  Tills  truss  is  free  from  transverse  strains  in  all 
its  parts,  e.xccpt  the  curve,  which  supports  the  arch-stones  ; 
^nd,  if  well  secured  at  the  abutments,  an  arch  of  imnieiise 
weight  may  be  sustained  by  it. 

Figure  3  is  I  he  celebrated  centre  used  at  Blackfriars 
Bridge.     The  names  of  the  timbers  are  as  follows  : 

A.  Timbers  which  suppcjrt  the  centering. 

B,  c.   Upper  and  lower  striking-plates,  cased  with  copper. 

D.  Wedge  between  striking-plates,  for  lowering  the 
centre. 

E.  Double  trussing-pieces,  to  confine  braces. 
F  Apron-pieces,  to  strengthen  rib  of  centre. 
G.    Bridgings  laid  on  the  back  of  the  ribs. 

n.  Blocks  between  bridgings,  to  keep  them  at  equal  dis- 
tances. 

I.  Small  braces,  to  confine  the  ribs  tight. 

K.  Iron  straps  bolted  to  trussing-pieces  and  apron-pieces. 

L.  Ends  of  beam  at  the  feet  of  truss-pieces. 

M.  Principal  braces. 

The  centre  used  at  Westminster  Bridge  was  formed  by- 
independent  trusses,  consisting  of  two  rafters ;  the  intersec- 
tions all  supposed  to  be  halved  together,  and  firmly  strapped 
across  the  notchings.  Double  truss-pieces  were  also  used, 
but  for  these  there  was  evidently  no  occjision,  as  the  pres- 
sure would  be  directed  to  the  abutments,  or  to  two  opposite 
points  of  the  arch  in  the  same  level. 

The  annexed  plate  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  centering 
of  one  of  the  arches  of  Waterloo  Bridge.  This  magnificent 
bridge  was  built  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Mr.  John 


Rennie,  and  is  a  noble  specimen  of  simplicity  of  design,  skil- 
ful arrangement,  and  solidity  of  execution.  The  centre  was 
composed  of  eight  frames  or  trusses,  and,  though  somewhat 
complLi-ated,  was  on  the  whole  a  judici(jus  combination  ;  ex- 
hibiting rather  an  excess  than  a  deficiency  of  strength. 

In  the  erection  of  Chester  Bridge,  finished  in  1832,  an 
entirely  diircreiit  principle  was  adopted  in  the  construction 
and  the  mode  of  relieving  the  centre;  it  is  thus  described  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Vol.  I.  :— 

•'The  centre  on  which  the  stupendous  arch  of  Chester  new 
bridge  was  raised,  and  which  is  stated  by  J[r.  Hartley,  (the 
engineer  of  the  bridge,)  to  have  been  exclusively  designed  by 
Mr.  Trubshaw,  claims  a  detailed  notice,  from  the  novelty  of 
the  principle  it  was  formed  on,  the  eflieiency  with  which  it 
did  its  work,  and  the  economy  that  attended  its  use.  The 
centre  consisted  of  si.x  ribs  in  width,  and  the  span  of  the  arch 
was  divided  into  four  spaces  by  means  of  three  nearly  equi- 
distant piers  of  stone  built  in  the  river,  from  which  the  tim- 
bers spread  fan-like  towards  the  soffit,  so  as  to  take  their 
load  endwise.  The  lower  extremities  of  these  radiating 
beams  rested  in  cast-iron  shoe-plates  on  the  tops  of  the  piers, 
and  the  upijer  ends  were  bound  together  by  two  thicknesses 
of  4-inch  planking  bending  round,  as  nearly  as  they  could  bo 
made,  in  the  true  curve  of  the  arch.  On  the  rim  thus  fi)rnied, 
the  lagging,  or  covering,  which  was  4^  inches  thick,  was 
supported  over  each  rib  by  a  pair  of  folding  wedges,  15  or 
16  inches  long,  by  10  or  12  inches  broad,  and  tapering  about 
1|-  inch;  for  every  course  of  arch-stones  in  the  bridge,  there 
were  therefore  six  pairs  of  strikinu:  wedges.  The  horizontal 
timber  of  the  centre  was  only  13  inches  deep,  and  the  six 
ribs  were  tied  together  transversely  near  the  top,  by  thorough 
bolts  of  inch  iron,  but  with  a  view  not  to  weaken  and  injure 
the  timber  more  than  was  absolutely  necessary-,  the  least  pos- 
sible of  iron  was  used." 

This  centre  thus  differs  essentially  from  any  other  hitherto 
employed  ;  each  rib,  instead  of  forming  one  connected  piece 
of  frame-work,  consisting  in  this  of  four  independent  parts, 
and  hardly  any  transverse  strain  has  to  be  resisted.  It  has 
also  this  advantage,  that  the  bearings  may  be  gradually  re- 
lieved, or  tightened  at  one  place,  and  slackened  at  another, 
as  may  be  necessary,  because  the  wedges  are  in  this  construc- 
tion borne  by  the  centre,  instead  of  the  centre  being  borne  by 
the  wedges. 

In  striking  centres  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  be  able  to 
sufler  them  to  rest  at  any  part  of  the  operation  ;  for  it  is 
important  that  the  arch  in  taking  its  proper  bearing  do  not 
acquire  any  sensible  degree  of  velocity,  or  settle  too  rapidly. 
The  centre,  says  Alberti,  should  always  be  eased  a  little  as 
soon  as  the  arch  is  completed,  in  order  that  the  arch-stones 
may  take  their  proper  bearings  bcfiire  the  mortar  becomes 
hard.  If  the  mortar  be  suffered  to  dry  befcjre  the  centre  be 
lowered,  the  arch  w-iU  break  at  the  joints  in  settling,  and  the 
connection  of  the  arch  will  be  destroj-ed.  In  small  centres, 
the  wedges  are  driven  back  with  mauls,  men  being  stationed 
at  each  pair  of  wedges  for  th;it  purpose.  But  in  larger  works 
a  beam  is  mounted,  as  a  battering-ram,  to  drive  the  wedge- 
formed  blocks  back.  The  French  engineers,  in  removing 
centres,  destroy,  by  little  and  little,  the  ends  of  the  principal 
supports  ;  a  work  "of  difficulty,  as  well  as  danger,  and  which 
cannot  be  done  with  so  much  regularity  in  this  way  as  by 
wedges.  See  Iron  Bridge,  Stoue  Bridge,  and  Suspension 
Bridge. 

Centre,  in  geometry,  a  point  in  a  figure  or  solid,  such  that 
if  any  straight  line  be  supposed  to  pass  through  the  point 
until  it  terminate  on  both  sides  of  the  figure  or  solid,  the  line 
will  be  bisected.   Figures  of  this  property  are  infinite.    Some 


CHA 


140 


CHA 


of  them  are  the  circle,  ellipsis,  parallelograms,  of  every 
species,  &c. ;  ami  some  solids  of  this  nature  are  the  sphere, 
spheroids,  pariilJclupipeds,  &c. 

in  a  circle,  the  centre  is  everywhere  at  an  equal  distance 
from  the  circumference.  In  a  sjihere,  the  centre  is  every- 
where at  the  same  distance  from  the  surface.  In  the  ellipsis, 
any  two  straight  lines  passing  through  the  centre,  terminat- 
ing at  each  end  on  the  circumference,  and  making  equal 
angles  with  either  axis,  are  equal  ;  or  the  four  lines  drawn 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  are  equal.  The  same 
property  applies  to  the  opposite  hyperbolas. 

Centres  of  a  Door,  two  pivots,  round  which  the  door  is 
made  to  revolve. 

CENTROLINEAD,  an  instrument  for  drawing  converg- 
ing lines,  when  the  point  of  intellect  ion  is  inaccessible. 

'CE.NTRY:GAKTiI,  an  old  English  term  for  a  burial- 
ground. 

CEROFERARIUM,  a  candlestick  used  to  hold  the  paschal 
taper. 

CEROMA,  the  anointing-room  in  .incient  baths  and 
gymnasia. 

CESTOPIIORI,  sculptures  of  females  bearing  the  cestus, 
or  marriage-girdle. 

CKSSPOOL.     See  Sesspool. 

CH.\IN-TliIBER,  in  brick  houses  a  timber  of  larger 
dimensions  than  common  bond,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
height  of  the  story,  for  strengthening  the  building ;  the 
scantling  of  chain-timber  is  8  inches  by  5  inches,  or  Sc- 
inches by  5^  inches,  viz.,  equal  to  the  length  and  breadth  of 
a  brick. 

CIIALCIDICiE,  a  large  magnificent  hall,  belonging  to  a 
tribimal,  or  court  of  justice.  Vitruvius  employs  the  term  for 
the  auditory  of  a  basilica;  and  other  ancic-nt  writers  use  it 
for  an  .'ipartmcnt  in  which  the  gods  were  supposed  to  sup. 

CHALICE,  the  cup  used  to  contain  the  wine  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist.  In  early  ages,  chalices  were  made 
of  glass,  wood,  or  horn;  but  in  the  council  of  Rheims, 
A.  D.  847,  the  materials  for  the  chalice  were  restricted  to 
gold  or  silver.  The  rim  of  the  chalice  should  never  turn 
over. 

CHALK,  an  opaque  mineral,  of  a  yellowish  white,  or 
rather  of  a  snow  colour,  of  a  fine  earthy  fracture,  without 
lustre,  breaking  into  blunt-edged  angular  fragments  ;  when 
contaminated  with  iron,  it  has  more  or  less  of  an  ochrey 
tinge,  and  stains  the  fingers  ;  but  when  pure  it  is  very  soft 
and  almost  friable,  gives  a  white  streak,  has  a  meagre  fee], 
and  adheres  to  the  tongue.  It  effervesces  violently  with 
acids;  and  when  mixed  with  iron  becomes  harder  and 
heavier:  its  specific  gravity  varies  from  2 '4  to  2 '6.  It 
occurs  generally  in  a  mass,  sometimes  disseminated,  or  invest- 
ing other  minerals. 

In  a  state  of  purity,  it  ap[)ears  to  be  oomposed  only  of 
water,  lime,  carbonic  acid,  and  a  small  quantity  of  alumine. 
Mr.  Kirwan  obtained  the  following  analysis: 

3  w-iter 
53  liiiie 
42  c:irb(iiiic  acid 

2  iiluiuiue 

100 

Clialk  occurs  in  thick  beds,  nearly  horizontal,  alternatnig 
with  thin  layers  of  fiint  nodules,  which  are  also  irregularly 
dispersed  through  its  substance,  it  contains  a  vast  quantity 
of  the  relics  of  disorganized  marine  bodies,  and  often  the 
hard  parts  of  amphibious  and  land  animals,  as  the  heads  and 
vertebric  of  crocodiles,  elepliants'  teeth,  &c. 


Chalk  beds  occur  frequently  in  the  east  and  south  pirts  of 
England,  in  the  north-east  of  France,  in  Poland,  and  in  .some 
parts  of  the  Danish  islands. 

Its  uses  are  numerous;  it  is  employed  in  walling  or  vault- 
ing, as  building-stone;  many  of  the  groins  or  vaults  of  our 
Gothic  churches  are  constructed  with  if,  it  is  also  employed 
in  the  composition  of  mortar,  in  countries  where  lime-stone 
is  less  abundant ;  and  when  well  burnt,  is  found  not  much 
inferior  to  lime-stone. 

CHAMBER,  (from  the  Latin  camera,  derived  from  the 
Greek  Kafiapa,  a  vault,  or  curve,)  a  va\ilted  apartment,  a  part 
of  a  lodging.  This  term  was  formerly  applied  to  any  room, 
and  sometimes  even  to  a  suite  of  apartments  ;  but  in  modern 
times  it  is  used  to  designate  rooms  ordinarily  intended  for 
sleeping  in.  The  proportion  of  its  horizontal  dimensions  may 
be  varied,  to  accommodate  different  circumstances,  which 
may  occur  either  in  the  form  of  a  building,  or  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  apartments,  froin  the  square  to  the  proportion,  of 
which  the  breadth  is  two-thirds  of  the  length  ;  its  altitude 
may  be  three-fourths  of  the  breadth.  The  word  originally 
implied  a  vaulted  apartment. 

In  building  bed-chamhers,  the  situation  of  the  bed,  as  well 
as  of  the  fire-place,  oiight  to  be  attended  to,  as  should  the 
disposition  of  the  windows,  when  they  can  be  shifted  without 
destroying  the  symmetry  of  the  exterior.  If  the  bed  and 
fire-place  be  opposite  to  each  other,  the  fire-place  may  be  in 
the  middle  of  its  (jwn  side;  but  if  it  should  be  found  neces- 
sary to  have  the  bed  on  the  same  side  of  the  room  with  the 
fire-place,  on  account  of  doors  or  windows,  or  both,  then  the 
chinmey  ought  to  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  remaining 
distance  between  the  bed  and  the  wall,  the  bed  being  sup- 
posed to  stand  at  one  extremity.  The  situation  of  doors 
may  be  the  same  as  in  other  apartments  ;  passage-doors 
should  be  within  about  two  feet  of  the  angle  of  the  room,  on 
whatever  side  they  are  made ;  and  may  either  be  on  the 
same  side  with  the  fire-place,  or  on  the  opposite  side  to  the 
fire-place,  or  in  the  return  side,  opposite  to  the  window,  next 
to  the  farther  corner  from  the  fire-side  of  the  room. 

The  bed  ought  to  be  so  placed  as  to  be  out  of  the  current 
of  air,  which  usually  rushes  from  the  door  to  the  fire-place. 

The  most  eligible,  figure  of  chambers,  for  furniture,  is  the 
rectangle  ;  though  sometimes  the  circle,  ellipsis,  or  octagon, 
may  be  allowed  to  some  particular  room,  fir  the  sake  of 
variety.  Besides  passage-doors,  it  is  convenient  for  cham- 
bers to  communicate  with  each  other,  or  with  a  dressing, 
room. 

Chamber  op  a  Lock,  in  inland  navigation,  the  space  be- 
tween the  gates,  in  which  a  boat  rises  and  sinks  from  one 
level  to  another,  in  order  to  pass  the  lock. 

Chambkr-Story,  a  story  of  a  house  appropriated  to  bed- 
rooms.  In  good  houses  it  should  never  be  less  than  10  fcer 
high;  and  in  mansions  12,  or  even  l.'i  feet  high.  Chambers 
should  not  be  too  high,  because  it  is  diflic\ilt  to  warm  them  : 
nor  too  low,  as  it  is  prejudicial  to  the  health. 

CHAMBERS,  SIR  VVILLIAM,  a  distinguished  architect, 
is  said  to  have  derived  his  descent  from  the  ancient  family  of 
Chalmers,  in  Scotland,  barons  of  Tartas,  in  France.  He  was 
born,  however,  at  Stockholm,  in  Sweden,  where  his  father 
had  resided  for  many  years,  in  order  to  prosecute  certain 
claims  he  had  on  the  government  of  that  country.  When  a 
very  young  man,  he  made  a  voyage  to  China,  as  supercargo 
in  the  service  of  the  Swedish  East  India  Company,  and  pro- 
bably  thus  acquired  his  taste  for  the  Asiatic  style  of  ornament. 
At  the  very  early  age  of  eighteen,  we  find  him  established  in 
London  asan  architect  anil  draughtsman,  in  which  capacities 
he  soon  acquired  considerable  reputation ;  and  obtaining  an 
introduction  to  Lord  Bute,  shortly  afterwards  was  appointed 


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through  that  nobleman's  influence  drawing-master  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  III. 

lie  was  einploved,  soon  after  the  accession  of  George  III., 
to  lay  out  the  gardens  at  Kew,  and  there  displayed,  without 
restraint,  his  predilection  for  the  Chinese  style,  both  of 
architecture  and  gardening,  decorating  the  royal  gardens  with 
numerous  temples,  pagudas,  and  other  Asiatic  buildings. 
Being  patronized  by  the  King  and  Princess-dowager,  he  was 
eujployed  as  architect  to  the  most  considerable  buildings  of 
the  day  ;  and  was  also  appointed  Surveyor-General  to  the 
Board  of  Works  in  Somerset  House,  a  situation  worth  at 
least  two  thousand  pounds  a  year.  Sir  William  died  in 
1*96,  leaving  a  large  fortune.  As  an  architect,  although  his 
taste  was  fantastic,  he  frequently  displayed  a  certain  gran- 
deur in  his  designs,  and  in  the  disposition  of  interior  arrange- 
ments particularly,  showed  considerable  ingenuity  and  prac- 
tical ability.  His  chef-cTcKuvres  are  his  staircases,  particularly 
that  in  the  Italian  villa  he  erected  for  the  Earl  of  Besborough, 
at  lit)ehampton ;  and  also  those  at  Lord  Gower's  and  the 
Koyal  Antiquarian  Society's. 

In  the  time  of  Sir  W.  Chambers,  pure  Greek  architecture 
was  oidy  beginning  to  be  known  in  England  ;  and  at  first  its 
introduction  was  not  much  favoured.  The  indiscriminate 
adoption  of  Greek  models  for  public  buildings  in  London  has 
filled  the  metropolis  with  structures  quite  unsuited  in  external 
form  to  improve  the  appeaiance  of  a  large  city,  and  often  ill 
adapted  in  their  internal  arrangements  to  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  designed.  Instead  of  large  masses  and  lofty 
buildings,  the  streets  of  London  are  crowded  with  mean 
porticos  and  pigmy  pillars,  attached  to  edifices  of  so  little 
elevation,  and  so  much  cut  up  into  small  parts,  as  to  suffer 
by  comparison  even  with  many  of  the  adjoining  houses. 

The  street-front  of  Somerset  House,  Chambeis's  best  work, 
is,  in  all  respects,  better  adapted  to  a  great  city,  than  the 
Greek  models  which  are  now  too  generally  adopted  ;  and  the 
river-front  forms  one  of  the  boldest  architectural  objects  in 
the  metropolis,  particularly  when  beheld  from  the  water. 
Its  extent  and  elevation,  and  the  majestic  bieadth  and  range 
of  its  terrace,  give  it  an  air  of  grandeur  exceedingly  striking 
and  imposing. 

The  works  published  by  Sir  William  Chambers  were — 
A  Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture,  of  which  a  new  edition,  by 
Joseph  Gwilt,  Esq.,  F.  S.  A.,  appeared  in  1824.  Plans, 
Elevations,  Sections  and  Perspective  Views  of  the  Gardens 
of  Kew ;  Chinese  Designs;  and  Chinese  Gardening.  His 
Treatise  on  Civil  Architecture,  though  prejudiced  against 
Grecian  architecture  in  favour  of  the  Roman,  is  an  excellent 
work. 

CHAMBRANLE,  the  border  of  stone,  or  the  wooden 
frame,  surrounding  the  three  sides  of  a  door,  window,  or 
chimney;  the  head  of  the  chambranle  is  called  the  traverse, 
and  the  two  sides,  the  ascendants. 

When  the  chambranle  is  plain,  it  is  called  a  band,  case,  or 
frame.  In  an  ordinary  door,  it  is  called  the  door-case;  in  a 
window,  the  windowframe;  in  the  latter  case,  it  comprehends 
also  the  sill.  When  the  chambranle  is  moulded  with  one  or 
more  faces,  and  bordered  outwardly  with  one  or  several 
mouldings,  it  is  called  an  architrave  ;  though  it  should  rather 
be  said  to  be  architrave-moulded,  being  only  an  imitation  of 
that  division  of  the  entablature  of  an  order. 

CHAMFERED,  Rustic.     See  Rustic. 

CHAMFERET,  a  half  scotia,  being  a  kind  of  furrow,  or 
gutter,  on  a  column  ;  called  also  slri.i:,  and  stria. 

CHAMFERING.  Ka^inTEiv,  to  bend,  the  act  of  cutting  the 
edge  of  anything,  which  was  originally  right-angled,  aslope, 
or  bevel ;  so  that  when  placed  in  its  destined  situation,  the 
plane    formed    by    this   cutting    may    be    inclined    to     the 


horizon,  while  the  other  parts  are  perpendicular  and  parallel 
to  it. 

A  chamfer  differs  from  a  splay  in  being  smaller,  and  in 
cutting  off  an  equal  portion  from  either  side.  In  Gothic 
architecture  chamfers  are  very  frequent,  and  are  often  orna- 
mented with  mouldings  and  foliage  at  their  terminations. 

CHAMP,  a  flat  suit'uce,  the  ground  of  relieved  sculpture,  " 
or  engraving. 

CIIAMPAIN  LINE,  a  conjunction  of  straight  lines, 
forming  indentations  similar  to  the  projecting  parts;  the  sides 
of  each  ascending  part,  which  are  also  the  sides  of  the  alter- 
nate indentations,  being  parallel  to  each  other ;  the  bottom  of 
each  indentation  being  formed  of  three  internal  angles,  and 
the  top  of  each  projecting  part  of  three  external  angles;  each 
ascendant  and  each  indentation  being  shaped  alike  on  both 
sides;  that  is,  the  corresponding  angles  and  lines,  whether  of 
the  ascendants,  or  in  the  depressions,  being  equal. 

CHANCEL,  that  part  of  a  church  which  is  appropriated 
to  the  clergy  and  others  officiating  in  the  public  services. 

The  term  comes  from  the  Latin,  cancellus,  which,  in  the 
lower  Latin,  is  used  in  the  same  sense,  from  cancelti,  lattices, 
or  cross-bars,  which  anciently  partitioned  the  chancel  from 
the  other  pai't  of  the  church. 

Externally,  the  chancel  is  distinguished  as  a  projection  at 
the  east  end,  of  smaller  dimensions  than  the  nave,  and  with- 
out aisles ;  so  that  when  the  body  of  the  church  is  accom- 
panied bv  aisles,  it  is  very  readily  recognized,  and  in  other 
cases  by  its  proportionate  dimensions.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  chancel  is  of  the  same  size  and  height  as  the  nave,  and 
the  aisles  are  continued  to  its  eastern  extremity  ;  but  even  in 
this  case  the  division  may  be  shown  by  means  of  a  belfry  on 
the  apex  of  the  roof  at  that  spot  or  by  some  other  such 
method  ;  in  some  instances  there  is  no  distinction  externally. 
Internally  the  chancel  is  usually  separated  from  the  nave  by 
a  lofty  arch,  in  the  spandrels  above  which  is  often  a  picture 
of  the  Last  Judgment ;  a  further  separation  is  effected  by  an 
ornamental  screen  of  wood  or  stone,  more  frequently  of  the 
former,  panelled  and  pierced  in  open  tracery,  surmounting 
which  was  in  former  times,  the  rood-loft,  or  gallery  in  which 
the  rood,  or  large  crucifix,  accompanied  by  the  images  of  the 
blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John,  was  placed,  facing  the  west  end 
of  the  church.  Here  the  level  of  the  flooring  was  raised  by 
one  or  more  steps,  and  again  before  you  arrive  at  the  plat- 
form on  which  stood  the  altar ;  in  one  or  two  cases  the  chancel 
is  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  nave,  but  these  are  purely 
exceptions. 

When  the  aisles  of  the  nave  are  continued  eastward,  the 
only  division  consists  of  the  screen  and  steps ;  but  the  dis- 
tinction will  be  effected  by  some  difference  in  the  roof,  or  by 
the  superior  quality  of  the  decoration.  In  such  cases  the 
aisles  are  partitioned  off  from  the  chancel  by  other  screens  or 
pareloses. 

The  chancel  is  lighted  by  the  east  window,  which  should 
be  the  most  important  in  the  building,  and  by  two  or  more  in 
the  north  and  south  walls,  according  to  its  length.  There  is 
a  door  in  one  of  the  side-walls,  towards  the  east  end,  for  the 
priest,  leading  into  the  vestry,  or  forming  his  entrance  into 
the  church.  The  roof  is  of  a  more  elaborate  character  than 
that  in  other  parts  of  the  structure,  as  indeed  are  all  the 
enrichments.  The  floor  was  often  covered  with  encaustic  tiles, 
with  devices  of  various  colours  painted  on  their  surface, 
while  the  aisles  in  the  body  of  the  edifice  were  paved  with 
tiles  of  a  plainer  description;  the  whole  of  the  walls  were 
sometiines  decorated  with  colour  and  rich  hangings,  a  method 
which  has  of  late  been  adopted  with  success  in  one  or  two 
churches  in  London. 

In  the  centre  of  the  eastern  wall  was  the  altar,  and  on  the 


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142 


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south  of  it  the  piscina,  usually  formed  by  a  recess,  in  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  south  wall,  and  used  to  \va>h  the 
sacred  vessels,  to  contain  which,  when  not  in  use,  was  pro- 
vided an  aumbry  or  cupboard  near  the  piscina,  and  taken  out 
of  the  thickness  of  the  south  or  north  wall,  furnished  with  a 
door  and  means  of  securing  it.  Adjacent  to  the  piscina  are 
sometimes  found,  especially  in  the  larger  churches,  seats  for 
the  ofliciating  priests.  These  scdilla,  as  they  are  termed, 
consisted  of  stone  or  wooden  seats,  varying  in  number  from 
one  to  five,  the  more  usual  number  being  three,  raised  in 
gradation  one  above  the  other,  according  to  the!  rank  of  the 
clergy  who  were  to  occupy  thorn;  when  of  stone,  they  are 
more  generally  cut  out  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  ;  when  of 
wood,  they  may  be  movable.  Westward  of  these,  disposed  on 
each  side  of  the  chancel,  are  the  seats  fur  the  choristers,  con- 
sisting of  two  or  thiee  rows,  one  in  front  of  the  other  and  a 
little  below  it.  Occasionally  these  seats  are  returned  in  front 
of  the  rood  screen,  and  in  that  case  they  always  face  eastward 
toward  the  altar. 

In  the  north  wall  of  some  chancels  is  found  an  arched 
recess,  which  sometimes  contained  a  stone  to?nb,  occasionally 
that  of  the  founder:  this  was  the  holy  sepulchre  on  which 
the  ceremonies  commemorative  of  our  Lord's  burial  and 
resurrection  were  celebrated  at  the  season  of  Easter.  Where 
there  is  no  sepulchre,  a  movable  wooden  structure  was 
employed  for  the  purpose. 

The  principal  feature  of  the  chancel  is  the  altar.  This  is 
an  elevated  table  of  an  oblong  shape,  constructed  of  either 
wood  or  stone  ;  in  the  first  ages  of  the  church,  up  to  the 
fifth  Century,  they  were  generally  made  of  the  former  mate- 
rial, though  stone  was  reeonimended  liy  l'oj>e  Sylvester, 
early  in  the  fourth  century.  The  council  of  Jlippo  forbade 
the  use  of  wood,  as  did  also  that  of  Kpone,  in  France,  at  the 
ciiinmencement  of  the  si.xth  century,  from  which  period  they 
have  been  made  of  stone.  Stone  altars  were  disused  in 
England  at  the  liefonnalion,  and  so  few  survived  the  turmoils 
of  this  period,  and  of  the  succeeding  rebellion,  that  we  have 
scarcely  an  entire  example  left ;  those  in  the  chantries  and 
side-chapels  are  almost  the  only  ones  that  escaped  destruction. 
The  high  altar  of  Arundel  church,  Sussex,  which  was  pre- 
served by  being  enclosed  in  wood,  will  give  us  a  fair  idea  of 
their  form  and  construction.  It  consists  of  a  slab  12  feet  six 
inches  long,  by  4  feet  wide,  and  2^  inches  in  thickness,  sup- 
ported on  a  solid  stone  3  feet  6  inches  in  height,  and  quite 
plain ;  in  some  cases,  however,  the  front  and  sides  were 
carved  in  panels  and  various  devices,  and  richly  coloured. 
Sometimes  the  slab  is  supported  on  stone  legs,  and  sometimes 
on  brackets,  as  at  Broughton  Castle,  Oxlbrd  ;  it  was  gene- 
rally marked  on  its  upper  surface  with  five  crosses  in  reces- 
sion, one  ill  the  centre,  and  one  in  each  corner,  representing 
the  five  wounds  of  our  Lord.  In  the  church  of  Porlock,  Somer- 
setshire, the  crossi'S  do  not  appear  on  the  slab,  but  are  found 
in  the  centre  panel  in  the  face  of  the  supporting  masonry. 

That  part  of  the  east  wall  immediately  above  the  altar  is 
frenuenlly  ornamented  with  a  reredos  of  tabernacle  work,  or 
a  series  of  enriched  arches  ;  sometimes  this  space  is  occupied 
by  a  triptych,  or  painting  of  three  compartments,  often  repre- 
senting the  crucifixion. 

"  Pertaining  to  the  high  altar,"  says  Mr.  Bloxham,  in  his 
valuable  little  manual,  "  which  was  covered  with  a  frontal 
and  cloths,  and  anciently  enclosed  at  the  sides,  with  curtains 
susj)eiided  on  rods'  of  iron  projecting  from  the  wall,  was  a 
crucifix,  which  succeeded  to  the  simple  cross  placed  on  the 
altars  of  the  .\nglo-Saxon  churches;  a  pair  of  candlesticks, 
generally  with  spikes  instead  of  sockets,  on  which  lights  or 
tapers  were  fixed  ;  a  pix,  in  which  the  host  was  kept  reserved 
for  the  sick;    a  jiair  of  cruets,  of  metal,  in  which  were  con- 


tained the  wine  and  water  preparatory  to  their  admixture  in 
the  eucharistic  cup  ;  a  sacring  bell  ;  a  pax  table,  of  silver  or 
other  metal,  for  the  kiss  of  peace,  which  took  place  shortly 
before  the  host  was  received  in  communion  ;  a  stonp,  or  stok, 
of  metal,  with  a  sprinkle  for  holy  water;  accuser,  or  thurible; 
and  a  ship — a  vessel  so  called — to  hold  fiankincense  ;  a  chris- 
matory,  an  odering  ba^in,  a  i>asin  which  was  used  when  the 
priest  washed  his  hands;  and  a  chalice  and  paten." 

Another  part  of  the  furniture  of  the  chancel  is  the  credence- 
table,  or  tal)lc  of  prothcsis,  on  which  the  elements  were  placed 
previous  to  consecration,  usually  situate  on  the  north  side  of 
the  altar.  This  is  of  much  smaller  dimensions  than  the 
altar,  sometimes  of  stone  richly  panelled,  as  at  the  church  of 
Holy  Cross,  near  Winchester,  and  Fy field,  Berks,  where  it 
is  in  shape  semi-octagonal  ;  they  were  sometimes  also  of 
wood,  a  specimen  of  which  is  pointed  out  at  Chipping- 
Warden,  Northamptonshire,  the  date  of  which  is  a.  d.  1C27. 
The  credence  is  very  fieqiiently  found  in  the  form  of  a  shelf 
above  the  piscina,  and  under  the  same  niche  and  canopy. 

We  must  not  forget  to  mention  the  lettern,  or  desk,  from 
whence  the  lessons  were  read,  which  was  placed  at  the 
western  end  of  the  chancel ;  it  was  generally  of  brass,  some- 
times in  the  shape  of  an  eagle  with  expanded  wings,  and 
sometimes  forming  a  sloping  desk,  with  the  slope  on  one  or 
two  side<,  in  all  cases  supported  on  an  ornamental  stem. 
Eastward  uf  this,  immediately  in  front  of  the  altar-steps,  was 
the  fald-stdol,  a  low,  slojiing  desk,  at  which  the  priest  knelt 
at  the  Litany. 

The  chancids  of  our  old  churches  vary  so  much  in  size  and 
proportion,  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rule  by 
which  their  dimensions  may  be  determined;  we  always  find 
them,  however,  of  sufficient  space  to  form  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  building  ;  sometimes  they  are  as  long,  or  longer  than 
the  nave,  but  this  practice  we  would  not  recumniend  for 
adoption.  It  may  lie  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  the 
chancel  be  well  defined  and  fully  developed,  yet  not  of  so 
great  length  as  to  prevent  the  voice  of  the  celebrant  being 
heard  throughout  the  nave  ;  on  an  average,  we  may  give  the 
length  of  30  feet  as  a  standard  for  most  modern  churches,  but 
of  course  this  dimension  will  vary  with  the  size  and  width  of 
the  church.  The  materials  and  workmanship  in  this  part  of 
the  edifice  should  always  be  of  the  very  best  descripti<n),  and 
the  ornamentation  more  rich  and  frequent ;  care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  the  use  of  any  decoration  except  such  as  is  of 
a  strictly  religious  character,  and  adapted  to  its  particular 
situation  :  all  meretricious  ornament  should  be  at  once  dis- 
carded ;  severity  is  wanted,  not  display. 

CIIAXDELIEK,  a  candlestick,  lamp,  &c.  suspended  by 
a  chain,  rope,  or  bracket. 

CHANDRY,  a  room  where  candles  and  other  lights 
are  kept. 

CHANNEL,  a  canal,  or  long  gutter,  sunk  within  the 
surface  of  a  body 

Channel  of  tiik  T,ARMif:R,  a  hollow  soffit,  or  canal,  under 

the  corona,  which  forms  the  pendent  on  the  front.     See  Beak. 

Channel   ok   the    Volute,   in   the   Ionic   capital,   is   the 

hollow  spiral,  sinking  between  the  fillets.     See  Canal  of  the 

Ionic  Volute. 

Channel  Stones,  in  paving,  are  those  prepared  for 
gutters  or  channels,  for  collecting  and  turning  off  the  rain- 
water yvith  a  current. 

CHANTLATJ-:,  in  building,  a  piece  of  wood  fastened 
near  the  ends  of  the  rafters,  and  projecting  beyond  the  wall, 
to  support  two  or  three  rows  of  tiles,  so  placed  as  to  prevent 
the  rain-water  from  trickling  down  the  walls. 

CHANTRY,  or  Chauntk  y,  was  anciently  a  church  or  chapel, 
endowed  with  lands,  or  other  yearly  revenues,  for  the  mainte- 


CHA 


143 


CII  A 


ii.-iri'i'  nf  oncor  tiiore  priests,  daily  saying  or  singing  mass  for 
ill,-  souls  of  the  donois,  and  such  others  as  they  appointed. 

Chantuies,  are  also  small  chapels  attached  to  a  church, 
and  are  sometimes  external  additions  to  the  church  ;  but 
more  frequently,  especially  in  cathedrals  and  the  larger 
churches,  erections  within  it;  they  are  separated  off  from 
ihc  body  of  the  church  by  screens  of  open  work  surro\)nding 
and  enclosing  the  tombs  of  the  founders,  and  are  usually 
provided  with  an  altar  at  the  east,  with  its  appendages,  such 
as  piscina,  aumbiy,  &e.  Many  beautiful  specimens  are  to 
be  found  in  our  cathedral  and  abbey  chuiches,  and  amijiigst 
the  most  costly  may  be  enumerated  those  of  Henry  V.  and 
Henry  VII.  at  Westminster,  the  latter  of  which  is,  as  is  well 
known,  of  great  size  and  magnificence  ;  of  Edward  IV.  at 
Windsor;  of  Edward  II.  at  Gloucester;  and  of  Bishops 
Wavnfleet.  Beaufort,  and  Wykeham  at  Winchester. 

CHAPEL,  a  small  detached  building  tor  divine  service,  sub- 
ordinate to,  and  usually  dependent  on,  the  parish  church,  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  the  fewer  privileges  belonging  to 
it,  such  as  having  no  proper  priest  attached,  or  being  deprived 
of  the  power  of  having  baptism  administered  within  it. 

Chapel,  is  also  a  building  adjoined  to  a  church,  as  a  part 
thereof,  having  only  a  desk,  &c.  to  read  prayers  in,  and,  in 
the  Romish  churches,  an  altar,  &e.  to  celebrate  mass  on  ; 
but  without  any  baptistry  or  font. 

The  eighteen  chapels  on  the  sides  of  King's  College  chapel, 
Cambridge,  are  formed  between  the  buttresses;  most  of  them 
weie  originally  provided  with  altars:  those  on  the  south 
side  of  this  magnificent  building,  are  appropi-iated  to  the 
college  library. 

Previous  to  the  Reformation, nearly  all  castles, palaces,  man- 
sions, and  religious  establishments,  were  provided  with  private 
chapels.  These  were  either  detached  buildings,  or  portions  of 
the  entire  edifice  constructed  and  set  apart  for  sacred  purposes. 

Chapel,  also  denotes  the  deep  recesses  made  in  the  walls 
of  ancient  edifices,  and  is  of  a  similar  signification  to  what 
is  otherwise  called  exhedrce,  by  Vitruvius;  thus  the  Roman 
Pantheon  has  seven  chapels  in  its  circumference,  the  entrv 
corresponding  to  what  otherwise  might  have  been  the  eighth  ; 
and  the  sides  of  the  courts  of  the  great  temple  at  Balbec 
are  full  of  chapels,  or  exhedrce.  Those  of  the  rectangular 
court  of  this  temple,  and  those  of  the  Pantheon,  are  alternated 
with  circular  and  rectangular  plans,  and  most  elegantly 
decorated  with  columns  in  the  front  towards  the  interior. 
The  semicircular  recess  at  the  end  of  the  basilica,  and  at  the 
end  of  our  most  ancient  churches,  is  often  denominated 
chapel.  Smaller  recesses  in  ancient  edifices,  for  containing 
statues,  are  denominated  shrines,  or  niches. 

CHAPITER,  the  same  as  Capital,  which  see. 

Chapiters  with  Mocldin'gs,  are  those  witho\it  foliage, 
or  other  ornaments,  as  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  capitals. 


Chapiters  with  Sculptures,  are  those  that  are  adoiiied 
with  foliage,  and  other  Kirved  ornaments  ;  the  finest  yet 
invented  is  the  Guinthian  capitiil. 

CHAPLET,  asmall  ornament  cut  into  olives,  beads,  &c. ; 
a  sort  of  fdlet. 

CHAPTER-HOUSE  (from  copitulum),  a  place  belonging 
to  a  cathedral,  or  collegiate  church,  wherein  the  assemblies 
of  the  clergy  were  held. 

The  greater  numbiT  of  chapter-houses  were  connected  with 
the  cloisters  of  the  church  to  which  they  belonf;ed,  by  which 
means  they  were  approached  from  the  church  ;  but.  at  Wells, 
York,  and  Lichfield,  they  are  adjacent  to  the  noith  transept, 
in  the  first  case  being  considerably  elevated  above  the  level 
of  the  church;  they  are  seldom  fimnd  westward  of  the  tran- 
sept. The  earlier  of  these  edifices,  dating  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries,  are  in  plan  parallelogramic,  termina- 
ting sometimes  toward  the  east  in  a  semicircle,  a-*  at  Duiliam 
Cathedral  ;  at  later  periods  we  find  them  octangular  or 
polygonal,  while  that  of  Worcester  is  circular  internally,  with 
ten  sides  on  the  exterior.  In  elevation  the  walls  are  supported 
by  buttresses — that  of  Lincoln  with  flying  buttresses — with 
one  or  more  windows  between  each  pair,  the  whole  being 
covered  in  the  later  instances,  with  a  very  high-pitched  roof 
gathering  from  each  side  of  the  building,  and  terminating 
in  a  point  at  its  apex.  Below  the  windows,  in  the  interior, 
runs  a  continuous  seat  or  bench-table,  backed  with  a  series 
of  niches  or  arcades,  and  at  the  east  end,  facing  the  entrance, 
stand  three  stone  seats,  usually  of  greater  elevation  than  the 
rest,  appropriated  to  the  superior  members  of  the  chapter. 
The  ceiling  is  more  frequently  vaulted.  Among  the 
earlier  specimens  may  be  enumerated  Durham,  probably 
theoldest,  parallelogramic,  with  circular  east  end  ;  (Gloucester, 
Bristol,  Oxford,  Chester,  Canterbury,  and  E.xeter,  all  of 
which  are  rectimgular.  The  first  variation  seems  to  have 
been  at  Worcester,  which  is  circular  within  and  decagonal 
without ;  the  vaulting  of  the  interior  being  supported  by 
a  central  pillar  and  brackets  in  the  side-walls.  Of  the 
remainder,  Lincoln  has  ton  sides,  the  vaulting  supported  by 
a  central  column  and  flying  buttresses,  which  last  append;ige 
forms  its  peculiarity  ;  Wells,  Lichfield,  Salisbury,  and  York, 
only  eight  sides,  the  vaulting  sustained,  as  in  the  previous 
examples,  that  of  York  only  excepted,  where  the  vaulting 
is  carried  across  the  building  in  a  single  span  of  forty -seven 
feet.  Wells  chapter-house  is  erected  over  a  crypt,  a  pecu- 
liarity which  it  shares  with  that  of  Westminster  ;  that  of 
Lichfield,  although  octangular,  has  two  of  its  opposite  sides 
of  longer  dimensions  than  the  others,  in  which  respect  it  is 
perfectly  unique;  while  that  of  Salisbury  is  perhaps  of  all 
specimens  the  most  beautiful. 

The  subjoined  List  of  Chapter-Houses  in  England, 
(from  Britton's  valuable  works,)  may  be  found  useful. 


Jiectaji/^ular. 
Bristol 43ft.  53ft.  iSft.  36ft.  26ft.  Date  1 142 ;  adjoins  S.  transept ;  approached  from  cloister  by  a  vestibule;  vaulted  roof. 


Caxterbury 87 

Gloccesteb 68 

DlBHAM 78 

Chester 50 

Oxford 54 

Exeter 55 

Winchester 88 

Llaxdaff 23 

WoaCBSTEE    65 

LiNcoi,.N 62 

Lichfield 45 

Westminster 58 

Wells    55 

Hereford 45 

.Salisbury 53 

York 57 


99     35  45  52      N.  of  transept ;  entrance  from  cloister ;  vaulted  roof  with  wood  and  tracery ;  large  E.  and  W.  windows. 

77     35  44  Very  lofty  entrance  from  cloister ;  arched  roof. 

90     36  45  Date  1138;  semicircular  end ;  taken  down. 

58     26  36  36 

64  24  34  Temp.  Henry  II. ;  S.  of  ti-ansept ;  entrance  from  cloister. 
62     28  38  50      Lower  part  about  1230— upper  part  1427. 

One  side  remains ;  and  joins  S.  transept  with  slvp  between. 

27     21  26  Early  pointed. 

Octagonal,  Polygonal,  &C. 

65  55  65  About  1150;  sepaiated  from  S.  tran«ept  by  passage. 
70  62  70  42  Before  1200;  140  feet  diameter  including  buttresses. 
54     28  36  About  1200;  large  vestibule. 

66  58  66  Temp.  Henry  III.:  octagon;  centi'al  column ;  over  crypt 
65     55  65  42      Over  crvpt ;  small  vestibule. 

45  Decagon ;  fragment  remaining. 

58     53  58  62      S.  of  transept ;  entered  from  cloister  ;  vestibule;  about  1260. 

70     57  70  Connected  with  N.  transept  by  vestibule ;  vaulted  rcKif,  of  wood. 


CHE 


144 


cni 


CHAPTREL,  from  chapiter,  tho  capitals  of  pillars  and 
pilastors,  which  support  arches,  coininoiily  called  impost. 
See  Impost. 

CHARGED,  a  term  in  architecture,  iiiiplyiiig  that  one 
nieniber  of  an  edifice  is  sustained  l)_v  another  ;  in  which  case, 
tho  latter  is  said  to  l)e  charned  with  the  former.  Thus, 
a  frieze,  or  other  surface,  when  oniainented,  is  said  to  be 
charijed  with  the  ornament ;  but  when  the  ornament  is  too 
abundant,  it  is  said  to  be  over-charged ;  a  column  supporting 
au  entablature  is  said  to  be  charged  with  the  entablature. 

CHAR  or  Chare;  on  old  term  equivalent  to  the  word 
hewn  or  wrought ;  thus  charred  stone  is  hewn  stone,  as 
distinguished  from  riibl)le.  • 

CHARNEL-IIOUSE  (F.atin,  caro-carnis,  flesh)  a  vaulted 
apartment,  beneath  or  adjoining  a  church,  in  which  human 
bones  are  de|iosited. 

CriARTOl'lIYLACIUM  (Greek,  %npT7/c,  P^'per,  and 
(pvXaaaetv,  to  guard),  tlie  place  where  records  were  kept. 

CHASE-MORTISK.  or  Pui.lky-Mortise,  a  long  mortise 
cut  lengthwise  in  one  of  a  pair  of  parallel  timbers,  for  insert- 
ing the  one  end  of  a  transverse  timber,  by  making  the  trans- 
verse to  revolve  round  a  centre  at  the  other  end,  which  is 
fixed  into  the  other  parallel  timber.  This  is  ap|ilical)le  to 
cciling-jnists,  where  the  binding-joists  are  the  parallel  timbers 
first  fixed,  and  the  ceiling-joists  are  the  transverse  joints. 
CHAUNTRY.     &e  Chantry. 

CHECKERED,  or  Chequered,  a  surface  is  said  to  be 
checkered,  when  it  is  divided  into  a  number  of  equal  conti- 
guous parallelograms,  alternately  coloured.  The  term  is 
.sometimes  applied  to  leticulated  masonry.  See  Reticulated 
and  Masonrv. 

CHEEKS  among  mechanics,  are  those  pieces  of  a  machine 
which  form  corresponding  sides,  or  which  are  double  and 
alike:  two  equal  and  similar  parts,  generally  placed  parallel 
to  each  other. 

Cheeks  of  a  Mortise,  the  two  solid  parts  upon  the  sides 
of  the  mortise.  The  thickness  of  each  cheek  should  never 
be  less  than  that  of  the  mortise,  except  mouldings  on  the 
styles  require  it  to  be  otherwise. 

CHEESE-ROOM,  a  rodm  appropriated  for  the  reception 
of  cheeses,  after  they  are  made.  Rooms  of  this  description 
should  be  lined  round  the  walls,  and  fitted  up  with  shelves, 
having  one  or  mure  stages,  a'-cording  to  the  size  of  the  room, 
and  proper  gangways  for  commodious  passages.  In  places 
where  much  cheese  is  manufactured,  the  dairy-room  may  be 
placed  below,  the  shelf-room  immediately  abi)Ve,  and  lofts 
over  the  shelfroom,  with  trap-doors  through  each  floor. 
This  will  save  much  carriage,  and  be  very  advantageous  for 
the  drying  of  cheeses. 

CHEQ1.'ERS,  in  masonry,  stones  in  the  facings  of  walls, 
having  all  their  joints  continued  in  straight  lines,  without 
interruption,  or  breaking  joints.  Walls  constructed  in  this 
manner,  are  of  the  very  worst  description,  particularly  when 
the  joints  are  made  horizontal  and  vertical.  Those  consisting 
of  diagonal  joints,  or  joints  inclined  to  the  horizon,  were 
used  by  the  Romans.  See  Masosrv  and  Reticulated. 
CI  I  EST.  in  bridge-building,  the  same  as  Caisson,  which  see. 
CHEVET  (Ereiich),  the  eastern  end  of  a  church,  when  of 
a  circular  or  polvgonal  form  :  equivalent  to  apsis,  which  see. 
CHEVRON-WORK,  a  zig-zag  ornament,  somtimes  called 
the  dancette,  usual  in  the  archivolts  of  Saxon  and  Norman 
arches.  The  outline  of  chevron-work  is  a  conjunction  of 
right  lines,  of  equal  lengths,  alternately  disposed,  so  as  to 
form  exterior  and  interior  angles,  with  the  exterior  angles 
equal  to  the  interior  ones  ;  and  all  the  angular  points  in  the 
same  straight  line,  or  in  the  same  curve  line,  when  they  are 
the  ornaments  of  arches. 


The  lines  of  chevron-work  are  similar  to  what  is  deno  ' 
minatcd  indented  lines  in  heraldry,  and  not  unlike  the  inden- 
tations or  teeth  of  a  joinei''s  hand-saw;  the  only  diflereiice 
being  the  greater  inclination  of  the  teeth  on  one  side  than 
on  the  other;  but  in  chevron- work,  they  are  equally  inclined 
to  the  line  passing  through  the  angular  points. 

CHIMNEY  (from  the  French,  dieminee,  derived  from 
the  Latin,  caminna,  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  Kajxivog,  a 
chimueij,  from  Koto),  I  burn),  that  part  of  a  building  wherein 
the  fire  is  contained,  and  through  which  the  smoke  passes 
away^ 

The  chimney  generally  consists  of  an  opening  in,  and 
through  a  wall,  upwards,  beginning  at  the  floor  on  one  side 
of  an  apartment,  and  ascending  within  the  thickness  of  the 
wall,  till  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  above 
the  roof  of  the  building. 

The  parts  of  the  chimney,  and  of  the  wall  in  which  it  is 
inserted,  are  denominated  as  follows: 

The  opening,  facing  the  room,  being  the  place  where  the 
fire  is  put,  is  termed  the    fire-place. 

The  stone,  marble,  or  plate,  under  the  fire-place,  is  callea 
the  hearth. 

That  on  the  same  level,  before  the  fire-place,  is  called 
the  s/ab. 

The  vertical  sides  of  the  opening,  at  the  extremities  of 
the  hearth,  forming  also  a  part  of  the  face  <if  the  wall  of  the 
apartment,  are  called  jamhs. 

The  head  of  the  fire-place,  resting  at  its  extremities  on 
the  jambs,  presenting  one  face  vertical  in  the  surface  of  the 
wall,  and  another  towards  the  hearth,  is  called  the  mantel. 

The  whole  hollow,  from  the  fire-place,  to  the  top  of  the 
wall,  is  denominated  the  funnel. 

That  part  of  the  funnel  which  continually  contracts,  or 
diminishes  in  its  horizontal  dimensions,  as  it  ascends,  is 
termed  tlie  gathering,  or  by  some,  the  gathering  of  the 
wings. 

The  long  narrow  prismatic  tube,  over  the  gathering,  or 
that  part  of  the  funnel  which  has  its  horiz^'Utal  dimensions 
tho  same  throughout  the  altitude  of  the  chimney,  is  called 
the  fine. 

That  part  between  the  gathering  and  flue,  is  denominated 
the  throat. 

That  part  of  the  wall  which  faces  the  apartment,  and 
forms  the  side  of  the  funnel  pandlel  thereto,  or  that  part  of 
the  wall  which  forms  the  sides  of  the  funnels  of  several  fire- 
places, is  called  the  breast. 

In  an  outside  wall,  the  side  of  the  funnel  opposite  the 
breast,  is  called  the  back. 

When  there  are  two  or  more  chimneys  in  the  same  wall, 
the  divisions  between  them,  or  the  solid  parts  of  brick,  stone, 
or  metal,  are  called  iviths.  A  gable,  partition,  or  party-wall, 
containing  a  collection  of  chimneys,  is  termed  a  stack  of 
chimneys. 

The  turret  above  the  roof,  for  discharging  the  smoke  into 
the  air,  of  one,  two,  or  a  collection  of  chimneys,  is  called 
the  chimney-shaft ;  and  the  horizontal  surface,  or  the  upper 
part  of  the  said  shaft,  the  chimney-top. 

When  the  parallel  sides  of  the  jambs  are  faced  with  stone, 
marble,  or  metal,  so  as  to  form  four  obtuse  angles,  viz.,  two 
internally  with  the  back,  and  two  externally  with  the  breast 
or  side  of  the  apartment,  makinu  the  horizontal  dimension  of 
the  outside  of  the  fireplace  of  greater  extension  than  that 
of  the  back,  the  ficings  are  called  covings. 

In  stone  walls  of  ordinary  building-^,  the  most  common 
dimensions  for  the  sections  of  the  flues  of  sitting-rooms 
are  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  square,  and  for  the  brick 
work,  nine  by  fourteen  inches.     The  section  of  the  flue  must. 


cm 


145 


cm 


however,  be  proportioned  to  the  secticin  of  the  fire,  which, 
when  found  necessary  to  vary  fiom  ordinary  cases,  should  be 
eiiual  t>>  the  said  horizontal  section  of  the  lire,  or  nearly  so. 

Tn  prevent  smoke,  the  (.•hininey  ought  to  be  so  constructed, 
that  a  current  of  air  may  (lass  immediately  over  the  lire,  so 
as  to  be  rarefied  in  its"  passage,  and  not  to  pass  entirely 
through  the  lire,  as  many  have  erroneously  imagined.  For 
this  |)urpose,  the  thmat  should  be  so  near  to  the  fire,  as  to 
prevent  the  cold  air  tVom  passing  over  it,  and  its  horizontal 
dimension  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  should  not  exceed 
four  inches  and  a  half,  or  five  inches  at  most. 

This  contraction  is  to  be  formed  by  f icing  up  the  back, 
and  bevelling  the  covings,  so  that  no  cold  air  may  be  admitted 
liy  the  ends  of  the  fire  ;  by  thus  obliging  the  overplus  above 
tiie  <iuantity  necessary  to  produce  combustion,  to  pass  over 
the  fire,  it  becomes  so  heated,  as  to  consume  the  smoke  in 
part,  and  to  drive  the  remaining  portion  before  it,  with  cele- 
rity and  violence. 

The  covings  are  in  general  placed  at  an  angle  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  degrees  with  the  back  and  breast, 
and  should  be  made  to  form  an  abru])t  plane  on  their  top,  so 
as  to  break  the  current  of  a  sudden  gust  of  wind. 

The  greater  the  quantity  of  rarefied  air  that  passes  up  the 
flue,  and  in  general  the  higher  the  chimney,  the  more  celerity 
and  force  will  it  ascend  with.  The  flue  ought,  therefore,  to 
be  carried  as  high  as  conveniency  will  admit. 

To  prevent  the  absorption  of  heat,  the  back  and  covings 
should  be  constructed  of  white  materials,  or,  if  not,  they 
should  be  covered  with  plaster,  and  whitened  as  often  as 
they  become  black,  and  thus  they  will  reflect  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  heat. 

Most  metals  absorb  the  heat,  and  are  therefore  unfavour- 
able for  this  purpose. 

The  back  and  covings  are  most  conveniently  put  up  after 
the  house  is  built.  The  introduction  and  general  use  of 
■'  registers,"  has  obviated  any  difliculty  in  this  respect ;  they 
form  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  method. 

Some  of  the  principles  in  the  construction  of  chimneys  are 
very  well  ascertained,  others  are  not  easily  discovered  till  tried. 

The  tops  of  flues  should  not  have  such  wide  apertures,  as 
to  permit  a  greater  quantity  of  air  to  rush  down  the  chimney, 
and  counteract  the  force  of  the  ascending  rarefied  steam. 

Smoky  chimneys  are  frequently  occasioned  by  the  situation 
of  doors  in  a  room,  the  grate  being  placed  too  low,  or  the 
mantle  too  high.  There  are  many  eases  in  which  it  is  not 
easy  to  discover  the  cause;  but  if  once  known,  it  may  be 
easily  removed. 

Flues  with  circular  sections  are,  with  some  reason,  sup- 
posed to  be  more  favourable  for  the  venting  of  smoke,  than 
those  whose  sections  are  stjuare  or  rectangular. 

There  is  much  dift'erence  of  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of 
chimneys.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  been  in  use  among  the 
classics,  as  they  are  not  found,  as  Winklemann  informs  us, 
amongst  the  ruins  of  Ilerculaueum,  although  coals  have  been 
discovered  in  some  of  the  rooms,  from  which  he  conjectures 
that  the  Romans  iised  charcoal  fires.;  Mr.  Lysons,  however, 
describes  a  fire-place,  which  he  found  in  one  of  the  rooms  of 
the  Roman  villa  at  Bignor,  in  Sussex.  There  does  not  seem 
to  be  any  evidence  of  the  use  of  chimneys  in  England  before 
the  twelfth  century,  when  we  meet  with  them  in  the  castles 
of  Rochester,  Hedingham,  &c.,  also  in  a  Norman  house  at 
Winwall  in  Norfolk,  in  these  cases,  however,  the  flue  is 
carried  up  only  a  short  distance  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
and  is  then  turned  out  at  the  back,  the  apertures  being  small 
oblong  holes.  Shortly  afterwards  we  meet  with  flues  carried 
up  the  whole  height  of  the  wall,  as  at  the  castles  of  Conis- 
borough,    Newcastle,    Sherbourne,    &c.,  as   also    at    Christ 

19 


Church,  Hants.  At  this  period  the  shafts  were  carried  up 
to  a  considerable  height,  and  are  generally  circular;  in  after 
times  the  forms  varied  considerably,  and  terminated  fre- 
quently with  a  spire,  pinnacle,  or  gable,  with  apertures  of 
ornamental  forms  in  the  sides  underneath  for  the  escape  of 
the  smoke.  During  the  foiirteenth  ccnturv  the  shafts  were 
very  short,  and  of  great  variety  of  firms.  In  the  fifteenth, 
the  shafts  were  more  usually  octangular,  sometimes  square, 
with  the  aperture  at  the  top;  at  the  latter  end  of  this  cen- 
tury we  find  clustered  shafts,  which  afterwards  became  so 
common  in  Elizabethan  buildings.  These  clustered  chimneys 
are  most  frequently  of  brick,  variously  and  elaborately  orna- 
mented all  the  way  up  the  shaft,  and  indeed  form  a  very 
prominent  and  beautiful  feature  in  buildings  of  this  periorl. 
Fine  specimens  of  the  kind  are  to  be  seen  at  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  Eton  College,  East  Basham  Hall.  Norfilk,  and 
all  the  larger  buildings  of  the  Elizabethan  style;  examples 
in  stone,  though  more  rare,  exist  at  Bodiam  Castle,  Sussex, 
and  on  houses  at  South  Petherton  and  Lambrook,  Somer- 
setshire. 

CHINESE  ARCHITECTURE,  that  which  is  used  by 
the  inhabitants  of  China,  and  employed  in  their  temples  and 
other  edifices.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  give  such 
a  definition  as  should  point  out  the  species  of  architecture 
practised  by  the  Chinese;  we  must  therefore  have  recourse 
to  the  descriptions  of  those  who  have  drawn  and  actually 
measured  their  edifices  with  care.  To  the  attainment  of  this, 
our  materials  are  few.  Sir  William  Chambers  is  the  only 
author  we  are  acquainted  with,  who  has  given  representations 
of  Chinese  edifices  from  measurement,  and  who  was  able  to 
discriminate,  as  an  architect,  those  characteristic  forms  by 
which  it  is  distinguished  from  other  species  of  architecture, 
and  to  mark  out  its  peculiar  features.  In  his  preface  he 
observes : 

"To  praise  too  much  or  too  little,  are  two  excesses  which 
it  is  equally  difficult  to  avoid.  The  knowledge  of  the  Chi- 
nese, their  pc^licv  and  skill  in  the  arts,  have  been  praised 
without  bounds ;  and  the  excessive  encomiums  that  have  been 
given  them,  show  with  what  force  novelty  strikes  us,  and 
how  natural  it  is  to  pass  from  esteem  to  admiration. 

"  I  am  far  from  joining  in  the  over-strained  eulogies  of  the 
Chinese.  If  I  find  among  thein  wisdom  and  sublimity,  it  is 
only  when  I  compare  them  w^ith  the  people  that  surround 
them  ;  nor  shall  t  put  them  on  a  parallel  with  the  inhabitants, 
either  ancient  or  modern,  of  our  quarter  of  the  world.  At 
the  same  time,  we  must  acknowledge,  that  our  attention  is 
due  to  this  distinct  and  singular  race  of  men,  who,  separated 
from  the  polished  nations  of  the  world,  have,  without  any 
model  to  assist  them,  been  able  of  themselves  to  mature  the 
sciences  and  invent  the  arts. 

"Everything  that  regards  a  people  so  extraordinary,  has 
a  claim  to  our  attention;  but  though  we  are  pretty  well 
instructed  in  most  things  respecting  them,  we  are  very  little 
so  in  their  architecture.  Many  descriptions  that  have  been 
hitherto  given  us  of  their  edifices,  are  unintelligible,  the  best 
give  but  indistinct  and  confiiscd  ideas  of  them,  and  none  of 
the  drawings  deserve  the  least  attention. 

"  Those  which  I  at  present  oftc'r  to  the  public,  are  drawn 
from  sketches  and  measures  that  I  took  at  Canton  some  years 
ago.  I  took  them  merely  to  satistN'  my  own  curiosity.  I  had 
not  the  least  intention  to  publish  them;  and  they  would  not 
have  appeared  at  present,  had  I  not  yielded  to  the  solicita- 
tions of  several  amateurs  of  the  fine  arts.  They  have  thought 
them  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  public,  and  that  they 
might  be  useful  in  stopping  the  course  of  those  extravagant 
productions,  that  appear  every  day,  under  the  name  of  Chi- 
nese ;  although  the  most   part  of"  them  are  pure  works  of 


CHI 


14(3 


CHI 


flincy,  and  the  rest  only  mutilated  representations  that  have 
bi.;i'n  fi)|iied  from  porcelain  and  various  paintings  on  paper. 

•'  What  is  really  Chinese,  has  at  lea>t  the  merit  of  being 
original.  Seldom,  or  never,  have  this  people  copied  or 
imitated  tlie  iuventionsof  other  nations.  Uur  most  authentic 
aeeonnts  agree  on  this  point.  Their  government,  their  cus- 
toms, their  dress,  and  almost  everything  else,  have  continued 
nni-hanged  for  thousands  of  years.  Their  architecture  has, 
besides,  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  that  of  the  ancients; 
and  this  is  the  more  surprising,  «,«  there  is  not  the  least  pro- 
bability that  the  one  has  been  borrowed  fiom  the  other. 

•'  In  the  Chinese  architecture,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
ancients,  the  general  form  of  almost  all  their  compositions 
tends  to  that  of  the  pyramid.  In  both,  the  columns  serve 
for  supports,  and  in  both  the  columns  have  diminutions  and 
bases,  which  in  many  respects  are  similar.  The  entrelas,  so 
common  in  ancient  edifices,  are  often  seen  in  those  of  the 
Chinese.  The  tinff  of  the  Chinese  diifers  but  little  from  the 
peripteron  of  the  Greeks.  The  atrium,  and  the  monoptcrous 
and  prostyle  temples,  have  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
some  among  the  Chinese  ;  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
construct  their  walls  is  on  the  same  principle  with  the 
revinctum  and  emplecton,  described  by  V'itruvius.  There 
is,  besides,  a  great  resemblance  between  the  uten--ils  of  the 
ancients  and  the  Chinese  ;  both  are  composed  of  similar  parts, 
coml)ined   in  a  similar  manner. 

"  It  is  by  no  means  my  intention,  in  publishing  a  book  on 
Chine-^e  a  chi lecture,  to  bring  in  vogue  a  taste  so  inferior  to 
the  ancient,  and  so  little  suited  to  our  climate.  But  the 
architecture  of  one  of  the  most  extraonliriary  people  of  the 
universe  ofTors  an  interesting  phenomena  to  a  lover  of 
the  line  arts  ;  and  an  architect  ought  to  be  acquainted  with 
so  singular  a  manner  of  building.  The  knowledge  of  it  is, 
at  least,  curious  ;  it  may  even  be  usefid  on  particular  occa- 
>i"ns.  An  architect  is  sometimes  asked  for  Chinese  compo- 
siiions;  and,  in  certain  eases,  they  may  be  judicious.  For 
though,  in  general,  the  architecture  of  China  is  not  suitable 
to  Europe,-  yet,  in  parks  and  gardens,  where  the  extent 
demands  a  great  variety,  or  in  large  palaces  that  contain 
num.'rous  eilliiades  of  apartments,  1  do  not  think  that  it 
Would  be  improper  to  decoiatesmneofthe  most  inconsiderable 
pieces  in  the  Chinese  taste.  Variety  never  fails  to  please, 
and  novelty,  when  there  is  nothing  disagreeable  or  shocking 
in  it.  ot'en  holds  the  place  of  beauty.  At  the  time  that  the 
Greek  architecture  prevailed  the  most  among  the  Romans, 
history  inliu-ms  us  that  Adrian,  who  was  himself  an  archi- 
tect, erected,  at  his  country  seat  at  Tivoli,  several  buildings 
in  the  style  of  the  Egyptians  and  some  other  nations. 

'■The  grandeur  o'  (h-  richness  of  the  materials  is  not  the 
distingui-hiug  char.ictcristic  of  the  Chinese  edifices.  But 
there  is  a  singularity  in  their  manner,  a  justness  in  their 
[)roportion,  a  simplicity,  sometimes  even  a  beauty,  in  their 
form,  that  deserves  our  attention.  I  look  upon  them  as  gew- 
gaws in  architecUire  ;  anil  if  singularity,  prettiness,  or  neat^ 
ness  in  the  work,  give  a  place  to  trilles  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
curious,  we  may  likewise  introduce  Chinese  buildings  among 
compositions  of  a  better  kind." 

Sir  William  has  above  noticed  the  pyramidal  firm  of 
Chinese  structures,  and  indeed  the  similarity  of  the  architec- 
ture of  tliis  extraordinary  people  with  that  of  all  the  early 
nations  in  this  respect,  is  worthy  of  notice;  yet  the  resem- 
blance of  their  buildings  to  tents  is  even  more  remarkable,  so 
striking  indeed  is  it,  that  some  travellers  have  compared  their 
cities  to  vast  encampments.  The  Chinese,  like  all  the  Tartar 
tribes,  were  a  nomadic  race  ;  and  doubtless  in  their  wander- 
ings were  accustomed  to  employ  tents,  coverings  portable  and 
readily  erected,  to  defend  them  from  the  heat  and  inclemen- 


cies of  the  weather,  and  when  they  settled  permanently,  pre- 
served the  same  firm  in  the  construction  of  their  clweilings. 
The  construction  of  their  buildings  is  indeed  remarkable,  and 
tends  to  confirm  the  tiiregoing  statement  ;  for,  as  Mr.  Gwilt 
remarks,  "  though  the  carpentry  of  which  they  are  raised 
has  forages  been  subjected  to  the  same  forms,  when  we  con- 
sider  the  natural  march  of  human  invention,  especially  in 
cases  of  necessity,  we  cannot  believe  that,  in  a  country  where 
the  primitive  construction  was  of  timber,  the  coverings  of 
dwellings  would  have  been  at  once  so  simple  and  so  light.  Their 
framingscemsas  though  prepared  merely  for  a  canvas  covering. 
Again,  we  have,  if  more  were  wanting,  another  proof,  in  the 
posts  employed  for  the  support  of  their  roofs.  On  them  we 
find  nothing  resting  analogous  to  the  architecture  for  receiv- 
ing and  supporting  the  upper  timbers  of  the  carpentry  ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  roof  projects  over  and  beyond  the  posts  or 
columns,  whose  upper  extremities  are  hidden  by  the  eaves, 
thus  superseding  the  use  of  a  capital.  A  canvas  covering 
requires  but  a  slender  support,  hence  lightness  is  a  leading 
feature  in  the  edifices  of  China  ;  whilst  other  materials  than 
those  which  formed  tents  have  been  substituted  fir  them,  the 
forms  of  the  original  type  have  been  preserved,  making  this 
lightness  the  more  singular,  inasmuch  as  the  slightest  analogy 
between  those  of  the  original  and  the  copy  is  imperceptible. 
This  change  of  material  prevents  in  the  copy  the  a|ipearance 
of  solidity,  and  seems  a  defect  in  the  style,  unless  we  refer 
to  the  type." 

Another  peculiarity  which  strikes  the  European  upon  first 
beholding  a  Chinese  city,  is  the  gaiety  of  their  buildings, 
arising  from  the  prevalent  application  of  colour.  Their  roofs 
are  composed  of  coloured  and  glazed  tiles,  their  floors  of 
variegated  stone  or  m.-irble,  and  their  porticos  not  only 
coloured  with  the  brightest  tints,  but  also  profusely  varnished, 
all  uniting  to  produce  an  effect  altogether  different  from  that 
presented  by  all  other  styles. 

Sir  William  then  proceeds  with  the  work  as  follows  : 

"  The  Temples  of  the  Chinese. — \  great  number  of  tem- 
ples are  to  be  seen  at  Canton.  The  Europeans  call  them 
commonly  pagodas.  Many  of  these  temples  are  extremely 
small,  and  consist  finly  of  one  single  apartment.  Some  others 
have  a  court,  surround(!d  with  galleries,  at  the  end  of  which 
is  a  tiny,  where  the  iilols  are  placed  ;  and  there  are  a  few, 
which  are  composed  of  many  courts,  surrounded  with  galle- 
ries. The  bonzes,  or  priests,  have  cells  there,  and  the  idols 
different  halls.  These  are  properly  convents,  .and  some  of 
them  have  a  gre.at  number  of  bonzes,  who  are  attai-hed  to 
them  by  particular  vows,  and  who  live  in  them  in  the  exact 
observance  of  certain  rules. 

'•The  most  considerable  of  these  pagodas  isthat  <if  Ilonang, 
in  the  sonlhern  suliurb.  Plate  I.,  Figure  1.  It  occupies  a  great 
extent  of  ground  ;  and  acconlingly  it  contains,  besides  the  tem- 
ples of  the  idols,  apartments  fir  two  hundred  bonzes,  ho-^pi- 
tals  for  many  animals,  a  large  kitchen-garden,  and  a  buryiug- 
ground.  The  priests  and  animals  are  buried  promiscuously, 
and  equally  honoured  by  monuments  and  epitaphs. 

"The  first  object  that  presents  itselfj  is  a  court  of  con- 
siderable extent.  In  it  are  three  rows  of  trees,  whiih  lead  to 
an  open  vestibule,  a,  to  which  the  ascent  is  by  a  few  steps,  n. 
From  this  first  vestibule,  we  pass  to  a  second,  c,  wherein  are 
four  colossal  figures  in  stucco  ;  thoy  are  seated,  and  hold  in 
their  hands  divers  emblems.  This  vestibule  opens  into 
another  large  court,  d,  surrounded  by  colonnades,  e,  and  cells 
for  the  bonzes,  f.  Four  pavilions,  o.  are  placed  in  it,  on 
socles.  These  pavilions  are  the  temples;  the  two  stories,  of 
which  they  are  composed. aie  filled  with  idols,  and  the  bonzes 
perfirm  their  religious  service  in  them.  At  the  fair  corners 
of  the  court  are   four  other  pavilions,  ii.  where  the  superior 


CMII^IESE      AmCHIT]BCTUm]E  , 


PLATE  1. 


fiej.  J. 


V.A--™— ' 

. 

p^»^ 

wmm 

f'SSglf 

lESfS 

gSapf 

J 

rj 

■^K             -J 

1^^ .,  > 

I'SS   -1 

,  35 

.!=  '^i 

hrmrn.  hu  M  ^  NteJiotsoii 


Sfi^^hj^  RVien: 


CHI 


147 


CHI 


bnii/A's  hnve  their  apaitments  ;    and   under  these  columns, 
between  the  cells  «'"P  *<""'  halls,  I.  occupied  by  idnls. 

■'  On  each  side  of  this  great  court  are  two  other  small 
courts,  K.  sinrounded  witii  buildings.  One  is  for  the  kit- 
chen. L.  and  for  the  refectories  M ;  the  other  serves  for  the 
bnspitals,  N.  of  which  we  shall  speak. 

"  I  do  not  give  the  elevation  of  the  great  court,  because  it 
could  not  h;ive  the  suitable  dinieiisioiis,  wiliiout  occupying  at 
least  three  plates.  Tiie  pavili<iiis  are  of  difterent  tbrnis;  but 
they  all  present  a  very  similar  appearance,  and  the  pro- 
jKntions  between  the  colonnades  ami  the  pa\ ilions  are  alsn 
nearly  the  same.  The  boxes  or  cells  of  the  bonzes  are  of 
sione,  they  aie  very  small,  and  admit  no  light  but  by  the 
door.  The  bodies  of  the  jiavilions  are  built  of  the  same 
material,  and  the  columns  which  surround  them,  as  well  as 
the  colomiades,  are  of  wood,  having  bases  of  marble.  All  the 
buildings  are  covered  with  tiles,  made  of  a  coarse  kind  of 
porcelain,  painted  green,  and  varnished. 

"'J he  same  plan  is  observed  in  all  the  temples  of  this 
kind  ;  and  by  detaching  from  them  the  three  pavilions  that 
occupy  the  middle  of  the  great  court,  we  may  form  an  idea 
of  the  manner  in  which  Chinese  edifices  of  great  extent  are 
planned,  or  laid  out.  The  imperial  p.ilace,  those  of  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  the  palaces  of  the  mandarins,  the  Kong 
Qiiaens,  or  colleges  of  letters,  are  all  disposed  nearly  in  the 
same  manner;  the  principal  ditference  consists  in  the  number 
and  extent  of  the  courts. 

i' The  edifices  that  the  Chinese  make  use  of  for  religious 
purposes,  are  not.  like  those  of  theancients.  of  any  appropriate 
form  ;  the  particular  kind  of  construction  that  they  call  tiiu/, 
or  k-oitff,  enters  indiffercnlly  into  all  kinds  of  edifices,  they 
are  seen  in  almost  all  temples,  in  all  palaces,  above  the  gates 
of  towns,  and,  in  short,  in  all  buildings  where  they  wish  to 
show  magnificence. 

"  I  have  seen,  in  several  quarters  of  Canton,  four  different 
kinds  oftiiifjs.  The  three  first  are  found  in  tetnples,  and  the 
fourth  in  many  gardens. 

"The  most  common  form  in  these  temples  is  seen  in 
Plate  ].,  (see  Chambers'  work.)  It  is  a  pretty'  e.xact  copy  of 
the  tiiifl  of  the  Nagada  of  Cochin-china,  in  the  eastern  suburli. 
1  have  measured  many  buildings  of  this  kind  ;  but  have  found 
so  much  difference  in  their  proportions,  that  I  am  inclined  to 
think  the  architects,  in  that  particular,  follow  no  exact  rule, 
but  that  every  one  varies  the  proportion  according  to  his 
fancy. 

"In  the  drawing  that  I  have  given,  the  edifice  is,  as  they 
all  are.  raised  on  a  base;  the  ascent  to  it  is  by  three  steps. 
It  is  a  square,  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  twenty  columns, 
which  support  a  roof  surmounted  by  a  wooden  balustrade, 
which  contains  a  gallery,  or  passage,  surrounding  the  whole 
second  story. 

"  The  second  story  has  the  same  figure  and  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  first.  It  is  covered  with  a  roof,  of  a  con- 
struction peculiar  to  the  Chinese ;  the  angles  are  enriched 
with  ornaments  of  sculpture,  representing  dragons. 

"The  breadth  of  the  edifice,  measuring  it  from  the  exte- 
rior surface  of  the  columns,  is  equal  to  the  height;  and  the 
diameter  of  the  body  of  the  building  takes  two-thirds  of  the 
breadth.  The  height  of  the  order  makes  two-thirds  of  the 
diameter  of  the  body,  and  the  height  of  the  second  story  is 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  height  of  the  first.  The  columns 
have  in  height  nine  of  their  diameters,  the  bases  two,  and 
the  beams  and  brackets,  which  hold  the  place  of  capitals, 
only  one.  That  is  also  the  elevation  of  the  entrelases,  which 
make  the  turn  of  the  colonnade  under  the  first  roof,  and 
which  forms  a  kind  of  frieze. 

'•  The  second  kind  of  titiff  differs  so  little  from  th.at  which 


I  have  just  described,  that  it  has  not  appc^ared  to  me  neces 
sary  to  give  a  drawing  of  it.  The  first  story  is  the  same, 
and  all  the  difference  of  the  second,  is,  that  it  is  neither  sur 
roinided  with  a  gallery  nor  with  a  balustrade,  and  that  the 
roof  which  covers  the  colonnade  comes  close  to  the  wall. 

"The  third  kind  is  represented,  Plate  I.,  Figure  3.  This 
drawing  has  been  taken  from  several  edifices  of  this  kind  ; 
and  particularly  from  one  of  the  pavilions  of  the  pagoda  of 
Ilonang.  Tln'  first  story  differs  little  from  that  of  the  first 
tiiir/  ;  but  the  second  has  colunms  on  two  of  its  sides,  which 
stand  out  and  form  covered  galleries.  I  have  seen,  in  some 
of  these  buildings,  a  continued  colonnade  all  round  the  second 
story  ;  but  the  form  was  not  so  agreeable  to  the  sight  as  that 
which  I  have  represented. 

"  There  is  very  little  difference  between  the  proportions  of 
this  drawing  and  that  of  Plate  I.  The  columns  of  the  first 
story  are,  in  height,  eight  of  their  diameters,  and  the  bases 
one.  All  the  columns,  except  those  of  the  corners,  have 
eight  brackets  at  the  top  of  their  shafts,  which  form  a  kind  of 
very  clumsy  capitals.  This  (unament,  very  common  in 
Chinese  edifices,  is  not  at  all  pleasing  to  our  eyes.  The 
colunms  of  the  second  orders  are  in  diameter  abovit  fo\ii-fifths 
of  the  diameter  of  the  first.  Their  height  is  six  diameiers 
and  a  half,  and  they  are  without  bases.  Under  the  second 
roof  is  seen  an  entrelas,  all  around,  composed  of  circles  and 
squares.  The  corners  of  the  two  roofs  arc  enriched  with 
ornaments,  which  represents  monsters  and  foliage;  and  the 
top  is  ornamented  with  two  dolphins  at  the  two  extremities, 
and  in  the  middle  with  a  great  fleuron  resembling  a  tnlip.^ 

"These  three  forms  are  more  frequent  than  any  other  in 
the  temples  of  China,  and  especially  in  those  of  much  extent. 
For  the  small  temples  they  often  use  the  model  shown  in 
Plate  I.,  Figure  2.  Sometimes,  as  may  be  seen  in  that 
drawing,  the  edifice  is  shut  before  by  movable  gates,  having 
four  columns  that  advance  in  the  manner  of  pro-style  temples. 
At  other  times  the  building  is  quite  open  in  the  front,  and 
has  simply  four  columns  that  support  the  roof. 

"  I  have  seen  at  Canton  some  other  forms  of  temples  ;  but 
none  of  them  appeared  to  me  worthy  of  representation  except 
two  little  buildings,  of  wood,  raised  in  the  courts  of  one  of 
the  pagodas  of  the  western  suburb.  {Figures  2  and  3,  of 
Plate  III,  he  gives  the  plans  of  them,)  These  are  two  pavilions, 
that  cover  two  iron  vases,  that  the  Chinese  use  in  the  sacrifices 
of  gilt  paper,  which  they  make  to  their  idols  on  festival  days  ; 
they  are  both  octagons,  and  composed  of  eight  columns,  which 
support  a  roof  surmounted  with  a  lamp  and  other  ornaments, 
which  are  represented  in  the  drawing.  Figure  3,  is  a  little 
raised,  and  surrounded  with  steps.  The  columns  have  bases 
of  a  profile  little  different  from  the  attic.  A  frieze  charged 
with  inscriptions  in  large  Chinese  characters,  surround  the 
space  between  the  columns  under  the  roof  The  lantern  has 
eight  sides,  it  is  covered  with  a  roof  in  sima  inversa,  and  on 
the  top  is  seen  an  ornament  consisting  of  a  small  globe 
surrounded  with  leaves  and  flowers,' 

Figured,  "is  raised  on  a  socle,  and  surrounded  with  an 
entrelas  of  masonry.  There  are  no  bases  to  the  colunms, 
and  under  the  first  roof  is  seen  an  ornament  composed  of 
interwoven  lozenges.  The  lamp  has  eight  little  columns, 
without  bases  or  capitals,  which  support  a  conic  roof,  orna- 
mented with  eight  dolphins,  each  of  which  rests  on  one  of 
the  columns.  The  top  of  the  building  consists  of  a  pierced 
ball,  whose  top  ends  in  a  flower. 

"The  proportions  of  these  little  temples  may  be  deduced 
from  the  scale  that  I  have  annexed  to  the  drawings." 

"  Towers,  or  Taas. — The  Chinese  give  the  name  of  taa 
to  their  towers,  and  the  Europeans  call  them  (as  well  as 
temples)  pagodas :   they  are  very  common  in  China,     Du 


CII 


148 


CHI 


rialdo  says,  that  in  some  provinces  they  are  in  every  city, 
and  oven  "in  every  cunsideraljle  village.  The  most  remarkable 
of  those  editiccs  are  the  famous  poroelain  tower  of  Nangking 
and  that  of 'i\>ng-ohangfou.     They  are  both  very  magnificent. 

'•The  form  of  these  taas  is  pretty  unifirm;  they  are 
oetasjons,  divided  into  seven,  eight,  and  sometimes  ten  stories, 
which  diminish  gradually  both  in  hciglit  and  breadth,  from 
tiie  base  to  the  top.  Every  story  lias  a  kind  of  cornice, 
which  supports  a  roof  at  the  corners  of  which  are  hnng 
cojiper  bells,  and  is  surnmnded  with  a  narrow  gallery  bor- 
dered with  a  balustrade.  These  edifices  have  commonly 
a  long  pole  at  the  top,  surrounded  by  several  circles  of  iron, 
supported  by  eight  chains,  tied  by  one  end  to  the  top  of  the 
poke,  and  by  the  other  to  the  angles  of  the  roof  of  the  highest 
story." 

The  origin  and  objects  of  these  towers  have  been  the  cause 
of  much  discussion  among  European  antiijuarics,  nor  has  the 
question  been  as  yet  satisfactorily  settled,  some  considering 
them  as  merely  commemorative,  some  as  campaniles  or  bel- 
fries, some  as  lanilmarks  and  beacons,  while  others  assert  that 
they  are  sepnlcliral.  and  produce  as  a  confirmation  of  their 
opinion  the  discovery  of  a  stone  coffin  tittod  in  the  pedestal  of 
the  tower  of  Ardmore.  Vallency  affirms  that  they  were  fire- 
towers  erected  to  Baal,  while  others  no  less  learned  identify 
them  with  the  round  towers  of  Ireland.  This  last  idea  may 
appear  extravagant  at  first  sight,  yet  upon  further  examina- 
tion it  will  be  found  equally  as  reasonable  as  any  of  the 
preceding.  The  Irish  towers  arc  generally  believed  to  be  of 
Celtic  origin,  erected  by  the  same  hands  as  the  structures 
of  Stonohenge,  and  others  similar  to  them  scattered  over  the 
British  Isles ;  now,  strange  to  say,  we  have  the  same  class  of 
erections  in  China,  in  the  province  of  Keang-nan,  and  in  a 
locality  famed  not  more  for  its  romantic  scenery  than  its 
ancient  legends :  here  we  find  not  only  the  monolithon,  or 
single,  upright  column,  the  counterpart  of  those  already 
described  under  Celtic  ArchUecltire  ;  but  even  the  most  per- 
fect form  of  Druidical  structures,  the  circle,  and  several  of  the 
intermediate  erections,  proving  without  doubt  the  connection 
between  them,  and  the  remains  of  Celtic  erection  in  the  remote 
west.  Add  to  this,  that  towers  are  found  in  close  pro.ximity 
with  such  structures,  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  their  sup- 
posed identity  with  those  of  Ireland  is  not  indulged  without 
some  reason. 

Plate  111.  Figure  \,  "represents  one  of  these  towers,  which 
are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ta-ho,  between  Canton  and 
Hoang-pou.  It  is  approached  by  three  steps,  and  consists  of 
seven  stories.  The  fiist  story  is  [>ierced  with  four  arched 
gates,  and  contains  an  octagonal  chamber,  in  the  middle  of 
•which  is  a  staiicase  ci>nducting  to  the  second  story.  The 
stairs  of  the  other  stories  are  placed  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  cornices  over  the  several  stories  are  all  alike,  consisting 
of  a  fillet  and  large  cavetio,  enriched  with  representations  of 
shell-fish;  an  ornament  as  common  in  the  edifices  of  China, 
as  in  those  of  the  anoients.  The  roofs  are  turned  up  at  the 
corners,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  lowest,  arc  ornamented 
with  loaves  and  bolls.  The  poleon  the  top  is  surmounted  with 
a  globe,  from  which  descend  chains,  that  are  fixed  to  the  angles 
of  the  highest  story,  and  around  them  are  nine  iron  hoops. 
I  have  not  set  down  the  stairs  of  the  dilferent  stories  ill  the 
drawing,  to  j)revont  confusion.'' 

The  porcelain  tower  of  Nan-king  is  octagonal  in  plan,  forty 
feet  in  diameter,  and  ccjusists  of  nine  stories,  diminishing  in 
size  as  the  structure  rises,  and  surmounted  with  a  cupola  and 
gilded  ball.  From  this  ball  a  rod  of  iron  rises,  and  from  its 
highest  extremity  eight  chains  descend,  from  which  seventy- 
two  bells  are  susponiled.  Eaoh  story  is  covered  by  a  projecting 
roof  of  coloured  tiles,  and  the  total  height  of  the  building  is 


variously  estimated  at  three  hundred  and  forty-six.  two  hun 
dred  and  tifly-oight,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet. 

"The  inner  part  or  body  of  the  wall,"  says  Mr.  Wright 
'■  is  brick,  but  the  inside  lining  and  the  facing  without,  of 
beautiful  white  glazed  porcelain  slabs,  fixed  in  the  masonry 
by  means  of  deep  keys,  cut  like  a  half  T  in  the  brick.  The 
projecting  roof  of  each  story  consists  of  green  and  yellow 
porcelain  tiles  in  alternate  perpendicular  rows  ;  and  running 
up  each  angle,  is  .a  moulding  of  larger  tiles  glazed  and 
coloured  red  and  green  alternately.  From  each  story  pro- 
jects a  balcony,  enclosed  by  a  light  balustrade  of  green 
porcelain,  upon  which  open  four  doorways,  set  to  the 
cardinal  points,  their  arches  being  elegantly  turned  with 
glazed  tiles,  cast  in  all  imnginable  fancies  of  design,  and 
variation  of  colour,  representing  deities,  demons,  and  mon- 
sters of  all  descriptions."  Bells  are  suspended  from  dragons' 
mouths  at  the  angles  of  every  story,  making  with  those 
attached  to  the  chains  of  the  cupola,  a  total  number  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty-two. 

"  Several  other  forma  of  buildings  used  in  China. — I  have 
given  descriptions  of  three  kinds  of  tingn,  that  I  saw  in 
different  temples  at  Canton.  It  remains  for  me  to  speak  of 
a  fourth  kind,  which  is  found  in  gardens.  These  edifices 
are  in  general  composed  only  of  twelve  columns,  raised  on 
a  socle,  which  serve  to  support  the  roof 

"The  building  that  served  me  for  a  model,  was  placed 
in  the  middle  of  a  small  lake,  in  a  garden  in  China;  its 
singularity  made  me  give  it  the  preferenci'.  • 

'•The  base  that  sup[)orts  it  is  pretty  high.  A  balustrade 
surrounds  it.  The  bases  of  the  twelve  columns  of  this 
pavilion  have  a  profile  very  similar  to  that  of  a  Tuscan  base 
of  Palladio.  The  roof,  which  rests  on  these  columns,  is 
crowned  with  a  lantern.  The  idea  of  this  ornament  is  taken 
fiom  those  which  surmount  the  towers.  The  tops  of  the 
shafts  of  the  columns  are  pierced  by  beams  that  support 
the  roof,  having  their  extremities  ornamented  with  little 
grotesque  heads  and  bells.  A  frieze  ornamented  with  an 
entrelas,  goes  all  round,  under  the  roof,  in  the  spaces  between 
the  columns." 

Sir  William  describes  another  pavilion  thus:  "It  is  the 
same  with  that  of  a  temple  with  one  wing  ;  but  the  elevation 
is  difioront.  It  is  composed  of  ten  columns,  wliicli  support 
a  roof  and  a  lantern,  covered  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  and 
terminated  by  a  ball. 

"  The  ;)n//fo«s,  or  triumphal  arches,  are  very  common  in 
China.  There  are  many  in  Canton ;  but  none,  that  I  have 
seen,  have  any  beauty. 

'■^ Houites  of  the  Chinese. — The  distribution  of  their  houses 
is  perfectly  uniform  ;  and  it  would  be  improper,  and  even 
dangerous,  for  an  individual  to  depart  from  the  general  mode. 
Le  Compte  tolls  us  of  a  mamlarin,  who  having  built  a  hou.se 
higher  and  more  beautiful  than  those  of  his  neighbours,  was 
accused  before  the  Emperor,  and,  fearing  the  consequence, 
he  pulled  down  his  house,  without  waiting  for  the  sovereign's 
decision. 

"The  Chinese  lay  out  more  than  half  of  the  ground 
occupied  for  their  houses  in  courts  and  narrow  walks;  thoSC 
of  the  merchants  of  Canton,  which  are  close  by  the  water, 
are  narrow  and  very  long;  but  there  is  no  ditrorenco  in  the 
disposition  of  their  interior.  The  level  ground  is  crossed 
in  its  length,  by  a  broad  walk,  passing  through  the  middle, 
and  stretching  from  the  street  to  the  river.  On  each  side 
are  the  apartments,  con-iisling  of  a  saloon  for  receiving  visits, 
a  bed-chamber,  and  sometimes  a  study,  or  closot.  Before 
each  set  of  a]iartmcnts  is  a  court,  having  a  fish-pond,  or 
cistern,  at  its  extremity,  containing  an  artificial  rock  in  the 
middle,  whereon  grow  bamboos  and  several  other  kinds  ot 


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149 


CHI 


plants;  all  whifh  form  a  miniature  landscape,  of  picturesque 
appeaiant-e.  Some  of  the  fish  are  so  familiar,  that  they  come 
to  llie  surface  of  the  wator,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  fed 
with  the  hand.  'J  he  sides  of  the  courts  are  ornamented 
soiiietiincs  with  flo\ver-|iuts,  and  sometimes  with  shrubs  in 
flower,  vines,  or  bamboos,  forming  green  arbours.  In  the 
miildlo,  \ipon  a  pedestal,  a  large  pojcelain  vase  is  generally 
placed,  filled  with  thn^e  beaulitul  flowers,  called  lien-hoa. 
They  also  frequently  keep  in  these  little  courts,  pheasants, 
bantam-hens,  and  other  curious  biids. 

••'J'he  great  chamber,  or  saloon,  is  commonly  from  18  to 
20  feet  in  length,  and  about  20  feet  in  breadth.  The  side 
which  looks  to  the  court,-is  entirely  open  ;  Ijut  a  screen  of 
canes,  vvhich  is  let  down  at  pleasure,  keeps  out  the  rain  and 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  pavement  is  composed  of  pieces 
of  stone  or  marble,  of  several  colours.  The  side  walls  are 
Covered  with  screens,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet  from 
the  ground  ;  and  the  upper  part  is  neatly  decorated  with 
white,  crimson,  or  gilt  paper. 

"Instead  of  paintings,  the  Chinese  hang  up  large  pieces 
of  satin  or  of  paper,  set  in  frames,  and  painted  in  imitation 
of  marble  or  bamboo,  on  which  are  written,  in  characters  of 
azure  blue,  proverbs  and  distichs  of  morality,  taken  from  the 
principal  Chinese  philosophers.  They  also  sometimes  have 
leaves  of  white  paper,  quite  smooth,  containing  large  charac- 
ters, traced  by  some  skilful  hand,  in  China  ink;  this  orna- 
ment is  much  esteemed.  The  l)ottom  of  the  drawing-room 
is  coiiiposed  of  folding-doors,  over  which  is  a  lattice,  covered 
with  painted  gauze,  for  the  admission  of  light  into  the  bed- 
chamber. The  doors,  which  are  of  wood,  are  of  very  neat 
workmanship,  ornamented  with  dilierent  characters  and 
figures,  and  sometimes  richly  varnished  and  painted  red, 
blue,  yellow,  or  some  other  colour. 

"In  the  middle  of  the  lower  pait  of  the  chamber,  and 
above  a  table  which  contains  various  ornaments,  a  very  large 
leaf  of  thick  paper  is  frequenti}'  suspended,  covered  with 
ancient  Ciiinese  paintings  of  ditferent  figures,  enclosed  in 
squares.  The  Chinese  have  a  great  veneration  for  these 
ornaments,  under  the  idea  that  the  painters  wcie  inspired  ; 
and  the  connoisseurs  pretend  to  distinguish  the  hands  of  the 
several  masters,  and  give  a  very  great  price  for  such  as  pass 
for  originals.  1  have  seen  many  of  these  paintings:  they 
usually  consist  of  landscapes  or  figures,  drawn  with  Cliina 
ink,  on  white  paper.  In  general  they  are  touched  with  spirit, 
but  they  are  too  incorrect,  and  too  little  finished,  to  deserve 
much  attention. 

"The  fiiiniture  of  the  large  room  consists  of  chairs,  stools, 
and  tables,  made  of  rosewood,  ebony,  varnished  wood,  and 
sometimes  simply  of  bamboo,  which,  though  cheap,  is  very 
neat.  When  the  furniture  is  of  wood,  the  tops  of  the  stools 
are  often  of  marble  or  of  porcelain  ;  and  though  such  seats 
are  very  hard,  they  are  very  agreeable  in  a  climate  where  the 
heat  of  the  summer  is  excessive.  On  small  tables,  or  stands, 
four  or  five  feet  high,  placed  in  a  corner  of  the  room,  are  seen 
dishes  of  citrons,  and  other  odoriferous  fruits,  branches  of 
coral  iu  porcelain  vases,  and  glass  globes  containing  gold- 
fishes, w  ith  a  kind  of  herb  something  similar  to  fennel.  They 
also  decorate  their  tables,  which  are  made  only  for  ornament, 
with  small  landscapes,  composed  of  shell-work,  plants,  and 
a  kind  of  lily  that  grows  ajnong  pebbles  covered  with  water. 
They  have  also  artificial  landscapes,  made  of  ivory,  crystal, 
amber,  pearl,  and  precious  stones.  I  have  seen  some  that  cost 
a  thousand  taels,  (more  than  three  hundred  guineas),  but 
they  are  mere  toys,  and  wretched  imitations  of  nature. 
Besides  these  landscapes,  the  tables  are  ornamented  with 
porcelain  vases  of  ditferent  kinds,  and  small  copper  vessels, 
the  latter  of  which  are  much  esteemed.     The  forms  of  these 


vessels  are  generally  simple  and  agreeable  ;  the  Chinese  say 
they  were  made  two  thousand  years  ago,  by  some  of  their 
most  celebrated  artists;  and  such  as  are  really  antique,  (for 
there  are  some  counterfeits),  sell  at  an  excessive  price;  one 
of  them  sometimes  costs  no  less  than  three  hundred  pounds. 
They  are  kept  in  small'pasteboard  boxes,  and  arc  only  shown 
on  great  occasions;  nobody  touches  them  but  the  master, 
and,  to  keep  them  clean,  he  brushes  them  from  time  to  time 
with  a  hair-pencil,  made  solely  for  the  purpose. 

"  Lamps  form  the  most  prominent  (U'liaments  of  the  cham- 
bers ;  there  are  generally  four  of  them  hanging  from  the 
ceiling,  by  cords  of  silk.  They  are  of  various  shapes,  as 
square,  octagon,  &c.,  and  are  composed  of  an  extremely  fine 
silken  stuff;  decorated  with  very  neat  drawings  of  flowers, 
birds,  and  landscapes. 

"  A  partition  of  folding-doors  separates  the  large  room 
from  the  bed-chamber.  1  have  already  observed,  that,  in 
warm  weather,  these  doors  are  left  open  all  night,  for  the 
admission  of  cool  air.  The  chamber  is  very  small,  and  has 
no  other  furniture  than  the  bed  and  some  varnished  clothes- 
trunks.  The  beds  are  sometimes  extremely  magnificent :  the 
bedsteads,  or  frames,  which  very  much  resemble  those  of 
Europe,  are  of  rosewood  engraved,  or  of  lackered  wood  ; 
the  curtains  are  of  tatfety,  or  gauze,  sometimes  flowered 
with  gold,  and  commonly  dyed  blue  or  purple.  A  band  of 
embroidered  satin,  about  a  foot  in  breadth,  goes  round  the 
whole  top  of  the  bed  ;  the  embroidery  is  in  compartments,  of 
various  forms,  and  represents  flowers,  landscapes,  or  human 
figures,  accompanied  with  moral  sentences  and  fables,  written 
with  China  ink  and  verndlion. 

"  By  the  side  of  the  bed-chamber  is  a  passage,  leading  to 
the  cabinet,  which  is  always  enclosed  by  walls,  and  lighted 
by  windows.  Tlie  walls  are  ornamented,  like  those  of  the 
saloon,  with  moral  sentences  and  antique  pictures  ;  the  fur- 
niture consists  of  arm-chairs,  settees,  and  tables.  The  books 
are  disposed  on  shelves,  and  on  a  table  near  the  window,  lie 
the  pencils,  and  other  things  necessary  for  writing,  the 
instruments  used  for  arithmetical  calculations,  and  some  select 
books,  all  laid  out  in  great  order. 

"Besides  these  apartments,  there  are  also  the  dining-room, 
the  kitchen,  the  apartment  for  the  domestics,  the  bath,  the 
privy,  the  office,  or  counting-house,  and,  towards  the  street, 
the  shop. 

"Such  is  the  distribution  of  the  houses  of  all  the  mer- 
chants at  Canton.  Those  of  other  people  only  differ  in 
having  their  general  plan  accommodated  to  the  ground  on 
which  they  are  built :  for  the  apartments,  the  courts,  and  other 
conveniences,  have  everywhere  the  order  just  described. 

"  The  leou,  or  upper-story,  consists  of  many  great  halls, 
occupying  all  the  breadth  of  the  house,  above  the  apartments 
of  the  ground-floor.  They  are  used  occasionally  as  cham 
bers,  for  lodging  strangers.  In  every  house  there  is  a  number 
of  shutters,  two  or  three  feet  broad,  and  ten  or  twelve  feet 
high.  When  they  wish  to  make  chaml)ers,  they  fix  these 
shutters  to  the  floor  and  ceiling,  and  in  a  few  hours  make  as 
many  apartments  as  they  wish.  Some  of  these  shutters  aie 
cut  from  the  top  to  within  four  feet  of  the  ground,  and  the 
openings  filled  with  very  thin  oyster-shells,  which  are  snfti- 
ciently  transparent  to  admit  daylight.  All  the  windows  in 
China  are  made  of  these  shells. 

"  In  one  of  these  great  halls,  and  commonly  in  that  next 
the  door,  the  image  and  altar  of  the  domestic  idol  are  placed, 
so  that  all  who  enter  may  see  it.  The  rest  of  the  second 
story  is  divided  into  apartments  for  the  family  ;  and  over  the 
shops  are  the  rooms  for  the  shopkeepers. 

"The  sides  of  the  Chinese  houses  next  the  street,  are 
altogether  plain,  or  employed  as  shops.    There  is  no  opening 


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except  the  door,  before  which  a  mat  is  hung,  or  a  screen  is 
placed  to  prevent  passengers  from  looking  in.  The  houses 
of  the  merehants  of  Canton  have  a  very  gay  and  handsome 
appearance  towards  the  river. 

■'  The  materials  used  fur  li\iilding  are  wood  and  brick. 
The  latter  are  either  simply  dried  in  the  snn,  oi-  baked  in 
an  oven.  The  walls  of  the  houses  are  commonly  about 
eighteen  inches  thick,  and  the  bricks,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  our  own,  are  used  in  the  fnlliiwiMg  mannei' ;  the  masons 
[ilace  three  or  four  beds  at  the  foundation,  entirely  solid ;  after 
which  they  dispose  their  bricks  alternately  length  and 
breadthwise,  along  the  two  sides  of  the  wall,  so  that  those 
laid  across  touch  one  another,  and  occupy  the  whole  breadth, 
but  those  placed  lengthwise  have  a  space  between  them  ;  on 
this  layer,  or  bed,  a  second  is  laid,  with  all  the  bricks  length- 
wise, and  the  joinings  of  the  cross-bricks,  in  the  first  layer, 
are  covered  with  a  whole  biick  in  this.  The  work  is  thus 
continued,  alternately,  to  the  top  ;  and  by  this  means,  the 
e.xpense  of  work  and  time,  as  well  as  the  weight  of  the  wall, 
are  very  much  dimiiuslied. 

"The  tiles  that  c<iver  the  roofs,  are  plain  and  semi-cylin- 
drical ;  the  latter  are  laid  on  the  joinings  of  the  former,  and 
the  manner  in  whicli  they  arc  supported,  is  represented  in 
Plate  HI.  The  Chinese,  like  the  Goths,  always  let  the  wood 
appear  withinside  the  ceiling ;  for  which  reason,  the  beams 
and  columns  are  frequently  made  of  precious  wood,  and 
sometimes  they  are  richly  inlaid  with  ivory,  copper,  and 
inotlier-ofpearl. 

"  ruriotis  kinds  of  columns  used  by  the  Chineite. — Colunms 
are  at  least  as  common  in  Chinese  edifices  as  in  those  of  the 
Europeans.  They  siijiport  the  roof,  and  are  commonly  made 
of  wood,  with  bases  of  stone,  or  marble,  having  no  capitals; 
but,  instead,  the  top  of  the  shaft  is  crossed  by  the  beams. 
Their  height  is  from  8  to  12  diameters,  diminishing  gradually 
towards  the  top,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft  terminates 
in  an  ovolo,  producing  an  effect  just  the  reverse  of  the 
terminations  of  the  ancient  columns.  This  peculiarity  is 
observable  in  the  drawings  of  the  Antlquitkn  of  Egypt,  pub- 
lished by  Captain  Norden  some  time  ago.  The  bases  show 
a  great  diversity  of  prt)file;  none  of  them  are  very  hand- 
some, but  the  most  regular  that  I  have  seen,  are  the  six 
represented  in  Plate  111,"     See  Chambers'  Work. 

Fiyure2,  No.  I,  "is  taken  from  the  colonnade  that  sur-- 
rounds  the  court  of  the  pagoda  of  Cochinchina:  the  column 
is  about  seven  diameters  in  height,  and  the  base  one.  This 
profili!  is  very  common." 

Figure  2,  No.  2,  "  is  taken  from  one  of  the  temples  of  the 
same  pagoda,  represented  in  Plato  I.  It  is  the  only  place 
where  I  have  seen  this  kind  of  column.  They  are  about  nine 
diameters  high,  and  their  base  two." 

Figure  3,  "is  taken  from  the  colonnade  of  the  great  court 
of  the  pagoda  of  Ilonang.  The  height  of  the  column  is  nine 
diameters,  and  that  of  the  base  one.  The  ends  of  the  beams 
are  ornamented  with  heads  of  monsters,  terndnating  in  foliage, 
and  the  brackets  that  support  them  come  out  of  the  mouths 
of  gi-otesque  heads,  cut  in  half  relief  on  the  columns." 

Figure  4,  "  is  taken  from  a  little  pagoda  in  the  eastern 
suburb  of  Canton.  The  height  of  the  column  is  eight  dia- 
meters and  a  half,  and  that  of  the  base  three-fourths  of  the 
diameter.  The  ends  of  the  beams  represent  heads  of  dragons, 
and  all  the  wood-work  i>f  the  ceiling  is  ornamented  with  mon- 
sters and  foli.ige,  in  inlaid  work  of  copper,  ebony,  ivory,  and 
mother-of-pearl." 

Fii/ures  5  and  G,  "  the  transverse  elevation  of  Figures 
3  and  4." 

Figure  7,  "  is  seen  in  almost  all  the  houses  of  the  Chinese. 
Their  height  is  from  8  to  12  diameters,  and  sometimes  more ; 


that  of  the  base  is  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  diameter. 
The  profile  resembles  one  of  the  Tuscan  bast'S  of  Palladio." 

Figure  8,  "is  foimd  in  almost  all  the  pagodas,  with  some 
little  varieties.  The  model  from  which  I  have  taken  my 
drawing,  is  in  a  little  pagoda,  in  the  street  where  are  the 
European  factories.  The  columns  are  octagonal,  and  of 
stone.  Eight  diameters  of  the  circumscribed  circle  nuike 
the  height ;  and  they  have  no  diminution  toward  the  base. 
The  bases  are  the  most  regular  that  I  have  seen  in  China, 
and  much  resemble  the  attic  base  of  the  ancients.  Their 
height  is  equal  to  double  one  of  the  sides  of  the  column. 

"  The  particular  divisions  of  all  these  profiles  are  marked 
at  the  side  of  each  drawing. 

"The  insides  of  the  temples,  represented  in  Plates  I. 
and  II.  (see  Chambers),  arc  quite  plain  ;  having  no  orna- 
ments beside  the  idols.  The  buildings  represented  in  Plate  II. 
Figures  3  and  4,  have  no  ceilings ;  the  beams  which  support 
the  roofs  are  seen  ;  and  their  joinings  are  according  to  the 
principles  of  that  in  Plate  HI.  The  interior  of  the  tower  in 
Plate  HI.  is  also  quite  plain." 

We  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  Great  Wall;  it  consists 
of  an  earthen  mound  supported  on  each  side  by  walls  of 
brick  and  masonry,  the  thickness  of  the  whole  being  twenty- 
five  feet  at  the  base,  diminishing  to  fifteen  at  a  height  of 
fifieen  feet,  which  is  the  level  of  the  platform  ;  but  this 
platform  is  defended  on  eithi-r  side  by  a  parapet  five  feet  in 
height,  thus  making  the  total  height  of  the  w.all  twenty  feet. 
At  intervals  of  about  two  hundred  paces  are  towers,  rising 
to  a  height  of  thirty-seven  feet,  and  measuring  forty  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  thirty  feet  at  the  top;  there  are 
however  some  larger  towers,  which  consist  of  two  stories, 
and  are  about  forty-eight  feet  in  height.  This  wall  is  carried 
round  a  great  portion  of  the  empire,  passing  over  in  its  way 
mountains,  valleys,  and  rivers,  and  is  altogether  fifteen 
hundred  miles  in  length. 

CHIP,  a  small  piece  cut  away  from  any  material,  by  an 
acute-angled  instrument, 

CHISEL,  an  instrument  used  in  masonry,  carpentry,  and 
joinery,  and  also  by  statuaries  and  carvers,  tor  cutting,  either 
by  the  impulse  of  pressure,  or  of  the  blows  of  a  mallet  or 
hammer.  There  are  several  kinds  of  chisels  used  in  car- 
pentry and  joinery;  as,  the  former,  the  paring-chiset,  the 
gouge,  the  mortise-chisel,  the  socket-chisel,  and  the  ripping- 
chisel.  These  names  they  have  obtained  from  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  respectively  applied.     See  Tools,  Tooling. 

Chisklkd  Work,  in  masonry,  stones  that  have  a  chiseled 
surface. 

CHIT,  an  instrument  for  cleaving  laths. 

CHOIR,  (from  X^P^C^  Greek,  chorus ;)  that  part  of  the 
church  in  which  the  choir  or  singers  are  located,  and  the 
services  for  the  most  part  performed.  The  term  is  some- 
times made  equivalent  to  chancel,  and  defined  as  that  portion 
of  the  building  eastward  of  the  nave  appropriated  to  the 
priests,  but  incorrectly  so,  as  the  choir  does  not  extend  to 
the  extreme  cast.  The  fourth  council  of  Toledo  directs 
"  the  priests  and  deacons  to  communicate  before  the  altar, 
the  inferior  in  the  quire,  and  the  people  without  the  quire  ;" 
thus  making  a  distinction  between  the  choir  and  sanctuary, 
or  division  on  which  the  altar  stood.  In  fact  the  chancel  is 
divided  into  two  parts — the  choir,  and  the  presbytery  or 
sanctuary  ;  the  former  containing  the  singers  and  inferior 
ministers;  the  latter  the  altar,  and  the  superior  ofiiciating 
clergy.  The  choir  was  at  the  western  end  of  the  chancel, 
separated  from  the  nave  by  one  or  more  steps  and  the  rood 
screen,  and  from  the  sanctuary  by  steps  only  ;  it  contained 
seats  or  stalls  on  eithersiilc.  which  were  returned  sometimes  on 
the  western  extremity  in  front  of  the  screen,  the  returns  always 


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151 


CHU 


facing  the  altar  :  in  large  churches,  there  are  generally  two 
or  three  ranges  of  such  stalls  rising  a  step  or  two  in  siicces- 
siiiii  above  eacii  other.  When  thore  arc  aisles  at  the  sides 
of  the  choir,  which  is  generally  the  case  in  cathedrals  and 
the  more  important  churches,  they  are  separated  from  it 
either  by  a  screen  of  open  work,  or  by  the  stalls  being  carried 
up  to  a  considerable  elevation  ;  the  latter  method  is  more 
usual  in  cathedrals,  where  the  higher  stalls  are  canopied,  and 
enriched  with  tabernacle  work.  In  our  cathedrals,  the  choir 
Is  situate  more  generally  to  the  east  of  the  tower,  but  is 
sometimes  .seen  under  the  tower,  as  at  York  and  Winchester. 
The  choir  was  originally  separated  from  the  altar,  and 
elevated  in  the  form  of  a  theatre,  enclosed  all  round  with 
a  balustrade  :  on  each  side  was  a  pulpit,  from  which  the 
epistles  and  gospel  were  sung;  as  may  still  tjeseen,  at  Rome, 
III  the  churches  of  St.  Clement  and  St.  Panciatius,  the  only 
two  remaining  in  the  original  form.  It  was  separated  from 
the  nave  in  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  enclosed  with  a 
balustrade,  covered  with  curtains,  which  were  not  to  be 
opened  till  after  the  consecration.  In  the  twelfth  century, 
the  choir  was  surrounded  with  walls. 

In  nunneries,  the  choir  is  a  large  hall,  adjoining  the  body 
of  the  church,  but  separated  by  a  grate,  where  the  devotees 
chant  the  service. 

CHOR.\GlC  MONUMENT  of  Lysicrates,  at  Athens. 
See  Monument  of  Lysicrates. 

CHORD,  the  extent  between  the  two  extremities  of  an 
aich. 

CHRISTIAN  ARCFIITECTURE,  a  designation  applied 
by  some  to  Gothic  art  e.xclusively,  but  in  our  opinion, 
unreasonably ;  becau-^e,  although  (Jothic  is  doubtless  the 
perfection  of  Chri.'^tian  art,  and  the  best  adapted  for  religious 
purposes,  and  in  tliat  respect  more  fairly  entitled  to  the  name 
than  any  other  style,  still  we  think  all  others  ought  not  to 
be  excluded  from  the  title,  since  some  of  them,  such  as 
Byzantine  and  {..ombardic,  owe  their  origin  entirely  to 
Christianity,  and  were  never  profaned  by  being  applied 
to  pagan  usages.  The  term  ought  to  include  all  styles  of 
building  invented  by  the  Christians,  and  adapted  to  religious 
purpose-;.  dKRTiiiii  essentially  from  pagan  architecture. 
CHRONOLOGICAL  COLUMN.  ^See  Column. 
CHURCH,  (Greek,  Kvpiov  otKog,  the  Lord's  house,)  a 
Christian  ediliceset  apart  for  the  public  celebration  of  divine 
service. 

Churches  vary  in  size,  magnificence,  and  architectural 
features,  according  to  their  rank  and  situation  ;  and  are 
denominated  accoidingly  :  thus  we  have  metropolitan, 
patriarchal,  cathedral,  cardinal,  conventual,  collegiate, 
monastic,  and  parish  churches  ;  for  a  description  of  which, 
we  must  refer  to  each  separate  title,  more  especially  to 
Cathedral  and  Monastery.  Under  this  article  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  more  particularly  to  the  consideration  of 
parish  churches  ;  as,  however,  the  distribution  and  architec- 
tural peculiarities  of  churches  vary  considerably  in  difi'erent 
countries,  we  must  premise  further,  that  we  include  only  the 
parish  churches  of  our  own  country.  The  history  and  pro- 
gress of  Church  Architecture  in  this  and  other  countries, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  whole,  will  be  treated  of  under  the 
title  of  Ecclesiastical  Architecture. 

As  there  is  a  general  similarity  in  the  division  and  arrange- 
ment of  parts  in  all  churches  of  whatever  date  or  situation, 
it  may  not  be  out  of  place  at  the  commencement  of  this 
article,  to  say  something  of  the  primitive  churches,  as  far  as 
relates  to  these  partii-ulars.  The  earliest  buildings  erected 
for  the  purpose  of  Christian  worship,  or  at  least  the  earliest 
of  which  we  have  any  account,  as  also  the  first  in  which 
Christians  had  an  opportunity  of  following  their  own  mode 


of  construction,  are  those  which  owe  their  existence  to  the 
zeal  of  Constantine  the  Great;  and  the  most  ancient  and 
most  perfect  model  of  these  now  remaining,  is  that  of  Saint 
Clement  at  Rome.  From  this  and  some  few  other  structures 
at  Rtune,  we  are  enabled  to  determine,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  form  of  the  churches  of  that  period  ;  and  our  conclusions 
derived  from  this  source,  are  confirmed  iiy  Euseblus,  who 
has  left  us  a  description  of  a  Greek  church  of  his  own  time. 
From  these  combined  authorities,  we  learn  that  the  plans  of 
such  buildings  were  either  oblong  or  cruciform,  and  were 
divided  into  distinct  portions  as  follows  :-^At  the  entrance 
to  the  church  was  the  vestibule  or  narthex.  in  which  were 
stationed  the  catechumens  and  penitents  of  various  stages, 
and  which  was  frequently  divided  into  two  or  more  parts, 
each  of  which  was  destineil  for  a  different  class  of  peniti'Uts, 
the  outermost  for  those  who  were  under  the  more  severe 
censures  of  the  church,  and  the  innermost  for  the  catechumens ; 
this  last  division  was  termed  vapd-q^,  ferulu,  because  those 
who  were  admitted  into  it,  began  to  be  subject  to  the  disci- 
pline of  the  church.  These  vestibules  or  porticos  led  to  the 
nave  properly  so  called,  in  which  were  assembled  the  boily 
of  the  faithful;  and  which  was  divided  in  its  width  into 
three  or  more  parts — a  central  one,  with  an  aisle  on  each  side 
of  it.  In  the  central  avenue  or  body  of  the  building,  and 
at  the  remote  end  of  the  nave,  was  the  choir,  shut  olf  from 
the  other  parts  of  the  church  by  a  rail  or  otherwise  ;  in  this 
were  the  ambones  or  pulpits  for  reading,  as  also  the  seats  for 
the  choristers,  and  here  was  the  greater  portion  of  the  service 
performed.  From  the  choir  was  an  ascent  of  steps  to  the 
sanctuary,  which  was  of  an  apsidal  form,  -having  seats  all 
round  for  the  priests,  and  a  more  elevated  one  in  the  cenire 
of  them  tiir  the  bishop,  immediately  in  front  of  which  stood 
the  altar.  Attached  to  the  church,  but  forming  a  distinct 
erection,  was  the  baptistery,  in  which  persons  were  admitted 
into  fellowship  with  the  body  of  believers.  Having  thus 
given  a  rapid  sketch  of  a  primitive  church,  we  shall  pass  to 
the  consideration  of  our  more  immediate  subject,  begging  our 
readers  to  bear  in  mind  the  preceding  observations,  while  we 
describe  the  form  and  arrangement  of  our  English  churches. 
In  speaking  of  our  parochial  churches,  we  would  be  under- 
stood to  refersolely  to  those  erected  befm-e  the  Reformation, 
in  the  styles  usually  denominated  Gothic.  This  is  not  the 
place,  even  were  argument  necessary,  to  discuss  the  com- 
parative merits  of  the  Italian  and  Gothic  styles,  or  their 
adaptation  to  sacred  purposes.  The  Improved  taste  of  the 
age  has  led  to  the  preference  of  the  latter,  and  there  are  few 
of  the  present  day  who  would  be  found  to  question  its  cor- 
rectness. Gothic  is  the  prevailing  fashion  now,  as  was 
Italian  in  the  preceding  generations  ;  apart  from  this,  how- 
ever, we  think  there  can  be  no  man  of  correct  taste  and 
unbiassed  judgment,  but  would  prefer  the  quiet  unobtrusive 
simplicity  of  our  old  parish  churches,  to  the  more  p.impous 
grandeur  of  those  of  the  last  two  centuries.  Nothing  can 
be  more  diverse  than  the  impressions  conveyed  by  the  two — 
the  one,  solemn,  subdued,  and  peaceful ;  the  other,  secular, 
showy,  and  luxurious:  it  is  astonisliing  how  completely  the 
application  of  the  two  styles  to  the  same  general  form,  will 
change  the  features  and  general  appearance  of  an  edifice. 

Our  parish  churches  are  perfectly  unique;  different  from 
what  we  find  elsewhere,  they  form  quite  a  national  charac- 
teristic, of  which  an  Englishman  may  indeed  be  proud. 
Their  origin  is  attributed  to  Archbishop  Theodore,  who 
noting  the  inconvenience  which  arose  from  the  previous 
practfceof  sending  priests  from  the  cathedral  into  the  neigh- 
bouring hamlets,  adopted  the  plan  of  distributing  each  diocese 
into  manageable  districts  or  parishes,  with  a  resident  pastor 
to  take  charge  of  each  ;  he  carried  out  his  idea  by  instigating 


G  II  U 


152 


CHU 


the  Saxon  thanes  in  the  erection  and  enrlowment  of  churches 
witliiii  the  precincts  of  their  own  estale-".  The  phiii  thus 
coninienced,  was  fuiind  to  be  so  advantageous,  that  it  was 
carried  out  and  enlarg<  d  upon  by  the  succeeding  generations. 
We  shall  not  stop  here  to  inijuire  into  the  form  and  construo- 
tion  of  the  eailier  churclies  of  this  ishind,  but  refer  the 
reader,  as  well  to  the  articles  above  mentioned,  as  also  to 
that  on  Saxos  Architectcke,  and  proceed  at  once  to  the 
general  description  of  a  church. 

Of  the  parU  or  divisions. — There  are  two  parts,  and  only 
two  parts,  absolutely  essential  to  a  church  :  nave  and  chancel. 
These  it  must  have,  or  it  is  not  entitled  to  t!ie  designation 
of  a  church  ;  without  the  former  it  is  no  more  than  a  chapel, 
and  without  the  latter,  little  better  than  a  mere  lecture-room. 
A  church  consisting  only  of  the  above  divisions,  is  one  of 
the  nio->t  simple  form,  few,  however,  are  found  without  some 
further  additions-  the  first  addition  is  that  of  a  porch  on 
one  side  of  the  building,  forming  a  covered  entrance  into 
the  chinch.  Buildings  consisting  simjily  of  these  three 
parts  are  not  unfrequont,  nor  devoid  of  beauty,  although  but 
seldom  imitated  in  the  jiresent  day.  In  larger  churches,  the 
capacity  of  the  nave  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  one  or 
two  aisles,  more  frequently  of  one  on  each  side  of  the  body 
of  the  building,  thus  dividing  the  nave  transversely  into  three 
avenues  and  alibrding  greater  accommodation  for  worshippers 
without  enlarging  the  chancel,  as  this  part  does  not  so  much 
require  spaciousness  as  length.  In  some  cases  it  is  true  the  aisles 
were  continued  eastward,  >o  as  to  encroach  upon  the  chancel, 
and  sometimes  extended  its  whole  length  ;  the  spaces  thus 
gained,  were  used  for  the  most  pajt  for  chapels,  and  contained 
side-altars  with  their  appurtenances.  These  chapels  were 
dedicated,  the  one  in  honour  of  the  Virgin,  which  was  more 
frequently  on  the  southern  side,  and  the  other  in  the  name 
of  the  jiatron  or  other  saint.  Churches  with  only  one  aisle, 
are  constantly  to  be  met  with. 

Another  division  of  a  church  which  .  we  have  not  yet 
noticed,  and  which,  though  not  an  essential,  forms  a  most 
imposing  feature,  is  the  tower;  this  is  situated  most  usually 
at  the  western  end  of  the  nave,  or  at  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  and  transepts,  when  the  church  is  cruciform  ; 
and  in  its  most  perfect  and  beautiful  state  is  surmounted 
by  a  lofty  spire.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  most  com- 
plete form  of  a  parish  church,  which  consists  of  a  nave 
flanked  on  either  side  by  an  aisle  ;  a  chancel  at  the  east, 
and  a  lower  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  same,  with  a 
projecting  porch  towards  the  western  end  of  the  south  aisle. 
This  is  the  most  fiequent  form  of  our  smaller  churches,  but 
not  the,  only  one;  we  not  unfrequently  find  them  in  the  shape 
of  a  cross,  which  is  doubtless  the  most  appropriate  and 
expressive  form  that  could  be  adopted  in  the  erection  of  a 
Christian  temple;  but  the  simple  parallelogram  is  on  many 
accounts  the  more  convenient,  nor  is  it  so  greatly  inferior 
in  symbolical  meaning;  for  while  the  cross  plan  portrays  the 
emblem  of  Christianity,  the  latter  is  an  evident  representation 
of  the  ark  in  which  .\oah  was  preserved,  which  has  ever  been 
con>idered  a  type  of  the  Chri-stian  church. 

Of  the  position  of  CIturckes. — Almost  all  the  old  churches 
of  this  country  range  east  and  west,  having  the  chancel  at 
the  eastern  exiremity  ;  nor  is  this  merely  a  local  peculiarity, 
but  a  universal  custom  ;  such  was  the  practice  of  all  Chris- 
tians from  the  earliest  ages.  It  is  true,  exceptions  are  to  l)e 
found,  but  not  more  than  sufliuieut  to  prove  the  rule.  The 
cliurch  dedicated  by  Paulinus.  bishop  of  Nola,  to  the  memory 
of  S.  Felix,  is  an  instance  of  deviation  tVom  the  usual  position, 
but  of  this  it  is  related,  that  it  was  not  built  so  as  to  face 
the  east,  "as  was  usual,"  l)ut  .so  as  to  turn  towards  annther 
church   previously  dediciited    to   that  saint  ;    and   Socrates, 


describing  the  church  at  Antioch,  tells  us,  that  it  stood  in 
a  ditleient  posture  from  other  churches,  the  altar  not  being 
at  the  east  end,  but  at  the  west.  The  canonical  position  is 
ordered  in  the  apostolical  constitutions.  When  we  state  that 
the  chancel  pointed  eastward,  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it 
faced  that  quarter  precisely ;  very  few  churches  indeed  do 
this,  the  orientation  varying  in  many  instances  considerably 
north  or  south;  such  variation  is  said  to  have  arisen  from 
the  practice  of  pointing  the  church  to  that  part  of  the  horizon 
where  the  sun  rose  on  the  d.ay  of  the  patron  saint. 

Of  the  exterior  elevation. — The  smaller  churches  present 
to  us  an  elevation  of  only  one  story  of  rough  walling,  pierced 
at  intervals  with  windows,  which  are  usually  lllled  with 
tracery  ;  those  at  the  east  and  west  ends,  being  of  larger 
dimensions  than  those  in  the  side  walls.  At  the  angles  of 
the  building,  the  outline  is  broken  by  massive  projecting 
buttresses,  and  at  other  situations  where  they  are  required 
for  the  support  of  the  building  ;  they  are  sometimes  seen 
between  every  tw'o  windows.  A  more  imposing  projection 
is  afforded  by  the  porch  on  one  side  ;  this  is  carried  up  nearly 
as  high  as  the  side  walls,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  high-pitched 
gable  roof;  it  is  formed  either  of  rubble,  with  or  without 
windows,  or  of  wood,  in  which  material  we  have  many 
beautiful  specimens  of  the  later  styles  pierced  and  carved  in 
the  most  elaborate  manner;  some  of  the  plainer  ones,  how- 
ever, form  very  picturescjue  additions  to  a  small  church. 

The  chancel,  in  most  eases,  is  of  smaller  dimensions  than 
the  nave,  both  in  width  and  height,  and  tbrms  a  picturesque 
break  in  the  elevation  ;  but  in  some  cases  it  is  of  the  same 
size  as  the  nave,  and  occasionally,  though  rarely,  larger  in 
both  dimensions,  showing  a  western  wall  projecting  beyond 
the  nave  on  all  its  sides.  There  is  a  priest's  door  iii  one  side 
of  the  chancel,  and  sometimes  a  vestry,  the  form  and  eleva- 
tion of  which  varies  in  different  examples. 

The  whole  of  the  building  is  covered  by  a  high-pitclied 
gable  roof  of  lead,  slate,  or  tile,  and  sometimes  of  shingles 
or  thatch,  the  eaves  projecting  a  little  beyond  the  walls  ; 
parapets  are  not  found,  except  in  large  churches.  A  very 
beautiful  addition  is  frequently  to.  be  seen  on  the  apex  of 
the  western  gable,  consisting  either  of  a  continuation  of  a 
part  of  the  gable  in  a  vertiftxl  direction,  pierced  with  arched 
apertures  to  contain  the  bells,  and  finished  wNth  a  gable  top ; 
or  otherwise  of  a  little  turret  of  four  or  more  sides,  to  be 
employed  for  the  same  purpose  :  the  eastern  gable  is  for  the 
most  part  finished  with  an  ornamental  cross. 

In  the  larger  churches  of  three  aisles,  the  elevation  consists 
most  frequently  of  two  stories,  the  lower  one  similar  to  that 
already  described,  and  an  upper  one  called  the  clere-story, 
which  is  carried  up  above  the  arches  which  separate  the  nave 
and  aisles,  and  pierced  with  windows  of  a  smaller  descrip- 
tion,sometimes  with  mere  quatret'oils  or  other  small  apertures. 
In  very  large  churches,  the  clerestory  windows  are  often 
larger  than  those  of  the  aisles.  The  nave  is  covered  as  before 
with  a  gable  roof,  but  the  aisles  with  a  lean-to.  sloping  upwards 
from  the  exterior  walls  to  the  clere-story,  with  a  much  more 
gentle  acclivity.  In  some  three-aisled  churches,  where  the 
width  is  not  considerable,  the  gable  roof  spans  both  nave  and 
aisles  ;  sometimes  in  one  inclination,  but  at  others,  the  incli- 
nation over  the  aisles  is  considerably  depressed ;  in  such  cases 
there  is  of  course  no  clerestory.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
a  church  is  of  a  great  width,  especially  when  the  additional 
width  is  in  the  aisles,  we  have  three  gable  roofs,  one  over 
the  nave,  and  a  similar  one  over  each  aisle  ;  the  gable  ends 
of  such  churches  have  a  very  pleasing  appearance  ;  they  have 
no  clere-story,  and  the  chancel  is  mostly  but  a  continuation 
of  the  nave;  not  unfrequently  the  aisles  are  continued  the 
whole  lensrth  of  the  buildiu";  in  such  churches. 


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153 


CHU 


In  CTiK'iform  cluirehes,  the  elevation,  with  the  exception 
of  such  diirerenccs  as  tiie  plan  necessitates,  is  for  the  most 
part  similar  to  that  of  the  more  common  fi)i'ms. 

Of  the  tower. — A  beautiful  appendage  to  a  church  is  the 
tower,  nor  is  it  added  merely  for  etiect;  its  principal  object 
is  perhaps  to  contain  the  bells,  which  require  to  be  suspended 
at  a  coMsideiable  lieight,  in  order  that  they  may  be  heard  at 
a  <lislancc;  another  end  which  it  serves,  is  to  point  out  the 
srtiuition  of  the  s:iered  Iniilding,  and.  as  some  suppose,  to  act 
as  a  lieacon  or  landniarl<  for  the  guidance  of  travellers:  an 
instance  of  a  tower  serving  this  purpose,  may  be  pointed  out 
at  lioston,  Lincolnshire,  as  also  at  Dnndry,  near  Bristol,  at 
bothof  whiih  places  the  towers  are  raised  to  an  uxtraordinary 
height.  The  tow.'r  is  very  generally  surmounted  by  a  spire, 
which  serves  as  a  most  efficient  covering,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  gives  additional  height,  and  forms  a  beautiful  finish- 
ing, '■pointing,"  as  it  does,  "in  silence  heavenward."  It  is 
remarked  that  spires  are  not  so  frequent  in  elevated  situations, 
or  in  level  tracts  of  land,  as  they  are  in  valleys  and  in  wooded 
country  ;  which  fact  would  seem  to  imply  that  they  were 
added  more  especially  for  pointing  out  the  spot  occupied  by 
the  house  (jf  prayer. 

The  situation  of  the  tower  with  respect  to  the  church  is 
various;  sometimes  we  see  it  at -the  end,  sometimes  in  the 
middle  of  an  aisle,  frequently  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave, 
and  occasionally  between  nave  and  chancel ;  in  short,  almost 
in  every  situation,  except  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
chancel.  Its  plan  is  usually  scjuare,  though  occasionally  we 
find  it  octagonal,  and  even  circular,  and  sometimes  square 
at  the  lower  part,  but  finished  ofl'at  the  top  in  an  octagonal 
fnrm  ;  in  elevation,  the  outline  is  broken  by  buttresses  pro- 
jecting considerably  at  each  angle,  and,  where  there  is  no 
spire,  is  li-equently  found  a  stair  turret  running  np  in  the 
corner  next  the  church,  and  continued  some  little  distance 
above  the  |iarapet.  The  base  or  lower  story  of  the  tower  is 
usually  plain  and  ma-sive,  but  the  upper  portion  is  of  a  more 
elalxirate  appearance,  being  pierced  with  windows,  the 
heads  filled  with  Irarei-y.  and  the  lower  parts  with  louvre- 
boarding.  When  there  is  no  spire,  the  tower  is  finished  with 
a  paiapet,  battlenienteil  or  otherwise;  and  in  later  examples, 
the  parapet  is  not  omitted,  even  when  there  is  a  spire,  and 
is  sometimes  enriched  by  continuing  the  buttresses  above  the 
tower,  in  the  shape  of  pinnacles.  During  the  earlier  periods 
of  English  architecture,  the  spires  sprang  direct  from  the 
eaves  of  the  tower,  without  the  intervention  of  a  parapet. 

Spires  are,  in  plan,  s<|uare  or  multangular,  most  frequently 
octagonal ;  sometimes  they  spring  from  the  tower  on  a  square 
plan,  which  at  a  short  elevation  is  merged  in  the  octagonal ; 
some  spring  from  the  tower  at  a  greater  angle  than  others, 
but  all  terminate  in  a  point  surmounted  by  a  vane,  often  by 
the  symbolical  cock,  the  emblem  of  St.  Peters  fall,  which 
proposesan  opportune  warning  to  the  passers-bv,  not  to  neglect 
the  aid  of  divine  power,  but  to  "  watch  and  pray,  lest  they 
likewise  enter  into  temptation."  The  elevation  of  the  spire 
is  relieved  by  one  or  two  tiers  of  spire-lights,  which  are  small 
open  windows,  canied  up  vertically,  and  therefore  projecting 
from  the  line  of  spire  as  they  rise  upwards.  Spires  are  built 
eitherof  stone  or  of  wood,  in  which  l.iltercase,  they  are  usuall)' 
covered  either  with  lead,  slate,  or  shingles ;  and  though  not  so 
imposing  as  those  of  stone,  have  a  very  picturesque  appearance. 
Towers  of  wood  are  very  frequent  in  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  Essex ; 
they  are  surmounted  with  low  spires,  the  whole  being  covered 
with  weather-boarding,  with  small  apertures  of  lutfer-boarding 
for  windows  :•  wooden  bell-cots  of  a  similar  description  are 
commonly  to  be  met  with  in  E^sex.  Detached  towers  are  not 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  this  country,  but  several  are  to  be 
found,  especially  in  Lincolnshire. 

20 


Of  the  internal  strvcture. — The  principal  portion  of  the 
structure  to  which  the  eye  is  directed,  in  the  interior  is  the 
chancel ;  this  is  entered  from  the  nave  mider  an  arch,  termed 
the  chancel-iirch,  and  is  elevated  from  the  body  of  the  church 
on  a  raised  platform,  which  is  ascended  by  three  or  more  steps; 
a  further  separation  is  elfected  by  the  rood  >crcen,  which  is 
carried  across  the  opening  formed  by  the  arch,  and  stretches 
from  pier  to  |)ier.  In  three-aisled  structures,  the  aisles  are 
separated  from  the  nave  by  an  arcade  or  series  of  arches, 
supporting  in  most  cases  a  clerestory,  to  admit  light  into 
the  body  of  the  church.  The  proportion  between  the  width 
of 'the  nave  and  aisles,  vaiies  considerably;  in  some  cases, 
the  aisles  being  less  than  half  the  width  of  the  nave,  and  in 
others,  of  nearly  equal  dimen--ions. 

The  roofing  throughout  the  church  is  composed  in  by  far 
the  majority  of  instances,  of  timber,  the  few  exceptions, 
which  are  in  the  larger  churches,  being  of  stone  vaulting. 
In  roofs  of  the  former  kind,  the  timbers  were  originally  open 
to  view,  and  not  concealed,  as  too  many  of  them  are  at  the 
present  day,  with  a  flat  plaster-ceiling.  The  timbers  were 
of  oak,  and  consisted  of  principals,  purlins,  and  common 
rafters,  the  whole  of  which  were  boarded  over,  and  the 
boards  protected  by  lead  or  other  covering.  The  principals 
are  placed  at  regular  intervals,  dividing  the  roof  into  a  num- 
ber of  bays  or  compartments,  each  inclosing  several  common 
rafters,  and  are  partially  supported  cither  on  corbels,  or  on 
the  capitals  of  shafts  ascending  from  the  floor;  they  are 
formed  either  of  collars  with  collar  braces  continued  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  rafter,  of  collais  with  intersecting  collar 
braces,  of  intersecting  braces  only,  or  of  timbers  disposed  in 
the  form  of  an  arch,  and  in  many  other  ways  which  will  be 
discussed  in  the  proper  place ;  tie  beams  are  seldom  used  ; 
in  most  instances  the  timbers  are  plain,  but  in  many,  of  the 
later  ones  more  especially,  a  considerable  degree  of  ornamen- 
tation is  introduced  in  the  shape  of  carved  bosses,  open 
panelling,  and  s\ieh  like. 

Of  the  internal  arrangement. — On  entering  the  church 
throtigh  the  wicket,  at  the  entrance  of  the  porch,  we  some- 
times notice  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  door,  often  pro- 
jecting from  the  wall,  and  partially  covered  by  a  niche,  a 
stone  bason,  which  is  called  a  stoup,  or  aspersorium,  from  its 
use,  which  was  to  contain  the  holy  water,  with  which,  in 
olden  times,  the  worshippers  sprinkled  or  crossed  themselves 
before  entering  into  the  body  of  the  church.  This  was  a  very 
ancient  practice,  and  was  adopted  in  a  somewhat  diflerc-nt 
.shape  by  the  early  church;  the  small  stoup,  in  fact,  is  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  fountain  to  be  seen  in  front  of  some  of  the 
Constantinian  churches,  at  which  Christians  were  accustomed 
to  wash  before  entering  the  san<-tuary  ;  the  custom  is  typical 
of  the  puritv  of  mind  which  should  accfimpany  our  devotions. 
Before  proceeding  further,  we  may  notice  the  stone  seat,  or 
bench-table,  which  runs  along  the  sides  of  the  porch,  and  is 
occasionally  covered  with  an  arcade,  and  sometimes  sur- 
moimted  with  a  window  to  give  light  to  the  porch  :  in  ancient 
timrs,  several  religious  ceremonies  took  place  in  the  porch, 
especially  those  preliminary  to  baptism  and  matrimony. 
Having  passed  under  the  inner  arch  of  the  porch,  we 
are  now  fairlv  in  the  church,  and  the  first  object  to  attract 
our  attention  is  the  font,  which  is  placed  always  near  the 
principal  entrance,  as  being  the  most  fitting  situation  for  the 
performance  of  that  rite  by  which  men  are  admitted  into  the 
membership  of  the  church  ;  the  exact  locality  is  not  fixed, 
being  sometimes  in  the  central  avenue  of  the  nave  opposite 
the  entrance,  and  at  others  under  one  of  the  arches  of  the 
aisle  near  the  porch,  in  which  case  it  frequently  adjoins  one 
of  the  adjacent  pillars;  it  is  not  unfrequcntly  rai-sed  on  a 
series  of  steps,  which  give  it  a  more  imposing  appearance. 


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154 


CHU 


and  has  always  a  space  left  around  it  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  priest,  sponsors,  &ic'. ;  for  the  former  there  is  sometimes 
a  kneelinu-stone  on  the  west  side.  Fonts  in  a  perfect  state 
are  provided  with  covers,  generally  of  wood,  some  flat,  and 
others  of  a  pyran)idal  form  mure  or  less  enriched.  We  here 
speak  of  fonts  as  they  were  in  former  times,  not  as  they  are 
now  fiiund  in  old  churches,  for  the  original  ones  are  some- 
times not  only  moved  from  their  ancient  positions,  but  even 
taken  out  of  the  church,  and  altogether  discarded. 

On  proceeding  further  into  the  church,  the  next  object  which 
prulial)Iy  strikes  our  eye  is  the  chancel,  and  at  its  extremity 
the  altar,  with  its  appendages,  but  as  this  has  been  described 
in  its  proper  place,  we  shall  not  stop  to  re-consider  it  here; 
and  besides  this,  in  fi.\ing  our  attention  on  the  more  striking 
portion  of  the  edifice,  we  have  overlooked  the  pulpit.  Few 
pulpits  are  to  be  met  with  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  oldest  which  remain  are  of  stone,  built  up  with 
the  fabric,  from  which  circumstance  w'e  may  infer  that  they 
arc  coeval  with  the  entire  structure;  there  is  a  beautifid  spe- 
cimen at  Beaulieu,  Ilants,  which  is  attached  to  the  wall,  and 
entered  by  a  staircase  partly  cut  out  of  its  thickness;  another 
specimen  is  to  be  f  >und  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Triuitv, 
Coventry,  which  is  attached  to  one  of  the  piers  of  the  build- 
ing. The  later  pulpits  aic  of  oak,  usually  of  an  octagonal 
form,  having  the  sides  panelled  and  enriched  with  <-arving, 
and  the  whole  sometimes  surmounted  with  a  richly-groined 
canopy  projecting  over  the  head  of  the  preacher.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  pulpit  was  probably  always  at  the  north-east  or 
south-east  end  of  the  nave,  near  the  arch  which  separates  the 
nave  and  chancel. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
pews.  There  are  few  churches  which  have  not  suffered 
severely  by  the  removal  of  their  ancient  seats,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  close  bo.ves,  with  high  backs;  the  old  seats  were 
low,  with  very  low  backs,  so  as  not  to  destroy  or  shut  out 
a  full  view  of  the  church.  The  backs  and  seats  of  such  low 
benches  were  fitted  at  either  end  into  a  standard,  which 
served  at  the  same  time  as  a  support  and  finish,  being  fre- 
quently carved  in  panels,  and  sometimes  finished  at  the  top 
with  a  poppy-head,  or  knop  of  foliage;  at  other  times  they 
werequite  plain,  withonl^'a  simple  monlding. oreven  chamfer 
at  the  top:  between  every  two  benches  was  an  open  space 
lel't  for  ingress  and  egress  to  and  from  the  seats,  which  were 
never  closed  with  doors.  These  benches  were  all  arranged 
north  and  south,  so  that  the  congregation  might  face  the  east, 
having  an  avenue  between  them  in  the  centie  of  the  nave, 
and  another  leading  into  it  from  the  entrance,  whieh,  in  three- 
aisled  churehes,  must  have  been  carried  right  across  the 
church,  to  give  access  to  another  avenue  leading  to  the  seats 
in  either  aisle.  These  formed  the  only  seats  in  the  church 
for  the  laity  ;  it  is  scaicely  necessjiry  to  add,  that  galleries 
never  formed  a  part  of  the  original  arrangement. 

Of  the  internal  decunilion. — There  is  one  method  of  deco- 
ration so  universally  applied  in  our  ancient  churches,  that  we 
cannot  pass  it  over  unnoticed  ;  it  consists  in  the  application 
of  colour;  the  roof,  the  floor,  the  walls,  the  furniture  and 
ornaments,  and,  not  to  omit  the  piincipal  feature,  the  win- 
dows, nay,  even  the  vary  books,  were  all  enriched  with  gild- 
ing and  colour.  In  paving,  the  use  of  encaustic  tiles  of  various 
colours  and  patterns  was  nio>t  common,  but  besides  these,  the 
floors  were  not  iinfrequently  coveied  with  mosaic  work,  as 
instanced  at  the  I'rior's  Chapel,  Ely,  where  in  the  chancel 
immediately  in  front  of  the  altar  was  represented  "  the  tempt- 
ation" in  this  method,  the  other  parts  of  thi-  floor  being 
adorned  with  ordinary  patterns.  Frequent  specimens  of  paint- 
ing on  thi-  roof  have  been  lately  broUL'ht  to  light,  a  vciv  usual 
method  of  decorating  which  is  by  a  powdei  ing  of  gilt  stars  on 


an  azure  ground.  Few  restorations  take  place  without  some 
additional  testimony  to  the  employment  of  fre-co  paintings, 
uhich  have  been  previously  concealed  by  successive  coatings 
of  plaster  and  whitewash.  Mr.  Poole,  speaking  of  the  internal 
decoration  of  churches,  says — "Besides  the  immense  variety 
of  Scii[)tural  and  other  subjects  which  are  found  sculptured  on 
the  walls  and  roofs  of  our  Gt)thic  churches,  we  have  also 
sometimes  fresco  paintings,  covering  great  portions  of  the 
walls.  These  paintings  have,  for  the  most  part,  been  covered 
with  the  successive  coats  of  whitewash  and  yellow  ochre, 
with  which  the  churchwardens  have  literally  daubed  the 
interior  as  well  as  the  exterior  of  churches;  as  if  to  their 
eyes,  whiteness  and  yellowness  were  the  only  two  elements 
of  beauty.  Accident  has  discovered  several  of  them,  and 
more  are  being  discovered  every  day.  The  most  remarkable 
with  which  1  am  acquainted  is  in  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  Coventry  ;  the  subject  is  one  which  cannot  be  un- 
profitably  suggested  to  Chiistians, — the  last  judgment;  and 
it  is  treated  in  a  manner  by  no  means  deficient  in  exjiression. 
At  Preston,  in  Sussex,  is  another  fresco,  discovered  also  acci- 
dentally; one  of  the  subjects  is  the  murder  of  Thomas 
a  Becket;  the  story  is  minutely  and  well  told.  Another 
subject  is  the  archangel  Michael  weighing  the  soul  of  a  Chris- 
tian, which  appears  in  one  side  of  a  pair  of  scales,  again.st  the 
devil,  in  the  form  of  a  boar's  head,  in  the  opposite  scale.  By 
the  intervention  of  a  female  saint,  most  probably  the  blessed 
Virgin,  who  stands  by,  the  soul  is  manifestly  the  weightier. 

''In  the  late  remains  of  Rotheram  church,  several  fiescos 
were  discovered,  especially  a  large  one  over  the  nave  arch, 
of  our  blessed  Lord  and  the  twelve  apostles,  with  other  saints 
and  angels  in  act  of  adoration.  The  figures  were  much 
di'Stroyed  in  the  process  f>f  laying  them  bare;  and  they  are 
now  covered  over  again.  Might  they  not  have  been  restored  ?" 
This  question  we  shall  leave  for  future  consideration  ;  mean- 
while, we  may  remark,  that  many  specimens  of  fresco  have 
been  discovered  since  the  above  was  written,  and  no  doubt 
fresh  discoveries  will  be  made  as  the  process  of  restoratiiHi 
goes  on  ill  our  ancient  churches. 

Another  old  method  of  decorating  the  walls,  the  appropriate- 
ness of  which  caiuiot  be  questioned,  is  by  covering  them  with 
texts  of  Sciipture,  on  which  our  previous  author,  Mr.  Poole, 
remarks  as  follows  : — "  The  most  simple  occupant  of  the  walls 
of  churches  is  a  series  of  pas-ag(^s  from  the  SacP'ed  Scriptures, 
or  of  mora!  sentences  of  tried  wisdom  and  approjiriate  ten- 
dency. The  introduction  of  the  inscriptions  is  very  ancient. 
Bingham  gives  us  several  iiistanees,  and.  among  others,  two 
distichs  written  over  the  doors  of  the  church,  one  on  trie 
outside,  exhorting  men  to  enter  the  church  with  a  pure  and 
peaceable  heart : — • 

'  Pax  tibi  sit  qiiiciinq\io  Dei  ppnetralia  Cbristi 
Pcctore  pacitico  caiulidus  int^rederis ;' 

and   the  other  within,  re<|uiring  those  who   go   oiU   of  the 
church  to  leave  at  least  their  heart  behind  them  : — 
'  Qtiisquis  ab  aede  Dei  perfeetia  online  votis 
Egrederis,  remea  eorpore,  corde  niaue.' 

"St.  .\mbrose  tells  us  of  an  appropriate  passage  of  Scrip- 
ture, written  on  the  walls  of  that  p:irt  of  the  church  which 
was  allotted  to  the  virgins.  And  besides  these  moral  lessons 
and  texts  of  Scripture,  records  of  the  dedication  of  the  chuich 
were  sometimes  inscribed  on  the  walls ;  such  was  that  written 
by  the  altar  of  Sancta  Sophia,  by  Justinian. 

"To  convey  some  notion  how  ap|>ropriately  such  passages 
may  be  selected  and  arranged,  and  how  impiessive  may  be 
their  general  effect,  we  will  adduce  the  whole  -eries  of 
inscriptions  from  a  small  chapel  at  Lnton.  in  Bedfordshire. 
This  chipel,  which  is  now  the  property  of  the  Manjuis  of 
Bute,  was  built   by  one  of  the  Xapier  fandly,  in   the  reign 


CIIU 


155 


CIIll 


of  James  I.,  ;inii  the  beautiful  wainscoting  with  which  it  is 
filtcfi  up,  wa<  brought  from  Tittenhanger,  where  it  had  been 
lixcj  by  Sir  Thouuis  Pope,  in  1548. 

'■  Over  thi;  principal  doorway  are  the  words,  Domus  Dei 
porta  Cteli  :  'The  I  louse  of  God  is  the  Gate  of  Heaven;' 
and  on  the  north  and  south  side  of  the  entrance  :  Laudate 
eum  juveiu's,  huidate  eum  viigines,  '  Praise  Ilim.  ye  young 
men  ;  praise  Iliiii.  ye  maidens.'  fioni  Psalm  c.xlviii.  12.  On 
thii  two  transverses  of  a  beautifully  carved  door,  is  an  inscrip- 
tion from  Psalm  c.wiii.  20,  Porta  Domini,  Justi  intrabimt. 
'  This  is  the  gate  of  the  Lord,  the  just  shall  enter  in.'  With 
reference  to  a  nearer  approach  to  the  altiir,  we  have  tlij 
words — Lavabo  inter  iimocentes  maims  meas,  et  circumdal)o 
altare  tuutn  Domine :  '1  will  wash  my  hands  among  the 
innocent,  and  1  will  compass  thine  altar,  O  Lord  :'  and  on 
the  altar  itsilf  not  only  are  the  names  of  our  blessed  Lord, 
found  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  as  they  were  inscribed 
by  Pilate  on  his  cross,  but  also  the  following  passages  from 
lieb.  .xiii.  10  ;  Matt,  .x.xvi.  27  ;  1  Peter  i.  12  ;  and  1  Cor. 
.xi.  24,  25  :  Uabemus  altare — E.x  hoc  omnes — in  qua;  desid- 
erant  Angeli  prospicere — Hoc  in  meiiioriam  mei :  '  We  have 
an  altar — Eat  ye  all  of  this — into  which  the  angels  desire 
to  look — Do  this  in  remembrance  of  me.'  Even  the',  singular 
addition  of  a  chimney-piece  in  this  chapel,  has  itsappropjiate 
inscription:  Ecce  ignis  et  lignum,  ubi  est  victima  holocausti  ? 
'Behold  the  fire  and  the  wood,  but  where  is  the  victim  of 
the  whole  burnt  offering  {' — Gen.  xxii.  7." 

Such  was  the  decoration  of  the  walls  of  our  old  churches, 
nor  were  the  details  or  furniture  neglected,  but  all  enriched 
with  colour,  and  the  smaller  parts  with  gilding.  The  rich- 
ness produced  by  this  treatment,  which  might  otherwise  have 
ap.peared  too  glaring,  was  chastened  and  softened  down  by 
the  dim  religious  light  shed  through  the  storied  panes  of  the 
stained  windows,  which,  while  th-y  added  to  the  general  eflect, 
imparted  a  chasteness  throughout  the  whole  structure.  An 
old  chm-ch  in  all  its  glory,  must  have  been  truly  beautiful. 

Of  the  materials. — Our  old  churches  were  most  generally 
built  of  stone,  and  the  majority  of  them  of  rough  unhewn 
rag  or  rubble,  built  up  into  the  fabric  in  the  same  state  as 
brought  fom  the  quarry  ;  the  individual  stones  were  small, 
and  not  all  of  the  same  size  ;  they  varied  likewise  in  shape, 
not  being  built  up  in  regular  courses,  but  fitted  together  as 
neatly  as  circumstances  would  permit ;  the  longer  spaces 
being  filled  up  with  smaller  stones,  and  the  lesser  ones  with 
cetiient.  This  musom'v  was  bonded  at  intervals  by  longer 
stones  running  through  the  work,  and  at  the  angles  bv  coins 
of  more  regular  wcirkmaiishi|i.  The  dressings  of  the  building, 
such  as  the  jambs  and  finishings  of  windows,  doorways,  and 
other  apertures,  as  well  as  the  pinnacles,  water-tables,  string- 
courses, nujuldings.  an.l  all  other  portions  of  the  edifice  which 
required  much  labour,  were  of  some  more  manageable  stone, 
such  as  Caen  ;  and  in  some  of  the  more  highly  embellished 
structures,  of  Purbeck  marble.  In  some  localities,  flint  is 
cm]iloyed  instead  of  rubble,  more  especially  in  Norfolk  and 
Sutlnlk,  not  unfrequently  in  Essex  and  other  counties;  in 
many  cases  of  this  kind,  the  walls  are  made  up  of  Hints, 
inserted  in  a  kind  of  framework  of  freestone,  which  method, 
with  the  aid  of  good  cement,  produces  a  very  durable  and 
not  unpleasing  structure.  Nor  are  these  the  only  materials 
employed  in  the  construction  of  churches;  we  occasionally 
meet  with  brick  and  wood  as  substitutes  for  stone,  more 
frequently  than  elsewhere,  in  the  county  of  Essex.  Brick, 
however,  was  not  used  during  the  best  periods  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture,  nor  does  it  produce  an  effect  so  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  as  either  of  the  before-mentioned  materials;  their  colour, 
red,  is  not  nearly  so  agreeable  as  the  more  subdued  tones  of 
flint  or   rubble.     The  walls,  in  all    the   above   cases,  were 


of  great  thickness,  which  tended  not  only  to  the  greater 
stability  of  the  structure,  but  al.so  to  maintain  an  equability 
of  temperature  in  the  interior.  A  good  specimen  of  a  wooden 
church  is  that  of  Greenstead,  Essex,  which  lias  recently  been 
restored,  and  of  which  the  f  dlowing  description,  previous 
to  its  restoration,  is  given  in  one  nf  Weale's  Quarterly 
Papers  : — 

••The  timber  walls,  which,"  says  the  writer,  "  I  take  to 
beof  oak,  though  some  imagine  them  to  be  of  chestnut-wood, 
aie  but  six  feet  in  height  on  the  outside,  including  the  >ill  ; 
they  are  not,  as  usually  described,  '  halftrees,'  but  have  had 
a  portion  of  the  centre  or  heart  cut  out,  probably  to  furnish 
be.inis  fur  the  construction  of  the  roof  and  sills  :  the  outside 
or  slabs  thus  left,  were  pla(!ed  on  the  sill,  but  by  what  kind 
of  tenon  they  are  there  retained,  does  not  appear  ;  while  the 
upper  ends,  being  roughly  adzed  oft'  to  a  thin  edge,  are  let 
into  a  groove,  and  whi<!h,  with  the  piece  of  limber  in  which 
it  is  cut,  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  building  itself;  the 
door-posts  are  of  square  timber,  and  these  are  secured  in 
the  above-mentioned  groove  by  small  wooden  pins,  still  lirm 
and  strong — a  truly  wonderful  example  of  the  durability  of 
British  oak.  At  the  west  end  I  had  an  opportunity  of 
exairiining  the  very  heart  of  the  timber;  to  the  edge  of  an 
exceedingly  goo^d  pocket-knife,  it  appeared  like  iron,  and  has 
acquired  fom  age  a  colour  approaching  to  ebony,  but  of  a 
more  beautiful  brown  ;  and  if  anv  conclusion  may  be  drawn 
from  the  appearance  of  the  building,  1  see  no  reason  why  it 
shoidd  not  endure  as  long  as  it  has  already  existed.  The 
outsides  of  all  the  trees  are  furrowed  to  the  depth  of  about 
an  inch  into  long  stringy  ridges  by  the  decay  of  the  softer 
parts  of  the  timber,  but  thjse  ridges  seem  equally  hard  as  the 
heart  of  the  wood  itself;  the  north  doorway,  which  measures 
only  tour  feet  five  inches  in  height  by  two  feet  five  inches 
in  width,  is  at  present  closed  with  masonry  ;  but  the  aperture 
must  have  been  original.  It  is  generally  thought  that  the 
woodwork  of  the  roof  is  coeval  with  the  walls,  and  it  was 
most  likely  formerly  covered  with  thatch,  as  Bede  describes, 
and  as  may  still  be  seen  on  many  village  churches  in  the 
county  of  .\orf  >lk. 

"  The  body  of  the  church  is  lighted  by  windows  in  the 
roof,  but  these  are  decidedly  of  a  recent  date ;  what  little 
li^ht  its  interior  enjoyed  in  its  primitive  state,  was  probably 
admitted  from  the  east  end,  if  any  windows  existed  at  all. 

'"How  the  interior  was  originally  finished,  cannot  be  now 
determined  ;  at  the  present  moment  it  is  kept  in  a  very  neat 
and  reputable  state  ;  its  walls  and  ceiling  are  plastered  and 
whitewashed,  and  its  area  affords  sufficient  accommodation 
for  the  population  of  the  pari>h." 

The  nave  is  the  portion  of  the  church  here  alluded  to,  for 
the  chance]  is  not  of  the  same  material,  and  is  of  a  later  date ; 
the  tower  is  also  of  wood  weather-boarded,  with  luffer  boards 
for  the  admission  of  light. 

Since  the  above  account  was  written,  this  unique  little 
edifice  has  been  restored,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon  ;  and  in  an  article  on  the  sub- 
ject, to  be  found  in  "  The  Builder,"  a  short  period  subsequent 
to  its  restoration,  the  following  remarks  occur.  The  writer, 
in  combating  Mr.  Suckling's  opinions  as  to  the  timbers  being 
less  than  halftrees,  says — "  VVe  see  no  evidence  of  this,  for 
the  timbers  were  evidently  left  rough,  and  the  dimensions 
prove  them  to  have  been,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  '  half-trees.' 
These  uprights,"  he  continues,  "  were  laid  on  an  oak  sill, 
8  inches  by  8  inches,  and  tenoned  into  a  groove  1^  inch  deep, 
and  secured  with  oak  pins.  The  sill  on  the  south  side  was 
laid  on  the  actual  earth ;  that  on  the  north  side  had,  in  two 
places,  some  rough  flints,  without  any  mortar  driven  under. 
The   roofplates   averaged  7   inches   by   7   inches,   and  had 


CHU 


156 


c  I  r  u 


a  groove  corresponding  with  the  sill,  into  which  the  uprights 
were  tenoned  and  pinned.  The  jilateswere  also  of  oak,  but 
thi'V  and  the  sills  weie  very  ronglily  hewn,  in  some  parts 
tieing  10  inches  by  10  inL-hes,  and  in  others  ti  inches  by  0 
inches,  or  7  inches. 

"  There  were  twenty-five  planks  or  nprights  on  the  north 
side,  and  twenty-one  on  the  south  side.  The  uprights  in 
the  noith  side  were  the  least  decayed.  Those  on  the  south 
side  required  an  average  of  5  inches  of  rotten  wood  to  be 
removed,  those  on  the  north  about  1  inch  only,  and  the 
heights  of  the  uprights,  as  now  relixed,  measuring  between 
plate  and  sill,  are  on  the  north  side  4  feet  8  inciies,  on  the 
south  side  4  feet  4  inches,  the  sills  being  bedded  on  a  few 
courses  of  brickwork  in  cement,  to  keep  them  clear  of  damp. 
The  uprights  were  toiigued  togelher  at  the  junction  with 
oak  strips,  and  a  most  efllctual  means  it  proved  of  keeping 
out  the  wet;  for  although  ihe  interior  was  plastered,  there 
was  no  evidence,  in  any  part,  of  wet  having  driven  in  at  the 
feather-e<]ge  junction  of  the  uprights — a  strange  contrast  to 
many  of  our  modern  churches,  where,  with  all  the  adjuncts 
of  stone  and  rnortar,  it  is  found  no  ca^iy  matter  to  keep  out 
the  driving  weathir  fioni  the  soutli-west. 

"  The  roof  was  heavy,  and  witliout  any  i)articular  character ; 
it  consisted  of  a  tie-beam,  at  less  than  si.x  feet  from  the  floor, 
with  struts.     The  covering  was  tile." 

We  have  given  the  description  of  this  little  church  at  so 
great  length,  because  we  think  buildings  erected  after  this 
manner  would  form  very  good  substitutes  for  those  un- 
ecclesiastical-looking  structures  termed  Temporary  Churches, 
which  are  become  so  fashionable  now-a-days  ;  and  not  only 
so,  but  might  be  even  erected  as  permanent  ones,  in  places 
where  a  bettir  could  not  be  provided. 

Of  xymhulism. — Although  many  persons  are  so  far  preju- 
diced against  the  system  as  to  deny  the  existence  of  symbolical 
meaning  in  the  peculiarstructureand  arrangement  of  churches, 
to  the  unprejudic.'d  mind  there  can  be  little  douljt  of  the  fact. 
It  is  true  that  some  of  the  advocates  of  the  system  have 
carried  it  to  too  great  a  length,  and  have  straine  i  their  point 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  appropriate  a  deep  theological  meaning 
to  the  smallest  details,  yet  this  should  not  hinder  us  from  giving 
attention  and  credit  to  those  who  hold  themselves  within 
reasonable  limits.  This  idea  respecting  the  sesthetio  charac- 
ter of  ecclesiastical  buildings,  li.as  but  lately  been  brought 
into  general  notice,  but  it  is  no  new  fancy  ;  on  the  contrary, 
we  find  mention  of  it  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Christians. 
The  following  passage  is  from  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  : 
— "  When  thou  callest  an  assembly  of  the  church,  as  one  that 
is  the  ciunmauder  of  a  great  ship,  appoint  the  assemblies  to 
be  made  with  all  possible  skill;  charging  the  deacons,  as 
mariners,  to  prepare  places  for  the  lircthrcn,  as  for  passengers, 
with  all  care  and  decency.  And  first  let  the  church  be  long, 
like  a  ship,  looking  towards  the  east,  with  its  vestries  on 
either  side  at  the  east  end.  In  the  centre,  let  the  bishop's 
throne  be  placed,  and  let  the  presbyters  be  seated  on  both 
sides  of  him  ;  and  let  the  deacons  stand  near  at  h.and,  in 
close  and  small  garments,  for  they  are  like  the  mariners  and 
managers  of  the  ship."  As  we  have  before  remarked,  the 
material  structure  of  the  church  was  from  the  earliest  period 
considered  cmbleinatical  ot'the  ark  of  Noah.  Similar  allusions 
t^o  that  just  quoted,  are  constantly  occurring  in  the  patristic 
writings;  thus  S.  .\ml)rose  tells  us  why  baptisteries  should 
be  oi-tagonal,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  gives  rules  by 
"hicli  the  selection  of  sacred  emldems  should  be  guided; 
Eusebius  informs  us  that  Constantine  suirounded  the  apsis 
of  the  church  of  S.  Cross  with  twelve  pillars,  according  to 
the  lunnber  of  the  twelve  apostles;  and  llermas,  in  his 
visions,  represents  the  building  of  the  spiritual  temple  under 


figures  wholly  taken  from  the  material  fabric.  But  of  all 
writers  on  the  subject,  Duraudus  is  the  most  copiiius,  and  is 
held  up  as  the  highest  authority  in  such  nialters.  Mr.  Lewis, 
in  his  description  of  Kilpeck  church,  Ilci-cfordshire,  is  one 
who  has  of  late  brought  the  subject  of  symbolism  into  notice; 
he  isone  of  those,  however,  who  in  our  opinion  have  laboured 
to  apply  the  system  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  warranted  by 
facts;  he  enlists  every  portion  of  the  fabric,  even  to  the 
minutest  details,  to  illustrate  his  views,  and  makes,  the 
arrangement  of  the  sacred  edifice  to  indicate  the  minutia;  of 
theological  doctrine.  Mr.  Poole,  in  his  lectures  on  chinv  h 
arrangement,  does  not  attempt  so  much  ;  he  maintains  "  that 
ecclesiastical  architecture  is  a  language;  that  it  has  always, 
so  long  as  it  has  deserved  its  name,  aimed  at  expression  ; 
and  not  at  mere  accommodation  without  splendour,  or  even 
at  splendour  without  a  spirit  and  a  meaning  :  that  fiom  the 
first  it  was  rational  ;  that  it  had  a  sou!  and  a  sense  wiiich  it 
laboured  to  embody  and  convey  to  the  beholder  :  that  its 
language  was  not  only  expressive,  but  appropriate ;  that  it 
aimed  not  only  at  accommodating  a  congregation,  but  at 
elevating  their  devotions  and  informing  their  minds."  He 
is  of  opinion  that  the  greater  mysteries  of  our  i-eligion  are 
symbolized  in  the  fundamental  design  of  the  structure,  while 
other  Christian  verities  are  set  forth  in  the  minor  arrange- 
ments and  in  the  ornamental  details.  For  instance,  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity  issymbolized  by  the  threefijid  division 
of  oin-  churches  into  nave  and  aisles,  and  perhaps  in  the 
longitudinal  division  into  nave,  choir,  and  chancel,  otherwise 
the  division  into  nave  and  chancel  is  said  to  point  out  the 
division  of  clergy  and  laity  :  but  the  fflsthctic  principle  is 
more  evident  in  our  larger  churches;  thus  in  our  cathedrals 
we  have  the  form  of  the  cross  in  the  ground-plan,  also  the 
threefold  division  of  body  and  aisles,  as  well  as  of  nave, 
transept,  and  choir  ;  we  have  likewise  the  same  number  of 
divisions  vertically  in  the  lower  arcade,  tritbria,  and  clere- 
story, as  also  in  the  exterior  elevation  in  the  central  and  two 
western  towers.  Mr.  Poole  concludes — "On  a  review,  then, 
of  the  facts  mentioned,  we  may  safely  conclude,  that,  from 
the  first,  there  has  been  a  sufficient  degree  of  uniformity  in 
Christian  churches,  to  indicate  a  unity  of  design,  wdiich  could 
not  be  accidental ;  that  the  origin  of  that  unity  is  to  be 
found  in  the  desire  to  symbolize  the  truths  of  our  holy 
religion  in  every  apt  manner,  anil,  above  all.  in  the  sacred 
edifices  of  the  Christians."  "  A  Gothic  church,  in  its  perfec- 
tion, is  an  exposition  of  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  (  hris- 
tianity,  clothed  upon  -with  a  material  form;  and  is,  as 
Coleridge  has  so  forcibly  expressed  it,  '  the  petrifaction  of 
our  religion.'" 

As  church-architecture  is  receiving  a  foir  modicum  of 
attention  at  the  present  time,  and  chtn-ches  are  being  multi- 
plied to  keep  pace  w  ith  the  requirements  of  a  vastly-increasing 
popidation,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place,  in  a  work  which  pre- 
tends rather  to  useful  and  practical  information.  th:m  to 
amusing  recreation,  to  give  some  rules  for  the  guidance  of 
those  who  are  called  upon  to  prepare  plans  and  designs  for 
church-buildings. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  let  the  architect  consider  well  the 
amount  which  is  to  be  laid  out  in  the  erection,  for  this  must 
determine  every  other  consideration  ;  if  the  amount  be  small, 
do  not  let  him  attempt  a  large  or  highly-decorative  building. 
He  must  first  take  care  to  ensure  soundness  and  strength  in 
the  construction,  and  leave  the  details  to  be  considered  after- 
wards ;  if,  after  calculating  the  cost  of  the  mere  walling  and 
other  necessary  parts  of  the  structure,  he  finds  he  has  suffi- 
cient to  construct  them  in  a  substantial  manner,  and  money 
to  spare,  let  him  then  decide  upon  the  amount  of  liecoration. 
It  is  better  to  erect  plain  walling,  so  that  it  be  solid  and  well 


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build,  than  to  add  enrichment  upon  enrichment  upon  walls 
which  are  scarcely  able  to  support  them.  Let  strength  be  the 
object  sought  to  be  attained,  not  show ;  mere  ostentatious 
display  is  quite  out  of  character  in  a  sacred  edifice.  This 
leads  us  to  the  ne.xt  rule: — let  every  material  employed  be 
real ;  if  funds  are  not  sufKcient  for  the  best  materials,  use  the 
more  common,  but  do  not  attempt  to  hide  them,  let  them 
appear  what  they  are  in  reality,  in  their  true  colours,  and 
not  slain  or  plaster  them  to  resemble  things  of  a  superior 
descripti<in ;  the  building  may  not  appear  so  rich,  but  it  will 
bear  the  stamp  of  reality  and  truth,  which  will  carry  a  con- 
viction of  its  superiority  to  minds  perhaps  unwilling  to  yield 
to  its  demands. 

Of  constritclion. — The  best  material  for  the  walling  is 
undoubtedly  stone,  and  of  this,  we  suppose,  that  which 
is  dressed  and  squared  should  be  preferred  ;  we  do  not  speak 
wilh  certainty  in  this  case,  for  there  decidedly  are  advantages 
attached  to  undressed,  uncoursed  masonry  ;  the  very  uneven- 
ness  inqiarts  a  richness  and  variety  of  colour  to  the  material, 
and  a  play  of  light  and  shade  over  the  surface,  which  is  not 
attainable  in  an  even  or  smooth  wall ;  but  besides  this,  there 
is  another  superiority  in  the  contrast  which  is  afforded 
between  the  naked  wall  and  the  more  finished  dressings  of 
the  apertures.  But  even  if  this  matter  be  left  undecided,  it 
will  make  but  little  ditierence  in  the  present  day,  for  few 
architects  have  funds  at  their  disposal  to  allow  them  a  choice 
between  the  two.  The  stone  best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  in 
the  practice  of  the  present  time,  is  rag  or  rubble,  which  is 
unexpensive,  and  at  the  same  time  durable ;  it  may  be  pro- 
cured in  most  localities  without  much  trouble.  Whatever  lie 
the  nature  of  the  stone,  it  is  not  necessary  nor  desirable  that 
it  be  quarried  in  large  masses,  the  smaller  the  better,  so  far,  at 
least,  as  is  consistent  with  a  due  regard  to  the  safety  and 
expense  of  construction  ;  w  hen  the  stt)nes  are  large,  they 
are  apt  to  eateii  the  eye,  and  lead  it  kiwuy  from  the  more 
detailed  portions  of  the  building,  whereas,  if  the  separate 
stones  be  of  small  size,  and  more  especially  if  they  be  of 
irregular  outline,  and  random-coursed,  they  will  I'eiider  the 
more  important  featm-es  distinct  and  efl'ective.  For  this  same 
reason,  the  fini.-hed  stones  of  the  apertures,  and  such  like, 
shoulil  not  all  be  of  the  same  size,  either  in  length  or  height, 
30  as  to  form  a  regular  line  at  their  junction,  with  the  rubble 
masonry,  for,  if  .so,  thej-  will  divert  the  attention  from  the 
main  outline  and  decoration  of  the  windows,  &c.,  which  the 
eye  ought  to  eatch  at  the  first  glance ;  but  besides  this,  if  the 
jamb-stones  be  of  different  lengths,  they  will  forni  a  more 
efficient  Ijond  with  the  main  wall.  The  latter  remarks  will 
apply  to  all  buildings,  whatever  be  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  composed. 

With  regard  to  the  selection  and  laying  of  stones,  the  best 
plan  is  to  use  them  as  they  come  to  hand,  studying  neither 
their  shape  nor  situation  too  closely  ;  a  wall,  constructed 
in  this  manner,  will  look  natural,  and  therefore  far  better, 
than  wheii  the  stones  are  broken  or  placed  in  a  peculiar 
maimer  for  the  sake  of  appearance.  In  no  cases  attempt  to 
make  the  joints  over  close.  The  dressings  will  of  course  be 
formed  of  a  stone  which  may  be  easy  to  work :  Caen  is  a 
good  stone  for  the  purpose,  but  if  this  is  not  to  be  obtaineil, 
some  kind  of  freestone  may  be  discovered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, available  for  such  service.  The  nature  of  the  stone 
required  will  vary  of  course  with  the  degree  of  carved 
enrichment  to  which  it  is  to  be  subjected. 

Where  flint  is  abundant  and  more  readily  procurable  than 
other  kinds  of  stone,  it  may  be  used  with  advantage,  as  is 
evidenced  by  many  an  old  structure.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  it  be  well  bonded  and  cemented  together,  otherwise  it 
will  not  be  so  secure  as  rubble  masonry ;  in  some  cases,  which 


we  have  before  alluded  to,  the  walls  are  formed  of  a  sort  of 
frame-work  of  freestone,  the  intermediate  spaces  being  filled 
in  with  small  squared  flints.  In  new  work  the  effect  of  flint 
is  not  so  good  as  could  be  desired,  but  it  improves  by-  age; 
the  contrast  between  it  and  the  freestone  being  modified  in 
process  of  time ;  old  buildings  of  this  material  have  a  very 
pleasing  efiect. 

If  none  of  the  above  materials  can  be  procured  without 
much  difficulty,  ])rick  is  not  to  be  discarded,  although  not  to 
be  recommended  unless  under  peculiar  circuinstances.  If  you 
are  compelled  to  use  it,  do  not  attempt  to  disguise  it  by 
stucco,  a  brick  church  is  better  than  an  imitation  stone  one; 
plaster  may  be  used  occasionally  to  preserve  a  wall,  but,  if 
so,  let  its  nature  and  its  [lurport  be  at  once  evident.  Churches 
of  red  brick  are  to  be  found  in  Esse.\,  but  they  are  of  a  late 
period,  and  are  not  to  be  imitated  unless  absolutely  necessary. 
In  general  cases,  rag  or  rubl)le  is  preferable,  not  only  in  ■ 
appearance,  but  even  in  economy. 

Timber,  though  by  no  means  a  desirable  material,  may  in 
special  cases  be  employed.  A  church  of  this  description  has 
already  been  noticed  and  described,  it  will  therefore  be  un- 
necessary here  to  enter  into  a  consideration  of  its  construction. 
While  upon  this  subject  we  cannot  conclude  without  again 
suggesting,  whether  churches  built  after  the  fashion  of  that 
at  Greenstead,  aljove  described,  would  not  lie  more  appro- 
priate structiu'es  for  temporary  churches,  than  those  which  at 
the  present  day  pass  under  that  denomination. 

In  all  the  above  cases,  let  the  walls  be  of  considerable 
thickness,  as  this  tends  not  only  to  the  security  of  the  struc- 
ture, but  also,  as  we  have  said  before,  to  the  preservation  of 
an  equable  temperature  in  the  interior. 

Of  tJie  cov/'rint/. — The  liest  covering  for  the  roof  is  lead, 
of  sufficient  thickness — 71b.  lead  is  a  good  quality — but  it 
has  its  disadvantages  ;•  in  the  first  place  it  is  expensive,  and 
therefi)re  not  suitable  for  the  present  time  ;  it  also  requires 
great  care  in  laying,  and  unless  pure,  and  of  good  quality,  is 
liable  to  corrode.  Slates  are  not  objectionable  if  thi'V  be  of 
a  good  colour,  but  the  common  blue  slate  does  not  harmonize 
well  with  the  masonrv ;  very  fiiir  specimens  are  to  be  pro- 
cured from  the  north  of  England.  Tiles  and  thatch  are  fre- 
•piently  found  on  old  churches;  the  former  may  be  employed, 
but  the  latter  is  objectionable,  for  reasons  which  will  be 
obvious  to  every  reader.  Kag-stones  may  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  may  also  shingles ;  the  latter  are  eligible  on  account 
of  their  lightness,  and  other  qualities,  but  they  are  not  secure 
against  fire. 

Oftlie  internal  wood-work. — The  roof,  benches,  screens,  and 
other  wood-work  should  be  of  oak,  if  expense  is  n^i  obstacle; 
however,  fir,  walnut,  and  other  inferior  timber,  are  more  gene- 
rally employed  now-a-day  s ;  but  whatever  is  used,  it  should  not 
be  stained  or  grained,  to  resemble  wood  of  a  superior  quality  ; 
it  may  be  prepared  in  any  manner  which  will  tend  to  its  pre- 
servation, and  in  this  way  its  appearance  may  sometimes  be 
improved.  Deal  mav  be  employed  when  the  funds  will  not 
admit  of  a  better  substitute.  Varnish  is  now  frequently  used, 
but  we  think  it  better  avoided  ;  at  least,  allow  it  a  suflicient 
time  to  dry,  before  the  church  is  to  be  used   for  service. 

Of  the  Jiooring. — The  best  materials  fiir  paving  the  floor 
are  encaustic  tiles,  ornamented  in  appropriate-coloured  de- 
vices ;  plain  tiles,  however,  will  answer  very  well  for  the  nave, 
they  should  be  placed  diamond-wise,  the  alternate  ones  being 
of  the  same  colour  with  a  ditferently-cohuired  one  between  ; 
red  and  black  are  the  common  colours.  The  enriched  encaus- 
tic tiles  may  be  judiciously  reserved  for  the  chancel ;  plain 
tiles  are  w  ell  introduced  even  here,  for  they  serve  as  a  con- 
trast, as  also  to  throw  out  the  patterns  of  the  richer  sort. 

Of  metaUwoik. — The  metals  are  used  for  a  variety  of  pur- 


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poses,  the  more  costly  in  the  furniture  of  a  church,  but  we 
shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  the  oriianientiil  iron-work,  usei] 
for  hinges,  lucks,  bars,  and  such  like,  n)any  beautiful  sjicci- 
incns  of  which  are  preserved  to  us  in  our  old  chuiches.  \\  e 
must,  at  starting,  lay  dow'u,  as  a  rule,  that  iron,  (or  these 
purposes,  should  be  wrought,  not  cast;  the  latter  class  of 
iron-woi-k  isalwaysa  failuie.  'I'hese  ornaments  should  not  be 
painted,  hut.  to  preserve  them  from  rust,  it  is  recommended 
that  they  be  dipped  when  reil-hot  in  grease,  and  left  to  coiil  ; 
the  same  purpose  will  be  answered  by  coating  them  with 
some  incorrosive  metal. 

0/ style. — The  best  style  for  adoption  in  parish-churches 
is  undoubtedly  the  Decorated,  from  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth to  the  middle  of  the  fouiteenth  century.  During  this 
period  Christian  art  was  at  its  perfection,  and  soon  after 
began  to  lose  its  character  for  genuine  simplicity  ;  the  intro- 
duction of  the  depressed  arch,  and  the  excessive  embellish- 
ment of  the  later  style,  was  the  commencement  of  its  down- 
ward course.  We  would  not,  however,  confnie  the  architect 
to  a  single  style;  Early  Engli.--h  is  well  ada|)ted  for  large 
churches,  and  may  ocea--ionally  be  made  available  fjr  smaller 
ones,  while  Perpendicular  is  apipjopriately  employed  for 
churches  in  cities  and  largo  towns,  sometimes  even  with 
greater  advantage  than  Decorated,  which  is  particularly  the 
case  when  a  church,  being  closely  surrounded  with  other 
buildings,  requires  large  windows  on  those  sides  which  are 
more  open  to  the  light.  For  the  generality  of  churches,  how- 
ever, the  Decorated  is  by  far  the  most  suitable,  it  is  equally 
adapted  for  a  plain,  as  for  a  more  highly-fmished  structure, 
and  has  a  natural  grace  which  ensures  its  perfection,  in  wha't- 
ever  situation  it  be  placed;  it  will  adnut  of  the  highest  elabo- 
ration, so  far  at  least  as  is  consistent  with  purity,  or  of  the 
plainest  construction,  without  sacrificing  any  of  its  inherent 
beauties  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Perpendicular  style  must  be 
highly  enriched,  or  otherwise  it  will  appear  meagre,  and  is 
therefore  unsuitable,  except  for  an  e.xpensi  ve  edifice.  We  have 
.said  nothing  of  Norman,  but  we  must  iiot^pass  it  over  in 
silence ;  it  is  decidedly  not  so  appropriate  as  any  of  the  above- 
mentioned  styles  for  parish-churches,  and  yet  we  should  be 
sorry  to  see  it  entirely  discarded  ;  it  must  not  be  recom- 
mended, but  it  has  its  peculiar  beauties,  which  doubtless  will 
always  secure  to  it  some  siiare  of  public  favour. 

Of  tlie  plan. — The  amount  of  money  at  the  disposal  of  the 
architect,  as  it  determines  the  material  to  be  em[)loyed,  will 
likewise,  to  a  certain  extent,  govern  the  size,  and  therefore 
the  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  building.  The  ground-plan 
will  also  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  site  allotted  for 
the  building.  For  very  snuill  churches,  the  best  arjangement 
is  the  most  simple,  viz.  ;  that  of  the  j)ai'allelogram,  divided 
into  nave  and  chancel,  which  division  need  not  be  shown  on 
the  exterior,  although  it  is  very  desirable  that  it  sliould  be 
so,  and  in  this  case  the  chancel  is  marked  by  its  smaller 
dimensions  in  height  and  breadth;  the  chaiu;cl  should  always 
be  separated  from  the  nave  in  the  interior  by  an  open  screen 
of  wood-work,  as  also  by  being  elevated  on  one  or  more  steps. 
All  important  and  iuexjieiisive  addition  may  be  made  to  this 
plan  in  the  shape  of  a  piorch,  which  may  be  eitiier  of  wood  or 
stone,  and  should  be  placed,  uidcss  theie  be  any  strong  reason 
to  the  contrary,  towards  the  western  end  of  the  south  side. 
A  further  improvement  will  consist  in  the  erection  of  a  bell- 
turret,  or  gable,  either  on  the  western  gable,  or  on  that 
between  the  nave  and  chancel ;  this  again  need  not  be  expen- 
sive, in  some  cases  it  may  be  made  of  w'ood,  in  which  mate- 
rial we  have  a  sufficiency  of  ancient  examples ;  but  it  is  best, 
of  course,  of  ^tone  ;  of  whichever  material  it  be  constructed, 
it  always  forms  a  very  marked  and  beautiful  feature  in  a  small 
church.     We  should   be  rejoiced  to  see  a  larger  immber  of 


such  small  structures  as  the  above  erected  at  the  present  day, 
when  all  seem  to  aim  at  an  edifice  of  much  greater  preten- 
sions, even  tlniugh  they  have,  it  nuiy  be,  scarcely  sufticieiit 
funds  for  the  erection  of  one  of  the  more  simple  structures 
in  an  ctiicient  nuuiner.  Towers  placed  between  the  nave  and 
chancel  are  not  unfrequent  in  some  pai  ts  of  England. 

If  accommodation  for  a  larger  number  of  worshippers  be 
required,  one  or  more  aisles  must  be  added  tu  the  nave.  A 
nave  with  two  aisles  is  the  perfect  form,  but  both  aisles  need 
not  be  built  at  the  same  tiine,  unless  the  number  of  the  con- 
gregation require  it,  and  there  are  ample  funds  for  its  erec- 
tion. At  the  same  time,  never  build  only  one  aisle  for  the 
sake  of  appearing  extraordinary,  nor  unless  there  is  an 
intention  of  erecting  a  corresponding  one  at  some  future 
period  ;  ftir  this  reason,  when  a  single  aisle  is  adopted,  let  tiie 
opposite  w'all  of  the  nave  be  built  with  arches  of  construc- 
tion, so  that  when  the  second  aisle  is  added,  it  may  be  neces- 
cary  only  to  remove  the  masonry  between  the  arches.  This 
last  method  might  be  adopted  with  advantage  in  the  first 
class  of  churches.  W^e  may  remark  here,  once  for  all,  that  it 
is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  opposite  sides  of  a  church 
should  exactly  correspond. 

This  last  is  the  most  eligible  form  of  structure  for  ordinary 
churches,  to  contain,  say  from  two  hundred  persons  and 
upwards.  For  churches  of  this  capacity  the  first-mentioned 
form  is  not  adapited,  as,  when  so  large  accommodation  is 
required,  you  would  be  compelled  to  extend  the  nave  to  an 
inconvenient  breadth;  twenty-five  feet  is  the  greatest  dimen- 
sion allowable  in  a  small  church  without  aisles;  when  aisles 
arc  added,  their  breadth,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  to  that 
of  the  nave  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  five,  but  this  ratio  is 
not  fixed,  it  varies  in  ditic'rent  examples. 

If  still  greater  accommodation  be  required,  it  inay  be 
obtained  by  continuing  the  aisles  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the 
chancel,  from  which  they  should  be  shut  off  by  parcloses  of 
open  work  ;  but  this  addition  is  not  a  desirable  one,  and 
should  be  adopted  only  in  such  places  as  the  architect  is 
cramped  for  room.  A  more  legitimate  me-thod  of  obtaining 
greater  space  in  general  instances  is  by  annexing  a  tower, 
which  should  open  into  the  church  by  a  lofty  arch.  This, 
though  not  essential  to  a  church,  forms  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  picturesque  features,  and  when  the  means  will 
admit  of  it,  should  never  be  omitted  ;  though,  on  the  other- 
hand,  the  essentials  should  in  no  case  be  sacrificed  to 
obtain  it. 

Of  lite  position  of  the  toirer. — The  standard  situation  of  the 
tower  is  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave,  although  there  are  very 
many  exceptions  to  this  position,  amongst  which  are  the 
following,  instances  of  which  are  given  by  the  Ecelesiologlcal 
Society  : — west  end  of  either  aisle  ;  middle  or  east  end  of 
either  aisle;  north  or  south  of  chancel ;  north  side  of  a  second 
north  aisle;  north  or  south  side  of  nave  ;  northwest  and 
south-west  angle  of  nave;  north-east  or  south-east  of  nave; 
middle  of  nave  and  western  end  of  the  chancel.  All  these 
positions  are  allowable,  when  circumstances  require  the  tower 
to  be  so  placed  ;  as  a  general  rule,  however,  we  think  it 
advisable  to  retain  it  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave.  At  one 
time  architects  restricted  themselves  entirely  to  this  rule, 
however  more  eligible  any  other  situation  might  have  been; 
now,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  the  exception  to  see  the  towers  in 
this  position.  We  think  both  at  fault,  the  former  following  one 
arrangement  too  closely,  simply  it  would  appear  for  the  sake 
of  preserving  an  exact  correspondence  in  both  sides  of  the 
building,  even  at  the  risk  of  losing  other  advantages;  while 
the  latter  seek  out  extraordinary  positions  merely  for  the  sake 
of  their  novelty,  and  for  the  purpose  of  exciting  surprise. 
The  nature  and  shape  of  the  ground,  as  well  as  the  internal 


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arrangement,  should  decide  the  question.  In  cruciform 
churches  the  proper  location  of  the  tower  is  over  the  inter- 
section of  nave  and  transept,  but  in  addition  to  other  posi- 
tions, the  following  are  satisfactory — at  the  north  end  of  the 
north,  and  the  south  end  of  the  south  transept.  Soiiietinies, 
though  rarely  in  this  country,  we  find  the  tower  dvtached  from 
the  church,  siuiilariy  to  the  campaniles  of  the  Contincr.t. 

A  tower  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  perfect  withmit  a  spire, 
and  in  churches  in  which  the  earlier  styles  are  adopted,  this  fea- 
ture should  never  bo  omitted  ;  in  the  I'erpeiidi(Milar  it  is  not 
of  so  great  consequence,  though  even  then  desirable.  Spires 
need  not  always  be  carried  up  to  a  great  height,  although  the 
liifiier  the  better,  nor  need  they  be  invarialily  of  stone,  those 
made  of  shingles  are  very  beautiful  objects  in  rural  districts, 
and  those  covered  with  lead  or  slates  are  not  to  be  despised  ; 
in  some  counties  we  find  both  tower  and  spire  constructed 
of  weatiier-ltoarding.  In  passing,  we  cannot  help  noticing, 
that  in  manv  of  our  modern  churches,  the  towers  have  not 
sullicient  breadth,  which  gives  them  an  appearance  of  poverty 
and  meagreness.  We  suggest,  whether  it  would  not  be 
better,  where  towers  are  deemed  necessary,  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  a  more  substantial  structure,  and  to  leave  it  incimi- 
plete  until  the  requisite  funds  are  provided.  Our  old 
church-builders  always  went  to  work  on  this  principle,  which 
accounts  for  the  sinizle  aisle,  and  many  other  irregularities, 
as,  for  instance,  ditlerence  of  style  iij  the  different  porticms 
of  a  church.  This  plan  might  be  carried  out  with  advantage 
in  the  present  day,  not  only  in  the  larger  parts  of  the  struc- 
ture, but  also  in  the  finishing  of  details,  ifcc.  The  plan  of  the 
tower  is  generally  square  or  rectangular,  suppurted  at  its 
angles  by  ma>sive  buttresses,  which  add  greatly  to  its  appear- 
ance ;  not  unfrcquently  a  turret,  containing  a  staircase,  is 
added  at  one  angle,  which  affords  a  picturesque  irregularity, 
especial! V  if  it  be  carried  up  above  the  main  building;  this 
is  particularly  the  case  in  the  later  styles. 

Another  addition  which  will  be  required,  is  the  sacristy 
or  vestry  :  its  position  should  be  on  the  north  side  of  the 
chancel,  with  which  it  should  communicate  by  a  door:  it 
should  never  be  of  large  dimensions  or  imposing  design.  This 
is  the  oidy  part  of  a  church  where  a  chimney  is  allowable. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  made  scarcely  any  mention  of 
cruciform  chiu-ches,  not  because  we  do  not  think  this  a 
beautilul  form,  but  rather  because  it  is  ill  adapted  to  present 
circinnstances.  Such  a  plan  is  doubtless  the  most  expressive 
of  any  for  a  Christian  church,  but  it  is  not  the  most  economical ; 
it  does  not  economize  space.  It  is  true  the  cross  arms  may 
be  used  for  the  accommodation  of  worshippers,  but  not  with- 
out great  inconvenience ;  persons  placed  there  will  not  be,  as 
it  were,  with  the  rest  of  the  congregation,  they  must  look 
a  dillerent  way,  and  not  only  so,  but  must  he  hid  from  the 
altar  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  performance  of  the  ser- 
vices ;  in  fact,  transepts  were  not  intended  for  this  purpose,  as 
is  evident  by  there  being  seldom  found  any  seats  in  this  posi- 
_tion,  .and  even  when  such  are  seen,  they  are  mostly  subsequent 
additions.  Besides  all  this,  the  cross  form  is  more  expensive 
in  construction.  A\  hen  funds  are  ample,  transepts  may  well 
be  added,  but  not  otherwise. 

Of  aperttires. — These  consists  of  doors  and  windows,  and 
to  both  of  them  one  remark  will  apply  :  do  not  make  them 
too  large;  for  with  respect  to  the  former,  it  may  be  said  that 
they  are  seldom  made  an  important  feature  in  English 
architecture,  not  even  in  our  cathedrals;  and  as  regards  the 
latter,  small  windows  are  advantageous  on  many  accounts, 
not  only  are  they  more  unassuming  than  larger  ones,  but 
they  answer  the  present  times — when  stained  glass  through- 
out the  building  is  scarcely  to  be  looked  for — by  admitting 
less  light,  and  if  stained  glass  is  to  be  inserted,  they  require 


but  a  small  quantity.  A  great  mistake,  in  our  opinion,  is 
very  generally  made  in  the  present  day,  in  allowing  too 
great  an  area  for  lighting  a  church,  either  by  making  the 
windows  too  numerous,  or  too  large  ;  a  glare  of  light  is  not 
desirable  in  a  chunh,  it  interferes  with  people's  devotion; 
we  want  a  sulidued  tone,  that  "dim  religious  light"  which 
was  admitted  of  old  through  the  stained  windows,  and  this 
is  to  be  prociu'ed  rather  by  dinunishing  than  increasing  the 
area  admitting  light.  With  reference  to  the  position  of  door.s, 
there  should  be  one  small  one  for  the  priest  in  the  south  side 
of  the  chancel,  another  at  the  porch,  and  a  third,  generally 
speaking,  opposite  the  last;  in  trauscptal  churches,  there 
may  be  one  at  the  west  end,  and  another  on  the  west  side 
of  one  of  the  transept-;. 

We  have  previously  hinted,  that  it  is  not  at  all  necessary 
that  the  corresjiondiiig  parts  of  the  building  should  be  in 
every  respect  uniform  :  the  same  remark  holds  equally  true 
as  to  detail,  as  it  does  in  respect  of  the  main  features  of 
construction  ;  the  windows  and  other  apertures  need  not  be 
placed  at  exactly  the  same  distances  apart,  nor  is  it  necessary 
that  the  windows  on  both  sides  of  the  church  shoidd  in  every 
particular  correspond ;  a  buttress  should  not  he  placed  be- 
tween every  two  windows,  or  at  every  corner  of  the  building, 
merely  for  the  sake  of  appearance,  nor  indeed  should  they 
be  employed  at  all,  unless  requisite.  The  governing  prin- 
ciple in  such  matters,  should  be  to  use  nothing  more  than  is 
wanted,  and  place  things  just  where  they  are  required  ;  if 
this  rule  were  attended  to,  it  would  save  a  vast  deal  of 
unnecessary  trouble,  and  produce  in  the  end  a  far  more 
satisfactory,  because  more  natural,  appearance.  "  How  often 
do  we  see,"  says  a  writer  for  the  Eccle-iological  Society, 
"a  simple  village  church,  consisting  of  low  and  rough  stone 
walls,  surmounteil,  and  almost  overwhelmed,  by  an  immense 
roof,  and  pierced  with  some  two  or  three  plain  windows, 
between  as  many  bidd  irregular  buttresses  on  each  side;  or 
having  a  short  massive  tower  placed  at  one  angle,  or  in  some 
seemingly  acciduntal  position,  whic-h  nevertheless  every  one 
confesses  to  be  as  picturesque,  and  beautiful,  and  church-like 
an  edifice  as  the  most  critical  eye  could  wish  to  behold  ! 
while  a  modern  design,  with  all  its  would-be  elegancies  of 
trim  regular  buttresses,  parapet,  and  pinnacles  woidd  cost 
twice  the  m<iney,  and  will  not  look  like  a  church  after  all. 
Here  perhaps  one  half  of  the  money  is  laid  out  first  in  pro- 
curing,  and  then  in  smoothing  and  squaring  great  masses  of 
stone,  or  in  woiking  some  extravagant  and  incongruous  or- 
na'iient;  whereas  the  small  and  lude  hammer-dressed  ashlar 
or  rubble  work  of  the  ancient  model,  has  a  far  better  appear- 
ance, and  allows  a  larger  expenditure  where  it  is  most 
wanted,  in  the  arrangements  of  the  interior. ' 

This  leads  us  to  remark,  that  the  interior  should  be  the 
main  object  of  consideration,  and  shouM  never  be  sacrdiced 
to  make  way  for  a  showy  exterior,  although  this  is  too  fre- 
quentlv  the  case  with  modern  churches;  it  was  far  difiercnt 
with  our  ancestor-'.  Of  the  interior,  the  chance!  is  that  part 
on  which  the  architect's  best  attention  should  be  given.  'Ihe 
interiors  of  om-  old  chinches,  as  we  have  previously  stated, 
were  enriched  in  the  most  splendid  manner,  all  the  finest 
productions  of  art  were  lavished  upon  them,  the  sculptor 
and  painter  vied  with  each  other  in  their  decoration— and  w  hy 
should  it  not  be  so  now  ?  Surely  paintings  in  fresco  would 
be  preferable  to  yellow-ochre  and  whitewash,  nor  do  we  see 
any  moral  objection  to  pictorial  representations  in  our  churches, 
there  can  be  no  fear  of  people  worshipping  pictures  now-a- 
davs,  the  greater  fear  is  lor  the  want,  not  the  excess,  of 
reverence;  thev  are  the  books  of  the  unlearned,  and  serve 
not  only  to  instruct  the  ignorant  in  matters  which  they  would 
not  otherwise  know,  but  also  bring  before  the  attention  of 


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the  more  learned,  things  of  which  otherwise  thev  miiht  be 
forgetful.  But  if  otijeetions  still  be  \irgud  against  the  eiriploy- 
niciit  of  the  painter's  highest  hraneh  of  art,  surely  there  can 
be  no  exception  brought  against  su<'h  ileeoration  as  we  have 
described  as  occurring  at  Lulon  t'hureh.  The  emplovment 
of  texts  of  Scri])ture  delineated  on  the  walls,  is  sanctioned 
by  the  order  of  the  church,  when  she  enjoins  in  her  eighty- 
second  canon — "That  the  ten  commandments  l)e  set  up  on 
the  east  end  of  every  church  and  chapel,  where  the  people 
may  best  see  and  read  the  same  :  and  other  chosen  sentences 
written  upon  the  walls  of  the  said  churches  and  chapels,  in 
places  convenient."  Passages  of  Scripture  well  selected  and 
appropriately  arranged,  would  form  at  the  same  time,  a  very 
useful  and  beautiful  appendage  to  the  w^dlsof  our  churches; 
though,  as  we  think,  scarcely  equal  to  the  more  pictorial 
illustration  advocated  above.  We  should  be  glad  to  see  the 
interior  of  our  places  of  worship  relieved  from  the  coldness 
which  ever  hangs  about  bare  walls ;  let  at  least  some  coloured 
decorations  be  introduced  into  the  chancel,  if  nowhere  else. 
Of  the  roof. — Open  roofs,  those  in  which  all  the  beams 
and  rafters  are  visible,  should  of  course  be  adopted,  the  use 
of  ceiling  is  now  almost  ipiite  exploded  ;  roofs  of  this  kind 
not  only  allbrd  an  appearance  of  greater  height  to  the  build- 
ing, but  also  have  a  perspective  etl'ect,  by  the  repetition  of 
the  same  parts,  which  adds  to  the  apparent  length  of  the 
church;  indeed,  the  same  building  covered  at  one  time  with 
an  open  roof,  and  at  another  with  a  flat  ceiling,  would 
present  two  such  very  different  aspects,  as  scarcely  to  be 
recognized  as  identical.  Various  forms  may  be  used,  of 
which,  whether  rich  or  simple,  beautiful  ancient  examples 
are  to  be  found  ;  in  small  churches,  where  the  span  is  incon- 
siderable, the  arched  firm  may  be  used  with  advantage;  the 
amount  of  trussing  increases  of  course  with  the  span.  Tie- 
beams  are  scarcely  admissible,  as  they  detract  from  the 
aspiring  principle  developejl  in  church  architecture,  and 
arrest  the  eye  in  its  progress  upwards  ;  they  have  in  a  small 
degree  the  same  effect  as  a  flat  ceiling;  there  is,  however, 
seldom  occasion  for  their  employment,  they  are  not  requisite 
in  a  high  jiitehed  roof,  especially  where  the  walls  of  the 
building  are  of  considerable  thickness;  the  thrust  is  rather 
vertical  than  horizontal. 

Of  pews. —  Let  all  the  seats  be  low  open  benches  with  low 
backs,  the  lower  the  better,  as  far  as  convenience  will  allow  ; 
for  as  the  height  increases,  so  must  the  distance  fnm\  each 
other;  if  this  circumstance  be  not  attended  to,  the  high  back 
will  be  found  to  be  in  the  way:  a  convenient  height  is  two 
feet  six,  preserving  the  same  measurement  between  every 
two  seats.  The  benches  must  be  arran<;ed  across  the  church 
so  as  to  face  the  cast,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  of 
easy  access  to  every  part  of  the  chnnh  ;  for  this  purpose, 
there  should  be  a  main  passage  running  along  the  centre  of 
the  nave,  five  or  six  feet  wide,  and  another  of  the  same 
measurement  across  the  church,  connecting  the  north  and 
south  doors;  smaller  passages  are  necessary  along  the  aisles, 
and  at  the  east  end  of  the  nave.  In  small  churches,  the 
standards  at  the  ends  of  the  seats  should  be  of  a  plain 
character,  but  in  the  larger  ones  they  may  be  carved  and 
finished  at  the  top  with  poppy  heads,  &c. 

Of  (inlleries. — Galleries  should  on  no  account  be  admitted 
into  a  church;  they  entirely  spoil  its  appearance,  cutting  up 
windows,  and  sometimes  pillars,  into  two  or  more  pieces, 
hiding  the  roof,  marring  the  proportions,  and  obstructing  a 
fair  view  of  the  interior:  they  are  noisy,  ill-ventilated,  and 
clumsy,  and  not  only  arc  they  ill-ventilated  themselves,  but 
they  interfere  with  a  proper  circulation  of  air  in  the  aisles 
beneath  them,  and  by  their  principle  of  over-crowding  a 
church,  assist  materially  in  vitiating  the  air  throughout  the 


building.  And  what  is  the  advantage  proposed  to  be  eflect- 
ed  bv  them  ? — the  ccononiiziug  of  space,  that  is,  the  ob- 
tainina;  an  increase  of  accommodation  at  a  small  expense: 
but  do  they  efleet  this  object?  decidedly  not;  the  additional 
space  obtained  by  their  adoption  is  very  trifling,  for  from  the 
total  area  of  the  gallery  must  be  deducted,  not  oidy  the  main 
passase  leading  at  the  back  of  the  seats  throughout  its  length, 
but  also  the  numerous  cross  passages  branching  from  it  to 
affonl  convenient  access  to  the  diflcrent  parts  of  the  gallerv, 
so  that,  in  fict,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  a  full  third,  and  in 
some  instances  nearly  one  half  of  the  area  obtained,  is  lost 
in  passages  of  communication ;  add  to  this  the  space  occupied 
in  the  aisles,  by  the  piers  or  other  supports,  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  advantages  in  point  of  accommodation  are 
very  small.  When,  bearing  all  this  in  mind,  we  consider 
that  the  walling  is  fre<]uently  carried  up  to  a  greater  height 
than  otherwise  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  introducing  a  gallery, 
■we  shall  scarcely  be  prepared  to  defend  such  e.Terescences  on 
the  score  of  economy. 

Of  the  principal  fiirnittire. — The  first  object  which  needs 
a  few  remarks  is  the  font;  it  shoi^ld  invariably  be  of  stone, 
as  ordered  by  the  chm-ch,  and  of  a  size  sufllcient  f  u-  the 
immersion  of  infants;  there  should  be  a  drain  leading  from 
the  bottom  of  the  bowl  down  into  the  earth,  to  carry  off  the 
water  used  in  the  service,  and  the  bowl,  when  not  in  use, 
should  be  protected  by  a  cover.  The  sftiiation  of  the  tout 
must  be  near  the  entrance  in  the'  nave,  and  should  have 
sufficient  space  left  round  it  for  the  priest,  sponsors,  and 
others  immediately  concerned  in  the  rite.  The  pulpit,  which 
may  be  of  wood  or  stone,  should  be  at  the  south-east  or 
north-east  end  of  the  nave,  either  detached  or  built  up  with 
the  w.all  or  pier,  and  should  not  be  elevated  at  too  great  a 
height :  if  there  be  a  choice  of  situation,  the  north  side  of 
the  nave  is  the  preferable  position.  We  need  say  nothing 
in  this  place  respecting  the  furniture  of  the  chancel,  as  it  has 
already  been  described  under  that  title  ;  we  may  only  add 
that  we  should  be  glad  to  see  the  whole  of  it  introduced  into 
our  modern  chtn-ches,  even  to  the  rood  screen,  which  is  so 
much  objected  to  by  some,  on  account  of  its  being,  as  they 
say,  a  Romish  invention,  whereas  in  I'act  it  has  been  employed 
in  the  Eastern  as  well  as  the  Western  church,  from  the  very 
earliest  period. 

Of  til e  lic/htinij,  v'lirmiiirf.  and  ventilalidn  of  churches. — 
The  best  method  of  lighting  a  church  is  by  candles,  which 
may  be  held  either  in  standards  fixed  or  moveable,  or  in 
chandeliers  made  after  the  pattern  of  the  ancient  coronce 
liicis.  Gas  is  cheaper  than  wax-lights,  we  are  aware,  but  a 
trifling  additional  expense  should  scarcely  be  a  consideration 
in  such  a  matter;  besides,  amongst  other  dis:idvantages.  the 
glare  of  gas-lights  is  but  ill  adapted  to  the  solemnity  of  a 
church,  and  the  heat  emitt(>d  from  them  is  oppressive  and 
somniferous.  A  fire-place  is  hardly  admissil)]e  into  a  church, 
and  stoves,  hot  air  or  water  pipes,  should  never  be  attempted, 
they  are  unsafe,  as  well  as  unhealthy.  The  best  meth"d  of. 
regulating  the  temperature  of  a  church,  is  by  l)nilding  sub- 
stantial walls,  and  eflicient  drains,  allowing  a  free  circulation 
of  air,  and  keeping  the  whole  building  in  good  and  proper 
repair.  If  low  benches,  and  high-pitched  open  roofs  be 
adopted,  while  galleries  and  gas-lights  are  at  the  same  time 
discarded,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  as  to  ventilation. 

Of  the  restoration  of  churches. — Little  need  be  said  on  this 
head,  the  main  point  to  be  attended  to  is,  the  reducing  the 
building  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  original  state,  in  structm-e, 
arrangement  and  decoration ;  it  most  frequently  happens,  that 
the  minutine  of  the  old  structure  are  not  traceable,  and  iu  such 
cases  the  judgment  of  the  architect  is  called  into  action,  but 
where  the  old  arrangement  is  perceptible,  it  should  always  be 


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followed  in  the  restoration.  The  first  thing  to  be  attended 
to  is  the  drainage,  many  old  churches  being  destroyed  by 
d:inip  ;  in  very  many  cases  the  earth  of  the  church-yard  will 
be  found  to  have  accumulated  to  a  considerable  height  above 
tiic  floor  of  the  church,  and  this  of  course  should  be  at  once 
removed,  and  a  proper  ventilation  given,  to  dry  the  foun- 
dations. The  interior  walls  should  be  carefully  cleansed  of 
the  many  coats  of  whitewash,  so  that,  in  case  any  vestiges 
of  painting  remain,  they  may  not  be  destroyed  for  want  of 
proper  caution  ;  the  same  care  should  be  taken  in  removing 
the  plaster  and  whitewash  from  the  ornamental  details;  flat 
ceilings  likewise  should  be  removed  with  caution,  as  they 
were  frequeully  added  merely  to  hide  existing  defects  in  the 
roof  Structural  restoration  should  be  first  attended  to, 
after  that  the  arrangement,  and  lastly  the  decoration. 

Of  tke  enlargement  of  churches.  —  Architects  are  not 
unfrequently  called  upon  to  afford  increase  of  accommodation 
in  old  churches;  it  may  therefore  not  be  out  of  place  to 
point  out  as  briefly  as  possible  how  this  may  be  best  effected. 
The  first  step  is  to  calculate  how  much  additional  accom- 
modation may  be  obuiined  by  a  proper  re-arrangement  of 
the  seats,  and  a  substitution  of  low  benches  in  the  place 
of  the  modern  pews,  and  to  regulate  for  further  additions 
accordingly.  Churches  in  which  additions  are  advisable, 
are  the  following :  those  which  consist  only  of  nave  and 
chanc*;l,  which  may  be  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  one 
or  more  aisles  to  the  nave,  and  of  a  tower,  if  requisite ; 
—those  consisting  of  nave,  chancel,  and  one  aisle,  where 
accommodation  is  naturally  increased  in  completing  the 
church  by  the  addition  of  an  aisle  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  nave,  an  addition  frequently  contemplated  by  the 
founders,  as  is  manifested  by  the  existence  of  arches  of 
construction  in  the  nave-wall ; — those  again  consisting  of  a 
nave  and  chancel,  with  tower  between  the  two,  may  be 
enlarged  by  adding  transepts,  which,  in  cases  of  necessity, 
may  be  used  for  worshippers.  Of  churches  comprising  a  nave 
with  two  aisles,  a  chancel  and  a  tower,  increased  space  may 
be  obtained  by  a  continuation  of  the  aisles  to  the  extremity, 
or  nearly  the  extremity,  of  the  chancel,  or  by  adding  another 
aisle  to  the  nave.  Either  of  these  plans  may  be  adopted  in 
cases  of  great  need,  but  they  are  by  no  means  to  be  recom- 
mended ;  in  both  cases  the  same  objection  holds,  that  the 
j)cople  are  packed  into  situations  which  are  not  convimient 
for  public  worship  ;  in  the  first  case  they  are  made  to  look 
in  a  dirt'creiit  direction  from  those  in  the  body  of  the  church, 
which  interferes  with  the  apparent  unity  of  the  worshippers, 
and,  in  the  latter,  a  great  portion  of  them  are  excluded 
from  a  proper  view  of  the  chancel.  In  such  cases  it  would 
be  much  more  advisable  to  erect  a  new  church  or  chapel, 
however  small  or  unimposing,  but  this  necessitates  other 
expenses,  and  is  not  always  practicable  ;  where  it  is  possible, 
it  should  be  adopted  in  preference.  The  Rev.  J.  L.  Petit,  in 
his  Remarks  on  Church-Architecture,  recommends  additions 
to  the  chancel  to  be  made  in  almost  all  cases  where  enlarge- 
ment is  required  ;  but  we  must  differ  from  him  in  this  matter, 
for,  be  it  remembered,  that  in  our  old  churches,  these  projec- 
tions were  not  used  by  the  congregation,  but  were  employed 
as  side-chapels ;  in  fact,  their  existence  is  attributable  to  the 
coiTuptions  of  the  church  of  Rome  :  such  additions  may  be 
used  for  the  location  of  the  organ,  or  such  like  purposes,  but 
not,  if  avoidable,  for  the  accommodation  of  worshippers.  In 
other  churches  where  none  of  the  above  methods  are  available, 
it  is  better  not  to  attempt  enlargement ;  the  lengthening  of 
the  nave  is  a  poor  expedient,  which  may  at  once  destroy  the 
proportions  and  mar  the  unity  of  the  original  design. 

We  here  take  leave  of  a  subject  which  we  are  rejoiced  to 
say  is  daily  receiving  increased  attention.     Some  few  vears 

21 


since,  our  ecclesiastical  structures  were  looked  upon  as  rem- 
nants of  by -gone  days,  to  be  wondered  at  for  their  associations 
and  antiquities,  but  scarcely  to  be  imitated  in  modern  times ; 
but  of  late  a  new  light  has  appeared,  infusing  spirit  and 
animation  into  the  old  buildings,  and  we  no  longer  look  at 
them  as  the  relics  of  a  barbarous  age,  but  as  examples 
most  fitting  to  be  followed  in  all  sacred  structures;  they 
formed  once  the  lore  of  the  antiquarian,  they  are  now  the 
models  of  the  architect.  It  is  a  matter  of  wonder  how  rapidly 
knowledge,  on  this  subject,  has  been  acquired  ;  it  is  as  yet 
imperfect,  but  is  progressing  satisfactorily  ;  fresh  discoveries 
are  being  made  continually,  and  ere  long  we  shall  have  a 
goodly  number  of  useful  text-books  on  the  subject.  We 
must  not  forget,  that  the  first  impulse  in  the  right  direction 
was  afforded  by  the  Cambridge  Camden  Society,  to  which  the 
gratitude  of  every  lover  of  our  old  parish-churches  will  be 
readily  accorded.  We  have  now  Architectural  Societies  of 
a  similar  kind  established  all  over  the  country,  to  which,  in 
conjunction  with  the  labours  and  researches  of  private  archi- 
tects, we  look  for  a  great  increase  of  information.  An  addi- 
tional incitement  to  this  study  has  been  given  by  the  erection 
of  so  many  churches  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  in  most 
of  which  a  vast  improvement  may  be  observed  on  buildings  of 
a  similiar  kind  erected  in  previous  years;  it  is  true  they  are 
not  all,  perhaps  but  few,  without  faults,  many  of  them  are 
faulty  in  numerous  respects,  yet,  as  a  whole,  they  are  very 
satisfactory  ;  we  cannot  do  better  in  concluding  this  article, 
than  repeat  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Petit  on  the  progress  of 
church-architecture,  and  the  impediments  which  the  profes- 
sional man  has  to  encounter  in  its  advancement.  "So  great," 
says  he,  "  are  the  actual  and  inherent  difficulties  of  his  art, 
and  so  grievously  are  they  multiplied  by  external  causes,  so 
limited  and  restricted  is  he  by  the  perverseness  of  others, 
so  many  conflicting  tastes  and  opinions  has  he  to  consult,  so 
beset  is  he  on  every  side  by  the  ostentatious  views  of  one,  the 
parsimony  of  another,  the  private  interests  of  a  third,  and 
the  overweening  ignorance  of  the  greater  number,  that  it  is 
a  marvel  his  work  should  ever  be  respectable  ;  and  we  cannot 
deny  that  many  of  our  modern  churches  are  extremely 
creditable  to  the  taste  and  skill  of  their  designers.  Let  those 
who  speak  of  the  labours  of  the  architect  with  flippancy,  or 
censure  them  with  unkindness  or  severity,  reflect  upon  the  dif 
ficulties  he  has  to  encounter;  of  no  other  art  are  the  principles 
and  beauties  more  deeply  hidden  in  the  treasury  of  nature, 
and  to  be  searched  out  with  greater  toil  and  diligence." 

CHURCH-HOUSE,  a  building  in  which  meetings  were 
held  for  the  transaction  of  church  matters  and  parish  business; 
it  was  sometimes  a  room  situate  over  the  porch. 

CHURCH-YARD,  the  space  of  ground  surrounding  the 
church,  used  as  a  cemetery  or  burial-ground.  The  entrance 
to  our  old  church-yards  was  frequently  through  a  gate 
covered  with  a  projecting  roof,  called  the  lych-gate,  under 
which  the  coffin  was  rested  before  entering  the  ground  ;  and 
opposite  the  porch,  was  a  lofly  stone  cross  elevated  on  one 
or  more  steps,  and  frequently  adorned  with  the  emblems  of 
the  Evangelists,  and  other  enrichments.  Near  the  cross  was 
planted  a  yew-tree,  whose  boughs  were  carried  in  procession 
on  Palm  Sunday,  and  used  at  other  times  to  decorate  the 
interior  of  the  church. 

The  unwholesome  practice  of  interment  in  towns  is  being 
discontinued,  and  consequently  the  church-yard  in  such  cases 
is  in  a  great  measure  dispensed  with;  where  practicable, 
however,  the  church  should  be  contained  within  a  walled 
enclosure.  The  best  model  for  an  extra-mural  cemetery, 
is  that  lately  planned  at  Oxford  :  cemeteries  are  usually 
objectionable,  on  account  of  being  made  the  subjects  of 
speculation  and  pecuniary  profit. 


CIK 


162 


Cltx 


CIBfUiinM,  in  ecclesiastical  anliqiiity,  the  covering  of 
an  altap-;  l)eiiif;  an  insulated  edifice,  cunsistingof  foiircuhinins 
sn|i|i()rtin<;  a  dcmie.  Tlieciboriuin  was  used  during  the  lower 
and  inidille  ages  ;  l)ut  was  afterwards  superseded  by  the 
balilaeliin.      tii'e  IJai.daohin. 

'J'he  most  inagnitieent  ciborium  ever  known,  was  that 
ereeted  l)y  Justinian,  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Con- 
stantinople. It  consisted  of  tnur  large  re<]  marble  columns, 
su|ipiirling  a  silver  dome,  surmounted  with  a  globe  of  massy 
gold,  wiighing  118  pounds,  and  surrounded  with  lilies  of 
gold,  tailing  in  festoons,  weighing  lit!  pounds;  and  in  the 
middle  was  a  cross  of  the  sanie  mtttal,  weighing  75  pounds, 
covered  with  the  most  rare  and  precious  jewels. 

CILEIJV,  the  drapery  or  foliage  on  the  heads  of  columns. 

C'lLL.     »SVe  Sii.L. 

CIMA.     St-e  SiMA,  Mouldings. 

l'IM.\-li\\l";USA.     Se  Sima-Inversa,  Mouldings. 

CIMA-KHCTA.     See  Sima-Hkcta,  Mouldings. 

Cl.MlilA,  a  (illet,  string,  list,  or  cincture. 

CIMKLl.VUC'H,  in  English  churches,  the  room  where 
the  plate,  vestments,  iVc.  are  kept. 

ClNtJTURE,  or  Ckincture,  an  annular  fillet,  of  a  cylin- 
drie  surface,  at  the  ends  of  a  colunni,  connected  to  the  shaft 
by  the  apojiliyge,  or  scjipe.  The  cincture  at  the  top  of  the 
column,  is  named  also  collarino. 

Cl.NQl  Ei'UlL,  an  ornament  in  the  pointed  style  of 
architecture,  consisting  of  five  cuspidated  divisions,  or  curved 
pendants,  inscribed  in  a  pointed  arch,  or  in  a  circular  ring, 
applied  to  windows  and  panels.  The  cinquefoil  inscribed  in 
a  circle,  is  a  rosette  of  live  equal  leaves,  with  an  open  space 
in  the  middle;  the  leaves  being  formed  by  the  open  spaces, 
and  not  by  the  s<dids  or  cusps. 

CII'PUS,  a  small  low  column,  sometimes  without  a  base 
or  eii()ital,  and  most  frequently  bearing  an  inscri|ition.  The 
cippus  was  used  for  various  purposes  among  the  ancients  : 
when  [)laced  on  a  njad,  it  indicjited  the  distances  of  places: 
in  other  respects,  the  (Mppi  were  employed  as  memorials  of 
remarkable  events,  as  landmarks,  and  for  bearing  sepulchral 
epitaphs.      Also  the  prison  of  a  castle. 

ClItCLE,  (from  the  Latin,  cJrcw/Hs),  a  plane  figure  con- 
tained under  one  line,  called  the  ciicumference,  which  is  such 
that  all  lines  drawn  to  it,  from  a  certain  point  within  the 
figure,  are  equal  ;  and  the  point  from  which  the  lines  may 
be  thus  drawn,  is  c;dled  the  centre  of  the  circle. 

A  circumference  may  be  thus  described:  if  the  end  of  a 
right  line  be  placed  upon  a  fixed  point,  and  kept  upon  that 
point  while  the  other  end  is  carried  progressively  forward, 
or  round,  until  it  comes  to  the  place  whence  the  motion  began, 
the  moveable  e.xtreiiiity  will  thus  trace  out  the  circumference 
of  a  circle. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  measurement  of  angles,  the  circum- 
ferences of  all  circles  are  supposed  to  be  divided  into  'MQ  equal 
parts,  called  dfijrees  ;  each  degree  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
inl(j  00  eipial  |>arts,  called  tni/iutes  ;  each  minute  is  divided 
into  tU)  equal  parts,  called  secoiuh  ;  each  second  is  supposed 
to  be  divided  into  (iO  e(|ual  parts,  called  tliirils  ;  which  are 
again  divided  and  subdivided  ad  iiijiniliim.  Any  denonii- 
nation,  whether  of  degrees,  ndmites,  or  seconds,  &e.  is  known 
by  a  peculiar  character,  written  over  the  right-hand  figure 
of  that  deiioniination  ;  thus,  °.  written  over  the  right-hand 
figure  of  a  numiier,  shows  that  number  to  represent  degrees  ; 
the  character  thus,  ',  written  over  the  right-hand  figure  of 
a  number,  shows  the  number  thus  distinguished  to  represent 
minutes;  e.  ;/.  i;>0°  21' 48"  57'",  iVc.  represents  KW  digrees, 
24  minutes,  48  seconds,  57  thirds,  iVc. ;  and,  as  similar  arcs 
are  such  as  are  contained  under  the  same,  or  equal  angles, 
they  contain  the  same  number  of  degrees,  &c.,  the  number 


of  parts  of  the  arc  of  a  circle,  described  from  the  meeting  of 
two  lines  forming  an  angle,  and  comprehended  between  them, 
is  the  true  measure  of  the  angle;  for  the  number  of  parts  is 
still  the  same,  whatever  be  the  radius  of  the  arc,  or  of  the 
circle,  the  parts  being  greater  as  the  radius  is  greater.  1'he 
arc  of  the  circle  being  supposed  to  be  divided  into  3(50  e(pial 
parts,  the  r.adius  will  be  found  to  be  equal  to  the  chord  of  )>0  ; 
because  the  circle  contains  six  equilateral  triangles,  whose 
bases  are  chords  to  the  circle,  whose  summits  meet  in  the 
centre,  and  whose  sides  are  radii  to  the  circle.  And  since 
the  sixth  part  of  3(50°,  or  of  a  whole  circle,  is  00°,  the  chord 
of  00  is  therefore  equal  to  the  radius.  'J'he  parts  of  the  arc 
may  be  measured  by  parts  of  the  riidii,  which  are  always 
supposed  to  contain  the  same  number:  fc)r  if  there  be  two 
arcs  described  from  the  angular  point  of  an  angle,  between 
the  legs,  these  arcs  may  be  measured  in  parts  of  their 
respective  radii. 

The  circle  is  the  most  capacious  of  all  plane  figures;  that 
is,  it  contains  the  greatest  area  under  equal  perimeters,  or  has 
the  least  perimeter  enclosing  the  same  area. 

The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the  area  of  a  triangle,  the 
base  of  which  is  equal  to  the  circumference,  and  the  perpen- 
dicular equal  to  the  radius,  and  consequently  equal  to  a 
rectangle,  whose  breadth  is  e(iual  to  the  radius,  and  the 
length  equal  to  the  semi-circumference. 

Circles,  like  other  similar  plane  figures,  are  to  one  another 
as  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

The  ratio  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  to  its  circumference, 
has  never  been  exactly  ascertained.  Archimedes  was  the 
first,  in  his  book  De  Dimeiisione  C'jVc"/;,  who  gave  the  ratio 
in  small  numbers,  being  that  of  7  to  22,  which  is  still  the 
most  useful  fiir  practical  purposes.  Viela  carried  the  approxi- 
mation to  ten  places  of  figures,  by  means  of  circumscribed 
and  inscribed  polygons  of  393,210  sides,  showing  the  ratio 
to  be  as  10,000,000,000  to  31,415,920,530  nearly,  the 
circumference  being  greater 

than  31,415,926.535 
but  less  than  3 1,4 15.920,-537 
V,an  C/olen  carried  the  approximate  ratio  to  30  places  of 
figures;  which  number  was  recalculaled  and  confirmed 
by  Willebrod  Snell.  Mr.  Abraham  Sharp  extended  the 
ratio  to  72  places  of  figures,  which  was  afterwards  extended 
to  100  places  by  the  ingenious  Mr.  Machin  ;  and,  lastly, 
M.  De  Lagny,  in  the  Meiiioires  de  I'Acnd.,  1719.  has  carried 
this  ratio  to  the  amazing  extent  of  128  places  of  figures. 

In  approximating  the  circumference  or  area  of  a  circle 
from  the  diameter,  the  first  authors  had  recourse  to  inscribed 
and  circumscribed  polygons  ;  since  it  was  found  th.it  the 
circumference  of  the  circle  was  greater  than  the  perimeter 
of  the  inscribed  polygon,  but  less  than  that  of  the  circum- 
scribing one;  and,  that  when  the  polygon  contained  a  great 
number  of  sides,  the  circumference  of  the  circle  did  not  ditl'cr 
materially  from  either,  it  would  be  still  more  nearly  equal  to 
the  arithmelical  mean  of  the  two.  And.  to  give  the  reader 
an  idea  how  very  near  the  circumference  obtained  by  this 
means  is  to  the  truth,  the  eircumscribe<l  and  inscribed 
polygons  may  be  taken  of  such  a  number  of  sides,  as  that 
their  perimeters  will  be  each  expressed  by  any  given  number 
of  figures  of  the  same  value,  fiom  unity,  either  taken  indi- 
vidually, or  as  a  whole  number,  and  conse(iuently  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle  may  be  expressed,  or  carried  to  any 
degree  of  accuracy  required. 

Hut  the  method  of  obt^iining  the  circumference  by  this 
means,  being  found  extremely  laborious,  other  methods, 
by  a  series  of  fractions,  have  been  invented,  so  as  not  only 
to  be  much  more  easy  in  the  calculation,  but  also  to  shi)W 
how  the  terms  may  be  continued  at  pleasure,  by  inspection 


f 


CIR 


163 


CIR 


only.  Dr.  Wallis  was  the  first  who  expressed  the  area  of 
a  circle,  in  terms  of  the  diameter,  by  an  infinite  series,  and 
showed  that,  if  the  square  of  the  diameter  was  1,  the  area 
would  be 

3X3X5X5X7X7  9       25       49 

,  &c.  or  -  X  —  X  — ,  &e. 

2X4X4X6X6X8  8       24       48 

Other  series  were  also  found  by  Lord  Brounker,  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  and  Dr.  Gregory.  The  most  convenient  forms  of 
expressing  the  circumference,  are  shown  in  the  following 
stjitement,  where  c  represents  the  circumference,  the  diameter 
being  unity  : 

/         1111         1  I      1     .      \ 

'==^'-><('-i  +  5^i  +  9^' *''=•) 

c  =  8  X  I 1 1 ,  &c.    I 

\  1.1.3       1.3.5  3.5.7       5.7.9  7.9.11'  ) 

„       /2       1        1         1-3       1.3.5      .       \ 

'^  =  ®^(3-5-r7-4:6:9  4A8Ti''^^-) 

o=4v2x (i 


^3- 
1.3.5 


1  1 

r5?7  '^  5^.9  7.! 

1-3       1.3.5 
4.6.9  4.6.8.11' 

1  1      1 

2  ^  5  4:2* 


X   ;;  - 


1.3  1 

4^'  ^  i> 


=  4x( 


4.6.8.2' 
1         l_ 
2^3 


X 


A.-) 


1 

2^ 


1 


1  _ 


1.3 

2.4.6 


1.3.5 

2.4.6.8 


5-) 


One  of  the  most  useful  properties  of  a  circle  is  that  when 
two  straight  lines,  or  chords,  cut  each  other,  the  rectangle 
of  the  segments  of  the  one  line  is  equal  to  the  rectangle  of  the 
segments  of  the  other  line.  This  property  may  be  very  con- 
veniently applied  to  finding  the  centre  of  the  segment  of  a 
circle,  or  the  length  of  the  radius,  the  chord  and  the  versed 
sine  of  the  arc  being  given.  The  rule  is  as  follows :  Divide 
the  square  I  if  the  half  chord  by  the  versed  sine,  add  the  versed 
sine  to  the  quotient,  and  half  the  sura  is  the  radius  of  the 
circle. 

The  diameter  of  a  circle  being  given,  to  find  the  circum- 
ference :  say.  As  7  is  to  22,  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  cir- 
cumference nearly.  This  rule  will  be  sufliciently  accurate 
for  the  most  practical  purposes ;  but  if  greater  accuracy  be 
required,  multiply  the  given  diameter  by  3.1416,  and  the 
pr<xluct  will  be  the  circumference,  or  very  near.  When 
the  circumference  is  given  to  find  the  diameter,  divide  the 
circumference  by  3.1416,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  dia- 
meter. Or,  say.  As  22  is  to  7,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the 
diameter. 

To  find  the  length  of  an  arc,  the  radius  and  number  of 
degrees  being  given,  say.  As  180,  the  number  of  degrees  in 
a  semi-circle,  is  to  the  number  of  degrees  iu  the  arc,  so  is 
3.1416  times  the  radius  to  the  length  uf  the  arc.  When  the 
chord  of  the  arc,  and  the  chord  of  halt>the  arc  are  given  ; — 
Subtract  the  chord  of  the  arc  from  eight  times  the  chord  of 
half  the  arc,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  3,  which  will  give 
the  length  nearly.  When  the  chord  and  versed-sine  are 
known ; — Firstly,  find  the  diameter,  from  which  subtract  the 
versed-sine  multiplied  by  .82,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  | 
of  the  versed-sine ;  add  1  to  this  quotient,  and  multiply'by 
the  chord,  which  will  give  the  length  of  the  arc. 


The  area  of  a  circle,  whose  diameter  is  unity,  has  been 
found  to  be  .7854  nearly  ;  and  since  the  area  of  a  circle  is  as 
the  square  of  its  diameter,  the  areas  of  all  circles  will  there- 
fore be  ascertained  by  the  following  rule  :  Multiply  the  square 
of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area  of 
the  circle. 

But  it  may  sometimes  appear,  that  the  circumference  only 
can  be  ascertained,  the  diameter  being  inaccessible  :  in  this 
case,  also,  the  areas  of  circles  are  as  the  squares  of  their  cir- 
cumferences. It  has  been  found,  that  when  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  is  unity,  the  area  of  the  circle  is  .07958.  There- 
fore the  rule  may  be  thus  :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  cir- 
cumference by  .07958,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area  of  the 
circle  nearly. 

Though  either  the  diameter  or  the  circumference  is  suffi- 
cient to  find  the  area  of  the  circle,  yet,  if  the  dimension  of 
each  can  be  easily  ascertained,  the  operation  of  finding  the  area 
is  much  shorter.  This  may  be  done  by  multiplying  the  radius 
into  the  semi-circumference;  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

By  this  rule,  the  standard  area,  when  the  diameter  or  the 
circumference  is  unity,  as  in  the  two  preceding  rules,  will  be 
easily  ascertained,  by  halving  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  1  to 
the  circumference  3.1416  :  for, 
2)3.1416 


1.5708  half  the  circumference. 

.5  half  the  diameter,  or  the  radius. 


.7^540  the  area  of  the  circle  by  the  last 


rule,  when  the  diameter  is  unity. 

Again,  when  the  circumference  is  unit)',  the  diameter  will 
be  found  to  be  .31830  nearly. 

Then,  .31830  -^  2  =  .15915  the  semi-circumference, 
and  1.  -=-   2   =   .5  the  radius. 

llierefore  .15915  X  .5   =   .079575  or  .07958  nearly. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector,  when  the  nimiber  of  degrees 
in  the  arc  are  known  ;  s.ay.  As  360,  the  number  of  degrees  in 
the  whole  circle,  is  to  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  arc  of  the 
sector,  so  is  the  area  of  the  circle  to  the  area  of  the  sector. 
When  the  radius,  and  the  whole  or  half  the  length  of  the  arc 
are  given  ;  multiply  the  diameter  by  the  arc  of  the  sector,  and 
divide  the  product  by  4  ;  or  multiply  the  radius  by  half  the 
length  of  the  arc;  in  either  case,  the  result  will  be  the  area 
of  the  sector. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  segment.  Having  found  the  area  of 
the  sectoi-,  subtract  from  it  the  area  of  the  triangle,  when  the 
segment  is  less  than  a  semi-circle,  and  add.  when  greater,  or  ; 
Divide  the  cube  of  the  versed-sine  by  twice  the  chord,  and 
add  the  quotient  to  two-thirds  of  the  product  of  the  chord 
and  versed-sine. 

As  we  must  necessarily  frequently  recur  to  the  subject 
of  this  article  hereafter,  we  think  it  convenient  to  refer  the 
reader  for  further  information  thereon  to  Geometry,  Per- 
spective, &c. 

Circular  Roofs,  are  those  roofs  whose  horizontal  sections 
are  circular. 

CiRCUL.\R  Winding  Stairs,  are  such  as  have  a  cylindrical 
case,  or  walled  enclosure,  with  the  planes  of  the  risers  of  the 
steps  tending  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Circular  Work,  a  term  applied  to  all  work  with  cylin- 
drical surfaces. 

CiRCDLAR-CiRCULAR,  Or  Ctlikdro-Ctlindric  Works,  what- 
ever work  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  cylinders, 
whose  axes  are  not  in  the  same  direction.  The  line  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  the  surfaces,  is  called  by  mathema- 
ticians, a  line  of  double  curvature. 


Clli 


I&l 


Clli 


CIRCUMFERENCE,  the  curve-line  by  which  the  area 
of  a  circle  is  bouiideil. 

CIRCUMFERENTOR,  (Latin,  circiimjirre),  an  instru- 
ment used  by  surveyors  in  taking  angles;  it  consists  of 
a  brass  circle  and  index,  in  one  piece,  commonly  about 
seven  inches  in  diameter,  an  index  about  fourteen  inches 
long,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  broad.  On  the  circle  is  a 
card,  or  compass,  divided  into  300  degrees  ;  the  meridian 
line  of  which  answers  to  the  middle  of  the  breadth  of  the 
index.  There  is  also  soldered  on  tiie  circumference  a  brass 
ring,  on  which  screws  another  I'iiig  with  a  flat  glass  in  it,  so 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  box  for  the  needle,  suspended  on  a  pivot 
in  the  centre  of  the  circle.  There  are  also  two  sights  to 
screw  on,  and  slide  up  and  down  the  index,  as  also  a  ball  and 
socket  screwed  on  the  under  side  of  the  ciixle,  to  receive  the 
head  of  the  tripod  or  stand. 

CIRCUMSCRIBE,  to  draw  a  figure  round  another;  the 
one  being  rectilinear,  and  the  other  either  rectilinear  or 
circular,  with  the  sides  of  one  touching  all  the  angles  of  the 
other. 

CIRCUMVALLATION,  a  round  enclosure  of  trenches, 
or  f  ^rtilications. 

'1  his  word,  from  the  Latin  vnllo,  or  vallum,  denotes  pro- 
perly the  wall,  or  r.ampart  thrown  up,  but  as  the  rampart 
is  f  .rnied  by  entrenching,  and  the  trench  makes  a  part  of  the 
fortification,  the  word  is  applied  to  both. 

CIRCUMVOLUTION,  (from  the  Latin,  circumvolulus) 
the  act  of  rolling  round.  In  architecture,  this  term  is  applied 
to  the  spirals  of  the  Ionic  capital ;  every  term  of  which  is 
called  a  circumvolution.  In  the  most  ancient  examples  of  the 
Ionic  order,  the  volute  has  three  circumvolutions,  or  revo- 
lutions, as  they  are  otherwise  called  ;  but  that  of  the  temple 
of  Minerva  Polias,  at  Prieue,  has  four.  See  Volute,  Spiral, 
and  Ionic  Order. 

CIRCUS,  in  antiquity,  a  large  enclosed  space,  adapted  for 
chariot-races,  an  amusement  to  which  the  Romans  wei'e 
passionately  attached.  The  name  Circus  does  not  convey  an 
exact  idea  of  the  form  of  this  building,  which  both  in  its 
outline  and  its  use  resembled  the  (ircek  stadium. 

There  were  many  circi  in  Rome,  of  which  the  Circus 
Maxiimis,  and  the  Circus  Agonalis,  were  perhaps  the  largest. 
The  former  may  still  be  distinctly  traced  ;  the  latter  retains 
its  external  form  only  in  the  Piazza  Navona  of  Rome.  This 
species  of  edifice  appears  to  have  been  very  early  introduced 
among  the  Romans,  and,  like  many  of  the  first  public  edifices, 
was  of  a  temporary  character,  ami  constructed  of  wood. 

The  first  permanent  circus,  at  Rome,  was  said  to  have  been 
built  liy  Tarquinius  Prisons,  .and  was  situated  in  a  valley 
between  the  Palatine  and  Aventine  hills.  On  this  side  was 
afterwards  erected  the  Circus  Maximus,  which  was  enlarged 
by  .lulius  Cresar,  and  rebuilt  and  richly  ornamented  by 
Augustus.  In  the  time  of  Nero  it  was  burnt  down;  Trajan 
ref)aired  it,  and  increased  its  dimensions  so  much,  as  to  con- 
tain the  whole  Roman  people.  The  exterior  of  the  circus, 
except  at  the  carcercc,  consisted  of  two  stories,  adorned  with 
columns,  and  finished  with  a  terrace.  The  ground-floor  was 
occupied  by  merchants,  except  on  the  days  appointed  for  the 
games.  Augustus  brought  an  obelisk  from  Egypt  12G  feet 
high,  and  placed  it  in  this  circus.  Constantine  also  erected  in 
it  the  obelisk  now  called  the  Lateran,  which  is  the  largest  of 
all  the  Roman  obelisks. 

The  Flaminian  circus  was  of  considerable  magnitude.  Its 
only  remains  are  ruins  beneath  the  present  pavement  of  the 
city.  There  are  several  other  circi,  the  ruins  of  which  may 
be  traced  ;  but  that  which  demands  our  attention  most,  is  the 
circus  of  Caracalla,  as  very  considerable  traces  of  its  ancient 
form  are  yet  to  be  seen. 


Several  of  the  circi  in  Rome,  were  exteriorly  surrounded 
with  magnificent  porticos,  except  on  the  side  where  the 
career®  were  placed.  Others  were  simply  enclosed  with 
a  wall,  pierced  with  doors  and  windows,  as  in  the  circus  of 
Caracalla.  Tlie  lower  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  circus, 
beneath  the  seats,  together  with  the  porticos,  formed  long 
galleries  of  arcades,  or  fornices  ;  serving  in  part  for  an  ac-cess 
to  the  staircases  leading  to  the  seats,  and  in  part  for  the  shops 
of  various  traders.  The  staircases  of  different  circi  were 
variously  distributed,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  archi- 
tect. The  principal  staircases  led  to  a  number  of  little  doors 
in  the  podium,  which  was  a  long  open  jilatform,  or  passage, 
encompassing  the  edifice  at  an  elevation  of  some  feet  from  the 
area  of  the  circus.  The  persons  of  the  imperial  family,  the 
principal  magistrates,  and  the  pontifls,  only  were  admitted 
into  the  podium.  Behind  the  podium  there  was  a  little  wall 
with  a  precinctum,  in  which  small  doors  were  distril)ufed. 
The  seats  rose  one  above  another,  their  whole  height,  in  the 
manner  of  steps,  antl  were  supported  on  the  inclined  vault  of 
the  g,allery  or  portico  beneath  them,  and  ascended  from  the 
podium  to  the  top  of  the  external  wall. 

The  great  circi,  as  well  as  the  theatres  and  amphitheatres, 
were  divided  into  several  ranges  of  seats,  for  the  purpose  of 
placing  the  spectators  according  to  their  condition.  The  seats 
began  from  the  wall  at  the  back  of  the  podium,  .and  after 
setting  oft'  a  sufficient  number  for  persons  of  the  first  rank, 
the  staircase  of  seats  was  interrupted  by  the  omission  of  two 
or  three,  which  formed  an  ambulatory,  or  via,  similar  to  the 
podium,  at  every  certain  number  of  seats.  Separate  staircases 
led  to  each  via,  through  doors  in  the  precinctum  ;  these  aper- 
tures were  called  vomitoria.  As  the  spectators  entered  by 
these  passages  at  the  top  of  the  ranges  of  seats,  they  would 
have  to  descend  to  occupy  the  first  rows  of  each  moeniana, 
and  since  the  seats  themselves  were  too  high  to  serve  as  steps, 
staircases,  called  scalare.i,  formed  by  cutting  down  a  seat  into 
two  steps,  were  provided.  The  scalares  were  placed  opposite 
the  vomitoria,  begiiuiing  from  the  via,  .and  descending  to  the 
lower  seat  of  each  range;  by  this  means  the  ranges  were 
divided  into  a  numberofcompartments,  called  r»»ci,  as  in  the 
theatres  .and  amphitheatres;  in  the  latter  they  oljtained  this 
name  from  their  radial  direction,  and  though  the  sides  of  the 
circus  were  straight,  and  the  compartments  conseipiently  of 
a  rectangular  form,  they  were  called  cunei,  from  usage. 

Over  the  seats  was  a  portico,  or  covered  gallery,  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  lower  class  of  people.  The  pl.aee  for 
the  einperor  was  called  pulvinai;  the  situation  of  which  is 
not  known  :  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  magnificent  logia. 
To  render  the  seats  more  comfortable,  they  were  covered 
with  wood. 

The  extremity  of  the  circus,  opposite  to  the  semicircular 
end,  was  called  the  oppidum.  and  consisted  of  a  series  of  t  hir- 
teen  arcades.  The  centre  arch,  of  the  same  height,  but  wider 
than  the  rest,  served  as  an  entrance  to  the  circus.  At  each 
extremity  of  the  oppidum,  was  a  tower,  which  surmounted 
every  other  part  of  the  edifice.  This  combination  of  arches 
and  towers,  seen  at  a  distance,  gave  the  idea  of  a  castle,  whence 
was  derived  the  n.ame  of  oppidum.  To  what  purpose  these 
towers  were  appropriated,  is  not  known.  ITie  twelve  remain- 
ing arcades  were  the  carcera;,  whence  the  chariot-race  beg.an. 
These  carcerse  were  placed  six  on  each  side  of  the  entrance, 
which  was  intended  for  the  use  of  the  processions,  and  arc  so 
disposed,  by  the  inclination  <if  the  chord-line  of  the  segment 
on  which  they  may  be  said  to  be  set  ofl',  th.it  the  starting  of 
the  twelve  chariots  was  equalized.  The  divisions  of  the 
arcades  within,  on  the  front,  were  ornami'ntcd  with  Ilermes 
suppcirting  a  cornice,  in  the  maimer  of  Caryatides:  the 
carceraj  were  closed  with  grated  doors,  to  the  height  of  the 


CIR 


165 


CIS 


springing  of  the  arch,  and  the  semicircular  opening  above 
was  tilled  with  a  marble  lattice.  Two  of  these  lattices,  very 
elegantly  ornamented,  are  at  present  to  be  found  in  the  court 
of  the  palace  Mattel,  wiiich  is  founded  upon  a  part  of  the 
i'laininian  Circus.  The  top  of  the  earcerae  formed  a  terrace, 
upon  which  was  placed  the  tribune  of  the  consul. 

The  spina,  as  being  dedicated  to  the  gods,  was  the  most 
sacred  place  in  the  circus.  It  consisted  of  a  platform,  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  circus,  and,  running  down  the 
middle  of  the  arena,  divided  itself  nearly  into  two  equal 
parts,  resembling  the  spine  of  a  fish,  whence  it  took  its  name. 
At  the  extremities  of  the  spina  were  placed  the  metas,  or 
goals,  which  consisted  of  three  cones  placed  in  a  triangle.  On 
the  summits  of  these  cones  was  placed  a  large  egg,  in  memo- 
rial of  the  eggs  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  The  metse  rested 
upon  the  vault  of  a  semicircular  temple  or  chapel,  a  little 
wider  than  the  spina.  The  circular  part  of  these  little  chapels 
was  at  the  first  goal,  turned  towards  the  triumphal  gate,  and 
their  entrances  were  in  passages  between  them  and  the  spina. 
The  long  extent  of  the  spina  was  ornamented  with  columns, 
statues,  and  alt;irs.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  spina  was  not 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  arena,  nor  parallel  to  the  sides 
of  the  circus,  but  in  an  inclined  direction,  so  that  the  course 
was  wider  on  the  right  side  of  the  circus,  where  it  began, 
than  on  the  left,  and  diminished  gradually  all  the  way.  The 
reason  seems  to  be  this,  that  the  chariots,  starting  all  toge- 
ther, required  more  room  in  the  first  course,  than  when  they 
came  in  separately. 

In  several  of  the  circi,  the  arena  was  surrounded  at  the 
foot  of  the  podium  with  a  canal,  called  euripus,  which  was 
10  feet  wide,  and  probably  of  the  same  depth,  for  the  defence 
of  the  spectators,  in  cases  where  the  podium  was  not  suffi- 
ciently elevated  :  it  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been 
absolutely  necessary,  since  Nero  had  that  of  the  Circus 
Maximus  covered  over,  in  order  to  enlarge  its  area ;  neither 
is  there  any  euripus  in  the  circus  of  Caracalla. 

The  following  description  of  the  games  exhibited  in  the 
circus  niav  be  interesting.  These  games,  according  to  tra- 
dition, were  instituted  by  Romulus,  under  the  name  of  Con- 
sulia,  in  honour  of  the  god  Consus  (Neptuue).  They  were 
exhibited  on  various  occasions,  and  for  various  purposes, 
sometimes  by  the  magistrates,  sometimes  by  private  citizens. 
The  games  were  opened  by  a  grand  procession  from  the 
capital  to  the  circus,  in  which  the  images  of  the  gods  were 
borne  in  carriages,  followed  by  dancers,  musicians, combatants 
and  others;  and,  last  of  all,  by  the  priests,  to  perfijrm  the 
sacred  rites.  The  exhibition  consisted  chiefly  of  chariot  and 
horse  races ;  the  charioteers  were  divided  into  four  classes, 
distinguished  by  the  colours  of  their  dresses.  The  order  in 
which  the  chariots  stood  was  determined  by  lot ;  and  the 
signal  for  starting  was  given  by  dropping  a  cloth.  The 
chariot  which  first  ran  seven  times  round  the  course,  was 
victorious,  and  the  driver,  after  being  proclaimed  by  the 
herald,  was  crowned  by  a  palm-wreath,  and  received  a  sum 
of  money.  Besides  these  races,  were  contests  in  running, 
leaping,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  throwing  the  discus.  Wrestlers 
were  anointed  with  ointment  by  slaves;  boxers  used  gloves 
strengthened  with  lead  or  iron,  to  give  force  to  their  blows ; 
the  combatants  were  almost  entirely  naked,  and  all  underwent 
a  preparatory  training  and  dieting — sometimes  sea-fights 
[naumachia)  were  represented,  and  Julius  Ccesar  revived 
the  exhibition  of  mock-fights  by  young  noblemen  on  horse- 
back. 

The  most  attractive  of  these  public  entertainments,  how- 
ever, were  the  combats  of  wild  beasts,  either  with  one 
another,  or  with  men.  Great  expense  was  incurred  to 
provide  the  beasts  for  this  exhibition,  and  they  were  collected 


for  the  purpose  from  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  empire. 
The  men  engaged  in  such  contests,  were  either  forced  to 
the  combat  as  a  punishment,  or  induced  to  enter  it  by  sums 
of  money.  The  beasts  were  kept  in  inclosures  (yivariu) 
till  the  time  appointed  for  the  show.  So  passionately  fond 
were  the  people  of  these  games,  that  the  expression  Panem 
et  Circenses,  '  Bread  and  the  Circensian  Games,'  was  com- 
monly used  to  signify  the  two  prime  necessaries  of  life  to  the 
Roman  populace.  The  splendour  of  these  exhibitions  increased 
in  the  latter  days  of  the  republic,  and  the  number  of  rare 
wild  animals  that  were  exhibited  but  to  be  destroyed,  is 
almost  incredible.  It  is  said,  that  on  one  occasion,  Pompey 
exhibited  five  hundred  lions,  which  were  all  despatched  in 
five  days. 

CISOID,  or  CissoiD,  in  geometry,  a  curve  line  of  the 
second  order,  invented  by  Diodes,  an  ancient  Greek  geome- 
trician, for  the  purpose  of  finding  two  mean  proportionals 
between  two  given  lines,  of  such  property,  as  that  if  on  the 
extremity,  b,  of  the  diameter,  a  b,  of  the  circle,  a  o  b,  the 
indefinite  perpendicular,  c  b  d,  be  erected,  and  if  from  this, 
several  lines  be  drawn  to  the  other  extremity,  a,  to  cut  the 
circle  in  i,  o,  n,  and  if  upon  these  lines  be  set  the  correspond- 
ing equal  distances,  viz.  h^=ai,  fo  =  ao,  cl=:an,  &c., 
then  the  curve  line  drawn  through  all  the  points,  m,  o,  l,  is 
the  cisoid.  Other  methods  of  constructing  this  curve  may 
be  seen  in  Newton's  Universal  Arithmetic,  and  Emerson  071 
Curve  Lines. 

CISTERN,  an  artificial  reservoir  or  receptacle  for  holding 
water,  beer,  or  other  liquor,  as  in  domestic  uses,  breweries, 
and  distilleries. 

Cisterns  of  earth  must  be  lined  with  good  cement,  to 
make  them  retain  the  water,  and  the  bottoms  should  be 
covered  with  sand  to  keep  it  sweet. 

Water  for  the  use  of  a  house,  may  be  preserved  in  the 
cellar,  where  a  cistern  or  cisterns  may  be  constructed  in  the 
following  manner:  first  lay  a  good  bed  of  sound  well-tempered 
clay,  for  a  bottom,  on  w'hich  place  a  flooring  of  bricks,  or 
imjjervious  stones,  cemented  with  plaster-of-paris,  or  terras- 
mortar.  The  sides  should  then  be  built  up,  leaving  a  space 
between  them  and  the  walls  of  the  house,  which  is  afterwards 
to  be  filled  up  with  clay,  well  rammed  down;  this  will  keep 
the  water  from  oozing,  and  etreetually  preserve  the  founda- 
tion of  the  house.  As  a  substitute  for  plaster-of  paris,  or 
terras-mortar,  a  composition  of  slacked  lime  sifted,  linseed 
oil  and  tow  or  cotton,  will  be  found  very  serviceable. 
A  cistern  of  this  kind,  viz.  of  clay  lined  with  bricks,  will 
answer  in  any  shady  place,  as  well  as  in  a  cellar,  provided 
it  be  kept  covered.  And  though  the  cistern  be  not  always 
full  of  water,  the  clay  will  not  lose  its  requisite  degree  of 
moisture. 

When  a  cistern  is  to  be  made  above  ground,  it  may  be 
constructed  of  planks,  plain  or  straight  jointed,  put  together 
with  white  lead,  and  pinned  to  bearers  and  uprights.  If  the 
cistern  be  large,  suppose  10  feet  in  aliitude,  and  20_  feet 
square,  the  planks  may  be  2Wnch  yellow  deals,  the  joists 
and  uprights  maybe  4  inches  tliick,  and  6  inches  deep,  placed 
about  2  feet  6  inches  distant  fom  each  other.  There  should 
be  two  pins  at  each  intersection  of  a  board  and  npriiilit,  or 
bearer;  every  pin  may  be  three-fourths  of  an  inch  tliiek,  and 
wedged  again  with  a  s'mall  pin  at  the  narrow  end,  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  its  drawing:  the  pins  should  all  have  a 
draught,  to  bring  the  joists  as  close  as  possible.  Tills  <-istern, 
placed  upon  a  firm  well-tempered  bed  of  clay,  should  be 
surrounded  with  a  stone  or  brick  wall,  at  8  or  12  niches 
distance,  and  the  cavity  filled  in  with  clay,  as  above  described. 
This  will  retain  the  water,  and  answer  extremely  well  for 
the  supply  of  a  city  or  village. 


CIV 


l(i« 


CLA 


If  the  cistern  be  to  be  raised  on  liigh,  where  walls  cannot 
be  coiistnioted  around,  it  may  be  made  of  timber,  in  the 
foregoing  manner,  and  lined  with  lead  :  but  as  this  lining 
tends  to  contaminate  the  wat»T,  the  casing  of  the  exterior  with 
stone  or  brick,  with  puddle  between  it  and  the  woodeix 
cistern,  shnuld  be  adopted  when  practicable. 

A  cistern  may  be  constructed  for  watering  cattle,  by  exca- 
vating the  ground  where  there  is  a  descent,  and  covering  the 
bottom  and  sides  with  two  coats  of  tough  clay,  each  coat  about 
six  inches  thick,  well  rammed  ;  the  bottom  being  covered 
with  flag-stones,  the  clay  will  remain  moist,  and  free  from 
cracks,  though  not  covered  with  water.  But  this  is  trouble- 
some;  for,  should  the  clay  happen  to  crack  in  any  part,  it 
woidd  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  work  again. 

In  a  chalky  soil,  a  cistern  may  be  formed  by  digging 
a  hole,  and  covering  the  bottom  smoothly  with  chalk  ruliijish, 
which,  when  wetted  by  the  rain,  should  l)e  rammed  well. 
Afterwards  cattle  may  be  turned  in  to  tread  it  till  quite  firm, 
and  then  it  will  be  impervious  to  the  water. 

CITADKL  (from  the  French,  ciladelle,  a  diminutive  of 
the  Italian,  cilia)  a  small  city. 

tJTADEL,  is  also  a  small  fortificiition,  consisting  of  four, 
five,  or  six  sides,  with  bastions,  by  which  it  is  distinguished 
irom  a  castle,  and  usually  jnined  to  towns,  and  sometimes 
erected  on  commanding  eminences  within  them. 

Citadels  may  be  either  square,  rect:ingular,  pentagonal, 
hexagonal,  or,  indeed,  of  any  figure  ;  but  the  pentagonal  is 
most  commonly  adopted.  The  hexagonal  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  too  large,  and  re(|uiring  too  great  an  expenditure 
for  the  ad  vantages  to  be  derived  fmm  it;  and  the  quadrangular 
is  iiiciipable  of  making  a  suUicient  defence.  Citadels  are  also 
sometimes  made  in  the  form  of  a  star  fort. 

The  exterior  sides  of  the  citadel,  when  its  plan  is  regular, 
are  generally,  each  about  150  toises,  or  fathoms;  but  this 
extension  may  be  varied  according  to  circumstances. 

When  the  citadel  is  erected  on  a  hill,  or  eminence,  within 
the  fortifications  of  the  place,  it  is  well  calculated  to  keep 
the  inhabitants  in  awe,  if  the  garrison  be  sufliciently  provided ; 
but  it  is  of  little  use  against  an  enemy,  when  once  in  posses- 
sion of  the  town  itself 

The  citadel  will  require  a  stronger  fortification  than  the 
town,  to  prevent  its  being  attacked  first  by  the  enemy,  who, 
getting  possession  of  it,  will  soon  become  masters  of  the  town. 
A  citadil  lias,  liir  the  most  part,  two  gates,  the  one  for  eom- 
muiiieating  with  the  town,  au<l  the  other  with  the  country  ; 
the  gate  ci>nimunicatiiig  with  the  town,  is  used  in  case  of  an 
insurrection  or  .sedition,  or  afier  the  town  has  capitulated, 
for  the  garrison  to  retire  into  the  citadel;  the  other  gate, 
which  communicates  with  the  country,  is  for  receiving 
assistance  and  succours  when  placed  under  extremities. 
The  citadel  geneially  takes  up  two  sides  of  the  fortification 
of  the  parts  which  adjoin  to  it,  and  should  be  so  constructed 
that  the  ditch  of  the  place  may  be  defended  as  directly  as 
possible,  either  by  the  faces  of  its  bastions,  or  by  ravelins, 
that  the  enemy  may  have  no  greater  advantage  in  attacking 
in  one  place  than  they  would  have  in  another.  It  may  be 
farther  observed,  that  in  an  extensive  fortified  city,  a  citadel 
may  be  formed  by  uniting  two  adjoining  bastions,  by  a  good 
retrenchment,  with  flanking  defences:  the  expense  of  making 
such  is  very  trifling,  compared  with  that  of  adding  another 
fortification  to  the  place. 

CIVIC  CKOWN,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  garland  of  oak- 
leaves  and  acorns,  or  ground  oak,  given  as  a  reward  to  such 
as  had  saved  a  citizen's  life  in  battle. 

CIVIL  Al{ClirrE(rrURE,  that  which  embraces  the 
erection  of  ediliccs  destined  for  civil  purposes;  the  term  is 
used  in  contradistinction  to  military  and  naval  architecture. 


CLAIR-OBSCURE,  or  Chiaro-Oscuro  (from  the  Italian 
chiaro,  light,  and  oscuro,  dark)  the  proper  distribution  of 
light  and  shade  in  a  picture,  both  with  respect  to  the  eye, 
and  the  effect  of  the  whole  composition.  The  term  is  also 
used  for  a  design  wherein  only  two  colours  are  used,  most 
usually  black  and  white. 

CL.\MF,  a  small  piece  of  wood,  fixed  to  the  ends  of  a 
board,  to  prevent  it  from  warping,  the  fibres  of  the  clamp 
being  transverse  to  those  of  the  board.  The  manner  of 
clamping  a  board,  is  either  by  grooving  the  edges  of  the 
clamp,  and  tonguing  the  ends  of  the  board  into  it  with  brads 
and  glue,  or  by  grooving  the  end  of  the  bo.ard,  and  tonguing 
the  edge  of  the  clamp.  Sometimes  the  end  of  the  clamp  is 
mitred  to  the  side  of^the  board,  for  the  sake  of  neater  work- 
manship. In  the  best  clamping,  the  clamp  is  fixed  to  the 
board  with  a  mortise  and  tenon. 

The  flaps  of  shutters,  small  doors,  lids,  and  kitchen-taViles, 
which  consist  only  of  boards  glued  together,  are  most 
frequently  clamped. 

Clamp,  in  brick-making,  a  pile  of  bricks  built  upon  a 
rectangular  base,  for  the  purpose  of  burning  them. 

Clamps  are  built  of  unbaked  bricks,  after  the  manner  of 
a  kiln,  with  a  vacuity  between  the  breadths  of  the  bricks, 
for  the  fire  to  filay  through  ;  but,  instead  of  arching,  as  in 
kilns,  the  flues  are  gathered  in,  by  making  the  layers  project 
one  over  another.  The  place  for  the  fuel  is  carried  up 
straight  on  both  sides,  till  about  three  feet  high;  it  is  then 
nearly  filled  with  wood,  which  is  covered  with  a  stratum  of 
small  sea-coal,  or  breeze,  after  which  the  flue  is  overspanned. 
The  sea-coal  is  also  strewed  between  every  row  of  bricks, 
and  the  top  of  the  clamp  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  it. 
The  wood  is  then  kindled,  and  the  fire  is  thence  communicated 
to  the  coals.  When  the  fuel  is  exhausted,  the  brick-makers 
conclude  that  the  bricks  are  sufficiently  burned. 

ITie  operation  of  burning  bricks  is  attended  with  con- 
siderable diflicnlty,  and  recpiires  workmen  of  experience,  to 
maintain  an  equal  degree  of  heat  throughout  the  mass.  If  the 
heat  be  too  low,  the  bricks  will  be  weak  and  crumbly,  and 
if  too  strong,  they  will  vitrify  and  run  together.  The 
operation  is  much  better  performed  in  kilns,  than  in  clamps; 
as  in  the  former,  the  fire  can  be  kept  up,  and  regulated  at 
discretion;  while  in  clamps,  as  the  whole  of  the  fuel  must 
be  put  in  at  once,  the  manufacturer  is  tempted  to  use  too 
little,  and  the  outside  bricks  are  consequently  under-burnt. 
These  are  called  samet-//ricks,  which  are  sold  at  an  inferior 
price.     See  Bhick. 

Clamp  Nails.     See  Nails. 

CLAMPING,  in  joinery,  the  act  of  .securing  a  board  with 
clamps.      See  Clamp. 

CLASP  NAILS.     See  Nails. 

CLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE,  such  as  was  practised 
by  the  (Greeks  and  Romans. 

CLATHRl,  in  Roman  antiquity,  bars  of  iron,  or  wood, 
used  for  securing  doors  and  windows. 

("LAY,  in  common  language,  any  earth  which  possesses 
suflicient  ductility  to  admit  of  being  kneaded  with  water. 

Common  clays  may  be  divided,  with  regard  to  their  utility, 
into  three  classes,  viz.,  unctuous,  meagre,  and  calcareous. 

The  unctuous  contains,  in  general,  more  alumine  than  the 
meagre,  and  the  silicious  ingredient  is  in  finer  grains.  When 
burnt,  it  adheres  strongly  to  the  tongue,  but  its  texture  is 
not  visibly  porous.  When  charged  with  little  or  no  oxide 
of  iron,  it  burns  to  a  very  good  white  colour,  and  is  very 
infiisible;  it  is  therefore  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
Startiirdshire  ware.  When  it  contains  oxide  of  iron,  or  pyrites, 
suflicient  to  colour  it  when  baked,  it  becomes  more  fusible,  and 
can  only  be  employed  in  the  coarser  kinds  of  pottery. 


Meagre  clay  docs  not  take  a  polish  with  the  nail,  when 
drv,  by  rubbing  it;  ffcis  gritty  between  the  teeth;  contains 
sand  in  visible  grains;  and,  when  burnt  without  additions, 
has  a  coarse  granular  texture.  It  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture ot"  bricks  and  tiles. 

Calcareous  clay  ctVervesces  with  acids,  is  unctuous  to  the 
touch,  and  always  contains  iron  enough  to  give  it  a  red 
colour  when  baked.  Being  much  more  ftisilde  than  any  of 
the  preceding,  it  is  only  employed  in  l)rick-making ;  and, 
by  a  judicious  burning,  may  be  made  to  assume  a  semi-vitre- 
ous texture.     Bricks  thus  made  are  very  durable. 

CLAYING,  the  operation  of  spreading  two  or  three  coats 
of  clay,  in  order  to  keep  water  within  a  vessel,  or  to  pre- 
vent its  transmission  to  some  place  or  apartment  where  it 
would  be  injurious.  This  operation  is  also  called  puddling. 
Claying  is  necessary  in  the  construction  of  canals,  cisterns, 
vaults,  &c. 

CLEAM,  a  word  used  in  some  countries,  to  signify  to 
sticky  or  ijliie. 

CLEAR,  in  building,  the  distance  between  any  two  bodies 
when  no  other  intervenes ;  or  between  the  nearest  surfaces 
of  two  bodies ;  as,  binding  joists  may  be  placed  five  feet 
clear  of  each  other,  or  apart. 

CLEAK-ST(  IKY,  the  upper  story  of  a  church  rising  clear 
above  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  edifice,  and  containing  a 
range  of  windows,  thereby  affording  an  increase  of  light  to 
the  body  of  the  building;  some  indeed  derive  the  term  from 
the  French,  chiir,  light,  from  that  circumstance  ;  while  others 
consider  the  term  to  have  been  applied  from  this  story  of  the 
building  being  clear  of  joists,  rafters,  or  flooring :  the  deri- 
vation, however,  implied  at  the  commencement  of  this  article, 
seems  to  be  the  most  reasonable.  In  some  cases,  this  story 
is  made  of  great  importance,  pierced  with  windows  of  greater 
size  than  those  below,  in  the  body  of  the  edifice,  as  at  Exeter 
and  other  cathedrals,  Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  Westminster, 
and  some  of  the  larger  churches  ;  in  others  the  windows  are 
of  very  small  dimensions,  consisting  merely  of  trefoils, 
quatrefoils,  or  small  arched  foliated  apertures.  Very  small 
churches  seldom  have  clear-stories,  the  roof  being  carried 
over  the  body  and  aisles  in  a  single  span.  There  is  no  clear- 
story to  the  choir  of  Bristol  cathedral. 

CLEAVING,  the  act  of  severing  one  part  of  a  piece  of 
wood  from  another,  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  either  by 
pressure,  or  by  the  percussion  of  a  wedge-formed  instrument. 

CLEETA,  an  ancient  Greek  architect  and  sculptor,  who 
built  the  palajstra,  or  large  court,  near  Olympus,  iu  which 
the  horse  and  chariot  races  were  performed  at  the  celebrated 
Olympic  games.  It  was  magnificently  decorated  with  por- 
ticos and  other  ornaments  ;  and  the  author  was  so  vain  of 
his  performance,  that  he  introduced  the  following  inscription 
under  one  of  his  statues : — "  Cleeta,  the  son  of  Aristocles, 
who  invented  the  paliestra  of  Olympus,  did  this."  See 
Pal.^stra. 

CLEt)PATRA'S  NEEDLES,  in  Egyptian  antiquity, 
two  obelisks  towards  the  eastern  part  of  the  palace  of  Alex- 
andria, constructed  of  Thebaic  stone,  and  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics; one  has  been  thrown  down,  broken,  and  lies  buried 
in  the  sand  :  the  other  stands  on  a  pedestal.  The  dimensions 
of  the  two  are  pretty  nearly  the  same ;  the  whole  height  of 
the  erect  one,  including  the  pedestal  and  three  steps,  is  about 
seventy -nine  feet.  When  the  French  examined  the  base  of 
this  obelisk,  the  accumulation  of  earth  around  it  was  about 
sixteen  feet  deep.  These  two  obelisks  formed  the  entrance 
to  the  temple  or  palace  of  Caesar,  as  it  is  called,  though  pro- 
bably they  were  moved  from  some  of  the  ancient  cities  of 
Egypt  by  the  Ptolemys. 

CLINCHING,  when  a  nail  is  driven  to  the  head  through 


a  piece  of  wood  or  board,  of  less  thickness  than  the  length 
of  the  nail,  the  driving  of  the  point  of  the  nail  backwards, 
flat  into  the  wood,  while  a  hammer  is  pressed  against  its 
head,  is  called  clinching. 

CLINKERS,  bricks  impregnated  with  a  considerable 
quantity  of  nitre  or  saltpetre,  and  placed  next  to  the  fire  in 
the  clamp,  or  kiln,  that  they  may  be  more  thoroughly  burnt. 

CLOACJS,  large  arched  drains,  formed  under  the  streets 
of  some  ancient  Roman  cities.  The  most  remarkable  were 
the  cloacae  of  Rome,  large  portions  of  which  still  remain  in 
excellent  repair.  These  cloa^'ffi  extended  under  the  whole 
city,  and  were  divided  into  numerous  branches:  the  arches, 
which  supported  the  streets  and  buildings,  were  so  high  and 
broad,  that  a  wagiion  loaded  with  hay  might  pass  under,  or 
vessels  might  sail  in  them.  At  proper  distances,  in  the 
streets,  there  were  openings,  for  the  admission  of  dirty 
water,  &c.  These  branches  ran  in  the  low  parts  between 
the  hills,  and  fell  into  one  large  arched  drain,  constructed 
of  solid  blocks  of  stone,  called  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  and  repaired 
in  later  times  by  Cato  the  Censor,  and  his  colleague  in 
ofiice.  The  Cloaca  Maxima  is  fifteen  feet  wide,  and  thirty 
high,  with  thiee  arches  in  contact  one  within  another ;  in 
some  parts  there  were  raised  paths  along  the  sides  of  the 
cloaca;  and  in  the  walls  were  stone  brackets  to  support 
the  ends  of  the  waste  pipes  of  the  fountains.  In  the  year 
1742,  a  part  of  the  Cloaca  Maxima  was  discovered  in  the 
Forum,  at  the  depth  of  thirty  feet  from   the  surface.     See 

CLOAK-PINS  AND  RAIL,  a  piece  of  wood  attached  to 
a  wall,  furnished  with  projecting  pegs,  on  which  to  hang 
hats,  great-coats,  &c  ;  the  pegs  are  called  cloak-pins,  and 
the  board  into  which  they  are  fixed,  and  which  is  fastened 
to  the  wall,  is  called  the  rail. 

CLOCIIARIUM,  Clochier  (French,  clocher,)  a  building, 
more  usually  a  tower,  in  which  the  clock  and  bells  were 
contained. 

CLOG  HEAD,  a  name  applied  to  the  curious  round  towers 
of  Ireland.     See  Tower. 

CLOISTER,  (Latin,  clausum,  enclosed,  shut  in  ;)  a  covered 
range  of  building  attached  to  a  monastic  or  collegiate  estab. 
lishment,  forming  a  passage  of  communication  between  the 
various  buildings,  more  especially  between  the  church  and 
chapter-house.  Cloisters  were  employed  as  places  of  medi- 
tation and  recreation  by  the  inmates  of  the  etablishment ; 
and  sometimes  of  retirement  and  study,  for  which  purpose 
we  occasionally  find  them  arranged  with  cells  on  one  side,  as 
at  Gloucester  Cathedral,  and  also  at  Durham,  where  such  cells 
were  termed  carrols :  they  appear  to  have  been  used  likewise  as 
places  of  sepulture.  Cloisters  are  invariably  found  contiguous 
to  the  church,  ranged  round  three  or  four  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangular area,  having  on  the  outer  side  a  series  of  windows 
with  piers  and  columns  looking  into  the  quadrangle,  and  in 
the  inner  side,  which  was  in  other  respects  plain,  a  number 
of  doorways  communicating  with  the  surrounding  buildings, 
the  chapter-house,  refectory,  schools,  and  such  like.  The 
windows  in  our  English  cloisters  are  glazed,  and  the  whole 
length  of  the  ambulatories  arched  over  with  a  vaulted  ceiling ; 
in  some  cases,  a  stone  seat  or  bench  is  carried  round  the 
wall  opposite  the  windows.  Attached  to  the  cloister  is 
usually  a  lavatory  or  conduit,  at  which  the  monks  washed 
previous  to  entering  the  refectory ;  the  remains  of  one  such 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  quadrangle  at  Durham, 
as  also  at  W^ells;  lavatories  also  exist  in  the  cloisters  of  Nor- 
wich, Gloucester,  and  Worcester.     See  Lavatory. 

In  England  cloisters  seem  to  have  been  appended  to  all 
cathedraTs,  and  to  the  majority  of  collegiate  and  monastic 


CLO 


168 


CLO 


establishments,  in  short,  to  all  the  larger  religious  houses. 
l"rci]iu'nl  examples  are  also  to  be  found  on  the  continent, 
in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  and  in  some  cases  of  great 
magnitude ;  they  are  in  the  main  similar  to  those  in  England, 
though  of  ditferent  styles,  and  therefore  varying  in  detail ; 
one  ditference  consists  in  the  windows  being  unglazcd,  on 
account,  no  doubt,  of  the  diHerenee  of  climate  ;  in  some 
instances  are  found  specimens  of  painting  in  fresco  on 
the  walls. 

Of  the  continental  cloisters,  Mr.  Hope  says,  "Those  of 
the  Latin  church  are  all  of  them  in  the  Lombard  style  ; 
some,  such  as  those  of  San  Lorenzo  and  Santa  Saliina  at 
Konie,  and  of  San  Stephano  at  Bologna,  arc  small  and  rude, 
and  more  like  the  courts  of  a  mean  habitation  ;  others,  as 
those  of  San  Giovanni  Laterano  at  Kome,  and  those  of  San 
Zeno  at  Verona,  are  spacious,  and  formed  of  columns  of  the 
most  fantastical  shapes;  some  coupled,  twisted,  and  with 
spiral  flutes ;  and  glittering— those  at  Kome  with  white  marble 
inlaid  with  porphyry,  with  serpentine  and  with  gilt  enamel ; 
and  those  at  Verona  with  the  gold-coloured  marble  of  the 
Euganean  mo\intains.  The  cloisters  of  the  cathedral  churc^h 
of  Zurich,  and  of  the  monastery  of  Subiaeo,  in  the  papal 
states,  are  amongst  the  most  elegant  of  continental  examples. 
The  latter  was  erected  in  1235,  and  that  of  San  Zeno,  at 
Verona,  in  11 -iS." 

The  following  account  of  the  Campo-Santo  at  Pisa,  one 
of  the  most  famous  cloisters  in  Europe,  is  given  by  Britton  : 
— "Its  form  is  an  oblong  square,  or  irregular  parallelogram, 
measuring  430  and  415  feet  in  its  longest  extent,  by  136 
and  139  feet  at  its  ends.  The  width  of  each  walk  is  about 
32  feet.  It  was  commenced  in  1278  by  Giovanni  de  Pisa, 
and  a  chapel,  adjoining  its  east  end,  was  completed  in  1464. 
Between  the  covered  walk  and  the  enclosed  area,  is  a  series 
of  sixty-two  windows,  having  semi-circular  arches,  and 
adorned  with  varied  tracery,  supported  by  tall  light  columns 
which  divide  each  space  into  four  lights.  Some  of  these 
were  formerly  glazed,  but  the  others  were  left  open.  The 
floor  is  paved  with  while  nuirble  having  bands  of  blue, 
and  the  inner  roof  is  farmed  of  timber.  On  the  walls  are 
numenjus  old  [laintings  of  great  interest,  being  some  of  the 
first  productions  on  the  revival  of  that  art  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  There  is  also  a  fine  collection  of 
marble  sarcophagi,  fragments  of  sculpture,  &c." 

Amongst  iiuuiy  other  of  the  more  noted  cloisters  of  the 
continent,  may  be  mentiimed  that  belonging  tf)  the  monastery 
of  Bataiha  in  Portugal.  It  is  extensive  and  highly  enriched, 
the  length  of  each  ambulatory  being  182  feet,  and  the 
width  n^  feet ;  in  the  centre  of  the  enclosed  quadrangle 
is  a  cistern,  and  in  one  of  its  angles  a  large  fijuntain. 

Attached  to  the  collegiate  chapel  of  St.  Stephen,  West- 
minster, are  the  remains  of  one  of  the  most  highly  enriched 
and  beautiful  cloisters  in  England,  which  was  erected  by 
Dean  Chambers  in  the  time  of  King  Henry  the  Eighth. 
It  is  the  only  example  remaining  of  a  cloister  of  two  stories ; 
it  has  two  oratories,  or  chantry-chapels,  projecting  into  the 
quadrangle,  and  approached  respectively  from  the  upper  and 
lower  western  avenues.  The  roof  is  vaulted,  covered  with 
fan-tracery,  and  adorned  with  finely-sculptured  bosses  and 
shields.     The  dimensions  are  added  to  the  following  table. 

The  areas  at  the  entrance  of  some  continental  churches 
partake  of  the  nature  of  cloisters,  but  are  more  particularly 
styled  atria.     See  Ecclesiastical  Architecture. 

The  annexed  is  a  table  giving  the  dimensions  and  some 
other  infornuition  relative  to  the  cloisters  attached  to  our 
English  cathedrals.  The  particulars  are  collected  from 
Briitou's  works,  and  other  similar  sources. 


Litt  of  Cloisters  of  the  English  Cathedralt. 
Lenfrtb. 


Feet 

*  Canterburt 182 

(^'^■'^«' |]o8 

Chichester J  121  E 

''  Durham 145  . 

'  Gloucester 147  . 

^  Hereford ■)  1 1  fi 

.  T  I  11 8  N. 

•Lincoln -j    ^^  p, 

'Norwich |  f];;™,' 

sSalisburt 181f 

"Wells  V"  '''■ 

'  Worcester |  j^',  ^y 

•■  Old  St.  Paul,  London  ....  91. 

S.    Stephen's    Ckai-kl,    »  (    89  E 

Westminster f  (    75  N. 


Width       Hei-ht  to 
of  avenue,    vnulting. 

Feet       Feet 


and  S. 
ami  W, 

75 


>l 


and  W.  I 

.N.&S.  f  ■ 
W.  1 

s.  ]■ 


13 

14J   . 

18 

13 


15 

20} 

17 


and  W. 
and 


16 

10 

loi      514  lower. 

^-i    ■]  13  upper 


Remarks. 

*  On  north  side  of  cathedral. 

''  Date  alunit  1400;  had  octigonal  lavatory  in  centre  of  area.  On 
south  t^itle  of  eathe<  h'ul. 

*■  Completed  1 300  ;  Iin.H  recesses  or  carol.s  in  the  south  walk,  find  in  the 
north  a  spacious  lavatory ;  the  roof  covered  with  elaborate  fan-tracery. 

■'  In  rums. 

*  HiLs  timber  va\iUin^  with  ribs  and  bosses ;  on  north  eide  of  cathe- 
dral; date  about  1300. 

'  Commenced  in  1299,  completed  in  1430;  has  two  lavatories  at  the 
south-west  anijle. 

**  Date  about  1250;  situate  on  south  side  of  cathedral. 

''  Erected  between  1407  and  14f)5  ;  on  the  south  side  of  cathedral.  It 
has  only  three  avenues,  the  fourth  aide  bein;^  the  wall  of  the  nave  ;  the 
eastern  and  western  sides  are  of  two  stories;  there  is  a  lavatory  in  tlje 
area. 

'  Date  1380. 

I  Consisted  of  two  stories ;  the  chapter-house  was  enclosed  within  the 
avenues.     Destroyed. 

CLOISTER  -  GARTH,  the  quadrangular  area  enclosed 
within  the  four  avenues  of  a  cloister;  it  was  laid  out  as 
a  grass-plot,  and  had  frequently  in  its  centre  a  stone  con- 
duit, or  reservoir  of  water. — The  cloister-garth  was  used  as 
a  place  of  sepulture. 

CLOSE  STRING,  in  dog-leg  stairs,  a  staircase  without 
an  open  newel. 

CLOSER,  in  masonry,  the  last  stone  laid  in  the  horizontal 
length  of  a  wall,  of  less  dimensions  than  any  of  the  others 
in  the  same  row.  Closers  should  never  be  admitted  in  good 
work,  nor  indeed  in  any  other,  for  they  deprive  it  of  unifor- 
mity, and  destroy  the  bond  also:  nor  would  they  ever  be 
found  necessary,  were  due  attention  paid  to  the  di\  iding  of 
the  stones  in  proper  lengths.  In  brickwork  the  term  is 
applied  to  a  bat  used  in  the  same  manner.  When  the  bat 
is  a  quarter-brick,  it  is  called  queen-cliser.  When  a  three- 
quarter,  inserted  at  the  angle  of  a  stretching-course,  it  is 
called  a  l-'mg-doser. 

CLOSET,  a  small  apartment,  frequently  made  to  commu- 
nicate with  a  bed-chamber,  and  used  as  a  dressing-room. 
Siitnetiines  a  closet  is  made  for  the  reception  of  stores,  and 
then  it  is  called  a  s/oreclosci.  However  unfashionable  closets 
may  be  in  the  rooms  of  large  houses,  they  are  essential  in 
those  of  small  ones. 

Closet.     See  Water-Closet. 


CLOUGII,  or  Clotse,  a  kind  of  sluice  for  letting  off 
water  gi'ntly,  employed  in  the  agricultural  operation  of 
improving  soils  by  flooding  the  land  with  muddy  water,  the 
same  with  paddle,  shuttle,  sluice,  pen-stuck, &c.,  a  contrivance 
for  retaining  or  letting  out  the  water  of  a  canal,  pond,  &c. 

Clough  Arches,  or  Paddle-IIoles,  in  the  construction 
of  canals,  crooked  arches  by  which  the  vs'ater  is  conveyed,  on 
drawing  up  the  doughs  or  paddles,  from  the  upper  pond  into 
the  chamber  of  the  lock,  when  it  is  to  be  filled. 

CLOUT-NAILS.     See  N.ui.s. 

CLUB-CILVMHERS.  As  the  building  we  are  about  to 
describe  is  the  first  attempt  to  provide  a  superior  kind  of 
accommodation  for  gentlemen  who  are  accustomed  to  reside 
in  chambers,  by  the  erection  of  an  edifice  especially  planned 
for,  and  adapted  to  the  purpose ;  we  think  a  notice  of  the 
extensive  and  elegant  institution  known  as  the  Club-chambers 
in  Regent  Street,  not  inappropriate  in  a  work  devoted  to 
architecture. 

In  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  chambers  for  residence 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Clubs  and  Houses  of  Parliament,  an 
association  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the 
want.  An  eligible  site  having  been  procured  in  Regent 
Street,  between  Pall  Mall  and  Piccadilly,  the  association 
engaged  Mr.  Decimus  Burton  to  make  designs  for  a  new 
building.  These  designs  being  approved  of,  contracts  were 
made,  and  the  result  was  the  present  handsome  and  com- 
modious mansion. 

The  elevation  of  this  edifice  is  of  the  Italian  style  of 
architecture ;  it  occupies  a  frontage  of  76  feet,  and  consists 
of  a  ground-story,  rusticated,  and  terminated  by  an  enriched 
lace-band  or  string-course,  enriched  with  the  Vitruvian 
scroll.  This  story  forms  a  basement  to  the  upper  part,  con- 
taining the  principal  story,  and  a  second  and  third  story, 
surmounted  by  a  bold  and  enriched  cornice,  the  main  charac- 
teristic feature  of  the  Italian  style.  Between  the  principal 
story  and  the  ground-floor,  an  entre-sol  is  introduced,  the 
windows  of  which  are  placed  between  the  panelled  pilasters 
sup]>orting  the  consoles  of  the  bold  projecting  balconies  in 
the  windows  above.  The  ground-floor  is  approached  in  the 
centre  by  a  portico,  projecting  forward  with  coupled  Doric 
columns  on  each  side,  and  recessed  back  to  give  depth  :  this 
opens  into  a  grand  entrance-hall,  the  height  of  the  ground- 
story,  and  entre-sol.  The  four  upper  stories  are  divided  in 
the  same  way  as  the  ground-floor,  e-xcept  that  on  all  the 
stories  above  the  entre-sol  there  is  an  apartment  over  the 
entrance-hall. 

The  building  contains  77  chambers  ;  27  are  provided  with 
alcoves  or  recesses  for  the  bed,  and  50  without ;  some  of  the 
rooms  are  so  planned,  that  two  or  three  may  be  formed  into 
one  suite,  if  required.  The  basement-story— occupied  as 
servants'  rooms  and  domestic  offices — is  arched  over  with  flat 
brick  arches,  supported  by  iron  girders.  The  two  staircases 
are  of  stone,  all  the  corridors  have  stone  floors,  and  every 
precaution  has  been  taken  throughout  the  building  against 
the  extension  of  fire. 

The  ingenuity  displayed  by  the  architect  in  providing  for 
the  warming  and  ventilation  of  the  building  deserves  a  par- 
ticular description — it  is  thus  cft'ectcd  : — On  each  side  of  the 
principal  staircase,  on  the  basement-story,  is  a  furnace,  with 
an  iron  pipe  or  flue  12  inches  diameter,  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
a  vertical  brick-chamber,  rising  through  the  several  stories 
and  roof,  where  it  is  terminated  by  a  cowl.  On  each  story 
these  vertical  chambers  communicate  with  horizontal  ones, 
formed  between  the  floor  and  ceiling  of  the  corridors.  Each 
room  being  furnished  with  a  ventilator  near  the  ceiling, 
opening  into  the  horizontal  chamber;  when  the  fire  is  lighted 
in  the  furnaces,  it  heats  the  iron  flue,  rarefies  the  air  within 


the  vertical  chambers,  and  causes  it  to  pass  off"  with  consider- 
able rapidity  through  the  cowl  at  the  top.  The  air  within 
the  rooms  then  flowing  through  the  ventilators  and  horizontal 
chambers  into  the  vertical  ones,  supplies  the  partial  vacuum 
created  by  the  escape  of  the  rarefied  air,  and  thereby  keeps  up 
continuous  and  healthy  circulation. 

The  warming  of  the  building  is  effected  by  the  patent  hot- 
water  apparatus  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Price,  erected  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Mr.  Manby.  The  apparatus  is  erected  on  -the 
basement-story,  on  the  north  side  of  the  principal  staircase  ; 
the  hot-air  chamber  is  immediately  behind,  the  top  being 
nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ground-floor ;  a  supply  of  cold  air 
flows  through  a  trunk — the  mouth  of  which  is  furnished  with 
gauze-wire  to  filter  the  air — into  the  vault,  where  it  passes 
upwards  between  the  vertical  iron  chambers  filled  with  hot- 
water,  and  becomes  heated,  the  warm  air  then  escaping 
through  apertures  in  the  top  of  the  vault,  is  distributed 
throughout  the  principal  staircase  and  corridors.  The  cor- 
ridors and  water-closets  are  lighted  with  gas,  the  light  being 
enclosed  in  glazed  lanterns,  provided  with  tubes  leading  to 
the  external  part  of  the  building.  On  the  basement-story, 
a  well  has  been  sunk,  by  which  the  premises  are  supplied 
with  pure  spring  water  lifted  to  the  top  of  the  building  by 
means  of  a  small  steam-engine,  which  is  also  employed  for 
raising  coals,  furniture,  &c.,  up  the  well-hole  of  the  back 
staircase.  Every  alcove  or  recess  for  the  bed  is  provided 
with  hot  and  cold  water,  and  pipes  trapped,  and  commu- 
nicating with  the  drains  for  a  water-closet,  if  the  tenant  should 
wish  to  have  one. 

We  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  this  establish- 
ment, because  the  very  perfect  arrangements  made  in  it  for 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  its  numerous  occupants 
reflect  the  highest  credit  on  the  architect,  whose  taste  and 
ingenuity  have  been  so  eminently  displayed ;  and  because  we 
would  bespeak  for  so  valuable  an  association  the  patronage 
and  support  its  liberality  so  fully  deserves. 

CLUB-HOUSE.  Under  this  term  are  designated  the 
splendid  establishments  which  have  sprung  up  at  the  west- 
end  of  the  metropolis  within  the  last  few  years.  Called  into 
existence  by  the  requirements  of  a  highly  refined  state  of 
society,  the  clubs  of  London  represent  an  assemblage  of  gen- 
tlemen composed  of  all  that  is  eminent  in  rank,  wealth,  and 
talent ;  the  elite  of  the  gentry  and  nobility  of  the  kingdom. 

The  clubs  of  the  present  day  must  not  be  confounded  with 
those  of  a  past  age,  they  are  essentially  institutions  of  modern 
creation.  Of  the  clubs  of  former  days,  the  earliest  described 
in  our  popular  literature  date  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  About  that  time 
was  established  the  famous  club  at  the  Mermaid  Tavern  in 
Friday  Street,  amongst  whose  members  were  Shakspere, 
Beaumont,  Fletcher,  Raleigh,  Selden,  Donne,  and  others. 

Another  celebrated  club,  founded  by  Jonson,  held  itsmeet^ 
ings  at  the  well-known  Devil  Tavern.  For  this  club  Jonson 
wrote  the  "  Leges  Convivales,"  which  are  printed  among  his 
works.  In  the  Spectator,  Addison  describes  an  association 
of  apolitical  character,  called  "The  Club,"  or  rather  the  Con- 
federacy of  the  Kings.  "  This  grand  alliance,"  says  he,  "  was 
formed  a  little  after  the  return  of  Charles  II.,  and  admitted 
into  it  men  of  all  qualities  and  professions,  provided  they 
agreed  in  this  surname  of  king,  which,  as  they  imagined, 
sufficiently  declared  the  owners  of  it  to  be  altogether  untainted 
by  republican  and  anti-monarchical  principles." 

The  great  age  of  clubs,  political,  literary,  and  of  every 
other  description,  was  the  early  part  of  the  last  century. 
Amongst  the  most  celebrated  of  these  was  the  Jirsl  Beef- 
steak club,  of  which  Mrs.  Woffington,  the  popular  actress, 
was  the  president,  being    the    only  female  member  ;    and 


CLU 


170 


ULU 


Estcourt,  the  comedian,  provisory  wearing  in  that  character 
a  small  <;ncliron  of  gold  hung  romid  his  neck  with  a  green 
silk  ril)and.  Still  more  celel)rated,  perhaps,  was  the  foinous 
Kit-Cat  club,  said  to  have  been  instituted  at  the  time  of  the 
trial  of  the  seven  bishops  in  the  reign  of  James  II.,  but  in  its 
greatest  gh)ry  in  that  of  Queen  Anno. 

In  ll'.ib  was  established  the  xecoiul  Beef-steak  club,  which 
is  still  in  existence,  and  which  has  numbered  among  its  mem- 
bers the  most  eminent  public  characters  that  have  appeared 
since  its  institution.  This  club  originated  with  Itich,  the 
p.-intoniimist,  and  the  Earl  of  Peterborough,  and  has  con- 
tinued to  the  present  day  to  maintain  its  high  celebrity,  as 
the  chosen  resort  of  good-fellowship  and  conviviality. 

The  modern  clubs  are  associations  of  gentlemen  of  simi- 
laritv  of  ])oliticaI  feeling,  literary  or  professional  pursuits — 
as  the  Iveform,  the  Carlton,  Athenieum,  United  Service,  &c. 
'I'hese  are,  in  no  other  respects,  clubs,  according  to  the  ancient 
English  understanding  of  the  term,  except  that  every  member 
must  be  balloted  for,  or  admitted  by  the  consent  of  the  rest. 
They  might  perhaps  be  more  correctly  described  houses  as 
comljiniiig  the  characters  of  restaurants  and  reading-rooms, 
for  tiie  use  of  a  selected  number  of  associated  persons,  who 
agree  to  make  an  annual  payment  for  their  support,  whether 
they  resort  to  them  little  or  much  ;  and  pay  besides  for  what> 
ever  refreshment  they  may  require,  at  a  cost  free  of  profit. 
Originating  within  the  present  century,  and  concentrating 
a  large  [iroportiun  of  the  men  of  fortune,  station,  and  poli- 
tical note  in  the  metropolis,  these  establishments  have  cer- 
tainly had  a  striking  ellect  upon  the  manners,  not  only  of 
the  departments  of  society  from  which  the  members  are 
drawn,  but  upon  society  in  general.  They  have,  indeed, 
given  a  new  direction  to  the  habits  of  certain  classes,  and  the 
change  has  been  decidedly  for  the  better. 

Although  it  is  onr  province  more  especially  to  describe 
the  buildings  in  which  these  institutions  are  domiciled  than 
the  institulions  themselves,  a  slight  account  of  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  latter,  al)breviated  from  an  interesting  sketch 
in  Ciiainbers'  Edinburgh  .loin-nal,  may  not  be  uninteresting. 

It  ajipears  that  to  the  military  we  are  indebted  for  the 
origin  <jf  these  establishments.  The  officers  of  the  army, 
whether  in  camp  or  quarters,  have  always  experienced  the 
advantage  and  economy  of  clalibing  for  their  provisions. 
They  have  found  that  the  pay  of  each  individual,  spent 
separatidy,  woidd  sciircely  procure  him  ordinary  necessaries; 
whilst,  by  adding  it  to  a  general  fund,  to  be  judiciously  dis- 
bursed by  an  experienced  caterer,  ho  would  obtain  for  his 
subscription  not  only  requisites,  but  luxuries. 

At  the  peace  of  1815,  a  reduction  of  the  army  withdrew 
a  innnber  of  officers  from  the  "  mc.s-scs"  to  which  they  had 
been  a<'customed.  Thus  a  great  many  gentlemen  of  com- 
(>aratively  limited  means  were  thrown  into  private  life,  sub- 
jected to  all  the  expenses  and  inconveniences  of  hotels, 
taverns,  and  lodging-houses.  In  many  instances  long  and 
continued  absence  from  home  had  severed  these  brave  men 
fnjm  dotnestic  ties;  yet  having  always  lived  among  a  con- 
genial brotherhood-society,  it  was  essential  to  their  happiness. 
In  these  circumstances,  the  m«.s--sy,s-/fm  was  natnr.illy  thought 
of  and  the  late  General  Lord  Lynedoch,  with  five  brother- 
officers,  met  for  the  purpose  of  devising  a  plan  by  which  a 
similar  svstcni  might  be  made  ap[)licable  to  non-professional 
life.  So  effectual  were  their  deliberations,  and  so  well- 
grounded  their  preliminary  measures,  that  a  club  was  formed 
.luring  the  same  year,  (181.').)  intended,  in  the  first  instance, 
fir  militiiry  men  only,  but  naval  officers,  as  well  as  military, 
were  afterwards  brought  within  the  scope  of  their  design, 
and  an  association  enrolled,  entitled  the  "  United  Service 
Club." 


A  building  fund  was  formed;  a  neat  edifice, — from  the 
designs  of  Sir  Robert  Srnirke, — was  erected  at  the  corner  of 
Charles  Street,  St.  James's,  and  in  the  year  1819  the  first 
modern  club  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  its  members. 
Candidates  for  admission,  however,  increased  so  rapidly,  that 
a  larger  habitation  was  rendered  necessary.  A  building,  on 
a  grand  sc;ile,  from  the  plans  of  Mr.  Nash,  was  erected  at  the 
east  corner  of  the  new  entrance  to  St.  James's  Park  from 
Pall  iMall,  and  taken  possession  of  in  1828,  while  the  resi- 
dence in  Charles  Street,  vacated  by  the  "United  Service 
Club" — now  generally  called  the  "Senior  United  Service'' — 
was  taken  by  a  new  association,  under  the  title  of  the 
"Junior  United  Service  Club." 

The  establishment  of  the  "United  Service  Club"  was 
speedily  followed  by  that  of  others,  and  the  numberof  thise 
institutions,  which  is  daily  increasing,  now  amounts  to  above 
thirty.  The  principal  club-houses  are  situated  in  Pall  Mall 
and  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  a  person  re-visiting 
London,  after  an  absence  of  several  years,  would  lie  surprised 
to  see  here  clustered  together  a  number  of  mansions  exhibiting 
every  order  of  architecture,  from  the  severest  Doric  to  the 
most  florid  Composite.  The  following  description,  sul)ject, 
of  course,  to  modifimtion  in  particular  instances,  will  give 
a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  general  arrangement  of  a 
modern  club-house. 

The  visitor,  on  entering  one  of  these  palace-like  edifices, 
finds  himself  in  a  lobby,  in  which  are  X.\w.  hall-porter,  who  is 
seated  at  a  desk,  and  his  assistants.  The  duty  of  these  officials 
is  to  see  that  none  have  access  to  the  club  but  members,  to 
receive  letters,  &c.  Close  to  the  hall  is  a  reception-room 
for  strangers  wishing  to  see  members,  and  bi'yond  this  a  hull, 
or  vestibule,  from  which  doors  open  on  the  various  apart:- 
ments  on  the  grouml-floor.  Of  these  there  is,  first,  a  •'  morn- 
ing room,"  which  is  used  for  reading  newspapers  and  writing 
letters.  And  to  give  some  idea  of  the  liberal  scale  (Mi  which 
these  morning-rooms  are  supplied,  and  of  the  profusion  of 
periodicals  taken  in  by  the  large  clubs,  it  m.ay  be  stated, 
that  at  the  Athenreum.  in  the  year  1844,  the  sum  of 
£471  2s.  6d.  was  expended  for  English  and  foreign  news- 
papers and  periodicals.  Stationery  also  is  supplied  to  an 
unlimited  extent. 

The  "coffee-room"  is  furnished  with  rows  of  r-niall  tables 
projecting  from  each  side,  with  an  avenue  up  the  miildle. 
These  tables  are  laid  for  breakfasts  and  luncheons  till  four 
o'clock  in  the  day,  after  that  hour  they  are  arranged  for 
dinners.  For  the  accommodation  of  members  who  may  feel 
inclined  to  form  themselves  into  parties  to  dine  together, 
in  preference  to  the  detached  mode  of  dining  at  the  small 
tables  of  the  coffee-room,  a  dining-room,  handsomely  fur- 
nished, is  provided  on  the  ground-floor,  in  which  they  can  do 
so — these  dinners  are  termed,  in  club-parlance,  "  house- 
dinners." 

The  principal  apartment  above  stairs  is  the  drawing-room, 
in  which  members  take  their  evening  cotTce  or  tea.  In  some 
clubs  a  great  display  of  luxury  and  expensiveness  is  made 
in  this  room,  and,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  perhaps  less 
used  than  any  room  in  the  house,  the  finest  taste  of  the 
decorator  and  upholsterer  is  called  into  reciuisilion  to  adorn 
it.  Near  to  the  drawing-room  is  the  library,  fitted  up  with 
every  convenience  for  reading,  consulting  maps,  &c.  The 
books  are  accumulated  by  donations,  and  by  a  sum  set  aside 
from  the  general  fiuuls  for  their  purchase.  These  libraries 
are  generally  well  supplied  with  books,  and  that  of  the 
Athcn:euni  is  said  to  contain  near  30,000  volumes.  Five  hun- 
dred pounds  is  annually  expended  by  this  club  fm-  increasing 
it^  library.  Near  the  library  is.  in  some  clubs,  a  card-ro.im.  but 
gaming  is  as  much  as  possible  discouraged  in  these  iiistiiutions. 


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171 


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The  next  story  contains  at  least  one  billiard-room,  some 
cluh-liouscs  have  two ;  in  many  clubs  also  there  is  a  smoking- 
room  :  on  the  upper  story  are  sleeping  chambers  for  the  ser- 
vants, who  reside  on  the  premises.  The  basement  contains 
the  usual  domestic  offices ;  and,  as  may  be  supposed,  every 
detail  connected  with  the  important  department  of  the 
"  cuisine"  is  most  perfect. 

The  above  sketch  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the 
general  arrangements  of  a  club-house  ;  we  shall  now  proceed 
to  describe  more  parliculaily  a  few  t)f  those  splendid  edifices 
which  have  been,  by  some,  compared  to  the  Falazzi  of 
Italian  cities. 

The  "  United  Service,"  though  first  in  seniority  as  a  club, 
deserves  a  very  brief  notice  on  the  score  of  architectural 
beauty.  It  is  a  plain  unpretending  building,  which  may  be 
called  Italian,  because  it  cannot  be  described  as  being  of  any 
other  style,  but  it  is  Italian  of  an  impoverished  and  enfeebled 
character,  exhibiting,  remarks  Mr.  Leeds,  "  incontestable 
evidence  of  insipidity  and  poverty." 

The  building  consists  of  two  stories,  the  ground-floor  being 
rusticated,  and  having  windows  on  each  side  of  the  portico. 
The  upper  story  ct)ntains  an  elegant  suite  of  rooms,  having 
seven  lofty  windows,  with  pediments,  over  which,  and  running 
through  the  whole  building,  is  an  entablature,  the  whole 
being  surmounted  by  a  balustrade.  The  south  front  is 
similar  to  the  one  described,  but  the  north,  facing  Pall  Mall, 
has  a  portico  the  whole  height  of  the  structure,  and  is  in 
two  divisions;  that  of  the  ground-floor  being  composed  of 
eight  fluted  Doric  columns  in  pairs,  having  an  entablature 
with  trigly|ihs.  This  is  surmounted  by  a  balustrade,  over 
which  aje  eight  Corinthian  columns  arranged  in  the  same 
order  as  those  below,  and  crowned  by  an  entablature  and 
pediment.  The  internal  arrangements  are  exceedingly  well 
contrived,  and  furnish  every  convenience  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  members.  There  are  some  remarkably  fine 
portraits  of  distinguislieil  military  and  naval  officers,  and  the 
apartments  are  furnished  with  great  luxury  and  elegance. 

The  "  Athcnasum,"  is  situated  at  the  opposite  angle  of 
Carlton  Place,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  elaborate  sculptured 
bas-relief  frieze  continued  along  its  three  sides.  This  club 
ranks  as  one  of  the  very  fiist  in  the  metropolis,  and  the 
magnificent  mansion  belonging  to  its  members,  is  worthy  to 
occupy  a  similar  prominent  position. 

The  building  is  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Decimus  Burton, 
and  displays  that  gentleman's  usual  ability  and  good  taste. 
The  east  elevation  has  a  rusticated  basement  with  a  portico, 
the  ends  of  which  are  filled  up  and  perforated  with  windows; 
the  angles  are  finished  by  a  square  pilaster  and  fluted  column 
of  the  Doric  order;  the  space  between  being  divided  by  four 
columns  of  the  same  order  in  pairs.  The  frieze  is  ornamented 
with  triglyphs,  and  the  cornice  surrounded  by  a  balustrade, 
the  space  over  the  centre  intercoluinniations  being  filled  up 
and  crowned  by  a  pedestal  supporting  a  figure  of  Minerva. 

Over  the  ground-story,  and  on  a  line  with  the  coinice  of 
the  portico,  is  a  balcony  running  through  the  three  elevations, 
and  terminating  at  the  angles  by  pedestals.  The  principal 
story  is  lighted  by  seven  lofty  windows  with  sashes,  by 
which  there  is  access  to  the  balcony,  and  which  are  orna- 
mented with  cornice  and  trusses  ;  above  this,  and  continuing 
through  the  entire  building,  is  the  beautiful  frieze  we  have 
already  mentioned,  the  figures,  in  basso-relievo,  being  copied, 
it  is  said,  from  the  Elgin  frieze  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum.  Over  this  is  a  cornice  of  very  bold  projection, 
the  whole  being  crowned  by  a  balustrade. 

Adjoining  the  Athenajum,  is  the  "  Travellers',"  of  which 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  speak  in  terras  of  sufficient  commen- 
dation.     "  Could  there,"  says  a  talented  writer  and  able 


critic,  "  be  any  question  as  to  the  possibility  of  reconciling 
the  seemingly  antithetical  qualities  of  richness  and  simplicity, 
this  building  might  be  allowed  to  determine  it,  since  the 
design  is  no  less  remarkable  for  the  attention  bestowed  upon 
all  its  details,  than  for  the  simplicity  of  its  composition." 
We  have  many  others  far  more  ambitious  in  decoration,  yet 
not  one  so  beautifully  finished  up  in  every  part,  or  exhibiting 
so  perfectly  that  inter/rity  of  finish  which  is  displayed  in  this 
work  of  Mr.  Barry's.  For  here,  indeed,  we  behold  the  full 
beauty  of  the  Italian  style  purified  from  its  defects,  and 
stamped  by  a  serene  kind  of  dignity  that  renders  it  truly 
captivating. 

In  the  treatment  of  his  design,  Mr.  Barry  has  bestowed 
equal  pains  on  both  fronts,  that  towards  the  garden  being 
as  carefully  studied  as  the  one  facing  Pall  Mall  ;  and  it  is 
well  worthy  not  only  of  observation,  but  of  imitation,  that 
there  is  more  nicety  of  detail  and  greater  elegance  here 
bestowed  on  parts  sometimes  considered  of  very  secondary 
importance,  than  is  often  expended  upon  a  whole  design. 
If,  again,  we  lift  our  eyes  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
building,  we  instantly  perceive  what  attention  has  been 
.bestowed  on  that  also;  for  it  is  not  the  cornice  alone,  but 
the  cornice  and  roof  together  which  constitute  its  decoration  ; 
the  latter  being  treated  as  belonging  to  the  elevation  itself, 
and  the  former  giving  richness  and  majesty  to  the  whole 
facade. 

The  interior  of  the  building  is  arranged  with  great  ability, 
both  with  regard  to  convenience  and  picturesque  effect,  for 
which  latter  it  is  not  a  little  indebted  to  a  small  but  elegant 
internal  court,  of  strictly  architectural  character. 

The  position  of  the  entrance,  which  a  regard  to  exact 
symmetry  would  have  required  to  be  in  the  centre,  has  been 
sometimes  objected  to,  but  we  are  of  opinion  that  the  architect 
exercised  a  sound  judgment  in  placing  it  where  he  has,  rather 
than  sacrifice  a  portion  of  the  interior  accommodation. 

The  following  description  of  this  elegant  structure,  is 
extracted  from  an  excellent  work.  "  The  Public  Buildings 
of  London,"  edited  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Leeds :— "  The  hall,  which 
has  a  screen  of  two  columns  in  antis, — behind  which  is  the 
porter's  desk, — includes  the  window  next  to  the  entrance- 
door.  Although  small  in  itself,  it  does  not  by  any  means 
look  confined,  there  being  a  vista  from  it  along  the  corridor, 
which  is  lighted  by  three  windows  looking  into  the  court, 
and  to  which  there  is  an  ascent  of  four  steps  through  an  open 
arch.  The  ceiling  of  both  hall  and  corridor  are  arched  ;  that 
of  the  former  coffered,  of  the  other  panelled.  A  door  to  the 
left,  immediately  after  ascending  the  steps,  leads  into  the 
morning-room,  (44  feet  by  23  feet  9,)  which  has  three  win- 
dows towards  the  street,  and  a  fire-place  at  each  end.  From 
this,  a  door  facing  the  farthest  window,  opens  into  the  house 
dining-room,  which  is  27  feet  by  28  feet  9  inches,  and  occupies 
all  the  space  to  the  east  of  the  court.  Beyond  the  principal 
staircase,  which  is  seen  at  the  end  of  the  corridor  through 
an  open  arch,  is  the  coffee-room,  occupy  in;;  the  whole  extent 
of  the  garden  front.  This  room  is  divided  by  piers  and 
antae  into  three  compartments,  in  each  of  which  is  a  fire-place, 
namely,  one  at  each  end,  and  another  facing  the  windows  in 
the  centre  division. 

"  The  libraries  form  a  single  apartment,  divided  by  double 
screens  of  Corinthian  columns  on  a  pedestal  stylobate  in 
continuation  of  the  dado  of  the  room,  leaving  a  p.issage 
through  the  centre  intercolumn  six  feet  clear.  Owing  to 
the  contraction  of  the  opening,  to  the  depth  of  the  screen, 
and  the  duplication  of  the  columns  one  behind  another,  the 
perspective  appearance  acquires  a  high  degree  of  pleasing 
complexity,  and  the  larger  or  inner  library  is  not  so  much 
exposed  to  view,  on  first  entering  from  the  staircase.    Above 


CLU 


172 


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the  entablature  is  a  deep  frieze,  forming  a  continued  subject 
in  Das-relief.  Over  the  lil)r;irics  are  billiard  and  smoking- 
rooms,  which  are  lighted  from  above  in  the  slope  of  the  roof 
towards  the  court." 

The  drawing-room  and  card-room  are  loftier  than  the 
libraries,  and  have  a  deep  cove  with  coffers  between  the 
ceiling  and  the  top  of  the  cornice.  The  design  of  the  drawing- 
room  ceiling  is  exceedingly  tasteful,  combining  finished  sim- 
plicity with  richness  in  a  very  striking  manner,  and  all  the 
details  exhibit  proofs  of  the  most  refined  taste  and  the  most 
careful  and  elaborate  design. 

The  dimensions  of  some  of  the  principal  apartments  are 
as  follows: — 

Ft  In.      Ft.  In.         Ft  In. 

Coffee-room    68       by  2t  9  and  18  6  high. 

IViucipal  StJiii-ciise. . .  45  by  16 

Corridor 27  by  1 1 

Couit 27  by  25  6          Ft  In. 

l)niwing-r(K)m .39  by  23  9  and  24  0  liigh. 

CiirdiTOm 28  9  bv  23  9 

Libraries   48  by  24  9  and  17  6  high. 

Reading-room 29  9  by  19  6 

We  cannot  close  our  notice  of  this  elegant  building,  with- 
out again  expressing  our  admiration  of  so  great  an  ornament 
to  our  metropolitan  architecture.  The  Travellers'  club-house 
will  bear  the  most  critical  and  scrutinizing  examination  ;  and 
the  more  closely  it  is  scanned,  the  more  apparent  will  be  its 
beauty ;  nor  is  it  till  then  that  we  perceive  how  carefully 
every  part  is  elaborated,  and  yet  so  subdued  to  the  general 
effect,  that  the  eye  never  rests  on  particular  points  thrust 
obtrusively  forward,  but  embraces  the  perfect  ensemble,  in 
a  structure  replete  with  chaste  and  refined  simplicity. 

Immediately  adjoining  the  Travellers'  is  another  magnificent 
ex.imple  of  architectural  genius — the  "  lieform  Club."  The 
instructions  issued  to  the  com]ieting  architects,  by  the  spirited 
memliers  of  this  association,  when  seeking  a  design  for  their 
new  dwelling,  were — to  produce  a  club-house  which  should 
surpass  all  others  in  size  and  magnificence ;  one  which  should 
comliine  all  the  attractions  of  other  clubs,  baths,  billiard-rooms, 
smoking-rooms,  with  the  ordinary  features,  besides  the  addi- 
tional novelty  of  private  chambers  or  dormitories.  The 
manner  in  which  Mr.  Harry  res[>onded  to  these  instructions, 
may  be  seen  in  the  edifice  we  are  about  to  describe  ;  an 
edifice  on  which  public  opinion  and  professional  criticism 
have  united  to  bestow  the  highest,  praise;  pronouncing  it 
unsurpassed  in  grandeur  of  design,  and  perfection  of  taste, 
by  any  building  in  the  nn'tropolis.  The  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  Reform  Club,  is  its  grand  and  imposing 
appearance;  produced,  not  only  by  its  greater  extent  and 
k)ftiness,  but  by  the  circumstance  of  its  being  detached  from 
other  buildings  on  three  of  its  sides.  These  are  made  to 
constitute  as  many  fapades,  two  of  which  may  be  beheld 
together  from  the  same  point  of  view,  producing,  from  their 
uniformity  in  design,  a  continuous,  rich  architectural  mass  ; 
and  thus  securing  a  completeness  and  fullness  of  effect  which 
a  mere  fapade  on  the  same  scale  could  never  give. 

In  the  Reform,  as  in  the  Travellers',  Mr.  Barry  has  a%'oided 
the  too  common  fiiult  of  cutting  up  a  composition  into  distinct 
divisions,  fmishing,  and  then  commencing  again ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  ensemble  is  made  consistent  throughout,  crowned 
by  a  magnificent  cornicione,  proportioned  not  to  a  part,  but 
to  the  whole  ;  while  sufficient  decoration,  in  other  respects, 
is  derived  from  essential  features  and  members,  windows, 
string-courses,  6zc.  These  display  themselves  with  a  bold- 
ness and  efiect  hardly  attainable  where  windows  are  intr.)- 
duced  between  straggling  columns,  and  other  like  incon- 
gruities oflend  the  judicious  observer.  In  this  building 
richness  combined   with  simplicity   is   diffused  throughout, 


and  the  eye  dwells  with  unmixed  satisfaction  and  delight  on 
the  harmonious  result. 

The  entrance  to  the  club-house  from  Pall  Mall,  is  several 
steps  above  the  ground,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  building. 
On  this  side,  the  frontage  presents  only  three  floois  from  the 
ground,  though  consisting  of  six  from  the  basement ;  the 
basement  and  mezzanine  below  ground,  and  the  chambers  in 
the  roof  being  unseen.  There  are  four  windows  on  each 
side  of  the  entrance  ;  nine  windows  equidistant  on  the  first 
floor,  and  the  same  number  on  the  second.  The  pediments 
surmounting  the  windows  in  Pall  Mall,  are  supported  by 
Ionic  pilasters;  and  at  the  back,  overlooking  Carlton  Gar 
dens,  by  Ionic  pilasters  rusticated.  The  height  of  the  ground 
and  first  floor  is  on  the  same  level  as  the  Travellers'. 

An  Italian  court  (3-1+  feet  by  29  feet.)  is  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  quadrangle.  Corridors,  on  the  first  and  ground 
floors,  9  feet  wide,  lighted  from  this  court,  lead  to  the 
apartments  on  these  floors;  but  on  the  second  floor,  the  cor- 
ridors leading  to  the  lodgings  are  contracted  to  5^  feet.  Ou 
the  basement,  every  sort  of  culinary  office  seems  provided, 
and  located  with  singular  judgment  and  convenience.  The 
number  of  apartments  here  exceeds  thirty.  In  the  mezzanine 
or  entresol,  are  the  butler's,  housekeeper's,  and  still-rooms, 
dressing  and  bath  rooms,  and  16  servants'  rooms.  <-)n  the 
ground  floor  is  the  coflee-room,  of  noble  proportions,  having 
a  view  into  the  gardens  ;  writing-room,  newspaper  or  read- 
ing-room, house  dining-room,  steward's,  waiting,  porter's, 
and  two  audience-rooms — in  all  nine  rooms  on  this  floor. 

On  the  first  floor,  above  the  coflee-room,  is  the  drawing- 
room,  supported  by  Corinthian  pillars,  and  so  constructed, 
that  if  required,  it  may  be  divided  into  two  or  three  rooms; 
two  libraries,  both  supported  by  Corinthian  pillars;  two 
billiard-rooms ;  and  several  other  rooms. 

On  the  second  floor  are  twenty-six  chambers  or  lodgings, 
the  dimensions  of  each  varying  from  22  feet  by  14  feet,  to 
12  feet  by  10  feet. 

On  the  attic  floor  there  are  about  thirty  rooms,  intended 
for  servants.  The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  some  of 
the  principal  a))artmcnts  : — 

Ft.  Ft 

Basement Kltelun 29  by  22 

„             Steward's  room 26  by  18J 

„              Butler's  piiiitry 16|  bv  14 

Scullery    20  by  14 

Cook's  room 17  by  12 

Ground  Floor  Coffee-room 117  by  28 

„             Writing-room 40  by  27 

„            Reading-room 28^  by  27 

„             House  dining-room  .. .  29  by  18 

First  Floor  ..  Dniwing-roora 117  by  28             Ft.         Ft 

„             Libraries 40  by  27     and  284  by  27 

„             Billiard-room 32  by  18     and  23     by   174 

„             Committec-rooni 33J  by  17^ 

In  the  whole  building,  there  arc  upwards  of  130  several 
apartments,  arranged  with  the  greatest  ingenuity,  and  with 
the  utmost  attention  to  convenience,  and  showinir  that,  how- 
ever great  ma\'  be  our  admiration  of  the  beautifid  exterior, 
the  interior  is  not  less  deserving  of  our  approval  and  com- 
mendation. , 

The  "  Carlton"  adjoins  the  Reform,  and  adds  another  to  the 
fine  structures  we  have  been  describing.  The  committee 
of  this  club,  after  examining  a  number  of  designs  submitted 
in  competition  by  various  architects,  none  of  whii'h  seem 
to  have  met  with  approval,  agreed  to  elect  an  architert  by 
the  votes  of  the  members.  The  ballot  resulted  in  the  election 
of  Mr.  Sydney  Smiike  and  Mr.  G.  Ha<evi,  who  had  arranged 
to  act  conjointly;  but  the  death  of  the  latter  gentleman 
preventing  this  being  carried  into  effect,  Mr.  Smirke  was 
retained  by  the  committee  to  compete  the  work. 


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The  general  design  of  the  building  is  adopted  from  that 
of  the  library  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice.  The  extent  of  the 
frontage  in  Pall  Mali,  is  133  feet,  and  the  height  is  about 
70  feet.  The  fronts  are  of  Caen  stone  ;  the  shafts  of  all  the 
pillars  and  pilasters,  of  polished  Aberdeen  granite  ;  and 
the  contrast  made  by  tlie  red  tint  of  the  latter,  has  a  novel 
and  pleasing  efiect.  The  decorations  of  the  interior, 
furniture,  &c.,  are  of  the  most  tasteful  and  splendid  descrip- 
tion, and  the  cotVee-room,  90  feet  by  36  feet,  is  an  exceedingly 
handsome  apartment.  The  whole  building  presents  an 
imposing  elevation,  designed  with  judgment  and  good  taste. 
The  rooms  are  of  good  proportion,  and  arranged  with  every 
attention  to  comfort  and  convenience;  and  the  important 
details  of  domestic  and  culinary  matters,  as  cellars,  kitchens, 
larders,  and  servants'  rooms,  have  not  been  neglected. 

The  splendid  building  belonging  to  the  "  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge University  Club,"  erected  from  the  designs  of  Sir 
Kobert  and  Mr.  Sydney  Smirk,  adjoins  the  Carlton.  The 
front  of  the  University  club-house  extends  87  feet  in  width, 
and  the  height  from  the  ground  line  to  the  top  is  57  feet. 
An  entablature,  marking  the  separation  of  the  ground  story 
from  the  principal  floor,  and  projecting  forward  in  the  centre 
of  the  building  over  four  Corinthian  columns,  divides  the 
front  horizontally  into  two  equal  parts.  The  centre  space 
on  the  ground  flour  is  occupied  by  the  portico,  which  projects 
to  thf  front  line  of  the  area  ;  the  entrance  to  the  hall  being 
formed  by  the  centre  intercolumniation,  which  is  wider  than 
the  rest  ;  the  four  columns  stand  upon  pedestals,  four  feet 
high,  with  base  mouldings  and  cornice.  The  upper  part  of 
the  building  is  terminated  with  a  delicate  Corinthian  entab- 
lature and  balustrade,  breaking  forward  with  the  centre  of 
the  building,  which  coriesponds  in  width  with  the  portico: 
the  fnint  being  thus  vertically  divided  into  three  compart- 
iiKMits,  the  side  ones  assuming  the  appearance  of  wings, 
while  the  etl'eet  of  a  centre,  indicated  by  the  projecting 
portico  on  the  ground-floor,  is  maintained  throughout  the 
whole  height  of  the  building.  The  angles  of  the  centre 
division,  on  the  principal  story,  are  formed  of  rusticated 
pilasters  ;  the  principal  w  indow  occupying  the  space  between 
these  pilasters.  Similar  rusticated  pilasters  also  divide  each 
wing  on  the  principal  floor  into  three  equal  oblong  recessed 
spaces,  contaiidug  windows  similar  to  the  window  above 
described.  A  balcony,  projecting  3  feet,  contimies  throughout 
the  whole  line  of  fiont,  the  parapet  being  formed  of  pedestals 
with  intervening  panels  of  richly  designed  foliage,  cast  in 
metal  in  high  relict;  and  the  landing  supported  by  elaborately 
enriched  C(jnsoles.  The  frieze  of  the  eiitablatiu'e  over  the 
ground-story  is  filled  with  convex  panels,  enriched  with 
laurel  leaves,  and  over  each  column  of  the  portico  are  shields 
bearing  the  arms  of  the  Universities.  The  whole  of  the 
ornamental  detail  throughout,  is  designed  to  correspond  in 
richness  of  efliict  with  the  Corinthian  capitals  of  the  columns, 
which  have  their  central  volutes  entwined.  Below  the 
ground-story  are  mezzanine  and  basement  stories. 

In  the  panels  above  the  windows  of  the  principal  floor, 
are  bas-reliefs  illustrating  those  exalted  labours  of  the  mind, 
w^hich  it  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  Universities  to  foster. 
We  have  not  space  to  describe  these  beautiful  ornaments  more 
minutely,  but  they  are  well  worthy  a  careful  examination,  and 
reflect  credit  on  the  taste  of  the  architects,  and  on  the  lil>erality 
of  their  employers.  The  arrangements  of  the  interior  are 
plamied  with  great  judgment,  and  aftbrd  every  accommod,a- 
tlou  to  the  members  of  the  club  ;  but  as  a  great  similarity 
must  necessarily  exist  in  all  establishments  devoted  to 
similar  purposes,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  them. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  Pall  Mail,  is  the  new  building  erect- 
ed for  the  "  Army  and  Navy  Club,"  an  engraving  of  which. 


with  a  plan  of  the  ground-floor,  is  here  given.  The  architects 
are  Messrs.  Parnell  and  Smith.  The  following  description, 
principally  taken  from  that  very  useful  publication,  ''The 
Builder,"  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  structure  : — 

"Although  the  design  is  based  on  the  Cornaro  palace  on 
the  grand  canal  at  Venice,  it  difiers  materially  from  that 
building.  The  palace  has  three  stories  above  the  basement, 
Doric,  Ionic,  iind  Corinthian,  and  shows  the  roof,  terminating 
on  the  modillion  cornice  of  the  upper  order,  as  at  the  Reform 
club;  the  frieze  being  devoid  of  sculpture,  and  having  oval 
openings  to  light  an  attic  story.  In  the  club-house,  the 
general  arrangement  of  the  ground  and  first  floor  elevation 
of  the  palazzo  has  been  adopted,  but  coupled  Corinthian 
Columns  have  been  substituted  for  the  Ionic  of  the  latter,  and 
the  building  terminates  with  the  entablature  of  the  order, 
highly  emiched  with  sculpture  and  a  balustrade. 

"The  entrance  to  the  building  is  from  George-street,  by 
a  flight  of  steps  leading  to  a  recessed  portico.  On  the  left 
of  the  entrance-hall,  is  a  morning-room  corresponding  to 
a  cofl'ee-room  on  the  opposite  side;  there  is  also  a  reception- 
room.  The  cofl'ee-room  is  lighted  from  each  end,  and  an 
elliptical  dome  in  the  centre  :  the  dome  has  an  exterior 
covering  of  glass,  between  which  it  is  proposed  to  light  the 
room  at  night  by  a  gas  device  enciicling  the  whole  circum- 
ference. By  this  arrangement,  the  necessity  for  any  gas- 
burners  will  be  avoided,  and  a  hot-air  chamber  provided, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  flues,  will  afford  a  system  of  ventilation. 
Between  this  room  and  the  strangers'  cotlee-room,  lighted 
and  ventilated  in  the  same  manner,  and  comnmnicating 
with  each,  is  placed  the  serving-room,  connected  with  the 
kitchen  by  a  lift,  and  the  butler's  serving-room  :  from  this 
last  is  a  direct  communication  to  the  dispensing  cellars,  while 
the  room  will  be  fitted  up  with  ice-bins,  hot  and  cold  water, 
and  presses  for  the  reception  of  glass  :  there  is  also  a  separate 
entrance  from  the  still-room.  At  the  extremity  of  the  build- 
ing is  placed  the  house  dining-room,  which  has  a  separate 
commuidcation  with  the  kitchen. 

"  The  mezzanine  floor  is  appropriated  to  the  members'  bath 
and  dressing  rooms,  and  the  housekeeper's  department. 
The  first  floor  is  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps,  one  branch 
of  which  leails  to  the  secretary's  room,  and  upper  floor,  the 
latter  containing  billiard,  card,  and  smoking  rotmis — the  other 
to  the  evening-room,  library,  and  writing-room.  The  evening 
or  drawing-room,  is  70  feet  by  28  feet;  the  library.  40  feet 
by  3i  feet;  writing-room,  33  feet  by  18  feet.  There  are 
besides  the  rooms  we  have  mentioned,  a  great  number  of 
others  of  the  usual  description  in  similar  establishments." 

It  would  be  impossible,  without  occupying  more  space 
than  can  be  allotted  to  this  article,  already  extended  beyond 
its  due  limits,  to  describe  in  detail  the  several  handsome 
mansions  in  which  other  clubs,  under  various  designations, 
have  located  themselves.  The  "  University"  in  Sufiblk-place 
— the  "Union,"  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  select  of  London 
clubs — the  "  Conservative,"  lately  erected  in  S.  James's-street, 
on  the  site  of  the  well-known  Thatihed  House  Tavern,  and 
a  host  of  others,  are  all  deserving  the  study  of  the  architectural 
student.  In  some,  beauties  of  the  highest  order  command 
his  attention  ;  in  others,  defects,  he  should  mark,  in  order 
to  avoid  ;  in  all,  much  may  be  learnt  as  to  arrangement  of 
apartments,  and  those  details  of  convenience  on  which 
so  much  of  the  comfort  and  economy  of  a  large  establish- 
ment depends. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  observe  only,  that  whatever  may 
be  the  faults  of  some  of  the^e  building-,  the  formation  of  the 
present  club  system  has  been  the  means  of  adorning  the 
west  end  of  London  with  a  number  of  splendid  houses, 
designed  by  eminent  architects,  decorated  by  artists  of  repu- 


CCEM  174 

tation  and  taste;  and  completed  at  an  expenditure  of  the 
most  liberal  and  extrnsivc  ciiaracter.  Nor  has  this  been 
confined  to  London  ab)ne,  the  example  has  been  followed  in 
the  country  ;  and  in  many  of  the  provincial  cities  and  towns, 
clubs  have  been  formed,  and  cinb-houses  built  on  a  scale  of 
magnitude  and  splendour  rivalling  those  in  the  metropolis. 
It  is  scarcely  within  our  province,  to  remark  on  the  effect 
the  rapid  extension  of  clubs  may  have  on  the  usages  of 
society  in  general  ;  but  we  may  be  permitted  to  say  that  any 
sysiem  which  tends  to  the  adornment  of  our  cities  with 
magnificent  structures  decorated  in  the  most  expensive  man- 
ner, and  filled  with  costly  furniture,  and  luxurious  pn^ductions 
in  every  department  of  art,  cannot  but  have  a  refining  influ- 
ence on  the  taste  of  the  rising  generation,  while  affording 
ein[iloy  ment  to  professional  tale nt,  and  to  hundreds  of  skilful 
arti-ans. 

CLUMP,  in  ornamental  gardening,  a  detached  portion  of 
ground,  raised  in  the  form  of  a  mound,  in  lawns  or  other 
parts  of  pleasure-grounds,  fjr  the  reception  of  trees  or 
shrubs  on  the  top,  while  its  sides  are  covered  with  flowers 
or  small  plants.  Clumps  differ  from  borders,  in  being 
detached  and  separate,  as  well  as  in  being  much  more 
elevated. 

CLl  SELLA  (Latin,  cliisum,  enclosed,)  a  small  castle 
■within  a  clo>e  or  inclosure. 

CLUSTEIiED,  in  architecture,  denotes  the  coalition  of 
two  or  more  members,  so  as  to  penetrate  each  other. 

Clistered  Column,  in  the  pointed  style  of  architecture, 
a  column  composed  of  a  number  of  slender  pillars  attached 
to  each  other,  but  having  each  a  distinct  base  and  capital. 
Clustered  columns  were  frequently  divided  in  their  height 
by  moulded  bands,  which  gave  them  the  appearance  of  being 
bound  together.  They  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  shaft 
throughout  their  length,  and  sometimes  only  at  the  capitals 
and  bases. 

Clusteked  Column,  in  the  Roman  style,  is  said  of  two, 
or  four  columns,  which  seem  to  intersect  or  penetrate  each 
other,  either  at  the  angle  of  a  building  or  apartment,  that 
they  may  answer  each  return;  or  under  an  entablature, 
when  a  single  column  would  be  too  weak  ;  or  at  the  inter- 
section of  two  transverse  architraves :  in  the  latter  case, 
theie  may  be  four  columns. 

COA'll.NG,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  the  covering  of  a 
body  in  one  or  several  plies  or  thicknesses;  thus,  wails  are 
spread  over  with  one,  two,  or  three  separate  coats  of  plaster  ; 
the  interior  apartments  of  houses  are  covereil  with  several 
coats  of  paint  ;  works  in  wood  are  covered  with  paint,  pitch, 
lead,  co])per,  vkc. ;  baser  metals  are  covered  with  the  richer, 
as  copper  with  gold  or  silver,  and  silver  with  gold  ;  for 
culinary  purposes,  copper  is  covered  with  tin,  as  is  iron  also, 
to  prevent  rust. 

COB-WALL,  a  wall  built  of  straw,  lime,  and  earth. 

COCHLEAUE,  or  Coola,  a  lofty  round  tower,  ascended 
by  means  of  a  winding  staircase;  from  the  Latin,  coc/iZea, 
winding  stairs. 

COCKING,  a  method  of  securing  beams  to  wall-plates, 
by  notching  each  beam  at  the  end  on  the  under  edge,  across 
its  thickness,  nearly  opposite  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  wall- 
plate,  and  cutting  two  reverse  notches  out  of  the  top  of  the 
wall-plate,  leaving  the  part  whole  which  is  opposite  to 
the  nott-h  in  the  beam;  then  laying  the  beam  t<i  its  place,  it 
will  slide  down,  and  the  corresponding  parts  will  fit  into  each 
other.  This  method  prcNcnts  any  possibility  of  the  beam 
drawing  longitudinally  C)ut  of  tlie  wall-plate,  even  though  the 
timbers  ^hould  afterwards  shrink, 

COCKLE-STAIRS,  a  winding  staircase.     See  Stairs. 

CCEMETEKIUM.     See  Cemetery. 


COF 


COFFER,  a  recessed  panel,  of  a  square  or  polygonal  figure, 
anciently  used  in  level  soffits,  and  in  the  intradoses  of  cylin- 
drical vaults. 

In  the  remains  of  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture,  the 
coffers  sometimes  recede  in  one  degree,  but  mr)re  frequently 
in  several  degrees,  like  inverted  steps,  around  the  panel,  each 
internal  angle  being  filled  with  one  or  more  mouldings.  In 
Roman  works,  the  surface  of  the  panel  at  the  bottom  is  mostly 
covered  with  a  rosette.  Sometimes  the  bands  between  the 
framing  are  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  by  a  groove  or 
canal  of  a  rectangular  section. 

Coffers  are  also  employed  in  the  soffits  of  the  cornices  of 
the  Corinthian  and  Roman  orders,  between  the  modillions. 
For  the  farther  use  of  coffers,  and  other  matters  relating  to 
them,  see  Ceilings  and  Cylindrical  Vaults. 

Coffer,  in  inland  navigation,  a  large  wooden  vessel,  open 
at  the  top,  with  movable  ends,  of  sufficient  capacity  to  receive 
a  barge  or  vessel  from  the  pond  of  a  canal,  in  order  to  be 
raised  into  a  higher,  or  let  down  into  a  lower  pond.  This 
coffer  is  a  substitute  for  a  lock. 

COFFER-DAM,  a  hollow  dam,  constructed  of  a  double 
range  of  piles,  with  clay  rammed  between,  for  the  security 
and  convenience  of  the  workman  while  digging  out  and 
building  the  foundation  of  an  entrance-lock  to  a  dock,  basin, 
or  canal,  when  it  cannot  otherwise  be  laid  dry. 

In  bridge-building,  the  term  is  applied  to  a  case  of  piling 
fixed  in  the  bed  of  a  river,  without  any  bottom,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  a  pier  dry.  Its  sides  must,  therefore,  reach 
above  the  level  of  the  water,  and,  after  it  is  fixed,  the  water 
must  be  pumped  out  by  the  engines,  which,  unless  the  work 
is  very  carefully  done,  must  be  kept  constantly  at  work,  to 
prevent  leakage  as  much  as  possible.  C<iffer-damsare  made 
either  double,  or  single.  In  the  double  one,  the  space  between 
the  inner  and  outer  rows  of  piles  is  rammed  with  clay  or 
chalk;  the  piles  are  driven  as  closely  as  practicable  to  each 
other  by  means  of  a  pile  engine,  till  fixed  firmly  into  the 
earth  ;  sometimes  they  are  grooved  and  tongued  ;  sometimes 
they  are  grooved  in  the  sides,  and  fixed  at  a  distance  from 
each  other,  with  boards  let  into  the  grooves. 

The  first  writer  on  the  use  of  coffer-dams  was  Alberti, 
who,  chap,  vi.,  book  2,  gives  the  following  directions: 
"  Make  the  foundation  of  your  piers  in  autumn,  when  the 
water  is  lowest,  having  first  raised  an  enclosure  to  keep  oft" 
the  water,  which  may  be  done  in  this  manner :  drive  a  double 
row  of  stakes  close  to  that  side  of  the  rovv  which  is  next  to 
the  intended  pier,  and  fill  up  the  hollow  betwt'en  the  two 
rows  with  rushes  and  mud,  ramming  them  together  so  hard, 
that  no  water  can  get  through;  then,  whatever  you  find 
within  the  enclosure — water,  mud,  sand,  or  whatever  else  is 
an  hindrance  to  you — throw  them  out,  and  dig  till  you  come 
to  a  solid  foundation."  To  this  we  may  add,  where  the  river 
is  rapid  and  deep,  and  the  bed  of  solid  earth  or  clay,  the 
coffer-dam  must  be  constructed  with  three,  four,  five,  or  even 
six  rows  of  piles,  according  to  the  rapidity  and  depth  of  the 
stream.  Due  care  must  also  be  taken  to  brace  the  sides  well 
from  fixed  points,  as  well  as  to  make  the  whole  water-tight, 
by  ramming  in  chalk  or  day,  as  above  directed. 

Where  the  river  is  rapi<l  and  deep,  and  the  bed  of  a  loose 
consistence,  though  the  sides  be  never  so  firm,  the  water  will 
ooze  through  the  bottom  in  too  great  abundance  to  be  taken 
out  by  the  engines,  recourse  must  therefore  be  had  to  a 
caisson.     See  Caisson. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  very  large  coffer-dam 
made  at  the  New  Houses  of  Parliament,  for  building  the 
embankment,  or  river-wall.  This  dam  was  1,'^36  feet  long, 
and  10  feet  wide,  constructed  in  the  fiillowing  manner: — 
a  trench  was  first  made  by  dredging  in  the  bed  of  the  river 


COL 


175 


COL 


of  the  form  of  a  segment  of  a  circle,  27  feet  wide,  and  8  feet 
deep  in  the  centre,  to  allow  the  piles  to  drive  more  easily  ; 
two  parallel  rows  of  guide  or  main  piles  were  then  driven 
alHiut  5  feet  apart,  leaving  a  width  of  9  feet  between  them 
transversely  :  to  these  piles  were  tixed  three  tiers  of  waling 
of  whole  timbers,  cut  down  and  bolted  together,  one  tier 
being  fixed  at  the  top  on  a  level  with  high-water  mark ; 
another  ievel  with  the  bed  of  the  river  :  and  the  third  mid- 
way. The  piles  and  waling  were  then  bolted  across  with 
iron  bolts  12  feet  long,  forming  a  cjircjise  fi>r  the  inner  or 
sheet-piling  ;  the  inner  main  piles  being  also  firmly  braced  to 
resist  the  pressure  at  high  water.  Horizontal  struts  of  whole 
timlier.  also,  at  the  back  of  the  brace  piles  aliutted  against 
other  piles  driven  just  within  the  inner  edge  of  the  foundation 
of  the  wall. 

The  piles  were  36  feet  long,  driven  through  the  gravel,  and 
2  feet  into  the  clay,  the  top  of  which  is  28  feet  below  high- 
water  mark.  Within  the  waling  were  two  parallel  rows  of 
sheet-piling  ;  the  outer  or  river-side  of  whole  timbers — the 
inner  or  land-side  of  half  timbers.  After  all  the  piles  were 
driven,  the  gravel  forming  the  bed  of  the  river  between  the 
piling  was  dug  out  down  to  the  clay,  and  the  space  filled  in 
with  clay,  and  puddled.  For  the  purpose  of  pumping  out  the 
water,  a  ten-horse  power  steam-engine  was  erected,  which 
was  kept  at  work  night  and  day  ;  and  considering  the  great 
e.vtent  of  the  dam,  it  is  remarkal)ly  free  from  leakage.  It 
occupied  fourteen  months  in  its  construction. 

CUFFIN,  (Greek  KotpLvog,  a  basket.)  the  chest  or  box  in 
which  dead  l)odies  are  deposited  for  burial.  In  ancient  times 
cofiins  were  usually  constructed  of  stone,  and  sometimes  highly 
ornamented,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  remains  of  Egyptian  and 
other  sarcophagi  which  have  been  brought  to  light.  hi 
England  likewise  stone  cofiins  were  anciently  used,  frequently 
formed  of  a  single  block  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  body  ; 
the  shape  was  that  of  a  trapezium,  having  the  end  where  the 
head  lay  slightly  wider  than  the  other  extremity  ;  they  were 
covercil  with  a  lid,  which  was  either  Hat  or  coped,  and  often 
sculptured  with  crosses  and  other  emblems.  They  were 
sometimes  buried  in  the  ground,  though  not  deeply,  sometimes 
oidy  up  to  the  lid,  which  was  visible  above  ground,  and  some- 
times placed  entirely  above  ground. 

COGGING,  the  same  as  Cooking,  which  see. 

COIN,  or  Quoin,  (from  the  French  coin,  a  corner,)  the 
angle  made  by  two  surfaces  of  a  stone  or  brick  building, 
whether  external  or  internal  ;  as — -the  corner  of  two  walls, 
the  corner  of  an  arch  and  a  wall,  the  corner  made  by  two 
sides  of  a  room,  &c. 

Coin,  Rustic.     See  RisTic. 

Coin,  (from  the  Latin,  citiieiis,  a  wedge,)  a  block  cut 
obliquely  at  the  bottom,  but  level  at  the  top,  to  rest 
upon  an  inclined  plane,  for  supporting  a  column,  or 
pilaster. 

COL.\RIN.  &eCoLLARiNo. 

COLLAR,  a  ring,  or  cincture. 

COLLAR-BE.\M,  a  beam  in  the  construction  of  a  roof, 
above  the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters,  or  base  of  the  roof  The 
tie-beain  is  always  in  a  state  of  extension,  but  the  collar-beam 
may  either  be  in  a  state  of  compression  or  extension,  according 
as  the  principals  are  with  or  without  tie-beams.  In  trussed 
roofs  collar  beams  are  framed  into  queen  posts ;  and  in  common 
roofs,  into  the  rafters  themselves.  Though  trusses  in  general 
have  no  more  than  one  collar-beam, very  large  roofs  may  have 
two  or  three  collar-beams,  besides  the  tie-beam.  Collar-beams 
will  support  or  truss  up  the  sides  of  the  rafters,  so  as  to  keep 
them  from  sagging,  without  any  other  support ;  but  then  the 
tie-beam  would  only  be  supported  at  its  extremities.  In 
common  purlin  roofing,  the  purlins  are  laid  in  the  acute 


angles  between  the  rafters  and  the  upper  edges  of  the  collar- 
beams.      See  Truss. 

COLLAUINO,  or  Col.\rin,  that  part  of  a  column  which 
is  included  between  the  fillet  below  the  ovolo  of  the  capital, 
and  the  upper  side  of  the  astragal  at  the  top  of  the  shaft. 
The  collarino  is  to  be  found  in  the  modern  Tuscan  and  Doric 
orders,  Ijut  not  in  the  three  Grecian  orders,  except  in  the 
Ionic  of  the  temple  of  Erechtheus,  at  Athens,  and  in  some 
fragments  of  Ionic  columns  found  in  Asia. 

The  collarino,  or  colarin,  is  otherwise  denominated  the 
neck,  gorgerin,  or  hypntrnclielion. 

COLLEGE,  a  public  building,  endowed  with  revenues  for 
the  education  of  youth  and  their  instruction  in  the  various 
branches  of  science  and  literature.  An  assembly  of  colleges 
constitute  a  university. 

Our  colleges  consist,  f  )r  the  most  part,  of  one  or  more 
quadrangular  areas,  surrounded  by  ranges  of  buildings,  which 
comprise  a  house  for  the  superior,  ;md  rooms  or  lodgings  for 
the  fellows,  scholars,  &c. ;  besides  which  there  is  always  a 
chapel  and  refectory,  or  dining  hall.  Amongst  our  finest 
buildings  of  this  class  are  those  of  Christ  Church  and  Merton 
Colleges,  Oxford,  which,  with  many  others  at  the  same 
university,  as  also  at  the  sister  institution  at  Cambridge,  are 
magnificent  specimens  of  the  architecture  of  their  respective 
dates. 

In  writing  on  this  subject,  we  must  not  pass  over  in  silence 
the  foundation  and  erection  of  St.  Augustine's  College,  Can- 
terbury, a  building  which  may  vie  with  many  an  older  struc- 
ture of  the  same  kind,  as  well  in  its  architectural,  as  its 
educational   features. 

This  college  comprises  only  one  area,  which  is  of  a  quad- 
rangular form,  three  of  its  sides  only  being  occupied  with 
buildings,  the  fourth  at  present  consists  but  of  a  wall ;  but 
the  space  is  intended  to  be  built  upon  as  occasion  demands. 
The  three  sides  already  occupied  are  the  north,  east,  and  west, 
the  cortile  on  the  southern  side  being  enclosed  by  the  wall  ; 
of  these,  the  buildings  on  the  two  first,  the  northern  and 
eastern  sides,  are  elevated  on  a  raised  terrace,  while  those  on 
the  south  are  on  a  level  with  the  entrance.  The  materials 
employed  for  the  walling  are  for  the  most  part  flint,  with 
dressings  of  rag-stone,  and,  in  other  cases,  rag  with  Caen 
stone  dressings.  The  style  adopted  is  the  Decorated  of  the 
fourteenth  century  ;  in  the  chapel  are  some  parts  of  an  earlier 
date,  Ijut  in  other  respects  the  architecture  of  Edward  the 
Third's  reign  predominates. 

On  entering  under  the  fine  old  gateway  on  the  southern 
side,  the  object  which  probably  first  attracts  our  attention  is 
the  long  range  of  beautiful  windows  on  our  left.  The  long 
pile  of  buildings  on  this  side  of  the  quadrangle  is  raised,  as 
we  before  mentioned,  on  a  broad  paved  walk,  or  terrace,  and 
consist  besides  of  two  stories,  the  lower  presenting,  on  the 
exterior,  a  series  of  large,  closely-set  windows,  with  interve- 
ning buttresses  ;  and  the  upper  a  row  of  nearly  double  the 
number  of  windows,  but  of  much  smaller  dimensions,  and 
with  larger  intervening  spaces.  The  lower  windows  are 
divided  by  mullions  into  five  lights,  and  their  arched  heads 
are  filled  with  tracery  of  good  design;  while  the  windows  of 
the  upper  story  are  of  the  most  simple  description,  being  but 
plain  lancets  of  one  light.  This  length  of  building  is  judi- 
ciously broken  up  into  three  parts  by  two  stair-turrets,  which 
give  access  to  the  apartments  above  ;  and  by  a  door  at  the 
side,  entrance  is  obtained  to  the  lower  story  ;  one  of  the  tur- 
rets is  used  likewise  for  a  belfry.  The  doors  on  the  terrace 
give  entrance  to  a  long  covered  ambulatory,  151  feet  in 
length,  lighted  by  eight  fine  windows,  which  we  have  noticed 
above,  and  covered  with  a  flat  roof  showing  the  timbers,  with 
arches  spanning  across  at  intervals  where  required.     Out  of 


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176 


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this  cloister  open  twenty  apartments  for  the  students,  of  \vhich 
above  thirty  nxire  open  into  a  corridor  in  the  upper  story. 
The  arrangcincnf  of  those  apaittneiUs  is  the  same  throughout: 
they  measure  15  feet  by  8  feet  6  inches,  and  are  divided  by  a 
partition  into  two  rooms.  The  furniture  of  the  rooms  con- 
sists i>f  an  iron  bedstead,  a  fixed  and  eonipact  washhand-stand, 
a  fixed  table,  having  on  one  side  drawers  for  clothes,  and  on 
tlx'  other  a  drawer  for  writing  materials,  and  above  the  table 
shelves  for  books  fixed  against  the  wall  ;  an  elbow-chair  and 
two  others  complete  the  furniture.  The  rooms  are  well  ven- 
tilated, and  heated  by  hot  water,  one  of  the  few  arrangements 
which  we  have  to  find  fault  with. 

Level  with  these  buildiiii's,  but  at  risrht  ancles  to  them,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  area,  and  detached,  stands  the  library, 
perhaps  the  most  dignified  building  of  the  whole  group. 
Raised  upon  a  crypt,  the  proportions  (jf  which  are  old,  and 
thi'  <letails  cojiied  and  of  great  simplicity,  is  a  vast  apartment 
78  feet  long  by  ;}<)  feet  broad,  with  massy  buttressed  walls, 
and  large  traeericd  and  transomed  windows,  surmounted  by 
a  maguilieent  open  roof  of  oak,  the  ridge  of  which  is  63  feet 
high  from  the  level  of  the  terrace.  A  noble  flight  of  fif  een 
steps,  approached  by  an  ample  arch,  and  contained  within  a 
porche'l  roof  at  right  angles  to  the  main  pile,  and  lighted  by 
four  windows,  aflbrds  a  means  of  entrance  at  the  southern 
extremity.  This  library  is  well  lighted  l)y  thirteen  large  win- 
dows, six  on  each  side,  and  one  at  the  north  end  ;  they  are 
each  of  four  lights,  being  divided  vertically  by  a  mullion,  and 
horizontally  by  a  transom,  and  have  trefbiled  heads.  The 
disposition  of  the  windows  naturally  divides  the  interior  into 
six  compartmonts. 

The  crypt  u|ion  which  this  building  is  erected,  is  raised  on 
the  foundation  of  the  great  refectory  belonging  to  the  ancient 
establishment,  and  is  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  museum.  It 
is  lighted  from  the  exterior  by  small  lancets,  and  is  divided 
internally  by  ten  pillars  into  three  aisles  of  equal  width;  the 
ceiling  is  groined,  and  the  floor  paved  with  red  tiles. 

The  roof  of  this  Iniilding,  as  also  that  of  the  la-^t,  is  tiled 
and  crested  with  ridge  tiles  ;  the  materials  of  the  walling, 
however,  vary,  the  library  being  built  of  uncoursed  rag,  with 
dressings  of  Caen,  while  that  of  the  nortliern  range  is  of 
flint. 

Descending  from  the  terrace,  the  most  important  building 
of  the  western  range  is  the  chapel,  but  it  will  be  well  to  leave 
this  for  the  present,  and  starting  from  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  library,  follow  out  the  lucid  description  afforded  to  us 
in  the  Hcclesiologist : — 

"Going  from  this  point  in  a  south-west  direction,  we  come 
to  a  range  of  buildings  containing  the  apartments  for  the 
fellows,  each  of  whom  will  have  two  rooms  and  a  gyp  room, 
and  the  warden's  lodge,  a  spacious  and  commodious  family 
residence.  These  are  of  flint,  in  good  middle-pointed,  and  in 
many  respects  show  great  ability.  Still  we  confess  we  think 
them  the  least  admirable  parts  of  the  design.  Northward  of 
these,  and  projecting  considerably  from  their  level  eastward 
into  the  court,  is  the  chapel  to  which  we  shall  recur  after 
speaking  of  the  refectory  and  kitchen,  which  range  n<irthward 
of  the  chapel  between  it  and  the  ancient  gateway  at  the 
north-west  corner  of  the  quadrangle.  The  refectory  is  a  fine 
room,  with  a  roof  the  humbleness  of  which  is  redeemed  by 
its  being  mainly  original^no  oriel,  (the  shell  of  the  walls 
being  ancient,)  b\it  with  a  dais  and  tables,  and  a  cleverly 
contrived  range  of  (Oosets  at  its  south  extremity.  Northwards 
it  communicates  with  a  common  room,  and  a  beautiful  room, 
intended,  we  believe,  for  a  muniment-room,  or,  for  the  pre- 
sent, a  lecture-room,  occupying  the  upper  story  of  the  ancient 
gateway.  Below  the  refectory  is  the  kitchen,  with  a  fine 
cliimney    projecting  eastwards    into   the   quadrangle,  while 


offices  and  a  porter's  lodge  extend  under  the  common  room 
to  the  entrance  gate.  A  steep  and  narrow  flight  of  stairs 
between  the  chipel  and  refectory,  the  kitchen  door  being  at 
their  feet,  reaches  a  small  landing,  from  the  right  or  north  of 
which  yon  enter  the  hall,  while  immediately  opposite,  on  the 
left  hand,  is  the  entrance  to  the  chapel. 

"The  chapel  i.-i  entered  at  the  north-west,  through  a  small 
ante-chapel  lighted  by  the  restored  western  triplet  of  the 
ancient  fabric,  and  parted  from  the  body  of  the  chapel  by  a 
bold  arch,  sustaining  a  double  bellcote  externallv,  and  filled 
■with  a  proper  screen.  Within  the  screen  extends  thesolenm 
length  of  the  chapel,  the  small  dimensions  being  quite  for 
gotten  in  the  beauty  of  the  proportions  :  returned  stalls,  with 
miserere  seats  and  back  panelling  of  unexceptional  style  and 
taste,  with  subseihe  to  match,  mark  the  choir.  Eastwards 
the  .sanctuary,  though  small,  is  beautifully  treated  and  sufli- 
ciently  dignified.  The  measurements  are  as  f  illows  :  length, 
(50  feet;  width,  18  feet;  height  fiom  floor  to  wall-plate, 
14  feet  6  inches;  from  floor  to  ridge,  30  feet  6  inches.  The 
lighting  of  the  chapel  is  peculiarly  eflec^tive :  a  five  light 
middle-pointed  east  window,  an<]  two  adjacent  couplets  north 
and  south  of  the  sanctuary,  concentrate  the  light  on  the  altar. 
The  side-walls  are  unpierced,  and  the  choir  is  consequently 
religiously  sombre,  the  windows  of  the  ante-chapel,  however, 
sufficiently  removing  it  from  gloom.  There  is  no  colour  on 
the  walls  or  roof;  in  fact,  none  but  the  stained  glass  with 
which  all  the  windows  are  filled.  The  whole  effect  is  one  of 
real,  unpretending,  earnest  effectiveness,  and  austere  and 
unworldly  beauty.  The  stained  glass  chosen  throughout,  with 
a  depth  of  meaning,  itself  a  homily,  betrays  a  world  of  thought 
in  its  distribution. 

"  Mr.  Butterfield  is  peculiarly  successful,  we  think,  in  his 
treatment  of  encaustic  tiles.  Those  used  in  the  chapel 
appeared  to  us  most  judiciously  chosen  and  arranged.  The 
footpace  of  the  altar  in  particular  was  a  beautiful  mosaic  of 
bright  colours  and  intricate  design. 

"The  ante-chapel  is  furnished  with  a  few  open  seats 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  family  of  the  warden  and  of  the 
servants  of  the  college.  The  choir  is  thus  appropriated 
exclusively  to  the  use  of  the  foundation  and  the  students. 

"  We  rejoice  to  add,  that  there  are  no  fixed  altar-rails, 
though  there  is  movable  railing  for  the  use  of  the  communi- 
cants. A  litany-stool  occupies  the  middle  of  the  choir.  The 
lessons  will  be  read  from  letterns  fixed  one  on  each  side  in 
the  upper  ranges  of  stalls.  A  rather  large  hole,  furnished 
with  a  shutter,  near  the  wall-plate  on  the  north  side,  for 
ventilation,  deserves  notice  for  the  boldness  and  simplicity 
of  the  idea. 

"  We  should  mention  that  the  chapel  is  raised  on  a  crypt 
vaulted  and  designed  to  serve  as  a  sacristy.  The  bells  are 
rung  from  a  western  bay,  open  and  vaulted,  occupying  the 
space  under  the  ante-chapel,  the  ropes  passing  through  the 
floor  by  the  screen,  and  so  reaching  the  bells  in  the  bellcote 
before  noticed,  which  is  by  the  way  one  of  the  less  successful 
parts  of  the  design. 

"  It  is  with  unfe'gned  pleasure  we  again  congratulate 
Mr.  Butterfield  on  his  success  in  this  most  interesting  work, 
which  will,  we  really  think,  ensure  him  enduring  and  most 
deserved  fa7ne  amongst  Engli--h  church-architects." 

COLLEtilATE  CHURCH,  a  church  to  which  is  attached 
an  ecclesiastical  establishment  of  deans, wardens,  and  fellows, 
w  hich,  before  the  Reformation,  consisted  of  a  numlier  of  secu- 
lar canons  living  together  under  the  government  of  a  dean, 
warden,  provost,  or  master! 

COLOGNE  EARTH,  a  substance  used  by  painters  as  a 
water-colom-,  approaching  to  amber  in  its  structure,  and  of 
a  deep  brownish  tinge. 


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177 


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COLONELLI  (from  the  Italian)  truss-posts,  or  the  posts 
of  a  tfuss-tVaiiio. 

COLONNADE,  (from  the  Italian  colonna,)  a  range  of 
attached  nr  insulated  columns,  supporting  an  entablature. 
The  interval  between  the  colunnis,  measured  by  the  infeiior 
diameter  of  the  column,  is  called  M«  inlercoliimiiiotion,  and 
the  whole  area  between  every  two  columns  is  called  an  iit/cr- 
cobimn.  When  the  intercoluniniation  is  one  diameter  and  a 
half,  it  is  called  pijcnostijle,  or  columns  thick  set;  when  two 
diameters,  sijslyle ;  when  two  and  a  quarter,  f!/s<///e  /  when 
three.  i/iasti//e ;  and  when  four,  araostt/le,  or  columns  thin 
set.  C<  ilunnis  are  sometimes  set  two  and  two  together,  having 
half  a  diameter  for  the  .smaller  interval,  and  three  and  a  half 
diameters  Cor  the  larger;  this  disposition  xaiermcAancosi/sti/le. 
A  colnnnade  is  also  named  according  to  the  number  of  columns 
which  su|i[)ort  the  entablature,  or  fastigium  ;  as,  when  there 
are  four  columns,  it  is  called  lelrosti/le  ;  when  s\x,  /lejcash/le  ; 
when  eight,  octasti/le  ;  and  when  ten,  deaisli/le.  The  intor- 
ci>lumniatinns  of  the  Doric  order  are  regulated  by  the  number 
of  ti'iglyjihs.  placing  one  over  every  intermediate  column  ; 
when  there  is  one  triglyjih  over  the  interval,  it  is  called  mono- 
tiiijl'ipli  ;  when  there  are  two,  it  is  called  d'ltrifilfiph  ;  and  so 
on,  according  to  the  progressive  order  of  the  Grecian  nume- 
rals. The  intercoluniniation  of  the  Grecian  Doric  is  almost 
constantly  the  monotriglyph,  fir  there  are  oidy  two  deviations 
from  this  to  be  met  with  at  Athens  ;  the  one  in  the  Doric 
jiorlico.  and  the  other  in  the  jiortieo  forming  the  entrance 
to  the  AcrojMilis.  or  citadel  ;  but  these  intervals  fmly  belong 
to  the  middle  intercolunniiations,  which  are  both  dilriglyphs, 
and  became  neces-ary  on  account  of  their  being  opfiosite  to 
the  ]>rinei|ial  entrances.  As  the  cliar.ieter  ^1  the  Grecian 
Dork'  is  more  massive  and  dignilied  than  that  of  the  Roman, 
the  nionotriglyph  succeeds  best;  but  in  the  Roman  it  is  nnt 
so  convenient,  for  the  p.assage  through  the  intcrcolumns 
would  be  too  narrow,  particularly  in  small  buildings;  the 
ditriglyph  is  therefore  more  generally  adopted.  The  arajo- 
style  is  only  ajiplied  to  rustic  structures  of  the  Tuscan  order, 
where  the  intereolumns  are  lintelled  over  with  architraves. 
\\  hen  the  solid  parts  of  the  niasunrv  of  a  ranue  of  arcades 
are  decorated  with  the  oiders,  the  intereolunnis  necessaiilv 
become  widi'.  and  the  intercolumniatioii  is  regidated  by  the 
breadth  of  the  arcades  and  of  the  piers. 

Buildings  with  a  colonnade  projecting  at  one  end  are 
termed  prostyle  ;  with  a  colonnade  at  both  and  opposite  ends, 
ampliiproxti/le ;  with  the  same  on  all  sides  of  the  liuilding, 
perisli/le  ;  and  with  a  double  range  of  columns,  poli/style. 

It  does  not  appear  that  coupled,  grouped,  or  clustered 
columns  ever  prevailed  in  the  works  of  the  ancients;  though, 
on  many  occasions,  they  woidd  have  been  much  more  useful ; 
we  indeed  find,  in  the  Tem|:ile  of  Bacchus,  at  Rome,  columns 
standing  as  it  were  in  pairs;  but  as  each  pair  is  only  placed 
in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  not  in  the  front,  they  may 
rather  be  said  to  be  two  rows  of  eolunms,  one  almost  imme- 
diately behind  the  other.  In  the  baths  of  Diocletian,  and  in 
the  Temple  of  Peace,  at  Rome,  we  find  groined  ceilings  sus- 
tained by  single  Corinthian  columns;  but  such  a  support  is 
both  meagre  and  inadequate.  Vignola  uses  the  same  inter- 
columniation  in  all  his  orders.  ITiis  practice,  thobgh  con- 
demned by  some,  is  founded  upon  a  good  principle,  for  it 
preserves  a  constant  ratio  between  the  columns  and  the  inter- 
vals. Of  all  the  kinds  of  intercoluniniation,  the  eustyle  was 
in  the  most  general  request  among  the  ancients  ;  and  though, 
in  modern  architecture,  both  the  eustyle  and  diastyle  are 
employed,  the  former  is  still  preferred  in  most  cases  :  as  to 
the  pycnostyle  interval,  it  is  frequently  rejected  for  want 
of  room,  and  the  araeostyle  for  want  of  giving  sufficient  sup- 
port to  the  entablature. 

23 


The  moderns  seldom  employ  more  than  one  row  of  columns, 
either  in  external  or  internal  colonnades,  for  the  back  range 
destroys  the  perspective  regvdarity  of  the  front  range  ;  the 
visual  rays  coming  from  both  ranges  produce  nothing  but 
indistinct  vision  to  the  spectator.  This  confusion,  in  a  cer- 
tain degree  also  attends  pilasters  behind  a  row  of  insulated 
columns;  but  in  this  the  relief  is  stronger,  owing  to  the 
rotundity  of  the  column  and  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  pilasters. 
When  buildings  are  executed  on  a  small  scale,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  in  temples,  and  other  designs,  used  for  the  ornaments 
of  gardens,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  make  the  inter- 
colunniiations, or  at  least  the  central  one,  broader  than  usual, 
in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  columns  ;  for  when  the 
columns  are  placed  nearer  each  other  than  three  feet,  the 
space  becomes  too  narrow  to  admit  more  than  one  person 
conveniently. 

COLISEUM,  or  Colosseum,  the  amphitheatre  at  Rome, 
built  by  the  emperors  Vespasian  and  Titus.  See  Amphi- 
theatre. 

Colosseum.  Although  it  scarcely  falls  within  our  pro- 
vince to  describe  places  of  amusement  considered  merely 
as  such,  the  structure  known  under  the  name  at  the  head  of 
this  article,  deserves,  from  its  peculiar  form,  and  the  e.xtreme 
taste  displayed  in  its  interior  decorations,  something  more 
than  a  passing  notice.  The  Colosseum,  designed  by  Mr.  Deci- 
mus  Burton,  is,  in  external  form,  a  polygon  of  sixteen  sides, 
of  which  the  diameter  is  130  feet.  In  the  attic,  all  the  fices  of 
the  polygon  are  shown  ;  but  below,  three  of  them  are  occupied 
liy  the  portico,  a  Doric  hexastyle  of  about  70  feet  in  width. 
This  order  is  here  exhibited  upon  a  much  larger  scale  than 
had  previously  been  done  in  any  building  in  the  metropolis, 
with  the  advantage  of  an  effect  not  attainable  with  fewer 
columns,  and  with  the  still  greater  advantage  of  its  character 
not  being  impaired  by  the  introduction  of  features  irrecon- 
cileable  with  any  aim  at  a  strictly  Grecian  style,  there  being 
n  <ither  within  the  portico  than  a  single  lofty  doorway.  "In 
its  general  form,"  observes  Mr.  W.  II.  Leeds,  whose  criticisms 
are  always  entitled  to  attention,  "this  edifice  must  be  referred 
to  a  Roman,  rather  than  a  Grecian  prototype,  namely,  the 
Pantheon,  which  circimistance  it  probably  was  that  led  one 
writer,  who  has  attempted  to  describe  the  building,  into  a 
ludicrous  blunder,  for  he  has  not  scrupled  to  assure  his 
readers,  that  its  portico  is  copied  from  that  of  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  '  which,  in  the  harmony  of  its  proportions,  and  the 
exquisite  beauty  of  its  columns,  surpasses  every  temple  on 
the  earth  !'  Had  he  said  that  it  was  copied  from  Canova's 
church  at  Possagno,  he  would  have  been  some  degrees  nearer 
the  mark,  at  least  as  far  a§  resemblance  in  regard  to  the  order 
adopted,  and  the  application  of  a  Grecian  style  to  the  plan  of 
the  Roman  Pantheon." 

Mr.  Hosking,  in  his  "  Treatise  on  Architecture,"  objects  to 
the  combination  of  the  square  and  circle  in  the  plan  ;  observ- 
ing, "  Irregular  and  intricate  forms  in  works  of  architecture, 
whether  internally  or  externally,  will  be  found  unpleasing. 
Few  can  admire  the  external  effect  of  the  Pantheon,  or  of 
the  structure  in  London  c;illed  the  Colosseum,  which  has 
been  subjected  to  the  same  ariangement,  though  certain  fea- 
tures in  both  may  be  good."  Yet,  with  due  deference  to  the 
opinion  of  such  an  authority,  we  should  be  inclined  to  demur 
to  it,  even  had  we  not  Canova's  own  example  to  oppose  to  it. 
In  itself  irregularity  is  a  fliult;  but  then  the  question  is, 
whether  the  slight  degree  of  it  thus  produced  can  be  fairly 
termed  so  ;  besides  which,  by  pushing  the  doctrine  a  little 
further,  we  may  contend  that  a  parallelogram  is  an  irregular 
square,  consequently  faulty,  and  the  flank  and  front  of  a 
Grecian  temple  do  not  exhibit  that  uniformity  which  they 
might  and  ought  to  be  made  to  do.     But  we  need  not  resort 


COL 


178 


COL 


to  any  argument  of  that  kind,  because,  were  it  not  for  the 
irregularity  ct-nsured  by  that  writer,  and  caused  by  the  addi- 
tion ol'  a  poitico  to  the  circular  part  of  their  plan,  both  the 
buildings  he  mentions  would  appear  lieavy,  lumpish  masses, 
whatever  decoration  might  be  l)estowed  upon  them. 

The  Colosseum  was  built  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  a 
panorama  of  London,  on  a  scale  of  magnitude  hitherto  un- 
attenipted.  The  projector  made  his  sketches  from  an  obser- 
vatory placed  on  scatfoldiitg  several  feet  above  the  top  of 
St.  Paul's  cross  ;  these  sketches  were  afterwards  transferred 
to  the  canvass,  and  in  their  fuiished  state  disjilay  the  whole 
of  this  vast  metropolis  a-iid  its  environs,  as  it  would  appear  on 
the  clearest  day,  and  aided  by  the  most  powerful  vision.  To 
use  the  somewhat  niagnilo(|uent  language  of  a  contemporary, 
the  spectator  "  sees  beneath  the  summer  sunshine  of  a  serene 
sky.  divested  of  the  usual  canopy  of  smoke  and  vapour,  this 
great  metropolis,  with  its  countless  nuiltitude  of  streets  and 
S(piarcs,  its  churches,  palaces,  mansions,  hospitals,  theatres, 
])ut>lic  oftices,  institutions  scientific  and  literary;  its  noble 
rivir,  with  its  innnerous  bridges;  and  in  the  distance  a  rich 
and  varied  expanse  of  rural  and  sylvan  scenery,  extending 
from  the  woodlands  of  Kent  and  Essex  in  the  ea.st,  to  the 
forest  and  castle  of  Windsor  on  the  western  horizon.  Recover- 
ing from  the  wonder  created  by  this  fust  view  of  the  pictme 
as  a  whole,  he  finds  new  cause  of  astonishment  in  examining 
it  in  detail ;  for  not  only  may  the  prominent  structures  be 
discerned  and  known,  but  every  jirivate  residence  in  town 
or  country,  which  is  visible  from  St.  Paul's  itself,  be  recog- 
nized in  the  lepiesentation  ;  and  the  various  objects  in  the 
forcgroinid,  as  well  as  in  the  distance,  will  bear  the  test  of 
the  telescope.  To  increase  the  effect,  improve  the  conve- 
idi  lice  for  inspection,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  augment  the 
means  of  judging  of  the  merits  of  the  performance  as  a  work 
of  art,  there  is  a  succession  of  galleries,  the  highest  of  which 
is  constructetl  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  more  satisfactory 
virw  of  the  distant  country  ;  an  easy  ascent  fiom  the  galleries 
leads  to  an  esplanade,  on  the  circle  that  crowns  the  exterior 
of  the  Colosseum,  from  which  is  beheld  a  real  panorama 
formed  by  the  Rcgriit's  Park  and  its  elegant  vicinity." 

Since  the  above  description  was  written,  the  Colosseum, 
as  a  place  of  amusi'inent,  has  suffered  many  vicissitudes,  and 
at  one  time  hid  fallen  very  low  in  public  estimation  ;  in  the 
year  1844,  however,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  present  pro- 
prietor, who  has  exiiended  very  large  sums  in  completely 
remodelling  the  whole  esiablishineiit. 

The  alterations  considered  desirable  were  made  from  the 
designs  and  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  William  Bradwell, 
whose  taste,  skill,  and  judgment  have,  in  this  instance,  as  in 
many  others,  produced  the  most  admirable  results.  The 
ability  he  has  displayed  has  been  seconded  by  the  proprietor 
with  the  greatest  liberality,  and  the  unhesitating  appropria- 
tion of  whatever  amount  of  cajiital  might  be  required  to  carry 
out  the  conceptions  of  the  talented  artist. 

There  are  two  entrances,  one  in  the  Regent's  Park  under 
the  portico,  the  other  in  All)any  Street,  at  the  back  of  the 
building.  Entering  by  the  former,  tlie  visitor  proceeds  down 
a  handsome  staircase  to  a  vestibule,  leading  to  a  large  saloon, 
called  the  Glyptotheca.  or  Museum  of  Sculpture.  The  roof 
of  this  apartment  presents  to  the  eye  a  lofty  dome,  of  several 
thoiisan  1  feet  of  richly  cut  glass,  s[)ringing  from  an  entablature 
and  cornice  siippoi  ted  by  mniierous  columns.  The  frieze  is 
enriched  with  the  whole  of  the  Panathcnaic  procession  from 
the  Elgin  Marbles,  and  is  contiiiiU'd  without  inti-rrii|ition 
arouiiil  the  entire  circumf  reiice  of  the  hall,  above  whiihare 
twenty  fresco  paintings  of  allegorical  sidtjects  on  panels,  the 
mouldings,  cornices,  capitals  of  colunnis,  and  enrichments 
being  in  gold.     Beyond  the  circle  of  columns  is  another  of 


as  many  pilasters,  dividing  and  supporting  arched  recesses, 
in  each  of  which,  as  well  as  between  the  columns,  are  placed 
works  of  art  from  the  studios  of  many  eminent  sculptors,  hi 
the  centre  of  the  apartment  is  the  circular  frame-work 
enclosing  the  staircase  leading  to  the  panora-na  ;  this  is  hung 
with  drapery  tastefully  disposed,  fiom  the  summit  of  the 
arched  dome  to  the  floor,  concealing  the  stairs,  and  harmoniz- 
ing with  the  prevailing  tints  of  the  architectural  decorations. 
Around  this  are  seats  covered  with  rich  Utrecht  velvet, 
raised  on  a  dais,  and  divided  by  groups  of  Ciijiid  and  Psyche 
supporting  candelabra  in  the  form  of  palm-trees ;  the  figures 
being  white,  and  the  draperies,  leaves,  plumes,  &c.,  gilded. 
From  this  hall,  the  visitor  ascends  to  the  panorama  by  the 
staircase,  or  is  raised  in  a  small  room,  called  the  Aacintltiig 
Room,  which  is  elevated  by  means  of  machinery  to  the  re- 
quired height. 

A  panorama  of  Paris  by-  moonlight  has  now  succeeded  to 
the  panorama  of  London  before  mentioned,  and  seems  to 
attract  as  much  as  the  former  picture. 

Since  the  creation  of  wdiat  m.iy  be  termed  the  original 
structure,  a  considerable  addition  has  been  made  to  it  on  the 
eastern  side  towards  .Albany  Street.  Here  is  a  second 
entrance,  leading  by  large  folding  doors  into  a  square  vesti- 
bule, and  thence  into  an  arched  corridor,  lighted  during  the 
day  from  above  by  circles  of  cut  glass;  and  at  night  by 
numerous  bronze  tripfids.  Descending  to  the  basement  story 
by  three  flights  of  stcp.s,  the  visitor  enters  a  spacious  saloon, 
supported  by  columns  and  pihlsters,  appropriated  to  the  .sale 
of  refreshments  ;  fi-om  this  room  oriKimented  glass  di  lors  lead 
to  Conservatories,  aviaries,  and  other  objects  of  interest.  In 
the  upper  story  of  this  part  of  the  building  a  handsome  little 
theatre  has  been  formed,  the  decorations  of  which  are  of  the 
most  gorgeous  character.  In  this  theatre  is  exhibited  a 
moving  picture  called  the  "Cyclorama,"  in  which  a  represen- 
tation is  given  of  the  great  earthcpiake  at  Lisbon  in  the  year 
17.55.  As  a  work  of  art.  the  panorama  is  deserving  of  high 
praise,  and  aided  by  the  labours  of  the  machinist,  and  the 
inventive  aliility  of  Mr.  Bradwell.  the  presiding  genius  of 
the  establishment,  a  scenic  illusion  has  been  produced,  which 
is  really  well  worthy  of  admiration.  Altogether  the  Colos- 
seum is  deserving  the  attention  of  the  architectural  student, 
as  something  beyond  a  mere  place  of  amusement.  In  it  he 
may  learn  how  much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  decorative 
art,  by  a  tasteful  arrangement  of  those  materials  which  the 
sister  arts  place  at  his  disposal. 

COLOSSI'S,  at  Rhodes,  a  celebrated  statue  of  Apollo, 
made  of  brass,  popularly  supposed  to  have  been  erected  over 
the  entrance  of  the  harhom-in  such  manner  that  a  foot  stood  on 
each  pier,  and  ships  passed  through  its  extended  legs.  This 
statue,  of  which  Pliny  has  left  an  account,  was  begun  hy  Chares, 
a  pupil  of  Lysippus,  and  completed  by  Laches;  twelve  years 
were  employed  in  making  it.  Its  height  was  105  feet;  the 
thumb  was  so  large  that  few  men  couhl  span  it.  and  its  fingers 
were  much  larger  than  those  of  ordinary  statues.  It  was 
cast  hollow,  and  fllled  with  large  stones  to  counterbalan.'e  its 
weight,  and  keep  it  steady  on  its  supporters.  Within  wasa 
winding  staircase  ascending  to  the  top,  where  it  is  said,  w:is 
hung  a  Wist  mirror,  in  which  the  country  of  Syria,  and  ships 
entering  the  ports  of  Egypt,  might  be  discerned.  The  notion 
that  its  legs  rested  one  on  each  side  of  the  harbour  does  not, 
however,  seem  to  be  supported  by  any  good  authority,  and 
modern  travellers  do  not  agree  as  to  its  site. 

After  standing  upwards  of  sixty  year.s,  the  Colossus  was 
overthrown  by  an  cartlniuake  in  the  year  224  B.  c,  by  which 
also  the  buildings  of  the  city  suffered  greatly.  So  great  at  t  hat 
time  was  the  commercial  importance  of  Rhodes,  that  the  great 
princes  of  the  day  vied  with  each  other  in  the  munificence  of 


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179 


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tlicir  |iri'seiUs  U>  ropair  its  losses.  The  inhnbitants  of  Rhodes 
sent  ainliassiiilors  U>  all  the  states  of  Grecian  origin,  to  solicit 
their  assistance  for  repairing  and  re-ereeting  their  statue,  and 
obtained  a  sum  more  than  tlve  times  equal  to  the  damage. 
Tiie  principal  cuntiibntors  were  the  kings  of  Maeedon,  Syria, 
Egvpt,  IVmtiis.  an<l  Hithynia.  But,  instead  of  appropriating 
the  money  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  given,  the  Rhodian 
priests  pretended  that  the  oracle  of  Delphi  had  forbidden  it; 
and  the  niuney  was  converted  to  other  uses.  The  Colossus, 
therefore,  lay  neglected  on  the  ground  for  894  years,  when 
the  Saracens,  becoming  masters  of  the  island,  sold  it  to  a 
Jewish  merchant,  who  broke  it  up,  and  loaded  900  camels 
with  the  metal :  the  weight  of  the  brass,  therefore,  allowing 
800  pounds  f(ir  each  load,  after  the  diminution  ithad  sustained 
by  rust,  and  probably  by  theft,  amounted  to  720,000  pounds 
wciglit. 

This  enormous  figure  was  not  the  only  colossal  statue  that 
attracted  notice  in  the  city  of  Rhodes,  for  Pliny  reckons  near 
100  others.  From  the  Rhodian  Apollo,  it  is  supposed,  that 
every  statue  e.xceeding  in  magnitude  the  size  of  a  man,  has 
been  called  a  colossal  statue. 

COLlJMBARI.\,  the  holes  left  in  walls  for  the  insertion 
of  timbers ;  also  the  recesses  in  ancient  tombs,  in  which  the 
urns  containing  the  ashes  of  the  deceased  were  deposited. 

COLUMELL.E,  the  same  as  balusters.    See  B.\lustr.\ue. 

COLUM.\  (Latin,  culumna,  derived  from  coliimen,  a  post, 
or  supporter)  in  a  general  sense,  a  vertical  support  of  a  body, 
or  portion  of  a  building. 

The  use  of  columns  is  of  very  early  date,  as  we  hear  of 
their  appli<-ation  bolh  in  the  Temple  of  -Solomon,  and  in  the 
Palace  of  Ulysses  ;  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  employed 
in  the  |)rinueval  erections  of  Babylon,  where  their  place  was 
supplied  by  piers,  but  are  to  be  Ibiml  in  universal  application 
in  the  ancient  structures  of  EL;ypt,  India,  and  Persia.  The 
column  is  so  important  a  feature  in  the  construction  of 
buihlings,  that  its  value  must  have  been  early  known,  and 
wh.-n  known,  must  soon  have  fi)rined  a  subject  fi)r  ornamen- 
tation ;  its  origin  is  to  be  found  doubtless  in  the  simple  pier, 
and  a  very  good  specimen  of  its  progress  in  improvement  of 
form  and  in  application  of  ornament,  is  to  be  seen  at  Ama'la, 
in  Nubia,  where,  amongst  other  columns  or  piers  in  the  pjrni 
of  a,  simple  parallelopip-d,  with  base  and  capital  of  a  similar 
fjrru,  but  projecting  a  little  l)eyond  the  surf  ice  of  the  shaft, 
those  at  the  corners  of  the  building  are  both  cylindrical  and 
fluted,  leaving,  however,  a  square  aha.'us  or  capital,  and  square 
base,  similar  to  the  others.  The  former  is  undoubtedly  the 
primitive  shape;  the  latter,  previously  of  the  same  form, 
whether  for  convenience  or  otherwise,  has  been  rounded  o3' 
at  the  corners  and  somewhat  ornamented.  Such  improve- 
ments both  in  f  jrm  and  decoration,  gradually  progress,  until 
we  arrive  at  the  well-proportioned  and  tastefully  enriched 
columns  of  the  classic  orders,  or  the  still  more  beautiful 
pillars  of  the  Gothic  styles. 

The  columns  of  Egypt  exhibit  a  great  variety,  both  in 
form 'and  decoration:  the  capital  in  the  shape  of  a  vase  or 
inverted  bell,  is  usually  decorated  with  foliage,  frequently 
with  the  leaves  of  the  lotus,  but  is  of  less  elegant  form  than 
similar  capitals  of  Greece  and  Rome;  the  shaft  is  generally 
circular,  but  sometimes  square  or  polygonal,  and  varies  in 
diameter  at  dilferent  heights,  the  thickness,  in  some  cases, 
diminishing  both  towards  the  capital  and  base  ;  this  last 
member,  the  base,  is  frequently  absent  in  Egyptian  exam- 
ples, and  when  present  is  of  the  simplest  kind,  consisting 
of  a  square  slab  or  plinth.  The  columns  were  of  stone, 
not  unfrequeutly  of  a  single  block,  and,  at  other  times,  of 
gigantic  masses  placed  one  upon  the  other.  "  There  is  a 
peculiarity,  however,"  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  '•  in  the  columns 


of  the  portico  of  Ashmounein  not  found,  we  believe,  elsewhere 
in  Egypt.  Instead  of  being  formed  of  large  masses  placed 
one  above  another,  they  consist  of  irregular  pieces  fitted 
together  with  such  nicety,  that  it  is  difficult  to  detect  the 
lines  of  junction ;  and  this  illusion  is  aiiled  also  by  the  form 
of  the  columns.  The  bottom  is  like  the  lowest  leaves  of  the 
lotus,  after  which  we  see  a  number  of  concentric  rings,  liind- 
ing  the  column  just  like  the  hoops  of  a  cask ;  and  again  above 
them  the  column  is  worked  in  such  a  way  by  vertical  cuttings, 
to  present  the  appearance  of  a  bundle  of  rods  held  together 
by  hoops ;  the  whole  has  the  appearance  of  a  barrel ;  the 
columns  are  about  40  feet  high,  including  the  capitals.  Their 
greatest  circumference  is  about  28.^  feet,  at  the  height  of  5 
feet  from  the  ground,  for  the  column  diminishes  in  thickness 
both  towards  the  base  and  capital.  These  columns  were 
painted  yellow,  red,  and  blue.  Similar  pillars  are  found  in 
the  temple  of  Gournon." 

Reeded  columns,  which  bear  the  appearance  of  a  bundle  of 
reeds  bound  together  at  intervals  and  set  on  end,  are  not 
uncommon,  and  arc  often  surmounted  with  a  bulging  capi- 
tal, which  is  of  similar  formation  to  the  shaft,  with  a  cincture 
at  its  lowest  part,  and  square  flat  abacus  on  the  top,  bearing 
the  entablature  ;  the  swell  or  bulging  would  appear  to  be 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  entablature.  Square  columns 
are  to  be  found  in  the  excavations  at  Thebes,  and  triangular 
ones  are  spoken  of  by  Pooocke ;  at  Ypsambool  are  square 
columns  or  piers  with  caryatid  figures  in  front  of  them. 

The  foi-ms  of  columns  found  in  India  vary  considerably. 
In  the  subterraneous  temples,  which  are  excavated  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  they  are  generally  of  a  massive  character,  and 
in  proportions  stunted ;  they  are  rather  grand  than  graceful. 
The  bases  are  frequently  cubiavl,  and  of  great  height  in  pro- 
portion to  the  shaft,  sometimes  equal  to  it;  they  are  at  other 
times  octangular:  the  shafts  are  circular,  or  multangular, 
and  sometimes  consist  of  both  forms  one  above  the  other, 
surmounted  by  low,  compressed  capitals.  Coluir/ns  of  a 
balustral  form  are  to  be  seen  at  the  Temple  of  Elephanta  ; 
they  are  about  9  feet  high,  supported  on  cubical  bases  about 
6  feet  in  height;  the  capitals,  of  a  semicircular  profile, 
exhibit  the  ap|)earauce  of  compressed  cushions,  and  with  the 
shafts,  are  ribbed  or  reeded  :  the  whole  is  surmounted  by 
an  abacus  of  the  form  of  an  inverted  trunciited  pyramid. 
Some  verv  curious  columns  are  to  be  seen  in  a  cave  at  Ellora, 
which  consist  of  elephants  bearing  castles,  and  surmounted  at 
the  t<jp  by  a  capital  or  abacus. 

In  the  pagodas,  or  constructed  temples  of  the  Indians,  the 
columns  are  of  an  entirely  different  appearance,  they  are  by 
no  means  so  stunted,  and  are  often  of  quite  an  opposite  cha- 
racter, slender;  such  are  those  in  that  part  of  the  pagoda  of 
Chillambaram  called  the  Nerta  Chaboei ;  they  are,  in  all 
cases,  profusely  enriched  with  sculpture.  The  capitals  of 
the  columns  are  frequently  made  more  effective  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  entablature  by  extending  them  out  in  the  shape 
of  brackets,  so  as  to  leave  but  a  small  portion  of  the  entabla- 
ture unsupported.  Sometimes  a  succession  of  brackets  pro- 
ject from  the  adjacent  columns  one  above  another,  and  meet 
in  the  centre,  so  as  to  leave  no  portion  unsupported. 

Of  Persian  columns  we  have  but  few  examples  remaining, 
but  from  these  we  may  conclude  that  they  were  of  slendtT 
proportions,  the  height  of  some  of  the  existing  specimens 
being  as  much  as  70  feet,  while  their  diameter  is  but  5J  feet. 
Some  of  the  shafts  are  fluted  with  fillets  intervening,  and  are 
raised  upon  a  base  4  or  5  feet  in  height,  finished  with  sculp- 
tured mouldings.  We  have  specimens  of  two  kinds  of 
capitals,  the  one  consisting  of  small  scrolls,  somewhat  similar 
to  the  volutes  of  the  Ionic  capital,  placed  in  rows  one  above 
the  other  on  the  sides  at  the  top  of  the  shaft ;  the  others 


COL 


180 


COL 


projecting  from  two  opposite  sides  of  the  shaft,  after  the 
m;inner  of  brackets  or  corbels,  and  sculptured  into  the  shape 
of  the  fore-part  of  an  animal,  which  in  some  degree  resembles 
a  hoise.  These  columns  must  have  possessed  a  considerable 
share  of  simplicity  and  elegance. 

Of  the  columns  of  the  Grecian  or  Roman  orders  we  need 
sav  nothing  in  this  place,  not  only  because  their  forms  are 
so  well  known,  but  also  because  they  are  so  fully  and  minutely 
described  in  other  parts  of  this  book,  and  amply  di'lineated  in 
its  illustrations.  Some  few  remarks  as  to  their  form,  &c.  is 
appended  to  this  article. 

In  those  styles  of  architecture  which  immediately  succeeded 
the  liouian,  and  were  indeed  but  debased  copies  of  it,  the 
column  foUowL-d  the  general  form  and  character  of  the 
original  ;  some  were  formed  of  portions  of  columns  taken 
from  Konian  buildings,  and  piled  together  indiscriminately  in 
the  new  structures,  which  destroyed  their  jiroporlions,  while 
it  preserved  their  form  and  details.  Out  of  this  chaos  arose 
the  styles  afterwards  prevalent  in  Italy  and  that  portion  of 
the  continent,  and  we  may  add  in  Greece,  for  doubtless 
Byzantine  architecture,  although  in  a  certain  sense  a  distinct 
style,  borrowed  largely,  both  in  its  general  features  and  its 
details,  from  the  edifices  of  the  deserted  capital  ;  indeed  a 
debased  imitation  of  the  Corinthian  colunm  was  very  preva- 
lent in  the  buildings  of  Constantinople.  The  copy  was  more 
successful  in  some  instances  than  others,  the  foliage  being 
frequently  of  very  inferior  design,  and  only  carved  out 
slightly  in  relief  above  the  surface.  The  more  characteristic 
capitals  of  the  Byzantine  style  consisted  of  mere  truncated 
pyjamids  inverted  and  ornamented  with  a  kind  of  basket- 
work  in  low  relief 

In  Lorabardic  colunms  the  base  is  freipjently  but  a  simple 
square  block,  roinuled  oft"  at  the  top,  though  it  sometimes 
consists  of  a  carved  lion  or  other  monster  supporting  the 
shaft  on  its  back  ;  such  bases  are  frecpient  in  porches  and  in 
smaller  structures,  as  tombs,  &c.  The  shafts,  especially  of 
the  larger  columns,  are  circular,  and  of  the  same  diameter 
from  top  to  bottom;  the  proportion  between  the  height  and 
d  riuieter  varies  very  considerably,  according  to  the  purpose 
of  the  column  and  its  material  ;  when  the  weight  to  be  sup- 
ported is  great,  or  the  material  used  but  little  compacted,  the 
shaft  is  low  and  massive;  but  when  the  weight  is  inconsider- 
able, it  becomes  tall  and  slender,  and  is  sometimes  divided 
in  its  height  by  moulded  bands.  (Columns  are  sometimes 
coupled  together,  standing  either  side  by  side,  or  one  in 
flout  of  the  other,  of  both  which  arrangements  we  have 
examples  in  the  cloisters  of  S.  Loren/.o  and  Santa  Sabina,  at 
Rome,  where  either  arrangement  is  copied  in  the  alternate 
piers;  quadru|>led  columns  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  chuich 
of  Boppart.  When  columns  are  attiiched  to  walls  or  piers, 
tliey  not  unfreiiuently  have  smaller  shafts  either  before  or 
beside  them,  somewhat  similar  to  the  clustered  columns  of 
later  date ;  these  smaller  shafts,  however,  are  never  prolonged 
in  the  shape  of  ribs  of  a  vault.  The  shafts  of  the  smaller 
columns  are  not  unfrequently  polygonal,  fluted,  or  reeded, 
and  are  sometimes  formed  of  small  shafts  twisted  together  in 
a  spiral  line.  The  capitals  are,  for  the  most  part,  barbarous 
imitations  of  the  classic  orders,  more  usually  Corinthian,  and 
are  sometimes  ornamented  with  spear-heads,  and  scroll  or 
fret-work,  while  some  again  are  formed  of  animals  real  and 
monstrous,  and  ornamented  with  grotesque  designs  of  all 
descriptions. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  period  of  Gothic  art,  when 
the  forms,  proportions,  and  ornamentation  of  columns  became 
of  infinite  variety,  subject  to  no  law  save  that  of  beauty  and 
utUily;  so  that  to  attempt  to  describe  them  in  this  place 
would  be  futile.     We  have  them  of  all  proportions  save  the 


stunted,  and  of  all  degrees  of  decoration,  some  with  simple 
mouldings,  others  with  foliated  capitals;  some  with  single 
shafts,  others  clustered;  some  circular,  others  polygonal. 
These,  as  is  necessary,  will  be  considered  in  detail,  for  which 
we  refer  to  the  various  subdivisions  into  which  the  Gothic 
style  is  usually  distributed. 

Column,  in  the  orders  of  classic  architecture,  consists  of  a 
conic  or  conoidal  frustum,  called  the  x/ki/I,  t;ipering  upwards 
in  the  manner  of  a  tree,  with  an  assemblage  of  parts  at  the 
upper  extremity,  termed  Ihe  capitiil,  and  with  sometimes 
another  assemblage  of  parts  at  the  lower  extremity,  called 
llie  bane.  The  capital  finishes  with  a  horizontal  table,  either 
square  on  the  j>lan,  or  capable  of  being  inscribed  in  a  square, 
called  the  (ihccvs.  The  base,  also,  when  there  is  one,  most 
frequently  stands  on  a  table,  square  on  the  plan,  and  hori- 
zontal on  the  upper  and  lower  sides,  called  the  plinth. 

Vitruvius  directs  the  columns  at  the  angles  to  be  made 
thicker  than  the  intermediate  ones;  the  diameter  of  columns 
to  be  prop(}rtioned  to  the  intercolumns;  that  the  higher  they 
are,  their  diminution  should  be  less;  that  those  on  the  flanks 
and  angles  have  their  inner  faces  toward  the  walls  perpen- 
dicular, but  those  of  the  pronaos  and  posticum  to  be  set 
perpendicular  on  their  axes ;  that  those  in  theatres  and  other 
woiks  of  gaiety,  should  not  have  the  same  proportion  as  those 
in  sacred  edifices ;  and  that  the  two  middle  columns,  opposite 
the  entry,  sht>uld  have  a  wider  interval  than  any  two  of  the 
others. 

The  Greeks  seldom  employed  att.ached  columns ;  the  only 
instances  of  the  kind  in  Attica,  and  indeed  in  all  Greece,  are 
the  monument  of  Lysicrates  and  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias,  where  the  columns  present  .something  more  than  half 
their  diameter.  In  the  temples  of  Agrigentum  and  ^f^seula- 
pius,  in  Sicily,  the  columns  are  also  attached.  The  remains 
of  Roman  edifices  show  many  instances  of  attached  columns, 
as  in  the  temple  of  Fortune,  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus,  the 
Coliseum,  and  the  theatre  of  Marccllus,  at  Tvome.  where  the 
columns  project  only  half  their  diameter;  and  this  rule  was 
strictly  observed  by  the  ancients,  who  generally  tapered  the 
shafts  from  the  base. 

The  Grecian  Doric  is  without  a  b;ise,  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  Ionic  and  Corintliian  orders.  Much  has  been  saiil  con- 
cerning the  proportion  of  Cfilumns;  but  it  must  chiefly 
depend  upon  their  situation,  whether  disposed  on  the  exterior 
or  interior,  attached  or  insulated,  on  a  level  with  the  eye  or 
raised  above  it;  circumstances  which  will  afflct  the  propor- 
tion, and  render  all  canonical  rules  uncertain.  We  also  judge 
of  the  pro|iortion  of  colunms  from  the  materials  w  hereof  they 
are  constructed,  as  a  column  of  iron  will  require  a  different 
proportion  from  one  of  stone. 

Some  columns  have  the  lower  third  quite  cylindrical,  and 
the  upper  two-thirds  only  diminished,  but  the  most  beautiful 
diminish  from  the  bottom. 

In  the  preface  to  Stewart's  third  volume  of  Antiquities, 
speaking  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Athens, 
Mr.  Keveley,  who  conducted  that  volume,  observes,  that 
"  the  columns  diminish  from  the  bottom  by  a  beautiful  curve 
line."  In  another  part  of  the  same  preface,  he  farther 
observes,  generallv,  that '■  the  columns  rise,  with  consider- 
able diminution,  in  the  most  graceful  sweeping  lines."  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted,  that  Mr.  Stcwari,  who  has,  in  genera!, 
been  so  particular  in  the  measures  of  Grecia'n  architecture, 
should  have  neglected  a  thing  so  important  as  the  dimensions 
of  the  shafts  of  colunms. 

The  colunms  of  the  Pantheon,  of  the  temples  of  Vesta,  of 
Jupiter  Stator,  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  of  Concord,  of  the 
arch  of  Titus,  of  the  portico  of  Septimius,  and  of  the  theatre 
of  Marcellus,  at  Rome,  are  all  diminished  from  the  bottom. 


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Columns  may  be  diminished  by  a  curve,  according  to  any 

of  the  following  methods : 

Method  I. — Fioure  1.  Take  the  semi-diameter,  a  b,  at 
the  top  of  the  shaft,  and  apply  it  from  c  to  d  on  the  semi- 
diameter,  c  E,  at  the  bottom  ;  with  the  radius,  c  e,  describe 
an  arc,  e  f.  Draw  d  f  perpendicular  to  e  c,  divide  the  arc 
E  F  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  (as  four,  in  this  example) 
E  n,  n  n,  n  n,  n  t;  also  divide  the  representative  axis,  c  b, 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  c  m,  vi  m,  m  ?»,  m  b  ; 
through  the  points  m,  m,  \c.  and  also  through  the  points  n, 
draw  lines  m  t  and  v  n,  parallel  to  e  c,  of  which  the  lines  v  n 
cut  the  representative  axis  at  v;  make  all  the  lines  m  <  equal 
to  all  the  lines  v  n,  beginning  next  to  the  base  in  succession, 
towards  a  b  ;  then  through  all  the  points,  i,  draw  a  curve, 
which  is  the  contour  of  the  column.  The  edge  of  the 
diminishing  rule  h,  shown  upon  the  other  side,  is  just 
the  reverse,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  concave,  the  contour  of  the 
column  being  convex. 

Method  it. — Ficfiire  2.  The  points  d  and  f,  being  found, 
as  in  Figure  1,  instead  of  dividing  the  arc,  e  f,  as  in  Figure  1, 
into  equal  parts,  divide  the  straight  line  d  f  into  the  equal 
parts,  D  X,  X  X,  X  X,  X  ¥,  and  the  representative  axis  c  b,  into 
the  same  number,  and  complete  the  other  parts  of  the 
operation,  as  in  Figure  1.  Tlie  same  letters  of  refer- 
ence being  fixed  to  the  like  parts,  show  the  process  to  be 
similar. 

Method  III. — Figure  3.  b  c  being  the  altitude  of  the 
shaft,  and  n  a,  at  right  angles  to  it,  the  quantity  of  diminu- 
tion upon  one  side  of  it :  divide  c  b  into  equal  parts,  at  the 
points  D,  E,  F  ;  also  divide  a  b  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts,  at  the  points  d,  e,  f;  draw  the  lines  d  o,  e  h,  f  i, 
parallel  to  a  b  ;  again  from  the  points  d,  e,  f,  to  the  point  c, 
draw  lines,  rf  o  c,  e  h  c,  /  i  c :  and  through  the  points  a,  g, 
H,  I.  0,  draw  a  curve,  which  will  give  the  contour  required. 

Method  IV. — Figure  4.-  A  B  and  b  c,  being  the  same  as 
in  Figure  3  :  now,  suppose  it  were  required  to  give  less 
curvature  to  the  contour  of  the  column ;  between  a  and  b 
tiike  any  iutermediate  point,  g.  nearer  towards  a,  or  b,  as  the 
curvature  is  intended  to  be  flatter  or  quicker  (in  this  example 
it  is  in  the  middle  of  a  b)  ;  draw  the  line  g  c,  divide  a  g  into 
any  nymber  of  equal  parts,  a  </,  d  e,  e  f,  f  g,  (as  here  into 
four)  ;  divide  b  c  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  b  d, 
D  E,  E  f,  F  c  ;  draw  D  g,  e  H.  F  i,  parallel  to  b  a,  draw  rf  o  o, 
e  H  c,  f\  c,  then  through  the  points  a,  o.  h,  i,  c,  draw  a  o  h  i  c, 
which  is  the  curve  required. 

Method  V. — Figure  5.  Join  a  c,  and  draw  a  i,  at  right 
angles  to  it,  meeting  c  b  produced  at  l  ;  draw  a  d  parallel  to 
c  l,  and  c  d  perpendicular  to  it ;  divide  l  c  and  a  d,  each  into 
the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  the  formerat  the  points  b,  f,  g, 
and  the  latter  at  h,  i,  k  ;  also,  divide  a  b  into  the  same  num- 
ber of  equal  parts,  a  e,  e  t\  fg.  g  b  ;  join  e  m  h,  f  n  i,  g  o  k; 
also  e  M  0,  /  N  c,  ^  o  c,  and  draw  a  m  n  o  c,  which  is  the 
curve  required. 

Method  VI. — Figure  6.  Join  a  g  c,  and  bisect  it  by  a 
perpendicular,  f  6  ;  on  the  centre,  c,  with  the  radius,  c  A, 
describe  the  arc  a  d  ;  divide  a  d  into  two  equal  parts  in  e  ; 
draw  E  F  c,  and  parallel  to  g  a  draw  f  i  ;  make  an  angle,  c  fi, 
upon  the  edge  of  a  board  or  rule,  put  in  pins  at  the  points  c 
and  F,  and  with  a  pencil,  upon  the  angular  point  f,  while  the 
rule  is  moved  from  f  to  c,  keeping  the  side  f  i  of  it  upon 
the  pin  at  F,  and  the  same  side  f  c,  upon  the  pin  at  c,  the 
angular  point  f  will  describe  the  contour  of  the  column 
between  f  and  c.  In  like  manner,  by  removing  the 
pin  out  of  c,  and  putting  it  in  a,  the  part  f  a  may  be 
described. 

The  same  curve  might  have  been  found  by  one  continued 
motion  from  a  to  c,  as  follows  :  suppose  the  line  d  o  to  have 


been  produced  to  a  point,  k  ;  the  supposed  line,  c  k,  to  have 
been  equal  to  c  d;  and  an  angle,  having  been  made  u|ion  the 
edge  of  a  thin  board,  equal  to  a  o  k  ;  then  the  contour,  a  fc, 
would  have  been  described  in  the  same  manner,  between  the 
points  A  and  c,  as  each  of  the  f  >rmer  parts  shown  by  the 
figure.  It  is  obvious,  that  by  this  last  method,  it  would  be 
requisite  to  have  the  niaehine  twice  the  length  of  that  in  the 
first  method  ;  fiom  which  it  would  become  more  unmanage- 
able in  the  formation  of  the  curve,  and  inconvenient  in  many 
situations,  for  want  of  space  to  extend  it  to  the  necessary 
distance. 

Method  VII. — Figure  7.  Let  a  b  be  the  representative 
axis  of  the  column;  a  d,  b  c,  the  semi-diameters  of  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  shaft;  produce  c  b  to  f  ;  on  the  point  d, 
with  a  radius,  c  b,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  a  b  at  e  ;  draw 
d  E  F ;  in  A  B,  take  any  number  of  points,  m,  and  draw  the 
lines  ¥  mn ;  make  each  line  ?n  n,  equal  to  b  c  ;  then  draw 
D  nn  .  .  .  c.  which  will  be  the  curve  required. 

Method  VIII. — Figure  8.  The  points  e  and  f being  foimd 
as  in  Method  VII.  place  a  rule  with  a  canal,  or  groove,  on 
the  axis  a  b,  and  put  a  pin  in  f  ;  take  another  rule,  d  f, 
having  a  groove  on  the  under  side,  and  lay  this  groove  on 
the  pin  at  f  ;  put  an<ithei-  pin  through  the  rod  at  e,  into  the 
groove  A  b;  then,  with  a  pencil,  through  d,  and  moving 
the  ruler  n  f,  while  the  pin  e  slides  in  the  groove  a  b,  and 
the  groove  on  the  imder  side  of  d  f  on  the  pin  f,  the  c<.)ntour 
D  c,  will  be  describi'd  with  one  movement. 

Method  IX. — Figure  9,  a  n  being  the  axis  of  the  column  ; 
A  D  and  b  c  the  lower  and  upper  diameters;  draw  d  e  parallel 
to  a  b;  find  the  point  f,  as  in  Methods  VII.  and  VIII.,  and 
draw  E  c  F  ;  divide  A  F  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  by 
the  points  c/  ;  also  divide  d  e  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts,  by  the  points  h  ;  join  each  corresponding  g  h  ;  make 
every  g  i  equal  to  a  d,  and  the  curve  drawn  through  all  the 
points  i,  will  be  that  required.  This  mode  is  practised  when 
room  cannot  be  found  for  Figures  7  and  8,  with  which  it  is 
the  same  in  principle. 

Observations  on  the  several  methods. — By  the  First  Method, 
the  curvature  of  the  shaft  becomes  continually  less  towards 
the  superior  diameter,  and  if  the  contour  were  extended 
beyond  the  shaft,  it  would  meet  in  a  point,  of  which  its 
distance  from  n  would  be  a  fourth  proportional  to  the  length 
of  the  arcs  e  f,  f  g.  Figure  1,  and  the  axis  c  b  ;  the  semi-axal 
section  of  the  whole  thus  produced,  is  a  figure  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  figure  of  the  sines. 

By  the  Second  Method,  the  curvature  of  the  shaft  is  con- 
tinually increased  towards  the  su[)erior  diameter,  and  if  the 
contour  were  extended  above  a  b.  Figure  2,  it  would  termi- 
nate at  a  distance  from  r,  which  would  be  a  fourth  propor 
tional  to  d  F,  c  ti\  c  b  ;  the  contour  thus  produced,  would  be 
an  elongated  scmi-cllipsis. 

By  the  Third  Method,  the  curvature  of  the  shaft  is  con- 
tinually less  towards  the  superior  diameter,  and  if  the  contour 
were  extended,  the  two  sides  wouhl  meet  in  a  point,  whose 
distance  from  the  lower  end  of  the  shaft  would  be  the  second 
root  of  a  fourth  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  diniinM.tion, 
the  serai-diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  the  square  of  the  altitude 
of  the  shaft.  The  shaft  and  the  part  thus  pro.iuccd,  forms 
the  half  of  a  parabolic  si)indle;  and  the  axal  section  is  two 
equal  semi-parabolas,  joined  together  by  a  common  ordinate, 
which  foriris  the  axis  of  the  cohimn. 

Bv  the  Fourth  Method,  the  curvature  is  likewise  parabolic  ; 
but  the  axal  section  is  two  equal  portions  of  a  parabola,  less 
than  semi-parabolas. 

By  Methods  V.  and  VI.,  the  curvature  is  everywhere  the 
same,  and  is  consequently  the  arc  of  a  circle  :  this  contour 
would  therefore  meet  ia  a  point,  which  would  be  distant  from 


COL 


182 


COL 


tlie.  lower  end  ct'  the  shaft,  by  a  quantity  equal  to  the  value  of 


ch  B  o  is  the   height  of  the 


.  /c  M  j — -  +  A  B  — c  M  1  in  whi 

shaft,  A  u   the   quantity  of  diminution,  and   c  m   the   semi- 
diaiiietci"  at  the  bottom. 

By  Molliiids  VII.,  Vlll..  and  IX.,  the  contour  of  the  shaft 
ni'ver  terminates  when  continued.  The  curve  is  concave  t(j 
thea.xis  at  the  bottom,  and  after  a  certain  distance,  it  changes 
into  a  convexity.  The  curve  is  called  the  conchoid  of 
Nicomedes,  who  is  the  reputed  inventor ;  the  straight  line, 
in  which  the  moving  point  runs,  is  an  assymptote ;  and  the 
point  over  which  the  moveable  rule  passes,  is  called 
the  pole. 

As  the  curve  may  either  fall  upon  one  side  or  the  other 
of  the  axis,  it  is  distinguished  accordingly:  when  it  falls  on 
the  side  of  the  axis  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  pole  is 
sitiuited,  it  is  called  the  Jirst  conchoid;  and  when  the 
describing  point  is  maiie  to  move  on  the  same  side  of  the 
axis  with  the  pole,  the  curve  so  formed  is  called  the  second 
conchoid. 

This  last  mcthnd  of  describing  a  column  by  continued 
motion,  has  been  much  praised  in  architectural  works;  but 
th(jugli  the  method  be  simple,  the  instrument  is  very  cum- 
bersome. It  may  l)C  observed,  that  as  all  curves  are  nearly 
the  same  at  the  vertex,  so  small  a  portion  as  is  reijuired  for 
a  colunni,  will  he  the  same  in  practice,  by  any  of  the  fore- 
going f  U'ms.  The  most  usi-f  d  niellind.  therefore,  of  describ- 
ing the  contour  of  the  .shaft,  is  that  of  Figure  ti  ;  the  instru- 
ment is  much  more  sinijile,  and  takes  less  room,  which,  in 
many  cases,  w(ndd  not  admit  of  that  for  desciiMng  the  con- 
choiil ;  and  even  that  of  forming  the  curve  by  one  motion,  as 
shown  at  the  end  of  Method  \T.,  is  much  nu)re  convenient, 
as  length  or  extension  in  one  direction  only,  is  required. 
L5ut  where  space  is  wanting,  Methods  111.  and  IV.  are 
recommended. 

Columns  are  variously  named,  according  to  their  mate- 
rials, construction,  formation,  decoration,  disposition,  and 
destination. 

L  Columns,  aeccn-ding  to  their  materials,  ai-e,  moulded, 
fusilile..transj>arent,  sciiijliola.  masonic,  or  wooden. 

When  a  column  is  made  hy  cementing  gravel  and  flints  of 
ditlerent  colours,  it  is  called  a  7noulded  column. 

The  art  of  moulding  cobiums  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
as  would  a|)pear  by  .some  lately  discovered  near  Algiers,  in 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Ciesarea  ;  where  the  same 
inscriptions  in  antique  characters,  and  even  the  same  defects, 
are  to  bo  found  repe.ited  on  every  shaft,  which  is  certainly  a 
proof  of  their  being  moulded:  the  cement  employed  in  the 
emplastalion  of  columns,  grows  perfectly  hard,  and  receives 
a  polish  like  marble. 

Columns  of  fusible  matter,  as  metals,  glass,  &c.,  are  called 
fusible  columns  ;  the  secret  of  making  them  is  said  to  have 
been  known  to  the  ancients,  who  are  also  said  to  have  fused 
and  cast  columns  of  stone.  Columns  of  this  description  may 
also  be  called  moulded  columns. 

When  the  material  of  which  a  column  is  made  is  transpa- 
rent, the  column  is  called  a  transparent  column.  The 
columns  of  the  theatre  of  Scaurus,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  were 
of  crystal,  aiul  those  in  the  church  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  are 
of  transparent  alabaster. 

When  colunms  are  constructed  with  a  kind  of  plaster,  so 
as  to  imitate  marble  in  polish  and  colour,  they  are  called 
sca(/liola  columns. 

Columns  built  of  rough  stone,  or  compass  bricks,  and 
cased  with  stucco,  are  called  masonic  columns,  or  columns  of 


masonry;  as  are  likewise  those  made  in  courses  of  stone, 
jointed,  and  cemented  in  the  best  maimer,  with  a  rubbed  or 
smoothed  surface.     «SVe  Stone  Column. 

When  the  shaft  of  a  colunm  is  constructed  of  wooden 
staves,  glued  together,  and  the  interior  angles  strengthened 
with  blockings,  the  column  is  said  to  lie  a  joinery  column. 
Sie  the  articles  Base,  Capital,  and  Wooden  Column. 

2.  Columns,  according  to  their  construction,  are  columns 
in  bands  or  tambours,  columns  in  trencheons,  or  banded 
columns. 

When  the  shafts  of  columns  are  formed  of  couises  of  stone 
of  a  less  height  than  the  diameter  of  the  column,  they  are 
called  columns  in  bunds  or  tambours.  This  method  is  only 
practised  in  large  columns. 

When  shafts  of  columns  are  formed  in  courses  of  greater 
height  than  the  diameter  of  the  column,  they  are  said  to  con- 
sist of  trencheons  ;  this  is  practised  in  small  columns,  when 
the  fewer  the  pieces,  the  more  beautiful  will  the  column  he; 
but  the  difficulty  of  raising  them  from  the  quarry  is  greater, 
and  the  cairiage  more  expensive. 

When  the  shafts  of  colunms  consist  of  plain  or  ornamented 
cinctures,  projecting  beyond  the  general  line  of  the  shaft,  the 
ccdnmn  is  said  to  be  bunded,  and  is  therefore  called  a  bunded 
column.  Columns  of  this  description  were  first  introduced 
by  De  Lorme,  in  the  chapel  de  Villers-(Viherets,  and  at  the 
Tuiieries,  who  by  this  means  supposed  the  joints  would  be 
concealed. 

3.  G>lunnis, according  to  their  (^]rm:ition,  are  utlic,  conical, 
conoit/ul,  ci/lindricul,  cylindroidal.  ov  pohiyonal. 

The  attic  column  is  an  insulated  fiilaster,  having  four  equal 
faces,  of  the  highest  proportion.  Though  this  is  commonly 
inserted  among  the  number  of  columns,  it  should  not  be  so 
deemed,  but  rather  what  we  have  already  denominated  it,  an 
insulated  pilaster.  To  prevent  confusion,  the  use  of  the  term 
column,  in  architecture,  should  be  restrained  to  a  body  of 
circular  horizontal  sections. 

A  conical  column  has  the  superior  diameter  of  its  shaft  less 
than  the  inferior,  with  its  sides  straight  in  eveiy  plane 
passing  through  the  axis. 

A  conoidtil  column  also  has  the  superior  diameter  of  the 
shaft  less  than  the  inferior,  but  its  exterior  sides  are  convex 
in  any  plane  passing  through  the  axis.  This  practice  of 
making  the  shaft  swell  is  ancient,  being  mentioned  obscurely 
by  Vitruvius,  and  has  been  generally  fdlowed  by  modern 
architects. 

Vylindrirul  columns  have  the  extreme  diameters  of  the 
shafts  of  eipial  circles. 

Cylindroidal  co/umns  are  those  whose  sections  are  all 
similar  and  equal  ellipses,  alike  situated.  These  are  other- 
wises called  elliptic  columns.  Instances  of  this  form  are  rarely 
to  be  met  with  in  the  remains  of  antiquity  ;  a  few  examples, 
of  modern  date,  are  to  be  seen  at  Rome. 

Polyclonal  columns  have  the  horizontal  sections  of  their 
shafts  similar  to  polygon.s,  alike  situated.  The  lower  parts 
of  the  shafts  of  the  columns  of  the  portico  on  the  Island  of 
Dclos  and  of  the  temple  of  Cora,  are  of  this  form  ;  as  are 
likewise  the  columns  of  several  Egy])tian  buildings. 

4.  Columns,  according  to  the  decorations  of  their  shafts, 
are  harkformed,  cabled,  carolytic,  fluted,  or  twisted. 

A  bark-formi'd  column  represents  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  with 
the  bark  and  knots.  This  is  otherwise  denominated  a  pas- 
toral column. 

Cabled  or  rudented  columns  have  the  flutings  of  the  shaft 
filled  with  astragals,  to  about  one-thinl  of  their  height. 

Carolytic  columns  have  l()liated  shafts,  decorated  with 
leaves  and  branches  winding  spirally  around  them,  or  dis- 
posed in  form  of  crowns  and  tcstoons.     They  were  used  by 


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the  ancients  for  supporting;  statues,  whence  the  name.  They 
are  suitable  in  theatres,  triumphal  arches,  &c. 

Fluted  columns  have  flutes  cut  in  their  sides,  in  planes 
passing  through  their  axes,  and  are  otherwise  called  chan- 
neled oi  slrialed  columns. 

Tit^itted  columns  make  several  circumvolutions  in  the 
height  of  the  siiaft,  atU'r  the  manner  of  a  screw,  and  have 
sometimes  several  threads  or  screws  following  one  another  in 
the  same  circumference  ;  they  are  otherwise  called  spiral 
columns.  Vignola  is  said  to  he  the  first  who  discovered  the 
method  of  drawing  this  kind  of  column  by  rule;  but  what 
has  been  presented  to  us  by  this  author,  is  only  an  incorrect 
method  of  drawing  the  contour  of  the  column  on  paper,  by 
segments  of  circles,  diminishing  in  altitude  as  they  become 
more  elevated  in  their  regular  succession :  but  the  true 
principles  of  forming  the  shaft  ought  to  be  shown  from  the 
principles  of  the  sfpiral,  and  described  upon  the  conoidal 
surface.  The  barbarous  practice  of  twisting  columns  has 
been  much  used  by  modern  architects,  particularly  in  the 
screens  and  altar-pieces  of  churches.  The  most  celebrated 
example  is  the  baldachin  of  St.  Peter's. 

Columns  s|)irally  formeij  may  be  seen  in  the  temple  of 
Spoleto,  and  are  not  unfiequeiit  in  sarcophagi  and  other  orna- 
mental works. 

5.  Columns,  according  to  their  disposition,  are  angular, 
cantoned,  coupled,  douhled,  engaged,  flanked,  grouped,  inserted, 
insulated,  median,  or  niched. 

Angular  columns  are  insulated  in  the  corners  of  a  portico, 
or  upon  the  coiners  of  a  building,  (even  though  attached.) 
whether  the  angle  be  right,  acute,  or  obtuse. 

Cantoned  columns  are  placed  one  at  each  corner  of  a 
s(|uare  pier,  for  supporting  the  angular  springings  of  groins, 
or  intersecting  vaults. 

Coupled  columns  are  disposed  in  pairs,  in  the  same  range 
or  line,  so  as  almost  to  touch  at  their  bases;  as  those  in  the 
western  portico  of  St.  Paul's,  and  the  peristyle  of  the 
Louvre. 

Douhled  columns,  in  any  range  of  columns,  or  in  peri- 
styles, seem  to  have  their  shafts  penetrating  each  other  to 
about  one-third  of  their  diameter ;  as  in  the  peristyle  of  the 
Louvre. 

Engaged  columns  seem  to  penetrate  a  wall  from  between 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  their  diameter. 

A  flanked  column  has  a  semi-pilaster  on  each  side  of  it, 
and  is  engaged  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  its  diameter,  within 
the  plane  of  the  faces  of  the  semi-pilasters. 

Grouped  columns  stand  in  threes  or  fours  on  the  same 
pedestal. 

An  inserted  column  is  let  into  a  wall. 

An  insulated  column  is  free  or  detached  on  all  sides. 

Median  columns  are  those  two  columns  of  a  portico,  which 
are  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  range,  at  a  wider  interval 
than  any  other  two  of  the  same  range,  for  giving  a  freer 
access  to  the  principal  entrance.  The  term  is  derived  from 
columnce  meditr,  the  name  given  by  Vitruvius  to  the  two 
columns  in  the  middle  of  the  colonnade. 

A  niched  column  is  placed  in  a  niche,  with  the  axis  of  the 
column  in  the  plane  of  the  wall. 

6.  Columns,  according  to  their  destination,  are  agricultural, 
astronomical,  boundary  or  limetrophus,  chronological,  funeral, 
gnomonic,  historical,  indicative,  itinerary,  lactary,  legal, 
inanuhiary,  menian,  miliary,  military,  phosphorical,  rostral, 
statuary,  symbolical,  or  zoophoric. 

Agricultural  columns  are  raised  for  explaining  the  rules 
of  agriculture. 

An  astronomical  column  is  a  cylindrical  or  conical  obser- 
vatory, built  hollow,  with  a  winding  staircase  ascending  to 


an  armillary  sphere  at  the  top,  for  observing  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  Such  is  the  Doric  order,  erected  at 
the  Hotel  de  Soissons.  at  Paris. 

Boundary  or  limetrophus  column  showed  the  limits  of  a 
kingdom,  t>r  conquered  country.  Such  was  that  erected  by 
Alexander  the  Great  at  the  extremities  of  the  Indies,  metv 
tioned  by  Pliny. 

A  chronological  column  bears  an  inscription  of  historical 
events,  arranged  in  order  of  time.  There  were  two  columns 
of  this  kind  at  Athens,  whereon  was  inscribed  the  history  of 
Greece,  digested  into  Olympiads. 

A  funeral  column  is  placed  over  a  tomb,  supporting  an 
urn,  or  bearing  some  inscription  relative  to  the  deceased.  Its 
shaft  is  frequently  covered  with  symbols  of  grief  and  mor- 
tality. 

A  gnomonic  column  is  a  cylinder,  on  which  the  hour  of  the 
day  is  represented  by  the  shadow  of  a  style.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  gnomonic  columns:  in  the  one  the  style  is  fixed, 
and  the  hour-lines  are  projected  on  the  cylindric  surface  ;  in 
the  other,  the  style  is  moveable,  and  the  hour-lines  are  diawn 
to  the  several  heights  of  the  sun  in  different  seasons  of  the 
year. 

An  historical  or  triumphal  colum,n  is  usually  adorned  with 
basso-relievos,  winding  spirally  upwards  around  the  shaft, 
and  showing  the  history  of  some  great  personage.  The  most 
celebrated  ancient  triumphal  columns  are  those  of  Trajan  and 
Antoninus  Pius  at  Rome,  and  Pompey's  Pillar,  near  Alex- 
andria, Egypt;  of  modern  ones  we  have  three  in  London — 
the  Monument  erected  in  memory  of  the  Great  Fiie,  that 
erected  in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and  another  in 
memory  of  Lord  Nelson,  in  whose  honour  there  is  an  earlier 
one  at  Edinburgh  ;  there  is  likewise  a  celebrated  column 
termed  Buonaparte's  Column,  in  Paris. 

Trajan's  Column  is  of  the  Doric  order,  and  constructed  of 
marble ;  the  face  throughout  its  length  is  covered  with 
sculptures  arranged  in  a  spiral  line,  running  up  the  shaft, 
representing  his  martial  exploits ;  its  total  height,  including 
a  base  or  pedestal  of  19  feet,  is  132  feet,  and  the  diameter 
of  the  shaft  at  its  junction  with  the  base  13  feet. 

The  column  of  Antoninus  is  similar  to  that  of  Trajan  both 
in  its  style  and  general  character,  though  not  equal  to  it  in 
execution.  Its  height  is  122  feet,  including  a  pedestal  of 
26  feet,  and  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  1 1  feet  6  inches. 

Pompey's  Pillar  at  Alexandria  is  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
and  is  92  feet  in  total  height.  The  shaft,  which  is  6(3  feet 
in  height,  is  of  a  single  block  of  granite,  and  polished. 

Of  the  colimms  in  London,  the  Monument  is  the  most 
celebrated.  It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  and  has  a  fluted  shaft; 
its  total  height  is  202  feet,  and  the  diameter  of  the  shat^  at 
its  base  15  feet. 

At  Constantinople  were  two  triumphal  columns,  similar  to 
those  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus;  that  of  Constantine  is 
entirely  destroyed,  and  of  the  other,  erected  to  Arcadius,  by 
Theodosius,  only  the  pedestal  and  the  first  cour.se  of  the 
shaft  remain.  Historical  columns  may  also  be  called  memo- 
rial, honorary,  or  triumphal  columns. 

An  indicative  column  is  placed  on  the  sea-coast,  for  show- 
ing the  rise  and  fall  of  the  waters.  Of  this  kind  is  the  Nilo- 
metre,  at  Grand  Cairo,  which  shows  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
Nile. 

Itinerary  columns  are  constructed  with  several  faces,  and 
placed  at  the  intersection  of  two  or  more  roads,  to  point  out 
the  different  routes  by  an  inscription  placed  on  each  face. 

The  lactary  column  was  erected  in  the  herb-market  at 
Rome,  on  a  hollow  pedestal,  wherein  young  children,  aban- 
doned by  their  parents,  out  of  poverty  or  inhumanity,  were 
exposed  to  be  brought  up  at  the  public  expense. 


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A  ler/al  column,  among  the  Laceda-monians,  was  raised  in 
!i  piil>.ic  pl.ice,  inscribed  wiili  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
slate. 

A  manvbiary  column  is  built  in  imitation  of  a  tree,  and 
adorned  with  trophies  taken  from  an  enemy. 

Meiiian  columns  ijiipport  a  balcony  or  meniana.  This  kind 
of  column  takes  its  name  from  one  Menias,  who  having  sold 
his  house  to  Cato  and  Flaccus,  when  consuls,  to  be  converted 
iutii  a  public  edifice,  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  raising 
a  ccihiiiin  on  the  outside,  to  bear  a  balcony,  whence  he  might 
see  the  public  shows.  We  are  informed  of  tliis  circumstance 
l)v  Suetonius  and  Ascanius. 

Mi/ihiri/  columns  were  raised  equidistantly  on  the  high- 
ways from  Rome  to  the  several  cities  of  the  empire,  and 
desrrilied  their  distance  from  the  middle  of  the  Roman 
Forum,  as  a  centre,  where  the  first  military  column  was 
raised  by  order  of  Augustus.  This  column  was  of  white 
marble,  of  a  cylindrical  furiii,  and  massive  proportions,  sup- 
porting a  globe,  the  same  as  is  now  seen  on  the  balustrade  of 
the  staircase  of  the  Ca(>it(i1  at  Rome.  This  column  was  called 
miliarium  aureum,  as  having  been  gilt,  or  at  least  the  ball, 
by  order  of  Augustus.  It  was  restored  by  the  Emperors 
Vespasian  and  Adrian,  as  appears  from  the  inscriptions. 

A  mililnry  column,  among  the  Romans,  was  engraven  with 
a  list  of  the  forces  in  the  Roman  army,  ranged  in  order  by 
le"ions,  and  intended  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  number 
of  soldiers,  and  of  the  order  observed,  in  any  military  expe- 
dition. Another  kind  of  military  column,  used  by  the 
Romans,  stood  before  the  temple  of  Janus,  at  the  foot 
whereof  the  consul  declared  war,  by  throwing  a  javelin 
towards  the  enemy's  country.  This  column  was  called 
columiia  bellica. 

A  phosphorical  column  is  a  hollow  column,  built  on  a  rock, 
or  the  tip  of  a  mole,  or  other  eminence,  to  serve  as  a  light- 
house, or  lantern,  to  a  port. 

A  rostral  column  was  a  triumphal  column,  adorned  with 
the  beaks  and  prows  of  galleys,  in  memory  of  a  naval  victory. 
The  first  rostral  column  was  erected  in  the  Capitol,  on  occa- 
sion of  the  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  by  C.  Duilius. 
Augustus  constructed  four  columns  with  the  prows  of  the 
ships  t;iken  from  Cleopatra. 

A  statuary  column  sup|)Orts  a  statue. 
Symbolical  columns  Tepvasent  some  particular  country,  by 
apprt)priate  attributes. 

A  zoopkoric  column  is  a  kind  of  statuary  column,  bearing 
the  figure  of  some  animal. 

There  are  also  other  columns,  denominated  hydraulic,  or 
water-cohnnns,  used  as  fciuiitains. 

COIAIMNIATED  WINDING-STAIRS.     &«  Stairs. 
COMA  (from  the  Greek  KUfia,  sleep)  in  antiquity,  a  mound 
of  earth  over  a  grave. 

COMITIUM  (I.atin,  an  assembly)  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
large  hall  in  the  forum,  in  which  comitia  were  ordinarily  held. 
Prior  to  the  period  of  the  second  Punic  war,  it  was  open  at 
the  top  ;  but  on  account  of  the  assemblies  being  often  inter- 
rupted by  bad  weather,  it  was  then  covered  over. 

COMM.\.NDERY;  a  religious  house  belonging  to  the 
Knights  Hospitallers,  the  same  as  a  preceptory  with  the 
Knights'  Templars.  Previous  to  their  dissolution  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.,  there  were  no  less  than  fifty  such  buildings 
subject  to  the  priory  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

COMMISSURE"(from  the  Latin,  commissura)  the  joint 
between  two  stones,  or  the  application  of  the  surface  of  one 
stone  to  that  of  the  other. 

COMM().\  (from  the  Latin,  communis)  in  geometry,  a 
line,  angle,  surface,  or  solid,  which  belongs  equally  to  two  or 
more  objects. 


Common  Centerino,  a  centering  without  trusses,  having  a 
tie-beam  at  the  bottom  ;  or  otherwise,  that  which  is  employed 
in  straight  vaults. 

Common  Joists,  those  beams  in  single  naked  flooring  to 
which  the  joists  are  fixed ;  they  might  be  properly  called 
boardiny-joists,  and  should  never  exceed  one  foot  clear  of 
each  other. 

Common  Pitch,  a  term  applied  to  a  roof  which  has  the 
length  of  the  sides  about  three-fourths  of  the  span. 

Common  Rafters,  those  timbers  in  a  roof  to  which  the 
boarding  or  lathing  for  slating  is  attached.  Common  roofing 
consists  entirely  of  common  rafters,  which,  in  the  strongest- 
framed  roofs,  bridge  over  the  purlins. 

COMMUNICATING-DOORS,  or   Doors   of  Communi- 
cation, those  which  open  or  throw  two  ap.irtments  into  one. 
COMPARTED  (from  the  French,  compartir,  to  divide) 
a  line,  surface,  or  solid,  divided  into  several  parts;  or  a  hol- 
low space  partitioned  into  several  smaller  spaces. 

COMPARTITION,  the  distribution  of  the  ground-plot  of 
an  edifice  into  apartments  and  passages. 

COMPARTMENT  (from  the  French,  compartimeut)  a 
division  of  a  picture,  design,  &c. 

Compartment  Ceiling,  a  name  given  to  all  ceilings 
divided  into  panels,  surrounded  with  mouldings.  Thei-e  lire 
many  beautiful  ancient  compositions  of  this  kind  applies!  to 
the  intradoses  of  cylindrical  and  spherical  vaulting,  and  to 
the  soffits  of  the  porticos  of  temples;  as  may  be  .seen  in  the 
Pantheon  and  the  Temple  of  Peace.  The  compartment  ceil- 
ings of  the  last  century  were  extremely  heavy,  which  has 
occasioned  the  epithet  pondrous  to  be  applied  to  them,  in 
order  to  di-tinguish  them  from  those  in  present  use.  These 
weighty  compositions  took  their  rise  in  Italy,  under  the  first 
masters,  who  seem  to  have  been  led  into  that  idea,  from 
observations  on  the  soffits  of  the  porticos  of  antique  temples. 
The  ancients,  with  their  usual  skill,  kept  up  a  bold  and  mas- 
sive style,  proportioning  their  coffers  to  the  strength,  mngni- 
tude,  and  height  of  the  building,  and  at  the  same  time  making 
an  allowance  tor  their  being  on  the  extrrior  part,  adjoining  to 
other  gr-eat  objects  ;  all  which  serve<l  to  diminish  and  lighten 
the  effect  of  the  compartments.  From  this  mistake  of  the 
first  modern  restorers  in  Italy,  all  Europe  has  been  misled. 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael.  Pyrro,  Ligerio,  Dominichino, 
Georgio  Vasari,  and  Algerdi,  with  great  taste  and  knowledge, 
threw  off" those  prejudices,  and  boldly  aimed  at  restoring  the 
antique  in  due  proportion.  But  at  this  time,  the  rage  for 
painting  became  so  prevalent  hi  Italy,  that,  instead  of  fol- 
lowing these  great  examples,  every  ceiling  was  covered  with 
large  fresco  compositions,  which,  though  extremely  fine  and 
well  painted,  were  much  misplaced,  and  would,  from  the 
attitude  in  which  they  were  beheld,  tire  the  patience  of  every 
spectator.  Great  compositions  should  be  placed  so  as  to  be 
viewed  with  ease.  Grotescpie  ornaments  and  figures  arc 
perceived  with  a  glance  of  the  eye,  and  require  little  exami- 
nation. The  heavy  compartment  ceilings  were  afterwards 
adopted  in  France  ;  and  Le  Potre  adorned  them  with  all  the 
trappings  of  his  luxuriant  imagination.  Iiiigo  Jones  intro- 
duced them  into  England,  with  as  much  weight,  but  less 
fancy  and  embellishment.  Vanbourgh,  Campbell,  and  Gibbs 
followed  too  implicitly  the  authority  of  this  great  name. 
Kent  has  the  merit  of  being  the  first  who  began  to  introduce 
grotesque  paintings  in  ornaments  of  stucco,  and  to  lighten 
the  coffers  of  compartment  ceilings.  Mr.  Stewart,  with  his 
good  taste  in  the  antique,  h,is  contributed  greatly  towards 
introducing  the  true  style  of  decoration  ;  but  the  comi>letioii 
seems  to  have  been  reserved  to  the  present  times,  in  which 
not  only  these,  but  every  other  kind,  are  executed  in  the 
highest  degree  of  perfection.' 


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185 


COM 


Compartment  Tiles,  an  arraiiKPment  of  white  and  red 
tiles,  varnislii'd,  for  tlie  decoration  of  the  covering  of  a  roof. 

COMPASS-HEADED,  having  a  semicircular  head. 

Compass  Roof,  that  which  extends  from  one  wall  to  the 
other  the  whole  width  of  the  buildin<j,  having  a  ridge  in 
its  centre  ;  the  term  is  used  in  contradistinetion  to  lean-to 
roof,  and  is  peculiarly  applied  to  the  ancient  open  tiniher 
roofs.  The  term  is  applied  by  some  to  roofs  with  cylindrical 
or  barrel  vaults. 

Compass  Saw.     See  Saw. 

Compass  Window,  a  window  which  has  a  circular  plan  ; 
a  bow  or  oriel  window. 

COMPASSES,  (from  the  French,  compos)  a  mathematical 
instrument  fir  descri-bing  circles  and  ellipses,  or  their  arcs; 
also  for  measuring  and  proportioning  distances. 

Compasses  for  drawing  are  of  four  kinds  :  those  with  two 
legs,  moveable  on  a  joint,  by  which  the  extremities  can  be 
extended  to  any  distance,  not  exceeding  the  sum  of  both  legs, 
are  called  common  compasses.  Those  with  a  beam  having  a 
fixed  point  at  one  of  its  ends,  and  a  moveable  collar  carrying 
another  point,  which  may  be  fixed  at  any  distance  from  the 
fixed  point  by  means  of  a  screw,  are  called  beam  compasses. 
Those  with  tliree  legs,  so  as  to  be  set  to  any  three  points,  of 
which  the  distance  between  any  two  may  not  be  greater  than 
tlie  sum  of  any  two  legs  of  the  compass,  are  called  triaitr/nlar 
compasses.  Those  for  drawing  ellipses,  are  called  elliptic 
compasses. 

Common  compasses  are  of  several  kinds,  and  are  furnished 
with  fixed  or  moveable  points,  forcarrying  a  pencil  or  ink  foot. 

Common  compasses  with  sharp  points,  used  for  taking 
distances,  are  called  dividers.  Dividers,  which  have  the  lower 
point  of  one  of  the  legs  fastened  to  the  upper  part  by  a  stiff 
spring,  and  by  means  of  a  screw  will  allow  of  slow  mt>tion  in 
the  legs,  so  as  to  extend  or  shorten  the  distance  of  the  points  to 
the  smallest  degree,  are  called  hair  compasses.  Tliose  with 
moveable  ink  and  pencil  feet,  for  describing  circular  lines,  are 
called,  in  cxmtradistinction,  compasses ;  the  ink  or  pencil  foot  is 
fitted  into  a  socket  in  one  of  the  legs  of  the  compass.  Besides 
the  ink  and  pencil  feet,  there  is  sometimes  another  foot  for 
dotting  circulai-  lines,  but  it  is  seldom  used,  as  being  apt  to 
run  two  or  more  dots  into  one.  Compasses  for  describing 
small  circles  with  ink  or  pencil,  and  which  shut  into  a  bow, 
are  called  bow  compasses. 

Triangular  compasses  have  two  legs,  which  revolve  on  a 
folding  joint,  like  common  compasses,  and  the  third  leg  is 
fixed  to  the  bulb  by  means  of  a  projection,  with  a  joint,  so 
as  to  be  moveable  in  every  direction.  The  three  points  of 
the  compasses  may  be  made  almost  to  coincide  with  any  three 
assumed  points,  to  any  distance  within  the  reach  of  their 
extension. 

Compasses  with  a  joint  between  the  extremities,  and  two 
sharp  points  at  each  end,  forming  a  double  compass,  so  that 
the  two  ends  may  always  preserve  the  same  ratio,  however 
extended,  are  called  proportional  compasses.  When  the  joint 
is  fixed,  the  compass  is  said  to  be  simple  ;  but  when  moveable, 
it  is  called  a  coinpoiind  proportional  compass. 

Tl>e  simple  proportional  compasses,  in  most  general  use, 
have  the  two  legs  on  one  side  of  the  centre  always  double 
those  on  the  other,  and  are  denominated  wholes-and-halves, 
or  bisecting  compasses. 

Compound  proportional  compasses  have  each  branch  cut 
with  a  long  slit  for  a  cursor  to  slide  in  ;  in  the  middle  of  the 
cursor  is  a  screw,  by  which  the  ends  may  be  set  in  any  pro- 
portion to  each  other.  One  leg  is  generally  graduated  on 
either  side  of  the  slit,  one  side  for  the  division  of  right  lines 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts  from  2  to  10,  and  the  other 
for  iusei ibiug  polygons  fiom  6  to  20  sides  in  a  circle  of  any 

24 


given  radius  within  the  greatest  extension  of  the  compasses. 
The  other  leg  is  graduated  in  a  similar  manner,  one  side  into 
divisions,  showing  the  proportion  between  the  areas  of  similar 
plane  figures,  the  other  into  parts  showing  the  proportion 
between  the  contents  of  similar  solid  figures.  This  instru- 
ment is  employed  in  the  reduction  of  figures,  and  is  extremely 
useful  in  the  projection  of  dome  departments,  and  in 
perspective. 

Examples  of  the  use  of  compound  proportional  compasses. 
— Let  it  be  required  to  divide  a  straight  line  into  four  equiil 
parts  ;  push  the  cursor  till  the  index  be  just  on  the  figure  4, 
and  fix  it  there  ;  then  take  the  length  of  the  given  line  with 
the  longer  legs,  and  the  distance  between  the  points  of  the 
other  legs  will  be  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  line. 

Again,  let  it  be  required  to  inscrilie  a  hcpt.agon  in  a 
circle  :  push  the  cursor  till  the  index  or  zero  be  on  7  ;  then, 
with  the  longer  legs  take  the  radius  of  the  circle,  and  the 
distance  between  the  two  other  points  will  be  the  side  of  the 
heptagon.     See  Projection. 

To  find  a  regular  plane  figure  whose  area  shall  equal  one- 
fourth  of  that  of  a  given  similar  figure  ;  set  the  zero  on  the 
cursor  to  the  line  marked  4,  take  the  length  of  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  given  figure  with  the  longer  legs,  and  the  distance 
between  the  points  of  the  shorter  ones  will  give  the  side  of 
a  similar  figure  which  shall  contain  an  area  equal  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  of  the  given  figure. 

By  means  of  the  same  scale  of  divisions,  may  be  found  the 
square  root  of  any  given  number,  thus  : — Set  the  zero  of  the 
cursor  to  the  given  number;  open  the  longer  legs  so  as  to 
contain  the  same  number  from  any  scale  of  equal  parts,  then 
apply  the  points  of  the  shorter  legs  to  the  same  scale,  and 
the  distance  measured  between  them  will  give  the  square  root 
of  the  given  number. 

To  find  a  sphere  or  cube  whose  solid  contents  shall  be  equal 
to  one-fourth  of  those  of  a  given  square  or  cube  :  Set  the  zero 
to  the  division  marked  4,  measure  the  diameter  of  th';  given 
sphere,  or  the  side  of  the  given  cube,  with  the  points  of  the 
longer  legs,  and  the  points  of  the  shorter  ones  will  give 
the  diameter  of  a  sphere  or  side  of  a  cube  such  as  required. 

The  cube  root  of  any  number  may  be  found  by  this  scale 
in  a  similar  manner  to  that  by  which  the  square  root  is  found 
by  the  opposite  one. 

Compasses  used  in  the  description  of  ellipses,  are  called 
elliptic  compasses,  or  ellipsographs.  See  Ellipsograph  and 
Pentaqraph. 

COMPASSING  (fiom  the  French,  compasser,  to  encircle) 
in  naval  architecture,  the  act  of  bringing  any  piece  of  timber 
into  the  form  of  an  arch. 

COMPLEMENT  (from  the  Latin,  <;o??!;j/e»!eH<"TO,  perfec- 
tion) in  a  general  sense,  the  full  quantity,  or  completion  of 
anything. 

Complement,  in  geometry,  whatever  is  wanting  of  any 
angle  to  make  a  right  angle,  or  90  degrees. 

Complement  of  a  Parallelogram,  two  lessor  parallelo- 
grams, made  by  drawing  two  right  lines  parallel  to  the  sides 
of  the  greater  parallelogram,  through  a  given  point  in  the 
diagonal. 

COMPLUVIUM  (Latin)  in  ancient  Roman  buildings,  is 
supposed  by  Newton  to  be  the  gutter  of  a  roof;  but  by 
Dr.  Adam  {Roman  Antiquities)  to  be  the  aperture  at  the  top 
of  the  cavasdium.     See  CwxDiva. 

COMPOSITE  ARCH,  the  pointed  or  lancet  arch. 

Composite  Base,  ) 

Composite  Capital,     >  See  Roman  Order. 

Composite  Order,       ) 

COMPOSITION,  the  distribution  and  arrangement  of  the 
component  parts  of  an  architectural  design. 


CON 


186 


CON 


Composition,  in  plastering.     See  Plasteiiino. 

CO.MI'OLIND  ARCH,  a  tomi  applied  by  Willis  to  those 
aichrs  iiiadu  up  of  a  series  of  reeediiig  concentric  arches,  the 
diincnsioiis  contracting  with  each  successive  arch;  or  in 
otlier  words,  to  those  arches  which  may  be  resolved  into 
a  number  of  concentric  archways,  successively  placed  within 
and  behind  each  other. 

Compound  AIasonrv.     See  Masonry. 

Compound  Pier,  the  same  as  Clustered  Column. 

Compound  J^uoroRrioNAL  Compasses.     See  Compasses. 

CONCAMEKATE  (from  the  Latin,  coticumero)  to  arch 
over. 

CONCATENx\TE  (fr..m  the  Latin,  catena)  to  chain  or 
link  together. 

CONCAVE  (from  tiie  Latin,  co/(c«(i»,s-, hollow)  an  epithet 
ajiplicd  to  the  interior  side  of  a  figure,  or  to  the  interior  sur- 
face of  a  body. 

Concavity  of  a  Curve  Line,  the  side  next  to  a  straight 
ine,  extended  between  the  two  jxjints  of  a  curve. 

Concavity  of  a  Solid,  the  curved  surface  of  a  solid,  such 
that  if  any  two  points  be  taken  in  that  surface,  the  straight 
line  l)etween  them  will  be  entirely  in  a  void  sj)aee,  or  will 
coincide  with  the  surface  in  one  direction  only.  This  defini- 
tion applies  to  cylinders,  cones,  spheres,  and  "all  other  solids 
gencrati-d  by  the  rotation  of  conic  sections  about  an  axis. 

When  the  surface  of  a  solid  is  such,  that  two  straight  lines 
may  be  drawn  from  any  point  in  that  surface  to  two  other 
[loints,  so  that  the  one  line  may  be  entirely  in  the  void,  and 
the  other  pass  through  the  substance  or  solid,  the  surface 
may  be  distinguished  liy  the  epithet  concavo-convex ;  of  which 
description  are  the  surfaces  of  solids  formed  like  a  trumpet- 
mouth. 

C(  JNCENTRIC  (from  the  Latin,  concenlriciis)  in  geometry, 
a  term  applied  to  such  objects  as  have  a  common  centre.  It 
is  principally  used  in  speaking  of  round  bodies,  or  figures 
that  have  a  circular  or  elliptic  cin  u inference ;  and  may  also 
be  a|>|>lied  to  ])olygons  that  have  the  same  centre,  and  their 
sides  parallel  to  each  other,  about  the  same  diagonals,  radi- 
ating from  the  centre. 

CO.\(  'II  A,  the  concave  surface  of  a  semicircular  vault,  more 
especially  .ipplied  to  that  of  a  semi-dome,  or  hemisphere. 

('( ).\(  IIOID  (resembling  a  shell.)  This  name  was  given 
by  the  inventor,  Nicomedes,  to  a  curve,  by  which  he  proposed 
I  he  finding  of  two  mean  proportionals,  and  the  duplication  of 
the  cube.  It  may  be  described  as  a  curve  line  which  always 
approaches  to  a  straight  line  but  never  meets  it,  though  the 
straight  line  and  the  curve  be  ever  so  far  produced.  It  is 
thus  generated  :  If  a  p  and  b  d  be  two  right  lines  intersect- 
ing each  olher  at  right  angles  ;  and  if  from  a  lixcd  point,  p, 
a  number  of  other  lines,  p  f  d  e.  p  f  D  e,  &e.  be  also  drawn, 
and  if  I)  K  be  taken  equal  to  a  n.  the  curvi^  drawn  through  all 
the  points  e,  e,  e,  &c.  will  be  the  first  conchoid,  or  that  of 
Nicomedes.  In  like  manner,  if  d  f,  d  f,  &e.  be  taken  each 
eipial  to  n  c.  the  curve  passing  through  all  the  points,  f,  is 
called  the  second  conchoid.  The  straight  line,  d  d,  &c.  by 
which  the  desrription  of  these  curves  is  regulated,  is  called 
t/ic  a.ii/wp/otc.  The  inventor,  Nicomedes,  contrived  an  instru- 
ment for  describing  his  conchoid  by  a  mechanical  mtition,  of 
which  the  description  will  be  found  under  Column. 

Ct^NCL.WE  (t'rom  the  Latin)  a  room  in  the  Vatican, 
wherein  the  (•.inlinals  used  to  meet  to  choose  a  pope.  This 
room  was,  in  fact,  a  range  of  small  cells  or  apartments,  stand- 
ing in  a  line  along  the  galleries  and  hall  of  the  Vatican. 
The  W(jrd  was  also  used  by  the  ancient  Romans,  to  denote, 
generally,  a  room  under  lock  and  key. 

CONCORD,  Temple  of.  in  Roman  antiquities,  a  temple, 
built  by  Camillus  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  and  seen  from 


the  Forum  :  the  remains  consist  of  a  hexastyle  portico,  with 
two  columns  at  the  back,  of  the  Ionic  order;  the  entablature 
is  very  nearly  entire;  a  large  portion  of  the  tympanum,  and 
a  small  part  of  the  pedimwit,  remain  at  the  spring  of  the  level 
cornice.  The  weight  of  the  tympanum  is  discharged  from 
the  entablature  with  arches.  The  columns  are  of  granite,  of 
one  piece  each,  being  40  feet  high,  and  4  feet  2  inches 
diameter.  The  bases  are  without  plinths,  except  those  of  the 
angular  columns.  Tlie  capitals  are  of  a  singular  construction, 
and  differ  frf)m  all  ancient  examples  of  the  same  order,  in 
having  the  four  faces  alike.  The  volutes  are  insignilicantly 
diminutive,  and  the  mouldings  too  large,  compared  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  column.  The  architrave  and  frieze  make 
only  one  course  in  height ;  and  on  the  front,  and  at  one  return 
of  the  portico,  are  entirely  plain,  without  .-my  separation  by 
mouldings.  The  cornice  has  both  modillions  and  dentils. 
This  is  perhaps  the  only  ancient  example  of  the  Ionic  order, 
in  which  modillionsare  used:  they  are  in  number  twenty-two 
in  the  front  of  the  portico.  An  interval  is  placed  over  the 
axis  of  each  column,  and  not  a  modillion  ;  and  the  columns 
are  very  high,  being  above  nine  diameters  and  a  half.  This 
temple  is  supposed  to  have  been  pseudo-peripteral.  The 
column  on  the  right  angle  is  less  than  the  rest,  and  the  mid- 
dle intercolumniation  greater  than  the  other.s,  by  about 
one-third  part  fif  a  module. 

CONCRETE,  the  name  given  to  a  composition,  variously 
made,  but  in  geiienil  use  among  architects  as  an  artificial 
foiniilation  for  buildings. 

The  convenience  of  obtaining  a  firm  and  solid  bottom  by 
the  f  irmation  of  a  compact  mass  of  concrete  ;  and  the  facility 
with  which  this  composition  is  made  and  used,  have  led  to  its 
almost  universal  adoption  in  all  situations  where  the  requisite 
materials  can  be  procured.  The  proportions,  and  the  species 
of  material  varv,  of  course,  in  different  localities,  and  in  the 
practice  of  different  architects,  but  the  principal  ingredients, 
good  lime,  clean  sharp  river-sand,  and  pebbles  well  mixed, 
will  not  fail  to  make  a  good  concrete. 

Semple  recommends  to  take  80  parts  of  pebbles — each 
about  7  or  8  ounces  in  weight — 40  parts  of  sharp  river-sand, 
and  10  of  good  lime;  the  last  to  be  mixed  with  water  to  a 
thinnish  consistence,  and  grouted  in.  The  concrete  used  by 
builders  in  the  neighliourhood  of  London,  is  made  of  Tliamos 
ballast,  as  taken  from  the  bed  of  the  river;  this  is  found  to 
consist  nearly  of  2  (larts  of  pebbles  to  1  of  sand,  and  from 
one-seventh  to  one-eighth  part  of  lime.  Mr.  Godwin  says 
the  best  method  of  making  concrete  is  to  mix  thi'  lime,  pre- 
viouslv  ground,  with  the  bal'last  in  a  dry  state  ;  sufficient 
water  being  thrown  over  it  to  eft'ect  a  ])erfect  mixture  ;  it 
should  then  be  turned  over  two  or  three  times  with  shovels, 
put  into  barrows,  and  wheeled  away  for  instant  use.  It  is 
advisabletoemplov  two  sets  of  men  to  perform  this  operation, 
with  three  men  in  each  set,  one  man  fetching  the  water.  &c. 
while  the  other  two  turn  over  the  mixture  to  the  second  set, 
and  they,  repeating  the  process,  turn  over  the  concrete  to  the 
barrow-men.  After  being  put  into  the  barrows,  it  should  be 
wheeled  up  planks,  so  raised  as  to  give  it  a  fall  of  some  yards, 
and  thrown  into  the  foundation,  by  which  means  the  particles 
are  driven  closer  together,  and  greater  solidity  isgiven  to  the 
whole  mass.  Soon  after  being  thrown  in.  the  mixture  is 
observed  usual Iv  to  be  in  commotion,  and  much  heat  is  evolved 
with  a  copious  emission  of  vapour. 

The  concrete  should  be  thrown  on  in  layers,  the  first  being 
allowed  to  set,  before  a  second  is  thrown  down.  A  barrow- 
load  spreadin;;  over  the  ground  in  its  fall,  will  form  generally 
a  stratum  of  from  7  to  9  inches  thick,  and  a  cubical  yard  of 
concrete  will  take  about  30  feet  cube  of  ball.ist,  and  3^  feet 
cube  of  ground   lime,  with  a  suflicient  quantity  of  water. 


COxV 


187 


CON 


Of  the  latter  no  more  should  be  wsed  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  effect  a  perfect  mixture  of  the  ingredients. 
Hot  water  accelerates  the  induration. 

The  expediency  of  using  concrete  as  a  substitute  for  stone, 
brick,  and  other  inaterials  for  building,  or  const  ructions  above 
ground,  has  been  much  discussed,  and  a  great  variety  of 
ofdnion  has  prevailed  on  the  subject.  In  the  "  Prize  Essay 
upon  the  Kdliire  and  Properties  of  Concrete  and  its  Applica- 
tion to  Construction"  Mr.  Godwin  has  given  much  valtuible 
information,  but  we  think  the  opinions  he  has  there  ventured 
as  to  the  use  of  concrete  for  walls,  &e.,  w  ill  hardly  be  adopted 
by  architects  generally.  "A  prudent  mun,"  says  Mr.  Bar- 
th<ilornew,  ''will  not  heap  up  walls  a  second  time,  altogether 
of  coiierete.  lie  will  not  exchange  masonry  of  good  strong 
nioi  tar,  and  good  strong  stone  or  brick,  for  a  heap  entirely 
of  moi'tar,  and  that  '•  tres  malgre."  A  careful  examination 
will  discover  that  in  every  instance  in  which  concrete  walls 
have  been  used,  more  or  less  of  instant  ruin  has  occurred, 
the  lintels  over  the  apert\ires  of  the  first  story  giving 
way  before  even  those  (jf  the  second  story  have  been  laid  ; 
and  when  those  breaches  have  been  repaired,  they  have  re- 
appeared ;  and  even  through  the  solid  walls,  rents  have 
instantly  occurred  :  experience  proves  that  gravel  lying  in  a 
bed,  and  there  growing,  as  it  were,  without  the  means  of  flow 
or  escape,  is  suflicient  to  support  the  most  enormous  weight 
of  fabric ;  but  the  same  gravel  detached,  cannot  be  piled  up, 
so  as  to  form  either  solid  upright  walls,  or  horizontal 
beams." 

Concrete  has  been  also  used  both  as  "  rough  concrete,"  and 
in  blocks,  in  extensive  works,  as  river-walls,  breakwaters,  &c., 
anil  has  been  recommended  for  such  purposes  l)y  engineers 
of  eminence.  In  the  '"  Professional  Papers  of  the  Corps  of 
Royal  Engineers,"  Captain  Denison  describes  some  works 
of  this  kind,  and,  in  the  experiments  he  had  the  opportunity  of 
witnessing,  some  very  instructive  results  are  obtained  as  to  the 
practical  application  of  concrete  to  the  construction  of  river- 
walls  at  Woolwich  and  Chatham.  In  one  instiince  at  Wool- 
wich, it  has  been  applied  in  mas.s,  the  wall  having  been  con- 
structed in  the  same  manner  as  the  Hrigliton  sea-wall  ;  in 
both  the  other  instances  at  Woolwich  and  Chatham,  the  con- 
crete was  formed  into  t)locks,  which  were  allowed  ample  time 
to  set  and  harden  before  they  were  built  into  the  face  of  the 
wall.  At  Woolwich,  the  river-wall  is  for  the  mostliaj't  founded 
upon  piles;  its  height  aliove  the  piles  is  about  24  feet  ;  the 
thickness  at  liottom  9  feet,  at  top  5  feet,  with  a  slope  or  batter 
in  front  of  3  feet  in  22.  The  face  of  the  wall  is  composed  of 
the  blocks  laid  in  cement,  in  courses  18  inches  in  height ; 
the  hcidcrs  and  stretchers  in  the  course  being  each  2  feet 
6  ini-hes  long:  the  former  having  a  heA  of  2  feet,  while  the 
lattej-  have  onlv  1  foot ;  behind  the  facing,  the  rough  concrete 
was  thrown  in  to  complete  the  thickness  of  the  wall  and 
counter-forts.  Both  the  blocks  and  the  rough  concrete  were 
composed  of  lime  and  gravel,  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  7  and 
brought  to  the  proper  consistence  with  boiling  water ;  but 
the  blocks  were,  f>r  ought  to  have  been,  made  with  Aberthaw 
lime,  Dorking  lime  being  used  for  the  rest  of  the  work.  The 
blocks  Were  cast  in  moulds,  and  were  submitted  to  pressure 
while  setting  ;  a  coating  of  finer  stuff  being  given  to  the  face 
for  the  sake  of  appearance.  The  whole  of  the  w\all  was  built 
by  tide-work,  and  in  the  lower  part  therefore  the  backing  of 
rough  concrete  had  hardly  time  to  set  before  it  was  covered 
with  the  tide;  the  water,  however,  in  this  instance,  appeared 
to  affect  the  surface  of  the  mass  oidy,  the  interior  at  the  depth 
of  a  few  inches  appearing  dry,  and  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
hardness,  when  examined  after  the  retiring  of  the  tide. 

During  the  summer  months,  the  action  of  the  water  from 
day  to  day  was  not  perceptible ;  the  surface  still  remained 


tolerably  hard  ;  occasionally  portions  of  the  fine  faiing  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  block,  owing,  it  was  said,  some- 
times to  want  of  care  in  the  original  construction,  sometimes 
to  injuries  caused  by  boats  or  vessels  sti iking  the  wall  ;  in 
these  cases,  however,  a  new  tkeing  of  cement  wa--  applied,  and 
before  the  winter,  the  general  appearance  of  the  wall  was  to 
a  certain  extent  satisfactory. 

During  a  hard  frost,  however,  evidences  of  failure  began  to 
show  themselves ;  and  as  soon  as  the  thaw  allow  ed  a  thorough 
inspection  of  the  face  of  the  wall  to  be  made,  it  was  found  that 
hardly  a  single  block  had  escaped  damage  ;  in  many  instances, 
the  whole  face  had  peeled  off  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  ;  at 
one  spot,  where  a  drain  discharged  itself  into  the  river  from 
a  height  of  about  six  or  eight  feet,  the  back  action  of  the 
water  after  its  fall,  had  worn  away  the  lower  courses  to  the 
depth  of  some  inches.  These  were  the  evidences  of  the  action 
of  frost  and  water  combined,  upon  the  best  constructed  wall 
at  Woolwich.  At  Chatham,  they  were  of  the  same  character, 
but  the  damage  done  to  the  wall  was  much  greater. 

The  portion  of  river-wall  at  Woolwich,  which  was  built  with 
rough  concrete,  was  severely  injured  by  the  common  action 
of  the  water  before  frost,  and  the  same  residt  was  observed 
in  the  walls  of  a  school  near  Blackheath.  which  were  built  of 
concrete  some  years  ago  :  at  the  ground-line,  where  the  diip 
of  the  water  had  acted,  the  concrete  was  soft;,  and  yielded  easily 
to  any  force  applied,  while  the  walls  above  were  very  fairly 
hard,  and  seemed  to  have  stood  very  well.  The  results  of  the 
observations  made  at  that  time,  on  the  use  of  concrete  in  con- 
structions of  a  kind  similar  to  those  above  mentioned,  are 
summed  up  by  Captain  Denison  in  the  opinion  "  that  in 
climates  like  ours,  in  situations  exposed  to  the  alternate  action 
of  water  and  air,  concrete  cannot  be  advantageously  used  as 
a  building  material,  the  apparent  economy,  caused  by  the 
cheapness  of  the  material  employed,  being  more  than  compen- 
sated for  by  the  freiiiiency  of  repairs." 

In  the  report  (dated  184C)  and  evidence  of  the  "  Committ;ee 
on  the  Harbour  of  Refuge  to  be  constructed  in  Dover  Bay," 
a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  is  afliirded  on  the  use  of 
concrete.  Amongst  the  various  j)lans  submitted  to  the  com- 
mittee, Captain  Denison,  Oilonel  Jones,  and  Mr.  Vignoles 
proposed  to  construct  breakwaters  of  blocks  of  concrete. 
The  first  of  these  gentlemen  recommended  that  the  blocks 
shoidd  be  manufactured  at  Dungeness,  and  thence  floated  to 
Dover  by  means  of  camels.  The  French  adopted  a  similar 
plan  in  their  works  at  Algiers,  where  large  blocks  of  belon, 
or  hydraulic  concrete,  were  floated  out  to  the  required  spot, 
and  then  allowed  to  drop  into  their  places  from  slings.  These 
blocks  were  rectangular  in  fbiin,  and  measin-ed  324  cubic 
feet.  At  the  works  at  St.  Joilette,  at  Marseilles,  also, 
immense  blocks  of  concrete,  13  yards  cubic  measure  in  size, 
have  been  sunk  for  the  foundation.  The  form  suggested  by 
Captain  Denison  was  that  of  an  hexagonal  prism,  and  it  was 
considered  each  block  would  weigh  from  20  to  30  tons.  The 
concrete  would  be  made  in  the  following  manner  : — the 
gravel  of  sea-beach  to  be  mixed  with  the  best  hydraidiclime 
in  the  proportion  of  ten  or  twelve  parts  of  gravel  to  one  of 
lime;  and  with  the  view  of  causing  it  to  set  more  speedily 
under  water,  a  proportion  of  puzzolana  should  be  added, 
varying  in  quantity  according  to  its  quality  ;  half  the  quan- 
tity of  puzzolana  "to  that  of  lime  would  make  very  hard, 
sound  concrete,  which  would  set  rapidly  ;  but  if  desirable  to 
make  it  set  very  quick,  the  qu.mtity  of  puzzolana  might  be 
increased  till  it  equalled  that  of  the  lime.  The  concrete  used 
by  Mr.  Ranger  at  W^oolwich  was  nearly  the  same,  except  that 
he  used  no  puzzolana. 

In  the  course  of  Captain  Denison's  evidence  he  refers  to 
the  works  at  Chatham  and  Woolwich,  to  which  we  have 


CON 


188 


CON 


already  alluded,  and  states  that  he  had  again  examined  the 
wall  at  Woolwich,  and  found  the  interior  as  hard  as  could  be 
wished.  Those  jiarts,  however,  of  the  concrete  facing,  which 
were  exposed  to  the  mechanical  action  of  the  water,  were 
injured  by  it ;  and  therefore,  though  recommending  concrete 
below  low-water  mark,  he  was  bound  to  admit  that  it  was 
not  ada(itcd  to  those  situations  where  it  must  be  ex]iosed  to 
such  action. 

The  specific  gravity  t)f  coticrete,  as  compared  with  that  of 
other  materials,  is  as  follows  : — 

Concrete  weighs  about  140  lbs.  to  the  cubic  foot. 
Brick-work      .     .     .     110 
Granite       .     .     .     .     ICO  to  170 
Portland  stone     .     .     150. 

We  must  refer  to  the  report  itself  for  more  detailed  infor- 
mation on  this  subject,  only  adding  the  conclusion  come  to 
by  the  committee,  that  "  there  is  not  s\iflicicnt  expei-ience  of 
the  use  of  concrete  to  warrant  its  adoption  for  the  faces 
of  works  to  be  constructed  in  the  sea." 

The  French  engineers  have  made  use  of  beton  in  many  of 
the  extensive  woiks  on  the  continent;  beton  sets  very 
rapidly  under  water,  and  attains,  after  a  time,  a  very  con- 
siderable degree  of  hardness.  M.  Milet  de  Montville  having 
filled  a  chest  containing  U7  cubic  feet  of  beton,  sunk  it  in 
the  sea,  where  it  remained  during  two  months,  after  which 
it  was  drawn  up,  to  ascertain  the  consolidation  it  had 
acquired.  On  inspection  it  was  found  to  be  converted  into 
so  compact  a  body,  that  more  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
separating  its  parts,  than  those  of  a  block  of  hard  stone. 
The  best  manner  of  compounding  the  beton,  according  to 
M.  de  Montville,  is  as  follows  : — '•  Take  twelve  parts  of 
puzzolana,  {terrosse  de  Hullande,  or  Cendre  de  Tourney,) 
of  which  form  a  circular  wall  of  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter, 
on  which  place  six  parts  of  sand,  well  sifted,  fice  fiom 
earthy  matter,  and  evenly  spread.  Fill  the  interior  of  this 
circle  with  nine  parts  of  quick-lime,  well  calcined,  and  pul- 
verized w  ith  an  iron  beetle  ;  and  to  cause  it  to  slack  more 
quickly,  (in  maritime  works)  throw  on  sca-waler  in  small 
quMMtilii's,  stirring  it  from  time  to  time  with  an  iron  spatula. 
As  soon  as  it  is  reduced  to  a  paste,  incorporate  the  puzzolana 
and  the  sand.  The  whole  being  well  mixed,  throw  in  thir- 
teen parts  of  unhewn  stone,  and  three  paits  of  iron  dross, 
well  pounded.  If  this  latter  ingredient  cannot  be  obtained, 
sixteen  j)arts  of  rough  stones  or  pebbles  must  be  added,  of  a 
size  not  larger  than  a  i)ullet's  egg.  Let  this  composition  be 
well  amalgamated  for  the  space  of  an  hour,  after  which  it 
must  be  left  in  heajis  to  coagulate  ;  for  this  purpose  the  space 
of  twenty-tijur  hours  will  be  sufficient  in  summer  or  in  warm 
climates,  but  in  winter  it  often  requires  the  space  of  three  or 
four  days.  Observe  »o  keep  it  protected  from  the  rain,  and 
not  to  use  it  until  it  has  sufficiently  hardened  to  require 
breaking  with  a  picka.xe.'' 

The  method  of  using  the  beton  is  either  in  blocks,  or  by 
means  of  a  coder  or  chest  tilled  with  the  composition,  lowered 
to  the  re(iuired  depth,  and  there  emptied. 

CONCKETlON  (from  the  Latin,  coiicresco)  the  act  of 
concreting;  the  process  by  which  soft  or  fluid  bodies  become 
thick,  consistent,  solid,  or  hard;  the  act  of  uniting,  by 
natural  process,  the  small  particles  of  matter  into  a  mass. 
The  word  is  used  inditVerently  ibr  induration,  condensation, 
congelation,  or  coagulation. 

COXCUKliING,  or  CoxGRUEXT  Figi"res,  or  Solids, 
such  as  will  cover  each  other  exactly,  or  will  fill  the  same 
space.  All  plane  figures  will  do  this,  when  their  coirespond- 
ing  angles  and  sides  are  equal. 

CO.NDUir  (from  the  French)  a  canal,  or  pipe,  for  the 
conveyance  of  water,  or  other  fluid  matter ;  an  aqueduct. 


The  earth  is  full  of  natural  conduits,  for  the  passage  of 
waters,  which  give  rise  to  springs,  and  of  vapours  which 
generate  metals  and  minerals. 

Artificial  conduits  for  water  are  made  of  lead,  cast  iron, 
stone,  potters'  earth,  ikc.     See  Plumbery. 

Also  the  reservoir  or  erection  where  the  waters  are  con- 
ducted and  distributed  for  use.  Previous  to  the  formation  of 
the  present  water-companies,  these  conduits  were  freq\ient  in 
the  different  parts  of  London,  and  were  the  only  means  by 
which  the  inhabitants  were  supplied  with  water;  the  first 
conduit  erected  was  one  near  Bow  Church,  Cheapside,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IH. ;  and  among  the  latest  was  one  of  large 
dimensions,  erected  in  1655,  at  Leadenhall,  which  served 
likewise  for  an  ornamental  fountain.  Conduits  of  this  kind 
of  an  early  date  were  usual  in  our  large  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishments, and  where  cloisters  existed,  there  was  frequently 
one  in  the  centre  of  the  quadrangle ;  which  cust<.>m  hiis  been 
observed  in  the  quadrangle  of  S.  Augustine's,  Canterbury, 
lately  erected,  where  the  conduit,  of  excellent  design,  forms 
an  imposing  feature. 

The  first  attempt  to  carry  water  info  the  houses  of  London 
was  made  by  Peter  Morris,  a.  d.  1582.  who  establi^hed  the 
waterworks  constructed  under  two  of  the  arches  of  old  Lon- 
don Bridge,  but  their  supply  extended  only  as  far  as  Grace- 
church-street;  soon  after,  in  1594,  similar  works  were  erected 
near  Broken  ^^  harf  which  supplied  the  houses  in  Westcheap 
and  around  S.  Paul's,  as  far  as  Fleet-street.  It  was  not  until 
the  reign  of  James,  that  any  enterprise  of  this  kind  on  a 
large  scale  was  undertaken,  when  the  t'ormation  of  the  Xew 
Kiver  was  commenced  by  Sir  Hugh  Middleton  in  1608,  and 
completed  in  1613. 

CONE  (from  the  Greek,  kuvo^)  a  solid,  bounded  by  two 
surfaces,  one  of  which  is  a  circle,  called  the  bane,  a\ui  the  oiher 
a  convexity,  ending  in  a  point,  called  the  vertex  ;  and  of  such  a 
nature,  that  a  straight  line  applied  to  any  point  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  base  and  to  the  vertex,  will  coincide  with 
the  convex  surface. 

The  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  base  to  the 
vertex  of  the  cone,  is  called  l/ie  axis. 

When  the  axis  of  the  cone  is  perpendicular  to  the  base, 
the  Cone  is  called  a  right  cone,  but  when  otherwise,  it  is 
called  an  oblique  cone. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  through  its  vertex,  the  section 
will  be  a  triangle. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  its  base,  the  section 
will  be  a  circle,  or  similar  to  the  base. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane,  so  as  to  make  the  portion  cut 
off  similar  to  the  whole  cone,  the  section  will  be  a  circle,  or 
similar  to  the  base. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  a  plane  passing 
through  the  vertex,  meeting  the  plane  of  the  base  produced 
without,  the  section  is  an  ellipsis,  except  the  part  cut  oft"  be 
similar  to  the  whole  cone,  as  in  the  last  position. 

If  a  cone  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  a  plane  in  contact 
with  its  side,  the  section  will  be  a  parabola. 

If  a  coue  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  a  section  of  the 
cone  passing  through  the  vertex,  the  section  will  be  an 
hyperbola. 

Every  cone  is  one-third  part  of  a  cylinder  of  the  same  base 
and  altitude  (Euclid.,  b.  xii.,  prop.  10.),  and  cones  of  equal 
altitudes  are  to  each  other  as  their  bases  (Euclid.,  b.  xii., 
prop.  11);  therefore  any  cone  whatever  is  the  thiid  part  of 
a  cvlinder  of  e<iual  base  and  altitude  with  the  cone. 

The  curved  surface  of  a  cone  is  equal  to  the  sector  of  a 
circle,  the  radius  of  whi<h  is  equal  to  the  slanting  side  of  the 
cone;  and  the  arc-line  of  the  sector  is  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  base  of  the  cone. 


I 


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189 


CON 


To  find  the  solidity  of  a  cone,  multiply  the  area  of  the  base 
by  the  altitude,  and  one-third  of  the  product  will  give  the 
solidity.  Or,  niulli|ily  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  base, 
which  is  the  mean  area,  by  the  altitude  of  the  cone,  and  the 
product  will  give  the  solidity.'    ike  Circle. 

To  find  the  curved  surface  of  a  cone,  multiply  the  slanting 
side  of  the  cone  by  the  senu-circumference  of  the  base,  and 
the  jirodiict  will  be  the  an-a  of  the  curved  surface. 

If  the  diameter  of  the  base  be  given,  the  circumference 
must  be  tbund  as  directed  under  the  article  Circle. 

If  the  perpendicular  altitude  be  given,  the  slanting  side  of 
the  cone  will  be  ascertained  by  the  47th  prop..  Book  i.,  Euclid. 
But  if  the  cone  be  given,  it  will  be  much  easier  to  take  the 
slanting  side  and  the  circumference  of  the  base,  than  its  alti- 
tude and  diameter;  the  operation  will  also  be  much  shorter 
by  taking  the  former  dimensions  than  the  latter.  See  Conic 
Section,  Ellipsis,  Envelope,  Hyperbola,  and  Para- 
bola. 

CONFESSIONAL,  or  Confessionart,  in  churches,  a 
place  usually  under  the  main  altar,  wherein  the  bones  of 
deceased  saints,  martyrs,  and  confessors  were  deposited. 

Confessional  is  also  usned  in  the  Romish  church,  to 
designate  a  little  box,  or  desk,  in  the  church,  in  which  the 
priest  receives  the  confessions  of  the  penitents. 

Few  confessionals,  if  any,  are  to  be  found  in  England, 
although  it  is  a  common  practice  to  set  down  all  niches, 
for  which  no  other  use  can  be  immediately  discovered,  under 
this  title. 

CONFIGURATION,  (from  the  French)  the  exterior 
superficies  of  a  body,  from  which  it  receives  its  particular 
figure. 

CONGE,  a  concavity  at  the  extremity  of  a  vertical  sur- 
face, wheie  it  bends  otl"  in  a  tangent,  and  projects  forward 
until  it  meets  a  fillet,  or  other  vertical  surface,  at  an  external 
angle.  Thus  the  shaft  of  a  column  bends  forward  at  the 
upper  and  lower  ends,  until  it  meets  the  fillet.  The  conge,  when 
a|iplied  to  a  column,  is  part  of  the  interior  surface  of  a  cylin- 
driail  ring,  and  its  section  is  generally  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 

The  term  is  derived  from  the  French,  conge,  a  curve  ;  the 
Greek  appellation  is  apoplnjye  ;  and  the  Latin,  scapus,  from 
which  the  English  word  scape  is  derived.     See  Apophyge. 

CONGERIES,  a  collection  or  heap  of  several  bodies, 
united  in  one  mass  or  aggregate. 

(X)NGRl  ITY,  in  geometry,  a  term  applied  to  lines, 
angles,  figures,  and  solids,  which  exactly  cover  each  other, 
or  coincide.  Figures  that  are  equal  and  similar  have  a  con- 
gniity  ;  as  have  solids,  the  figures  of  whose  sides  are  con- 
gruous with  the  planes  of  the  corresponding  side  at  the 
Kaine  inclination. 

CONIC,  relating  to  a  cone.     See  Cone. 

Conic  Sections,  the  curves  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
a  circular  cone  and  a  plane,  the  former  being  either  oblique 
or  right.  The  works  of  Apollonius  and  Archimedes  are  the 
first  in  which  these  sections  were  treated  of ;  and  their  history 
is  nothing  but  that  of  the  addition  of  a  few  remarkable  pro- 
perties, till  the  discovery  that  the  path  of  a  projected  body 
in  an  unresisting  space  is  a  parabola,  and  that  of  a  planet 
round  the  sun  an  ellipse.  Though  the  name,  therefore,  of 
conic  sections  still  remains,  the  interest  which  attaches  to 
these  curves,  and  the  method  of  treating  them,  has  no  longer 
any  reference  to  the  accident  from  wliich  they  derive  their 
name.  The  Greek  geometers,  in  pure  speculation,  occupied 
themselves  with  the  different  methods  in  which  a  cone  may 
be  cut,  simply  because  the  conical  (with  the  cylindrical  and 
spherical)  c;mie  within  the  restrictive  definitions  under  which 
they  had  placed  geometry  ; — but  since  the  discovery  to  which 
we  have  alluded,  we  might  as  well  attempt  to  write  the  his- 


tory of  mathematics  and  physics,  as  that  of  conic  sections  in 
their  results  and  consequences. 

Some  sections  of  a  cone  arc  considered  in  elementary  geo- 
metry, for  a  plane  may  meet  a  cone  in  a  point,  or  in  a  single 
straight  line,  in  two  intersecting  straight  lines,  or  in  a  circle. 
But  the  curves,  \Nhich  are  peculiarly  conic  sections,  are  the 
oval  made  by  a  plane  which  cuts  the  cone  entirely  on  one 
side  of  the  vertex,  called  the  Ellipse;  the  indefinitely 
extended  modification  of  this  when  the  plane  becomes  parallel 
to  any  one  slant  side  of  the  cone,  called  the  Pakahola  ;  and 
the  curve,  which  is  partly  on  one  side,  and  partly  on  the 
other  of  the  vertex,  formed  by  a  plane  which  cuts  both  sur- 
faces of  the  cone,  called  the  Hyperbola. 

Below  is  appended  some  convenient  methods  of  forming  the 
sections  upon  a  plane,  w  ithout  any  reference  to  the  cone. 

If  each  end  of  a  string  of  greater  length  than  the  distance 
E  F,  Plate  1,  Figure  1,  to  be  tied  to  the  points  e  and  f,  and 
any  intermediate  point  b,  be  taken  in  the  string,  then  the 
point  B  being  carried  round  the  line  e  f,  so  as  to  keep 
the  parts,  e  b,  b  f,  always  stretched  till  it  come  to  the  point 
whence  it  began  to  move,  the  point  b  will  trace  out  a  curve, 
A  b  c  D,  which  will  be  an  ellipsis. 

If  the  end  of  a  straight  inflexible  line,  or  rod,  of  a  greater 
length  than  the  distance  e  f.  Figure  2,  be  fixed  to  one 
extremity,  e,  of  the  line,  and  one  end  of  a  string  of  greater 
length  than  the  diflerence  between  e  f  and  the  length  of  the 
rod,  be  fixed  to  f,  and  the  other  end  to  the  other  end  of 
the  rod  at  n;  then,  if  any  point,  b,  be  taken  in  the  string, 
and  the  rod  moved  round  the  point  e,  so  as  to  keep  the  parts 
N  b,  B  F  always  stretched,  the  point  b  will  trace  out  a  curve, 
■which  will  be  an  Injperbola. 

And  if  the  end  of  the  rod  be  moved  from  e,  and  fixed  at 
F,  and  one  end  of  the  string  moved  from  f,  and  fixed  at  e, 
the  curve  described  after  the  same  manner,  is  called  da  appo- 
site /ipperbiila. 

In  the  ellipsis  and  hyperbola,  the  points  e  and  p  are  called 
the  foci;  the  line,  A  c,  passing  through  the  foci,  joining  the 
opposite  parts  of  the  curve,  or  curves,  is  called  llie  transverse 
axis  ;  and  the  point,  c,  in  the  middle  of  the  transverse  axis, 
is  called  the  centre. 

In  the  ellipsis,  any  line  drawn  through  the  centre,  and 
terminated  by  the  opposite  parts  of  the  curve,  is  called 
a  diameter  ;  if  another  right  line,  terminated  by  the  curve, 
be  drawn  parallel  to  a  tangent  at  one  extremity  of  the  other 
diameter,  such  line  is  called  a  duuhle  ordinate  ;  and  if  it  pass 
through  the  centre,  it  becomes  a  diameter  ;  then  the  two  dia- 
meters, thus  situated,  are  called  conjugate  diameters. 

When  the  conjugate  diameters  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  the}'  are  called  the  axis  of  the  curve. 

If  there  be  a  diameter,  and  a  double  ordinate  to  that 
diameter,  the  two  segments  of  the  diameter  are  called  the 
abscissic. 

Concentric  ellipses  are  such  as  arc  similar,  and  have  the 
same  centre  with  the  greater  axis  of  the  one  upon  the  greater 
axis  of  the  other,  and  the  less  upon  the  less. 

Most  of  the  above  definitions  apply  also  to  the  hyperbola. 

If  the  side,  a  b,  Figure  3,  of  a  right  angle  or  sc|uare.  a  b  c, 
be  applied  to  the  straight-edge,  a  d,  of  a  rule,  and  a  thread, 
equal  in  length  to  b  c,  be  fastened  to  the  end,  c,  of  the  right 
angle,  with  the  other  end  to  the  fixed  point,  f;  and  if  any 
point,  E,  be  taken  in  the  line,  then  if  the  edge,  a  b,  of  the 
square  be  moved  along  the  straight-edge,  a  d,  keeping  the 
variable  point,  e,  upon  the  side,  b  c,  of  the  square,  and 
the  two  portions  c  e  and  e  f  stretched,  the  point  e  will  trace 
out  a  curve,  which  is  a  parabola. 

The  point  f  is  called  the  focus. 

The  line  a  d  is  ilie  directrix. 


CON 


190 


CON 


The  line  l  k  passing  through  the  focus  perpendicular  to  the 
diri'ctrix,  is  the  axis. 

The  point  I,  where  the  axis  cuts  the  curve,  is  the  vertex. 

Any  line  parallel  to  the  axis,  terminated  at  one  extremity 
by  the  curve,  and  on  the  concave  side  of  it,  is  called,  a 
diiiwter. 

Any  line  parallel  to  a  tanjjent  at  the  limited  end  of  a  dia- 
meter, is  called  «  tlnuhle  ordinate  to  that  diameter. 

The  limited  part  of  a  diameter,  contained  liy  the  curve 
and  a  double  ordinate,  is  called  the  abscisna  of  that  double 
ordinate. 

Figures  4,  5,  fi.  An  ahscissa,  the  ordinate,  and  the  diameter 
beinij  (jioen,  tn  describe  the  ellipais  or  ltiiperl>ola. 

Let  A  B  be  the  diameter,  A  c  the  al)seissa,  and  c  D  the  ordi- 
nate. Draw  A  E  parallel  to  CD,  and  d  e  parallel  to  c  a.  In 
D  c  take  any  number  of  points,  v,  g,  ii,  and  divide  d  e  in  the 
same  proportion  at  /;  //,  h.  Draw  ii  f  i,  b  o  k,  b  h  l  ;  likewise 
f  1  \,  g  K  A,  h  h  A,  and  through  the  points  d,  i,  k,  l,  a,  draw 
a  curve.  In  the  same  manner  may  the  curve  for  the  opposite 
ordinate  be  drawn. 

When  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  arc  on  diflereiit 
sides  of  the  ordinate,  the  curve  is  an  ellipsis;  but  when  the 
extremities  of  the  diameter  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  ordi- 
nate, the  curve  is  an  hyperbola.  When  the  diameter  A  u,  is 
of  infinite  length,  the  ordinates,  F  I,  o  K,  H  L,  will  be  parallel, 
then  the  curve  is  a  parabola.  Tlu  lefore,  in  Figure  4,  the 
lines  drawn  from  the  points  F,  o,  ii,  parallel  to  the  transverse 
axis,  or  abscissa,  A  B,  instead  of  being  drawn  to  the  point  B, 
as  in  F/i/iires  1,  2,  3,  make  the  only  dillrrence. 

It  is  hardly  jiossible  to  conceive  more  convenient  or  easiei 
modes  of  description  than  these;  their  coireetncss  maybe 
proved  by  showing  that  their  common  properties  are  similar 
to  those  demonstrated  of  conic  sections. 

/"(V/f/j-e.s  7, 8, !). — Let  a  b  be  the  diameter,  c  d  the  ordinate, 
and  A  c  the  abscissa,  as  before.  In  c  u  take  any  point,  g, 
and  divide  d  e  by  </,  in  the  same  ratio  as  d  c  is  by  the  point, 
G  ;  draw  (7  K  A,  B  G  K,  Figure  7,  and  d  k  o.  Figure  8  ;  then, 
because  of  the  similar  triangles,  B  N  K  and  B  c  G,  B  N  :  B  c  :  : 
N  K  :  c  G  ;  and  also,  because  of  the  similar  triangles  a  n  k  and 
A  M  G,  A  N  :  A  M  or  51  E  :  :  N  K  :  M  G  or  c  D.  By  construction 
we  have  /;E:DEorEA::CG:CD;  and  therefore  by  mul- 
tiplication we  have  bn-|-na:bc-|-ba::nk':cd', 
whiih  property  is  known  to  be  that  of  the  ellipsis  and 
hyperlmla. 

Corollary. — Since,  in  the  parabola,  B  N  and  no  are  of  infi- 
nite length,  and  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  eipial,  B  N  and 
B  c  may  t-lierefore  be  expunged  from  the  first  two  terms  of  the 
analogy  in  the  abnve  general  proi)erly;  then  we  shall  have 
N  A  :  c  A  :  :  N  k"  :  c  d'. 

Or  the  truth  of  the  operation  may  be  shown  by  a  particular 
demonstration  for  thi'  parabola  thus:   See  Figure  9. 

Because  of  the  similar  trian;;les  a  N  K  and  A  m  (7,  A  N  : 
A  E  :  :  N  K  :  My  or  c  D  ;  by  construction  we  have  a  m  :  a  c  :  : 
c  G  or  N  K  :  CD;  and  consequently,  by  multiplication,  a  n  : 
AC  :  :  N  k'  :  cd',  whiih  is  the  property  of  the  parabola. 

Figures  7,  8,  9. — //(  a  conic  .icction,  are  given  the  abscissa^ 
A  c,  an  ordinate,  c  D.  and  a  point,  k,  in  the  curve  :  to  deter- 
mine the  species,  and  thence  to  describe  the  curve. 

Draw  V.  g  D  parallel  to  a  c,  and  a  e  parallel  to  c  d  ;  through 
the  points  a  and  k  draw  a  k  g,  cutting  e  d  at^  ;  make  d  g  : 
o  c  :  :  ng  :  g  e.  and  through  the  points  k  and  o  draw  k  g  b 
or  G  K  D,  which,  if  not  parallel  to  a  c,  produce  it  until  it 
meet  a  c  or  c  a  in  b  ;  then  a  b  will  be  a  diameter.  In  this 
case  the  curve  is  an  ellipsis  or  hyperbola.  It  is  an  elli|)sis 
when  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  are  on  different  sides  of 
the  ordinate,  as  in  Figure  h  ;  but  when  the  extremities  of  the 
diameter  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  ordinate,  the  curve  is  an 


hyperbola.  If  k  g  be  parallel  to  a  c,  the  curve  is  a  parabola. 
A  diameter,  a  b,  and  an  ordinate,  CD,  being  thus  ascertained, 
the  curve  will  be  deserihed  as  in  Figures  1,3,3.  Other  par- 
ticvdars  relating  to  these  curves  will  be  found  under  the  arti- 
cles Ei.Mi'sis,  lIvi'EKDor.A,  and  Pahaboi.a. 

CONICAL  ROOF,  a  roof  whose  exterior  surface  is  shaped 
like  a  cone. 

CON' Its.     &c  Conic  Section. 

CONISTRA,  the  pit  of  a  theatre. 

CONJUGATE  DIAMETERS,  of  an  ellipsis  or  hyperbola, 
any  two  diameters  that  are  jiarallel  to  tangents  at  the  extre- 
mities of  each  other. 

CONOID,  (from  the  GmAi,  K(M)von6r]C,  partaking  of  the 
figure  of  a  cone),  a  figure  geiu-rated  by  the  revolution  of  a 
conic  section  round  one  of  its  axes.  There  arc  three  kinds  of 
conoids,  viz.,  the  elliptical,  the  hyperbolii-al,  and  the  para- 
bolical ;  whi(-h  are  sometimes  otherwise  deiuuninated,  ellip- 
soid, or  spheroid,  hyperboloid,  and  paraboloid. 

Now  because  the  solid  is  generated  by  the  revolution  of 
the  section  of  a  cone  upon  its  axis  the  axis  will  then  also  be 
that  of  the  solid.  In  this  case,  since,  in  the  generation  of  the 
solid,  every  point  of  the  curve  will  describe  a  circle,  every 
section  of  the  solid  parallel  to  the  base  will  be  a  circle. 

If  a  conoid  be  cut  by  a  plane  meeting  the  base,  or  the  plane 
of  the  base  |)roduced,  the  section  will  be  either  an  ellipsis,  or 
an  hyperbola,  or  a  paralxila. 

Every  section  of  an  ellipsoid  obli(|nc  to  its  axis,  is  an 
ellipsis;  and  if  a  paraboloid  or  hyfierboloid  be  cut  by  a  plane 
meeting  the  plane  of  the  base,  produced  on  the  outside  of  the 
figure,  the  section  will  also  bi>  an  ellipsis.  In  the  paraboloid, 
if  the  cutting  plane  be  parallel  to  the  axis,  the  section  will 
be  an  equal  parabola.  In  the  hyperboloid,  if  the  solid  be  cut 
by  a  plane  parallel  to  a  section  of  the  cone,  made  l>y  a  plane 
passing  thiough  the  point  where  the  asymptote  of  the 
generating  section  meets  the  axis  of  the  soliil  produced,  the 
section  will  be  an  hyperbola;  but  if  the  cutting  plane  be 
parallel  to  the  plane  in  which  is  the  asymptote,  and  at  right 
angles  with  the  generating  section,  the  section  will  be  a 
parabola. 

Thus  the  ellipsoid  has  only  two  sections,  viz.  the  circle 
and  the  ellipsis :  the  paraboloid,  three  sections,  viz.  the 
circle,  the  ellipsis,  and  the  parabola  :  the  hyperboloid,  four 
sections,  viz.  the  circle,  the  ellipsis,  the  hyperbola,  and  the 
jiarabola  :  and  the  cone  itself  has  five  sections,  viz.  the  triangle, 
the  circle,  the  ellipsis,  the  liy(ierbola,  and  the  parabola.  The 
triangle  is  a  section  peculiar  to  the  cone  alone  ;  the  hyperliola, 
to  the  cone  and  hyperboloid;  the  parabola,  to  the  cone  and 
parabolical  and  hyperbolical  conoids  ;  and  the  circle  and 
ellipsis  are  cotnmon  not  only  to  the  cone,  but  also  to  each  of 
the  three  conoids. 

All  parallel  sections  of  conoids  arc  of  snnilar  figures;  though 
it  may  seem  singular  that  this  should  be  a  general  property, 
when  it  is  considered  that,  in  a  cone,  a  section  through  the 
apex,  or  point,  is  a  tri.-ingh',  and  a  section  parallel  thereto  is 
an  hyperbola  ;  so  that  if  the  property  existed  generally,  the 
triangular  and  hyperbolic  sections  of  the  cone  so  posited 
ought  also  to  be  similar.  To  reconcile  this  paradox,  let  us 
consid(!r,  that  in  all  hyperbolical  parallel  sections  of  a  cone, 
the  asymptotes  make  e(iual  angles,  and  the  sections  which 
are  nearer  to  that  passing  through  the  apex  of  the  cone,  have 
a  greater  degree  of  curvature  at  the  vertex  of  these  curves, 
than  those  which  are  more  remote,  though  both  figures  bo 
similar.  Farther,  if  the  legs  of  the  hyperbola  be  infinitely 
extended,  they  will  be  infinitely  near  a  straight  line,  as  they 
will  fall  in  with  the  asymptotes  nearly,  and  the  curved  por- 
tion will  bear  no  sensible  majinitude,  compared  with  the  jiart 
which  is  comparatively  straight,  as  the  legs  of  the  hyperbola 


€ONI€    STECTIOrfS,, 


I'lJTIi  I. 


n^.x 


m.s 


u 

^\              ^ 

\ 

\ 

I>^ 

r. 

Fiy.O. 


CON 


191 


CON 


become  straisjliter  and  straighter  as  they  are  more  and  more 
produoed.  Tlais  the  curved  portion  may  be  considered  as  a 
mere  point  to  the  whole  lignre,  in  a  section  through  the 
vertex,  the  ideas  of  the  general  property  seeming  to  vanish, 
or  not  a[)ply  ;  l)ut  it' we  allow  a  pandlel  section,  though  ever 
so  little  distant,  it  can  very  easily  be  compared  with  any 
remote  parallel  section,  and  their  ditlerence  will  be  this,  that, 
in  like  portions  of  the  two  curves,  the  similar  figures  inscribed 
in  the  stelion  nearer  to  the  apex  will  be  incomparably  small 
to  those  of  the  sections  more  remote,  and  in  a  parallel  section 
pas-siiig  through  the  vertex,  the  similar  figures  of  comparison 
will  lie  lost,  as  being  of  infuiitely  small  magnitude. 

llie  section  through  the  axis,  which  is  the  generating 
plane,  is,  in  the  spheroid,  the  greatest  of  all  the  parallel  sec- 
tions;  but  in  the  hyperboloid,  it  is  ihe  least;  and  in  the 
paraboloiil,  it  is  equal  to  any  other  parallel  section. 

If  an  hyperbola  be  supposed  to  revolve  with  its  asymptote 
upon  its  axis,  the  curve  w-ill  generate  a  conoid,  and  the 
asymplote  a  cone  ;  and  if  these  two  solids  be  imagined  to  be 
cut  by  a  plane  in  any  position,  then  the  two  sections  will  be 
similar  and  concentric  figures,  of  the  same  species  in  each 
solid. 

To  find  the  soUditi/  of  a  conoid. — To  the  area  of  the  base, 
add  four  times  the  area  of  the  middle  section,  multiply  one- 
sixth  of  the  sum  by  the  height,  and  the  product  will  give  the 
solidity.  In  the  spheroid,  one-sixth  of  four-  times  the  middle 
.section  only,  multiplied  by  the  height,  gives  the  solidity; 
that  is,  two-thirds  of  the  circumscribing  cylinder. 

Other  particular  rules  and  properties  will  be  found  under 
Eui.irsoiD,  Paraboloid,  and  HvPERBOLom. 

CONOPEUM,  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of  canopy  of  net-work, 
hung  about  beds,  to  keep  away  gnats  and  flies. 

CO\SKRV.\TORY  (from  the  Latin,  con.servo,  to  keep) 
may  be  defined  generally  as  a  place  for  preserving  anvthing 
in  a  state  desired,  .as  fiDni  loss,  decay  or  iiijurv  ;  in  this 
sense,  granaries  for  keeping  corn,  ice-houses,  &ic.,  may  be 
called  conservatories. 

In  ganleiiing.  the  word  conservatory  is  so  frequentlv  con- 
founded with  (iRKEX-IIocsE,  and  the  terms  are  applied  with 
so  little  precision  to  buildings  used  for  preserving  plants  in 
an  artificial  climate,  that  it  is  difficult  to  define  what  is  prop- 
erly a  conservatory.  '•  The  term,"  says  a  writer  in  the 
•  Penny  Ci/rlopaditt^  "  which,  as  its  meaning  shows,  was 
originally  intended  for  buildings  in  which  plants  were  pre- 
served during  w  inter,  has  come  to  be  used,  firstly,  for  glass 
houses  in  wliii-h  plants  are  cultivated  by  growing  them  in 
the  open  border,  and  subsequently  for  all  such  glazed  build- 
ings whatsoever.  A  conservatory,  properly  so  called,  is  a 
brick  building  heated  by  artificial  means,  having  its  whole 
southern  part  closed  by  large  glazed  sashes,  which  may  be 
opened  or  shut  at  pleasure.  Its  fioor  is  generally  of  stone, 
and  a  part  of  it  is  occupied  by  a  stage  on  which  plants  in 
pots  can  be  placed.  Such  a  conservatory  was  intended  to 
preserve  during  the  winter,  orange-trees,  myrtles,  American 
aloes,  and  similar  plants,  which  during  the  summer  will 
flourish  in  the  open  air,  but  which  require  during  the  winter 
to  be  protected." 

The  modern  or  popular  meaning  of  the  word,  is  now 
almost  the  opposite  of  the  original  one,  and  a  conservatory 
is  said  to  differ  from  a  green-house  principally  in  this,  that 
in  the  latter  the  plants  and  trees  stand  in  pots,  placed  upon 
stages;  and  in  the  former  are  regularly  planted  in  beds  of  the 
finest  composts,  on  being  removed  from  the  green-house, 
and  taken  out  of  the  tubs  or  pots.  By  introducing  stages, 
instead  of  beds,  however,  one  may  serve  for  the  other. 

The  construction  of  a  conservatory  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
green-house;    but  it  should  be  more  spacious,  elevated,  and 


finished  in  a  superior  style.  Tlie  sides,  ends,  and  roofs 
should  be  of  glass,  in  order  to  admit  light  freely,  and  to 
protect  the  plants.  It  should  likewise  be  so  situated  as  to  be 
qirite  dry,  receiving  as  nuich  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  possible 
duriitg  the  day,  and  provided  with  flues  to  communicate  heat 
when  found  necessary,  and  valves  and  other  conveniences 
for  the  introduction  of  fresh  air,  when  required,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ventilation.  In  summer-time,  the  glass  roofs  are 
sometimes  taken  off,  and  the  plants  exposed  to  the  open  air, 
but  on  the  approach  of  the  autumnal  frosts,  they  must  be 
restored. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  amongst  practical  men 
as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  w'ood  and  iron  in  the  con- 
struction of  conservatories.  Mr.  J.  Thompson,  a  man  of 
great  experience,  in  his  "  Practical  Treatise,"  gives  the  pre- 
ference to  wood,  although  acknowledging  the  advantages  of 
iron  in  lightness  of  appearance.  "  Any  persons,"  he  observes, 
"  having  a  knowledge  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
metals,  may  fn'in  some  idea  of  the  expansion  of  a  large  iron 
roof  on  a  hot  day  during  the  months  of  July  and  August, 
and  of  the  contraction  on  a  severe  frosty  night ;  so  great  have 
I  witnessed  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  in  expanding  the  iron 
rafters  aird  lights  upon  a  hot  day,  that  it  has  required  two  or 
three  men  to  draw  down  the  sliding-lights;  and  in  an  equal 
proportion  have  I  seen  the  contraction  during  the  intensity 
of  winter,  so  much  so,  that  large  apertures  have  appeared 
between  the  rafters  and  lights,  whiih  admitted  the  external 
air  to  such  an  extent,  that  it  required  the  strength  of  two 
fires,  and  the  flues  heated  to  the  greatest  excess,  before  the 
house  could  be  r-aiscd  three  degrees  of  heat,  and  this  in  a  house 
of  not  very  large  dimensions."  This  gentleman  also  objects 
to  the  iron-roofed  houses,  that  they  require  double  the  quan- 
titjf  of  fuel  that  is  necessary  in  houses  otherwise  constructed. 
Notwithstanding  s<ime  admitted  disadvant;iges,  the  great 
convenience  of  iron,  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  manufac- 
tured, and  the  extreme  lightness  and  elegance  of  its  appear- 
ance, will  always  give  it  a  great  advantage.  Some  of  the 
most  mugnificent  conservatories  in  this  country,  have  been 
constructed  of  iron,  amongst  which  we  may  especially  notice 
that  in  the  Botanic  Garden,  Regent's  Park. 

This  building  was  erected  under  the  dir-ection  of  Mr. 
Decimus  Burton,  and  forms  the  half  of  the  centre  part  of  the 
pr-oposed  "  Winter  Garden,"  in  which,  when  completed,  the 
subscribers  to  these  beautiful  gardens  will  be  able  to  enjoy 
the  luxury  of  the  parterre  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

It  is  constructed  of  iron,  principally  wrought,  the  pillars 
and  guttering  only  being  cast.  The  water  from  the  roof  is 
conducted  by  the  internal  pillar.s,  to  large  tanks  underground, 
from  whence  it  is  pumped  up  for  the  supply  of  the  house. 
The  building  is  heated  by  warm  water  conveyed  through 
pipes  arranged  beneath  the  surface,  in  brick  channels,  having 
lar-ge  outlets  for  the  hot  air,  with  air-ducts  at  intervals  to 
create  a  current,  and  give  increased  action  to  the  hot  air  in 
the  drains.  The  boiler-house  is  beneath  the  ground,  at  some 
distance  from  the  building. 

The  structure  is  ventilated  by  sliding-lights  in  the  roof, 
acted  on  by  a  simple  contrivance,  which  opens  and  shuts  the 
whole  simultaneously,  and  is  glazed  with  sheet-glass  in  long 
lengths. 

The  whole  building  contains  above  eleven  thousand  super- 
ficial feet.  It  was  erected  by  Mr.  Turner,  of  the  Hammer- 
smith Ironworks,  Dublin,  at  a  cost  of  about  £6,000. 

The  conservatories  at  Sion  House,  the  Duke  of  Northum- 
berland's, Alton  Towers,  the  Eail  of  Shrewsbury's,  and  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire's  at  Chatsworlh,  are  on  the  most  mag- 
nificent scale,  and  are  especially  worthy  the  study  of  the 
young  architect  who  may  be  called  on  for  designs  for  a  buQd- 


COiN 


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CON 


ing  of  this  description.  He  will  also  find  much  viiliiahle 
piiicliial  intiinnniioii  in  Mr.  J.  W.  Thoinpson's  wurk  im  the 
"  Conxtntction  of  Stoves,  and  other  llorticidlural  BhUiHikjs."' 

The  cotiveiiietices  which  may  be  attached  to  conservatories, 
consist  of  retiring-moms,  seed-rooms,  aviaries,  &c.  If  there 
\w  no  sheds  behind,  the  walls  should  not  be  less  than  three 
bricks  thick. 

t.'ONSlSTORY  (fiom  the  Latin,  consisiorium)  a  large 
hall,  at  Home,  in  which  the  college  of  cardinals  meet  to  plead 
judiciary  causes. 

(JONSOLE  (from  the  French)  a  bracket,  or  projecting 
body,  formed  like  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure,  scrolled  at  the 
ends,  used  for  supporting  a  cornice,  bust,  or  vase. 

Consoles  have  been  used  for  supporting  an  entire  order  of 
columns,  as  in  the  barbarous  architecture  of  the  palace 
of  Diocletian,  at  Spalatro. 

Consoles  are  othi'rwise  denominated  anroiies,  or  trunses. 

CONSPIUINC;  POWERS,  in  mechanics,  such  powers  as 
act  in  directions  not  op[>osite  to  each  other. 

CONSTIU'CTION  (Latin,  con.itruo,  to  heap  up  into  one) 
the  erection  or  disposition  of  several  separate  parts  in  such 
a  manner,  as  to  form  a  perfect  and  compact  whole. 

A  good  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  construction,  forms 
an  essential  item  in  the  (pialification  of  an  architect.  The 
principles  of  construction  arise  out  of  and  are  entirely  depen- 
dent upon  those  of  gravitation.  "Gravity,"  says  an  excellent 
authority  on  this  subject,  "is  the  source  of  all  the  princifiles, 
inventions,  and  ingenuity,  called  into  action  in  the  structure 
of  aiiliitcctinal  works.  The  weight  or  downward  tendency  of 
their  materials,  is  the  cause  of  builditigs  holding  together, 
or  falling,  or  being  thrust  apart.  (Gravity,  in  its  various 
dynamic  modifications,  is  the  sole  acting  power  which  opci'ates 
in  a  building.  All  the  mechanical  perfections  of  scientific 
buildini:  result  from  a  clear  knowledgi'  of  the  operation  of 
giavily,  and  from  the  ability  to  direct  their  course:  all  the 
mechanical  defects  of  buildings,  result  from  an  ignorance  of 
the  lawsofgravity,and  from  inattention  or  inability  tocounter- 
balance  their  eflect.  A  judicious  anhitect  enslaves  to  his  pur- 
])ose  the  active  f  irce  of  gravity,  and  comp<'ls  it  to  exert  all  its 
force  in  holding  together  more  firmly  his  structure  ;  an  igno- 
rant or  careless  architect  or  workman,  allows  that  force  to 
exert  itself  in  wracking,  straining,  distortinj;,  breakiuff,  and 
dotroying  tiis  work. 

The  methods  in  which  gravity  acts  upon  materials,  are  by 
compression,  by  tension,  and  by  cross-strain.  The  first  of 
these  modes  of  operation  is  the  simplest  and  least  destructive, 
unless  exerted  to  too  great  an  extent,  and  is  that  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  most  sound  construction;  its  tendency  is  to 
bring  the  fiarlieles  of  matter  more  closely  together  ;  instances 
of  its  application  occur  in  all  simple  constructions,  such  as 
upright  piers,  arches,  &c.  The  secimd  method,  that  of  ten- 
sion, has  a  directly  opposite  tendency  to  the  last,  and  exerts 
its  influence  in  disengaging  the  atoms  from  each  other,  it  is 
of  course  not  naturally  favourable  to  construction,  but  the 
contr.iry,  nevertheless  it  is  made  a  very  eflicient  and  useful 
agent ;  its  influence  is  never  exerted  but  upon  materials  which 
have  a  strong  counteracting  tendency,  and  it  is  made  avail- 
able to  produce  the  first  etTect  of  gravity,  or  compression. 
Examples  of  its  operation  are  to  be  met  with  in  suspension- 
bridges,  and  in  the  tie-beams  and  king  or  queen-posts  of 
trusses.  The  third  method  by  which  materials  arc  aflccted 
by  gravity,  is  cross-strain,  which  is  a  combination  of  the  two 
last,  as  it  is  tension  effected  by  pressure,  and  its  result  is  to 
tear  or  wrench  the  particles  of  matter  asunder ;  it  is  in  prin- 
ciple totally  inimiciil  to  construction,  and  must  be  avoided  or 
counteracted.  Cross-strain  occurs  in  unscientifically  formed 
roots,  where  struts  rest  I'pon  a  tic-beam,  also  when  any  ver- 


tical weight  presses  upon  any  horizontal  beam,  as  in  the  case 
of  brest-suminers;  it  happens  likewise,  when  heavy  untrussed 
horizontal  beams  have  too  great  a  beat  iiig,  the  eflect  in  this 
case  is  termed  sagging,  and  is  counteracted  by  cambering  or 
trussing  the  beam. 

Analogous,  and  arising  out  of  these  operations  of  gravity, 
are  the  three  great  principles  in  construction — repose,  equi- 
poise, and  tie.  The  first  of  these  is  the  simplest,  and  is  the  jirin- 
ciple  most  usually  adopted  in  very  ancient  buildings ;  it  is  used 
where  the  materials  are  merely  piled  up  perpendicularly,  so 
as  to  form  piers  or  columns  with  cross-beams,  architraves,  or 
lintels,  laid  horizontally  upon  the  piers  or  colunuis,  pressing 
downwards  merely  with  the  gravity  of  these  materials, 
without  any  thrust  or  other  inclinalion  to  destroy  the  position 
of  any  part  of  the  arrangement.  "Buildings  constructed  on 
this  principle,  need  only  tenacity  of  inaterial  and  unflinching 
foundations  to  be  altogether  perfect  in  construction;  but 
buildings  of  this  kind,  owing  nothing  to  geometrical  science, 
lead  to  an  enormous  consumption  of  materials;  all  thi^  materials 
of  the  horizontal  spanning  masses,  of  even  a  small  building, 
must  be  huge,  and  are  thence  immensely  expensive  to  procure, 
and  to  raise  to  their  destined  places  ;  if  these  spanning  masses 
be  either  so  long  or  so  brittle  as  to  yield  by  their  own  weight, 
or  by  that  which  may  be  put  upon  them,  the  principle  t)f 
simple  repose  becomes  destroyed  ;  the  horizontal  niasses  sink, 
and  the  piers  or  sustaining  masses  are  thrust  outwardly." 

The  disadvantages  attending  this  mode  of  construction,  led 
to  the  invention  <;l"  others,  yet  at  the  same  time  they  all  aimed 
at  attaining  the  satni^  end,  namely,  simple  repose  throughout 
the  materials  and  difl'erent  members  of  a  building.  The  prin- 
ciple of  equi|)oise  in  ci>nstruetion  is  this,  th.it  all  tendencies 
to  disturb  or  produce  motion  amongst  the  parts  of  a  structure, 
should  be  counterbalanced  by  an  eipial  and  opposite  tendency, 
and  the  most  perfect  exhibition  of  its  powers  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  arch.  This  principle  of  building  allcjws  of  the  employment 
of  the  smallest  materials,  and  ensures  stability  with  the  least 
possible  quantity  of  matter;  it  is  therefore  tlir  prefi-rable  to 
the  first  method  or  principle.  The  third  principle,  of  tying, 
is  of  modern  invention,  and  by  it  the  quiescent  state'  of  a 
structure  is  maintained,  not  by  resisting  the  power  as  in  the 
last  case,  by  external  opposition  or  abutments,  but  by  con- 
fining the  power  by  internal  restraint.  The  principle  is 
embodied  in  the  structure  termed  a  truss. 

The  most  perfect  specimens  of  constructive  science  are  to 
be  found  in  the  wonderful  erections  of  the  Gothic  architects: 
"The  medirEval  Christian  builders  anived  to  such  a  delicjite 
and  intimate  acquaintance  with  architectural  dynamics,  that 
by  the  discovery  t>f  the  way  in  which  all  the  part  icles  of  their 
materials  were  affected  by  gravity,  they  were  enalTled,  by 
merely  subjecting  them  to  the  frangibility  caused  by  com- 
pression, so  to  economize  them,  ami  reduce  their  quantity, 
th.at  many  members  of  (iothic  edifices,  after  five  hundred 
years'  devastation  by  time,  are  more  sound  than  corresponding 
members  of  our  modern  builders,  which  have  not  subsisted 
fifty  years,  and  which  contain  five  times  their  proportion  of 
materials.  So  admirable  in  general  is  the  skill  displayed  iu 
the  dynamic  disposition  of  the  m.aterial  of  a  Gothic  cathedral, 
so  shrewdly  are  the  forces  of  its  gravitation  reduced  to  simple 
compression,  that  the  whole  is  like  a  wonderful  piece  of 
shoring,  sublimely  and  permanently  imitated  in  stone.'' 

Construction,  the  art  of  describing  a  diagram  or  scheme 
from  given  data. 

In  geometriwil  constructions,  the  accuracy  of  the  diagram 
depends  upon  that  of  the  points  by  which  the  lines  constitub 
ing  the  figure  are  found.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  utmost 
consequence  to  ascertain  the  situation  of  points  correctly  by 
lines  crossing  at  right  angles,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possibla 


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The  choice  of  this  is  not  at.  all  times  in  the.  power  of  the 
gi'oinetcr,  but  when  it  is,  he  oiiglit  to  avail  liiiiisclf  of  it. 
The  situation  of  a  point  must  be  ascertained  by  tlie  intersec- 
tion of  two  lines,  and  since  a  line  cannot  l)0  without  breadth, 
it  will  be  an  oblonjr.  and  the  intersection  of  two  lines  will  be 
a  i)aralleloa;rani ;  when  the  lines  cross  at  right  angles,  the 
parallelogram  will  form  a  square;  and  when  at  oblique 
angles  it  will  be  a  rhombus.  In  all  those  cases,  the  point 
required  is  in  the  intersection  of  the  diagonals  of  the  paral- 
lelogram. Now  the  least  of  all  the  parallelograms  formed  by 
the  intereeetioi)  of  two  lines  of  equal  breadth,  is  a  square; 
but  the  greater  the  ooliquity  of  the  lines  i)f  intersection,  the 
longer  will  be  the  rhombus;  and  as  the  drawing  of  the 
figure  depends  upon  vision,  the  more  indistinct  will  the  angles 
of  the  figure  so  formed  become,  and  consequently  the  situa- 
tion of  the  point  must  be  almost  guessed  at.  In  some  cases, 
the  obliquity  of  tlie  intersection  is  of  little  consequence;  as, 
in  linding  a  curve  Ijy  points,  wheic  the  lines,  which  form 
the  intersection,  fall  very  nearly  in  with  the  curve  itself,  or 
make  very  acute  angles  with  the  tangent,  unless  it  be 
required  to  find  the  points  in  the  curve  in  a  given  ratio; 
but  if,  in  finding  a  point,  through  which  a  line  is  to  pass 
from  another  given  point,  to  meet  a  line,  of  which  some 
parts  are  either  given  or  found,  or  to  be  foimd,  it  will  be  of 
the  utmost  consequence  to  determine  with  accuracy  the  situ- 
ation of  the  intermediate  point;  for  the  point  asertained  in 
the  other  line  will  vary  fron^  its  true  place,  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  distance  of  the  intermediate  point  found  by 
the  intersection. 

Another  source  of  error  arising  from  the  intersection  of 
oblique  lines,  which  will  also  be  more  or  less  accurate,  as  the 
obliquity  is  less  or  greater,  is,  when  one  or  both  the  lines 
aie  not  exactly  drawn  through  their  extremities;  even  the 
deviation  of  a  line  being  drawn  its  own  breadth,  will  make 
the  intersection  fall  its  own  length  (which  is  the  diagonal  of 
the  rhombus)  to  the  end  of  the  true  intersection.  Let  it 
also  be  considered,  that  the  longer  diagonal  of  the  rhombus 
may  be  of  any  length  whatever,  depending  upon  the  obliquity 
of  angles  formed  by  the  two  intersecting  lines.  In  the 
description  of  a  diagram,  when  different  points  are  ascertained 
in  a  line,  in  pointing  out  the  line  to  the  reader,  it  would  be 
better  to  name  ail  the  letters  iu  the  order  as  they  stand, 
instead  of  pointing  out  the  line  by  two  of  the  letters,  par- 
ticularly in  a  complicated  diagiam,  where  many  other  lines 
are  concerned.  This  is  still  more  necessary  when  several 
lines  meet  at  the  same  point,  as  tlie  use  of  all  the  letters  not 
only  gives  a  more  immediate  clue  to  identity  the  lines  from 
others,  but  also  shortens  the  description,  as  the  same  letters 
nmst  be  used  again,  in  pointing  out  the  other  lines  which 
cross  the  former  line,  and  will  thus  supersede  the  necessity 
of  the  frequent  repetition,  after  a  line  has  been  drawn  in  the 
required  position  to  cut  a  former,  of  saying,  "  cutting  such 
a  line  in  the  point "  a  or  b,  or  whatever  it  may  be ;  as  the 
same  letter  cannot  be  in  two  lines,  except  at  their  inter- 
section. 

In  tracing  the  boundaries  of  angular  figures,  it  will  only 
he  necessary  to  name  the  letters  progressively,  as  they  stand 
at  the  extremities  of  the  sides,  that  is,  at  the  angles  ;"  but  to 
trace  out  the  whole  enclosure  or  perimeter,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  name  the  first  letter  again,  at  the  end  of  the  series  of 
letters.  It  is  true,  that  a  triangle,  a  quadrilateral,  &c., 
will  easily  be  understood,  without  naming  the  first  letter 
again,  by  naming  the  figure  at  the  same  time,  or  the  number 
of  its  sides,  as  in  polygons  the  last  side  will  always  be 
wanting. 

Though  these  enumerations  and  repetitions  of  letters  may 
appear  clumsy,  tht>y  lead  sooner  to  an  understanding  of  the 
25 


construction,  shorten  the  language,  and  give  accuracy  to  the 

description. 

t:0.\STRUCTiVE  C.\RPENTRY  shows  the  method  of 
reducing  wooil  into  forms,  and  j<jiiiiiig  the  parts,  as  directed 
by  the  rules  of  Dksciuptive  Caupentkv,  or  by  the  laws  of 
strength,  an<l  theieljy  fiirming  a  complete  design. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  first  principles  of  this 
department  of  the  art  are  frequently  so  little  understood  by 
those  who  are  called  upon  to  put  them  into  practice.  The 
young  carpenter  too  often  fallows  blindly  in  the  track  of 
those  who  have  gone  before  hitn,  without  inquiry,  and  with- 
out even  attempting  to  iniderstand  the  mechanical  construc- 
tion of  the  work  he  has  just  put  together.  We  do  not  mean 
that  the  practical  builder  must  necessarily  make  himself 
master  of  the  higher  branches  of  science,  but  that  it  would 
obviously  be  of  advantage  to  him  that  he  should  acquire  that 
general  knowledge  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the  art, 
which  would  enable  him  to  select  the  best  materials,  and 
employ  them  in  the  best  manner. 

Every  species  of  construction  should  be  characterized  by 
stability,  and  a  careful  regard  to  economy  of  materials. 
These  objects  can  only  be  obtained  by  judicious  combinations 
of  the  substances  used,  so  that  the  greatest  amount  of 
strength  be  secured  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  mate- 
rial. •  Unless  the  builder  possess  a  considerable  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  mechanics,  unless  he  be  acquainted  with 
the  eft'ect  of  pressure,  and  the  resisting  powers  of  different 
materials,  he  cannot  comprehend,  much  less  design,  such 
combination  ;  but  becomes  a  mere  labourer  putting  together 
the  several  parts  of  a  work,  without  knowing  their  relative 
dependence  on  each  other,  or  the  strength,  or  want  of 
strength,  of  the  whole.  He  is,  indeed,  from  the  want  of  such 
knowledge  as  we  have  described,  incapable  of  judging  what 
are  the  best  forms  of  construction,  or  which  of  several 
modes  of  uniting  timbers  it  is  most  advisable  to  make  use  of. 
It  is  the  pi'ovince  of  constructive  carpentry  to  show  this,  and 
the  carpenter  who  is  desirous  to  make  himself  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  his  business,  should  study  to  acquire  not 
only  a  practical  knowledge  of  its  details,  but  also  some  insight 
into  the  principles  on  which  it  is  founded. 

Constructive  carpentry,  it  has  been  observed,  is  the  method 
of  reducing  wood  into  forms,  and  the  combining  of  several 
parts  into  a  complete,  firm  whole.  In  most  works,  especially 
those  of  magnitude,  it  will  frequently  be  necessary  to  join 
one  or  more  pieces  of  timber,  iu  order  to  obtain  beams,  &c., 
of  sufficient  size,  and  in  order  to  economize  material.  The 
processes  by  which  these  objects  are  effected  is  a  subject  of 
the  greatest  importance,  as  on  their  being  properly  and  sub- 
stantially performed  depends  the  staliility  of  the  structure  in 
which  they  are  used.  Under  this  article  then  we  propose  to 
describe  some  of  the  most  approved  methods  of  uniting  tim- 
ber, and  to  treat  of  the  fjllowing  operations,  viz.,  the  length- 
ening of  beams,  either  by  scarfing  or  joining  them  in  pieces; 
the  strengthening  of  beams  by  trussing:  the  methods  of  join- 
ing two  timbers  at  angles,  iu  any  given  direction  ;  and  lastly, 
the  mode  of  connecting  several  timbers,  in  order  to  perfoj'm 
certain  functions  required  by  the  design. 

To  lengthen  a  piece  of  timber,  is  to  join  or  fasten  two 
separate  pieces,  so  that  a  portion  of  the  end  of  the  one 
piece  shall  lap  upon  a  portion  of  the  end  of  the  other,  the 
sides  of  both  making  but  one  continued  surface,  and  forming 
a  close  joint,  called  a  scor/! 

It  is  evident,  that  in  the  formation  of  a  continued  straight 
timber,  if  the  joint  consist  of  a  plane,  or  planes,  at  right 
angles  to  two  opposite  sides  of  the  compound  piece,  but  not 
at  right  angles  to  the  plaiie  of  the  other  two  opposite  sides, 
the  plane,  or  several  planes,  forming  the  scarf,  will  make  the 


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oblique  angles,  constituted  by  the  surface  of  each  piece  on 
the  siiiiic  side,  supplements  to  each  other:  or  whatever 
ol)li(|ue  angle  or  angles  the  one  piece  makes  with  a  side,  the 
corresponding  angle  or  angles  forjned  by  the  joint  or  joints 
with  the  same  contiiuied  surface  of  the  other,  will,  together, 
form  two  right  angles,  and  thus  the  solid  jiart  of  the  one  will 
be  equal  and  similar  to  the  void  of  the  other. 

There  are  several  methods  of  lengthening  timber,  either 
liy  joining  whole  pieces  of  the  same  transverse  sections,  and 
tcirniing  their  ends,  which  are  to  come  in  contact  in  one  or 
several  planes,  or  by  forming  the  connection  by  means  of  a 
third  piece,  or  by  building  the  piece  to  be  lengthened  in 
several  thicknesses,  making  the  joints  abutting  upon  each 
other  on  the  solid  of  the  piece  with  which  they  come  in  con- 
tact on  the  jiarallel  joint.  It  is  evident,  that  two  bodies 
united,  and  intended  to  act  as  one  in  a  state  of  tension,  can 
never  be  so  strong  as  either  piece  taken  separately. 

'J'abling  is  a  mode  of  indenting  the  ends  of  the  pieces 
whieli  form  the  scarf,  so  as  to  resist  a  longitudinal  strain; 
the  pieces,  therefore,  require  to  be  held  togetlier,  or  otherwise 
the  notches  and  the  tables  which  fit  into  them  would  require 
t(i  be  dovetailed,  in  this  construction,  the  tables  between 
the  notches  would  be  a  very  feeble  support,  as  they  are  apt 
to  split  away.  It  must  also  be  observed,  that  one  single 
talile,  or  one  abutting  part  of  resistance,  is  stronger,  and 
much  more  easy  to  execute,  than  two  or  four;  and  that  the 
resisting  part  should  have  as  little  projection  as  possible, 
because  such  projection  diminishes  the  cohesive  force,  by  a 
quantity  of  the  timber  equal  in  section  to  the  abutting  parts. 
Two  pieces  of  timber  may  be  very  firmly  fixed,  by  making 
the  ends  of  the  tables,  instead  of  abutting,  to  form  a  tapering 
mortise,  so  that  when  the  two  pieces  are  brought  close  at  the 
eniuiecting  surfaces,  a  wedge  driven  into  the  cavity  will 
bring  all  the  parts  of  the  joint  into  contact. 

Every  two  pieces  of  timber  require  to  be  held  together  by 
some  force  compressing  them  equally  on  each  side,  particularly 
when  the  pieces  are  light;  for  which  purpose  iron  bolts  are 
very  convenient,  they  acting  as  a  tie,  and  having  the  same 
ertect  as  two  equal  and  opjiosite  forces  would  have  in  com- 
pressing the  beam  on  each  side  of  the  scarf;  and  as  iron  is  of 
great  strength,  the  bore  made  to  receive  the  bolt  will  not  be 
so  large  as  to  diminish  the  section,  and  consequently  the 
lirmncss  of  the  timber  at  the  scarf,  in  any  considerable 
degree ;  whereas,  when  wooden  pins  are  used,  they  require 
a  large  bore,  which  weakens  the  timber,  and  the  two  pieces 
thus  connected  are  not  so  firmly  compressed,  or,  indeed, 
compressed  at  all,  but  are  held  together  almost  solely  by 
friction. 

No  limited  distance  can  be  specified  for  the  length  of 
the  scarf;  though  it  may  be  observed,  generally,  that  along 
scaif  has  no  effect  in  diminishing  the  cohesive  strength  of  a 
compound  piece  of  timber.  On  the  contrary,  a  long  scarf 
gives  an  opportunity  of  increasing  the  number  of  bolts, 
which  are  the  only  ties  when  no  tablings  are  used,  as  is  the 
case  where  the  abutting  parts  unite  only  by  compression.  It 
must  hei'e  be  understood,  that  all  such  alnitting  parts  diminish 
the  cohesive  foice  in  the  proportion  of  their  abutting  surflice 
to  that  of  the  whole  section  at  any  one  of  the  abutments  ;  so 
that  should  a  scarf  consist  of  a  series  of  steps,  formed  by 
planes  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  two  of  the  opposite  sides, 
llie  transverse  sides  of  these  steps  to  those  of  the  piece 
slKjuld  be  all  eqiuil  ;  and  the  greater  the  luimber  of  steps, 
the  less  will  the  strength  be  impaired ;  but  if  they  be 
uiU'qual,  the  timber  will  be  weakest  at  the  greatest  section 
or  compressed  abutment,  and  if  few,  the  section  will  be  large, 
and  the  piece  consecpieutly  deprived  of  a  proj)ortional  degree 
of  strength.   We  iiuiy  also  add,  if  the  two  pieces  be  strapped 


longitudinally  across  their  abutting  pqrts,  the  cohesive  force 
will  bo  considerably  assisted  thereby. 

'Jhere  is  no  part  of  carpentry  which  requires  greater  cor- 
rectness in  workmanship  than  scarfing;  as  all  the  indents 
should  bear  equally,  otherwise  the  greater  part  of  the  strength 
will  be  lost  Hence  we  see  how  very  unfit  some  of  the 
complicated  forms  shown  in  the  old  works  on  carpentry  were 
for  the  purpose.  It  is  certainly  the  height  of  absurdity  to 
render  the  parts  difficult  to  be  fitted,  when  the  whole  of  the 
strength  ilepeiids  on  their  fitting  well.  "  But  many,"  says 
Professor  Robison,  "  seem  to  aim  at  making  the  beam 
stronger  than  if  it  were  of  one  piece  ;  and  this  inconsideiate 
project  has  given  rise  to  many  whimsical  modes  of  tabling 
and  scarfing." 

Having  already  shown  many  v.irieties  of  searfiiigs  under 
the  general  head  of  Caiipentuy,  we  shall  here  only  point  out 
the  most  approved  forms  for  practical  purposes,  by  way  of 
illustrating  the  preceding  observations. 

Figure  1.  Two  pieces  of  timber  connected  by  a  single 
step  on  each  piece.  Here  more  than  half  the  power  is  lost; 
neither  is  the  scarf  so  capable  of  resisting  the  force  oftcnsinn 
as  a  single  piece  of  timber  would  be,  were  it  sawed  half 
through  its  thickness  from  the  opposite  side,  at  a  distance 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  scarf:  however,  if  assisted  by 
straps,  it  may  perhaps  be  capable  of  resisting  a  much  greater 
fiiree,  particularly  if  each  opposite  surface  be  bolted  on  the 
sides  of  the  transverse  joints  through  the  straps. 

Fif/ure  2.  An  oblique  scarf,  bolted  in  three  places.  Allow- 
ing the  utmost  cohesion  of  the  part  (jf  the  jt)int  a  b,  to  be  the 
same  as  whole  timber,  and  that  the  transverse  parts,  a  d  or 
B  c,  are  one-fourth  of  the  breadth,  d  e,  the  compound 
timber  will  possess  three-finirths  of  the  strength  of  a  solid 
piece. 

Figure  3.  A  scarf  with  parallel  joints  and  a  single  table 
upon  each  piece.  Here  the  cohesive  strength  is  diminished 
in  an  additional  degree  to  that  of  Figure  1,  by  the  projection 
of  the  table  ;  but  this  gives  an  opportunity  of  driving  a 
wedge  through  the  joint,  between  the  ends  of  the  tables  and 
thereby  forcing  the  abutting  parts  to  a  joint.  This  mode 
requires  the  scarf  to  be  longer  than  those  which  have  no 
tables  ;  and  the  transverse  parts  of  the  scarf  must  also  be 
strapped  and  bolted. 

Fiijure  4.  Allows  of  the  same  opportunity  of  wedging  as 
before  :  if  we  would  suppose  the  parts  a  b  and  c  d  to  be  com- 
pressed by  bolts  as  firmly  together  as  if  they  were  but  one 
piece  they  would  be,  by  the  continuity  of  the  fibres,  and  if 
the  projection  of  the  tables  be  equal  to  the  transverse  parts 
of  the  joints  at  a  and  d;  the  loss  of  strength,  compared  with 
that  of  a  solid  piece,  will  be  no  more  than  what  it  would  be 
at  A  and  d. 

Let  it  bo  here  observed,  once  for  all,  that  the  strapping 
across  the  transverse  part  of  the  joint  is  the  most  eflectual 
mode  of  preventing  the  pieces  from  being  drawn  from  each 
other,  by  the  sliding  of  the  longitmlinal  parts  of  the  scarf, 
and  thereby  giving  the  bolts  an  oblique  position. 

Figure  5.  A  scarf  formed  liy  several  steps.  In  this,  if  all 
the  transverse  parts  of  the  steps  be  ecpial,  and  the  longitudinal 
parts  as  strongly  compressed  by  bolts  as  the  fibres  of  whole 
timber  would  adhere  laterally,  the  loss  of  strength  would  only 
be  a  fourth,  compared  to  that  of  a  solid  piece;  there  being 
four  transverse  parts,  that  is,  the  part  which  the  end  of  a  step 
is  of  the  whole. 

Figure  G.  The  end  of  each  piece  is  formed  by  three  steps, 
and  the  abutting  parts  of  the  middle  step  being  greater  than 
that  at  either  extremity,  the  loss  of  strength  in  the  compound 
timber  is  the  part  which  the  middle  abutting  surfaces  are  of 
the  whole  section. 


Vm'^TWm'T^y^'  TAKliKI^'IM^Y 


Fig  I 


PLITE  r. 


Fig  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig. -I. 


Fig.5. 


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Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fid.. 9. 


FiqlO. 


Dram  Ig  }t  A  X'chohon 


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C®JfSTlRlUCTJ[y]B  CAKMEETTIEyo 


PLrii:  II 


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FxgdZ  N?2. 


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FCglB  M^l- 


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195 


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Figure  7.  A  scarf  consisting  of  six  steps,  the  abutting 
parts  being  equal,  and  tlw'  Inngitudiiiai  pans  inclined  in  a 
small  degree  to  the  sides;  so  tliat  when  the  two  parts  come 
to  be  bolted  together,  the  pieces  will  dovetail  each  other,  and 
thereby  prevent  their  being  drawn  ;  but  as  all  timber  is  liable 
to  shrink  in  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  its  section,  no 
dependence  can  be  put  in  dovetailing,  for  tlie  shrinking  may 
be  so  great,  that  the  thieke.-.t  parts  <if  the  solids  at  the  al>ut- 
meiit  of  the  joint  may  pass  through  the  narrower  cavities, 
and  render  the  dovetails  useless.  We  may  also  observe,  in 
the  case  of  bolting,  that  when  the  longitudinal  parts  .shrink 
from  each  other,  the  bolts  will  be  diawn  obli<|ULly,  unless 
the  transverse  parts  on  the  shies  be  stripjied  and  bolted,  both 
opposite  to  the  scarf  and  through  the  solid  at  each  end  of  it. 
Tlie  strength  of  the  comj)ound  beam  may  likewise  be  assisted 
by  the  iron  ;  the  dovetailing  therefore  can  only  give  greater 
adhesion  at  first;  at  the  same  time,  it  occasions  a  small  loss 
of  strength,  equal  to  the  difi'erence  of  the  extreme  end  of  the 
outer  step  and  the  nearer  end  of  the  whole  section. 

Figure  8.  The  method  of  forming  a  compound  timlier, 
when  the  two  pieces  arc  not  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  them 
to  lap,  by  means  of  a  third  piece,  comiected  with  both  by  a 
double  scarf,  Ibrmed  of  several  degrees,  or  steps  ;  the  pieces 
abutting  u]ion  each  other,  with  the  middle  of  the  connecting 
piece  over  their  abutment. 

When  girders  are  e.vtended  beyond  a  certain  length,  they 
bend  under  their  own  weight  in  the  middle,  and  the  degree 
of  curvature  w  ill  increase  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  their 
lengths.  An  excellent  method  to  prevent  this  sagging,  with- 
out the  as.sistanee  of  uprights  or  posts  from  the  ground  or 
floor  below,  is,  to  make  the  beam  in  two  equal  lengths,  and 
insert  a  truss,  so  that  when  the  two  pieces  are  Violled.  the 
truss  may  be  included  bi'tween  them,  they  forming  its  tie. 
To  prevent  any  bad  elfeets  from  shrinking,  the  tiuss-posts 
are  geuerallj-  constructed  of  iron,  screwed  and  nutted  at  the 
ends;  and  to  give  a  firmer  abutment,  the  braces  are  let  in 
with  grot)ves  into  the  side  of  each  flitch.  The  abutments  at 
the  ends  are  also  made  of  iron,  and  either  screwed  and  nutted 
at  each  of  the  ends,  and  i)olted  through  the  thickness  of  both 
pieces,  with  a  broad  part  in  the  middle,  that  the  braces  may 
abut  upon  the  whole  dimension  of  their  section  ;  or,  the 
abutments  are  made  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  wedge  at 
the  bottom,  and  rise  eyiindrically  to  the  top,  where  they  are 
screwed  and  nutted.  These  modes  may  be  either  constructed 
with  one  king-boit  in  the  middle,  or  with  a  truss-bolt  at  one- 
third  of  the  length  from  each  end.  When  there  are  two 
bolts,  they  include  a  straining  place  in  the  middle.  The 
two  braces  may  either  be  constructed  of  oak,  or  cast  or  wrought 
iron  ;  the  latter  material  is.  however,  very  seldom  employed. 
As  wood  contracts  less  in  length  than  most  metals,  oak  is 
better  for  the  purpose  than  east  iron,  but  then  the  parts  of 
the  core  must  be  so  much  stronger.  As  to  the  bolts,  wrought 
iron  is  indispensable.  It  is  obvious,  that  the  higher  the  girder, 
the  less  will  the  parts  be  afl'ected  by  the  stress,  and  conse- 
quently there  will  be  less  risk  of  their  giving  way  under 
heavy  weights,  or  through  long  bearings. 

Figure  9.  A  beam  of  two  thicknesses  Ijolted  together, 
the  scarfing  of  each  length  of  timber  alternating  in  the 
two  thicknesses,  so  as  to  have  the  junction  of  two  lengths 
in  the  one  thickness  opposite  the  centre  of  a  length  in 
the  other  thickness :  the  scarfng  is  similar  to  that  of 
Figure  3. 

Figure  10.  A  beam  of  three  thicknesses  bolted  together, 
each  thickness  consisting  of  a  number  of  short  timbers  so 
disposed,  that  the  joints  in  no  thickness  come  opposite  the 
joints  in  either  of  the  other  thicknesses  ;  a  bolt  occurs  between 
every  two  joints. 


Figure  11.  A  section  of  a  girder  with  two  braces  and 
a  king-bolt. 

Figure  12.  The  section  of  a  girder  with  a  straining  piece, 
two  braces,  and  two  truss-bolts,  of  the  best  princi|>le.  No.  1 
represents  the  girder  laid  o|)en,  in  order  to  show  the  core. 
No.  2,  the  two  parts  bolted  tog.ther.  No.  3,  the  edge  of  a 
washer.  No.  4,  the  face  of  the  same.  No.  5,  the  side  of  the 
cut  metal  bolts,  in  the  transverse  direction  of  the  girder. 
No.  6,  the  side  of  the  same,  in  the  longitudinal  diieetion. 
No.  7,  the  transverse  direction  of  the  truss-bolt,  or  king-bolt. 

Figure  13.  The  section  of  a  girder,  calculated  from  its 
rise  to  sustain  very  heavy  weights.  If  the  tie-beam  be  very 
strong,  the  abutments  may  be  wedged  ;  but  then  the  wedges 
ought  to  be  very  long,  the  tapper  very  small,  that  there  may 
be  no  inclination  to  rise.  The  excess  of  length  may  be  cut 
off"  afterwards.  The  bolts  represented  at  No.  5,  and  No.  G, 
Figure  12.  are  nevertheless  to  be  preferred. 

Two  timbers  nuiy  be  joined,  either  by  making  both  planes 
of  contact  parallel  with  or  at  right  angles  to  the  fibres,  or  by 
making  the  joint  parallel  with  the  fibres  of  the  one  piece,  and 
at  right  or  obliipn^  angles  to  those  of  the  other,  or  at  oblique 
angles  to  the  fibres  (^f  both  pieces.  When  two  pieces  of 
timber  are  joined  so  that  the  common  seam  runs  parallel  with 
the  fibres  of  both,  the  joint  is  called  a  hjiigitudinal  joint ;  but 
when  the  plane  of  the  joint  is  at  right  angles  to  the  fibres,  it 
is  an  abutting,  or  hittt-joint ;  this  position  brings  the  fibres 
of  both  pieces  in  the  same  straight  line,  if  the  joint  be  at 
right  angles  to  the  fibres  of  one  piece,  and  parallel  with  those 
of  the  other,  it  is  called  a  square  joint  ;  if  the  joint  he  parallel 
with  the  fibres  of  one  piece  and  obrupie  to  those  of  the  other, 
it  is  a  bevel  joint  ;  and  lastly,  if  the  joint  be  at  oblique  angles 
with  the  fibres  of  both  pieces,  the  fibres  foriTiing  an  angle 
with  each  other  double  to  that  formed  by  the  fibres  of  one 
piece  and  the  joint,  it  is  a  mitre  joint. 

These  are  the  general  positions  of  simple  joints  in  respect 
to  the  fibres  of  one  or  both  pieces;  those  which  may  be  com- 
pounded by  the  position  of  dillerent  planes,  are  of  infinite 
variety,  but  as  they  seem  to  have  little  or  no  practical  appli- 
cation, we  shall  not  detain  the  reader  longer  on  the  subject. 
In  fixing  two  pieces  of  timber  together  with  longitudinal 
joints,  tiie  pieces  are  generally  bolted,  and  sometimes  pinned. 

As  to  butting  and  mitre  joints,  they  are  seldom  or  never 
used  in  carpentry. 

When  two  pieces  of  timber  are  joined  together  at  one  or 
moreangles,  the  one  piece  will  eithermeet  the  other  and  form 
one  angle,  or  by  crossing  it  f)rm  two  angles;  or  tlie  two 
timbers  will  cross  each  other,  and  form  fimr  angles. 

In  all  the  following  cases  of  connecting  two  timbers,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  sides  of  the  pieces  are  jiarallel  with  the 
fibres,  or,  if  the  fibres  be  crooked,  as  nearly  so  as  possible; 
and  that  each  piece  has  at  least  one  of  its  surfaces  in  the 
same  plane  with  those  of  one  of  the  other  ;  the  four  sides 
being  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

The  angle  or  angles  so  formed  will  either  be  right  or  obtuse. 
Notching  is  the  most  common  and  simple  form,  in  permanent 
works,  and  in  some  cases  the  strongest,  for  joining  two  tim- 
bers at  one  or  more  angles,  particularly  when  bolted  at  the 
joint.  The  form  of  the  joint  may  be  varied  according  to  the 
position  of  the  sides  of  the  pieces,  the  mimber  of  angles, 
the  quantity  and  direction  of  the  stress  on  the  one  or  both 
pieces,  or  any  combination  of  these  circumstances. 

In  the  notching  of  timbers  upon  each  other,  Mie  notch  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  formed  by  planes,  at  right  angles 
to,  and  parallel  \v\xh  the  side  in  which  the  excavation  is  made ; 
therefore  the  part  of  the  corresponding  piece  must  have  its 
planes  in  a  similar  situation,  the  solid  being  contained  between 
these  planes,  instead  of  the  empty  space,  or  notch,  as  in  the 


CON 


196 


CON 


other.  It  may  also  here  be  remarked,  that  the  notch  is 
genei-aliy  supposed  to  consist  of  three  planes,  imless  it  be 
otherwise  specified. 

Notching  admits  of  the  two  pieces  being  joined  at  from 
one  to  four  angles  ;  but  joining  by  mortise  and  tenon  admits 
only  from  one  to  two  angles. 

In  mortise  and  tenon  joining,  four  sides  of  the  mortise  are 
always  supposed  to  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  to 
the  surface  whence  it  is  recessed,  and  two  of  these  sides  to  be 
parallel  with  each  of  the  sides,  which  form  a  right  aniile  with 
the  side  from  which  the  mortise  is  made  ;  the  fifth  plane, 
which  is  the  bottom  of  the  mortise,  is  parallel  with  the  other. 
With  respect  to  the  tenon,  four  of  its  sides  are  parallel  with 
the  four  sides  of  the  piece. 

In  the  application  of  limbers  to  buildings,  it  is  here  sup- 
posed that  all  pieces  cut  for  use  have  a  rectangular  section, 
and  when  laid  horizontally  have  their  sides  perpendicular  to, 
and  parallel  with,  the  horizon. 

If  two  pieces  of  timber  are  to  be  joined  at  four  angles,  cut 
a  notch  in  one  piece  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  other,  so  as 
to  leave  the  remaiuing  part  of  the  thickness  sufficiently  strong, 
a  very  small  excavation  being  sufhcient;  then  insert  the  other 
piece  in  the  notch  :  or  if  the  work  be  required  to  be  very 
fn-m,  notch  each  piece  reciprocally  to  each  other's  breadth, 
and  fasten  them  together  by  pins,  spikes,  or  bolts,  as  the  case 
may  require:  this  form  is  applicable  where  I  he  pieces  are 
equally  exposed  to  a  strain. 

W  hen  one  piece  has  to  sustain  another  over  it,  transversely, 
and  if  only  the  upper  be  requiied  to  support  a  weight,  cut 
a  notch  from  its  lower  side,  equal  in  breadth  to  about  three- 
foui'ths  of  that  of  the  lower  piece,  and  as  deep  as  the  vertical 
distance  that  it  is  to  be  let  down ;  then  the  lower  piece  must 
have  a  notch  cut  in  its  vertical  side,  leaving  the  middle  of 
the  upper  face  entire  to  three-quarters  of  its  breadth,  and 
the  lower  parts  of  the  vertical  side  entire,  so  that  the  vertical 
depth  of  each  notch  may  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  upper 
notch  :  by  this  means  the  strength  of  the  supporting  or  lower 
pieces  is  diminished  in  a  nmch  less  degree  than  if  the  notch 
were  cut  out  the  whole  breadth.  This  method  is  applicable 
to  roofing  and  naked  flooring. 

The  framing  of  timber  by  dovetail  notching  is  chiefly 
applicable  to  horizontal  framing,  where  the  lower  timber  is 
sutiiciently  supported  ;  but  where  the  lower  timber  is  unsup- 
ported, it  is  common  to  use  mortise  and  tenon,  which  does 
not  weaken  the  timber  in  any  considerable  degree;  where 
the  timber  is  notched  from  the  upper  side,  the  operation 
reduces  its  thickness,  and  consequently  impairs  its  strength; 
though  it  may  be  said,  if  the  .solid  of  one  piece  fill  the  exca- 
vation of  the  other,  anil  both  be  tightly  driven  or  forced 
together  (if  we  can  place  implicit  confidence  in  the  experi- 
ments of  Ou  Ilamel)  and  if  the  pieces  be  not  cut  more  than 
one-third  through,  there  will  be  rather  an  accession  tlian 
a  loss  of  strength.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  in 
large  works,  where  heavy  timbers  are  employed,  it  is  dillienlt, 
or  almost  impossible,  to  fit  them  with  due  accuracy ;  and  even 
where  the  joints  closely  fitted  at  first,  the  shrinking  would 
occa-ion  cavities  on  the  sides,  that  would  render  the  tenons 
of  no  avail,  liecause  the  axis  of  fracture  w'onld  be  nearer  to 
the  breaking,  or  under  side  of  the  supporting  piece. 

\\  hat  has  been  observed  with  regard  to  horizontal  pieces 
of  tiii.ber,  applies  to  framing  in  every  position,  where  the 
foice  is  to  fdl  on  the  plane  of  the  sides  ;  and  if  a  number  of 
pieces  thus  liable  lo  lateral  pressure  on  either  side,  are  to  be 
framed  into  two  other  stiff" pieces,  the  mortise  and  tenon  will 
prove  best  for  the  purpose. 

When  joists  are  framed  into  trimmers,  the  usual  method 
is  to  make  the  mortise  on  the  tenon  with  a  plain  shoulder,  in 


the  middle  of  the  sides  of  its  respective  timl)er  :  this  mode 
is  particularly  used  in  letting  down  bridging  joists  upon 
binding  joists,  and  small  rafters  upon  purlins. 

If  it  be  required  to  join  two  pieces  of  limber,  to  form  two 
light  angles  so  as  to  be  immovable  when  the  transverse  is 
held  or  fixed  fast,  and  the  standing  piece  pulled  in  a  direc- 
tion of  its  length  ;  cut  a  dovetail  notch  across  the  breadth  of 
the  transverse  piece,  and  notch  out  the  vertical  sides  of  the 
standing  piece  at  the  end.  so  as  to  forixi  a  corresponding 
similar  and  equal  solid.  In  some  pieces  of  work,  besides  the 
dovetail,  an  additional  notch  is  cut,  to  receive  the  shoulder 
of  the  lower  piece.  If  the  position  of  these  pieces  be  hori- 
zontal, and  the  upper  of  sufficient  weight,  or  pressed  down 
by  any  considerable  force,  when  the  pieces  are  put  together 
in  their  place,  the  dovetail  will  be  sufficiently  strong  without 
the  assistance  of  pins,  spikes,  or  bolts.  This  construction 
requires  the  timbers  to  be  well  seasoned,  for  otherwise  the 
shrinking  will  permit  the  standing  piece  to  be  drawn  out  of 
the  transverse,  and  thus  defeat  the  purpose  which  the  con- 
struction was  intended  to  answer.  The  following  method  of 
remedying  this  defect  will  be  found  effectual : — Cut  the 
transverse  piece  in  two  excavations  fi'nm  the  upper  side,  so 
that  if  the  breadth  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  five  equal 
parts,  and  a  notch  equal  in  breadth  to  three  parts  be  cut  next 
to  the  outer  vertical  side,  and  the  other  notch  be  made  equal 
to  the  breadth  of  one  part,  and  each  notch  depressed  from  the 
upper  face  about  one-third  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  so  as 
to  leave  the  second  part  on  the  upper  surface  next  to  the 
inner  vertical  side,  and  tlie  two-thirds  of  the  depth  of  each 
vertical  side  next  to  the  lower  side  entire  :  then  the  corres- 
ponding single  notch  being  made  on  the  standing  piece  to  the 
solid  left  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  transverse  piece,  the  two 
pieces  will  reciprocally  receive  each  other. 

When  binding  joints  arc  framed  into  girders,  as  they  have 
to  support  the  bridging  joists  and  boardlngof  the  floor,  there 
will  be  a  considerable  strain  at  their  extremities  ;  in  order 
to  make  the  tenons  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the  weight, 
they  should  be  framed  with  a  shorter  bearing  tenon  attached 
to  the  principal  tenon  and  a  sloping  shoulder  above,  called 
a  hisk  ;  tenons  thus  formed  are  called  tusk  tenons. 

When  two  parallel  pieces,  quite  immovable,  are  to  have 
another  piece  framed  between  them,  proceed  thus : — Insert 
the  one  end  of  the  tenon  of  the  connecting  piece  into  a  shal- 
low mortise,  and  make  a  long  mortise  .in  the  opposite  side  of 
the  other  timber,  so  that  when  the  cross  piece  is  moved 
round  the  shoulder  of  the  <ither  extremity,  as  a  centre,  it 
may  slide  home  to  its  situation  :  thus  if  the  tenon  at  the 
movable  end  fit  the  mortise  closely,  the  bottom  of  the  mor- 
tise would  bo  the  arc  of  a  circle,  of  which  the  shoulder  of 
the  tenon  first  formed  would  be  the  centre  :  but  the  bottom 
of  the  long  mortise  may  be  straight  instead  of  circular,  pro- 
vided it  be  sufficiently  recessed  to  clear  the  eiid  of  the  piece. 
This  mode  of  framing  a  transverse  piece  between  two  others 
is  employed  in  trimming  in  ceiling  joists  :  the  binding  joists 
are  always  previously  mortised  before  they  are  disposed  in 
a  situation  to  receive  them,  and  the  ceiling  joists  are  seldom 
or  never  cut  to  their  lengths  and  fitted  in  before  the  building 
is  covered  over. 

When  a  transverse  piece  of  timber  is  to  be  framed  between 
two  parallel  joists,  of  which  the  vertical  surfaces  are  not 
parallel,  turn  the  upper  edge  of  the  transverse  piece  down- 
wards upon  the  upper  horizontal  surface  of  the  joists;  mark 
the  interval  or  distance  between  them  upon  the  surface  uf 
the  transverse  piece  now  under;  then  turn  the  transverse 
piece  in  the  w;iy  it  is  intended  to  be  framed,  placing  the 
edge  over  the  places  where  it  is  to  be  let  dnwMi  ;  then  applv 
a  straight-edge  to  the  oblique  surface  of  the  joist,  and  slide 


CON 


197 


C  i )  N 


the  tiansvei-sc  piece  so  as  to  bring  the  mark  upon  tlie  upper 
siJo  of  it  ill  a  line  with  the  straight-cilge.  This  being  done, 
pioited  in  the  same  manner  with  the  otiier  end,  and  the  two 
lines  drawn  on  the  vertical  sides  of  the  intermediate  piece 
« ill  mark  the  shoulders  of  the  tenons.  This  process  is  called 
liy  workmen  tvmHiiiij-iii  joists,  and  is  particularly  useful 
when  the  tinilier  is  warped  or  twisted. 

Having  shown  the  priiiei|)les  of  lengthening  timber  and 
strengthening  of  lieanis,  also  the  methods  of  joining  timbers 
at  angles,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  construction  in  general. 

In  groin  centering,  the  boarding  which  forms  the  exterior 
surtiice  for  building  ujhui  is  supported  by  transverse  ribs  of 
timber,  which  are  eiUur  constructed  simjily,  or  with  trusses, 
accoiding  to  the  magnitude  of  the  work  ;  and  as  a  groin  con- 
sists generally  of  two  vaults  crossing  each  other,  one  of  them 
is  always  boarded  over,  the  .same  as  a  plain  vault,  without 
hriving  any  res[;ect  to  the  otlier,  which  is  atteivvards  ribbed 
and  l)oarded,  so  as  to  make  out  the  legnlar  surface. 

Tiniliers  disposed  in  walls  and  at  returns  or  angles,  are 
joined  together  where  the  magnitude  of  the  building,  or 
exposure  to  strain,  may  require.  These  are  of  three  denomi- 
nations, as  bond-timber,  lintels,  and  wall-plates. 

Flooring  is  supportecl  by  one  or  more  rf)ws  of  parallel 
beams,  called  laded  or  carcuse-Jtoorinr/,  and  is  denominated 
either  siiit/le  or  double,  accordingly.  The  manner  of  joining 
the  timbers  we  have  already  spoken  of. 

JJuring  the  construclinn  of  the  building,  the  fitioring  of 
iar|iciitry,  if  not  supported  by  brick  or  stone  partitions,  is 
I  ither  suppoited  by  tiie  partitioning  of  timber  or  by  shores. 
Tile  Construction  of  the  flouring,  whether  single  or  double, 
depends  upon  (lie  magnitude  of  the  building,  the  horizontal 
dimensions  of  the  apartments,  or  the  weight  w  Inch  the  board- 
ing may  be  required  to  support.  \Vlien  the  flooring  is 
required  to  be  very  stifl",  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  truss 
girders. 

Naked  flnoring  for  dancing  ujion  should  be  made  very- 
strong,  and  so  contrived  that  the  ujiper  jiartof  it  may  spring, 
so  as  to  bend  to  the  impression  of  the  force,  while  the  lower 
part,  sustaining  the  ceiling,  remains  immovable. 

Partitions  are  constructed  of  a  row  of  timbers,  or  if  the 
length  of  the  bearing  require  very  great  stifihess,  they  are 
made  of  framed  truss-work,  and  afterwards  filled  in  with 
parallel  timbers.  The  trussing  of  partitions  may  be  made 
to  assist  in  giving  support  to  the  floors,  where  they  are 
unsupported  below.  The  framing  ought  to  be  so  managed 
as  to  discharge  the  oflice  of  hanging  up  the  floor,  in  what- 
ever situation  the  doors  are  placed.  Truss  partitions  are 
also  of  the  utmost  use  in  supporting  the  superior  floor. 

The  covering  of  the  roof  is  sustained  by  one  or  several 
rows  of  parallel  timbers,  each  row  being  in  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  covering.  The  force  of  the  timbers,  which  would  act 
laterally  upon  the  walls,  is  generally  restrained  by  tie-beams 
placed  upon  wall-plates  on  the  top  of  the  walls,  and  fixed  to 
the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters.  In  roofing,  many  ingenious 
contrivances  may  be  resorted  to,  their  application  depending 
upon  the  pitch  of  the  root;  the  number  of  compartments  into 
which  it  may  be  divided,  or  whether  there  are  to  be  tie-beams 
or  nut.  If  an  apartment  is  required  to  be  coved  into  the 
roof,  a  longitudinal  truss,  supported  at  the  ends,  may  be 
placed  in  a  vertical  plane  under  the  ridge,  by  which  the 
rafters  may  be  hung;  for  it  is  evident,  that  if  the  upper  ends 
of  the  rafters  were  held  in  their  situation,  their  lower  ends 
would  descend  by  their  gravity,  and  would  describe  arcs  of 
circles  in  vertical  planes,  and  in  their  descent  would  approach 
nearer  together,  and,  consequently,  instead  of  pushin"  out 
the  walls,  would  have  a  tendency  to  draw  them  towards  each 
other,     And  if  beams  were  placed  transversely  immediately 


under  the  longitudinal  truss,  and  fixed  to  the  opposite  rafters, 
they  would  act  as  straining  pieces,  and  prevent  the  exterior 
sides  of  the  roof  fmm  getting  hollow.  If  the  wdiole  space 
within,  under  the  rafters,  were  required,  that  is,  to  have  no 
intermediate  work  of  trussing,  the  sides  of  the  roof  may  )>e 
prevented  fmm  descending  by  arching  them  with  cast  iron, 
or  trussing  them  with  w^ood  in  the  inclined  planes  of  their 
sides;  and  to  restrain  the  pressure  of  the  rafters,  which 
would  be  discharged  at  the  extremities  of  the  building,  a  strong 
wall-plate,  well  connected  in  all  its  parts,  must  !)(■  introduced, 
which,  acting  as  a  tie,  would  prevent  the  lateral  pressure 
forcing  out  the  walls. 

In  this  construction,  as  well  as  in  the  former,  the  rafters 
would  have  a  tendency,  from  their  gravity,  to  become  hollow  ; 
in  this  case  straining  beams  should  be  introduced  at  a  con- 
venient height,  which  would  have  a  good  eflcet  in  counter- 
acting that  tendency.  If  it  be  required  to  occn|)y  very  little 
s])aee  by  the  wood-work,  cast-iron  arches,  abutting  upon  eacli 
other,  and  screwed  with  their  planes  upon  the  upper  sides 
of  the  rafters,  will  answer  the  purpose  best. 

The  idea  of  trussing  roofs  jipon  these  principles  was 
discovered,  many  years  ago,  by  Mr.  P.  Nicholson,  in  eon- 
sequence  of  a  dispute  concerning  a  roof  which  had  been 
constructed  upon  a  chapel,  and  which  had  pushed  out  tlie 
walls  to  such  an  alarming  degree  as  to  threaten  the  demo- 
lition of  the  whole  labric:  Mr.  Nichol-on  was  chosen  as 
arbiter,  but  the  principle  which  the  architect  adopted  was 
so  incompatible  with  the  nature  of  the  design,  that,  though 
chosen  by  the  architect  himself,  he  was  under  the  disngree- 
able  necessity  of  giving  judgment  in  (iivour  of  the  constructor. 
This  roof  was  truncated,  or  flat,  and  the  ceiling  within 
cylindrical,  extending  horizontally  the  whole  clear  of  the 
walls,  and  in  height  to  the  under  sides  of  the  camber-beams, 
so  that  there  were  no  lies  between  opposite  rafters.  The 
princij)le  consisted,  iherefore,  of  two  sloping  sides  and  a 
camber-beam,  which  were  only  tied  together  by  angle-braces, 
and  as  the  ceiling  came  in  contact  with  the  under  side  of  the 
rafters  and  the  under  sides  of  the  cambcr-beains,  the  braces 
were  also  disposed  so  that  the  miildle  of  their  under  sides 
came  in  contact  with  the  ceiling,  and  thus,  to  maintain  the 
roof  in  its  position,  depended  entirely  upon  the  resistance  of 
the  walls,  or  upon  the  inflexibility  of  the  timbers,  or  bntli; 
all  of  which  were  of  unusual  strength. 

The  lesson  which  every  architect  ought  to  learn  from  this, 
is,  always  to  construct  his  roof  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
it  entirely  dependent  on  itself. 

In  the  year  1802,  two  years  subsequent  to  the  above  dis- 
pute, a  model  of  a  roof  was  exhibited  before  a  numerous 
meeting  of  the  Philosophical  Society  at  Glasgow^  wherein 
the  timbers  consisted  simply  of  rafters  abutting  at  the  top 
upon  a  riilge-pieee,  leaving  the  whole  space  under  the  rafters 
clear,  and,  of  course,  forming  a  triangular  hollow  prism,  with  ' 
the  two  upper  sides  parallel  to  the  inclined  planes  of  the 
exterior.  The  wall-plates  were  unsu|iported,  except  at 
the  four  corners,  which  were  sustained  by  uprights  or  posts; 
the  pieces  let  in  upon  the  upper  sides  of  the  rafters  consisted 
of  small  arcs,  almost  straight,  forming  on  each  inclined  plane 
a  paraliolic  curve,  and  extending  from  post  to  post.  From 
the  ridge-piece  equal  .and  very  eonsidera'ole  weights  were 
suspended,  one  from  the  meeting  of  every  pair  of  rafters, 
without  producing  anj-  visible  eftieet  upon  the  wall-plates. 

The  form  of  a  parabolic  curve  is  best  adapted  to  that  of 
equal  weights  suspended  at  equal  distances.  Instead  of  arcs, 
simple  trusses  may  be  used,  and  the  rafters  may  bridge 
over  them. 

In  many  cases,  w-here  space  is  required,  we  cannot  "help 
thinking,  that  the  disposition  and  fixing  of  the  boarding  in 


CON 


198 


CON 


the  form  of  a  truss,  is  vastly  suporior  to  placinf;  thorn  with 
their  joints  parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  would  be  a  very 
proper  substitute  for  archinj;  or  trussing  the  sides  in  all 
roofsof  moderate  dimensions.  It  must,  however,  be  observed, 
that  the  meeting  of  every  two  boards  ought  to  be  as  ncarlv 
as  possible  upon  the  middle  of  a  rafler,  and  not  over  the 
hollow.  To  which  we  may  add,  that  as  all  the  joists  are 
abutting  in  sueh  disposition,  the  boards  forming  trussed 
worii  may  be  made  thicker,  and  let  into  the  rafters,  which 
will  give  greatei-  security  to  the  abutments  ;  but  for  this 
purpose  they  ought  to  be  firmly  fi.xed  at  their  meeting,  to 
prevent  tlii-m  from  starting. 

The  principle  of  arching  the  inclined  sides  of  a  roof,  and 
making  the  wall-plates  act  as  ties,  is  exhibited  in  the  archi- 
tectural plates  of  Jvees'  Cyclopedia,  published  in  1803. 

Circular  roofs  may  be  e.\ecuted  without  ties,  or  without 
any  precaution  of  trussing,  as  in  rectangular  buildings,  but 
the  wall-plate  ought  to  be  one  continued  mass.  There  are 
two  methods  of  covering  circular  roofs  with  boards:  one  is, 
to  bend  the  boards  with  their  joints  in  horizontal  planes; 
and  the  other  is,  to  bend  them  in  planes  passing  through  the 
axis.  As  that  species  of  circular  roofs  called  domes  lays 
considerable  claim  to  our  attention,  it  will  here  be  proper  to 
say  sometliiag  on  their  construction. 

If  the  dome  be  splieriial,  ami  have  no  lantern  to  support, 
the  ribs  may  be  constructed  of  boards  in  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses, with  the  longitudinal  joints  of  the  boards  tending  to 
the  axis  of  the  dome,  and  intersecting  the  spherical  edges, 
and  the  butting  joints  intersecting  the  sides  of  the  ribs,  which 
tend  to  the  said  axis. 

Let  us  now  suf)pose  the  thickness  of  a  rilj  to  consist  of 
three  boards,  and  suppose  the  circidar  pieces  which  are 
to  compose  the  ribs,  to  be  all  prepared  of  equal  lengths  and 
breadths.  Take  one  of  the  lengths,  suppose  for  the  left-hand 
piece  at  the  bottom,  and  lap  the  next  higher  length,  which  is 
the  middle  piece,  two-thirds  upon  the  lower  piece;  take 
another  length  for  the  right-hand  piece,  next  higher,  and 
lap  this  two-thirds  on  the  middle  piece  ;  so  that  the  right- 
hand  piece  will  lap  one-third  upon  the  left-hand  piece  ; 
between  the  ends  of  this  third,  bolt  or  pin  the  three  pieces 
together;  the  middle  board  will  want  a  third,  the  right-hand 
board  two-thirds,  to  make  it  complete  at  the  bottom  ;  these 
parts  being  sup[ilied  and  fixed,  lay  another  board  at  the 
higher  end  of  the  right-hand  board,  the  end  of  another  to 
abut  upon  the  higher  end  of  the  middle  board,  and  the  end 
of  a  third  board  to  abut  upon  the  upper  end  of  the  left-hand 
boanl,  then  there  will  be  three  piles  of  boards,  which  must 
be  fastened  together  lietween  each  pair  of  heading  joints, 
which  are  three  in  mimljcr.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with 
every  succei'ding  three  boards,  as  with  the  last  three,  until 
you  arrive  at  the  tup,  and  the  deficiency  must  be  supplied 
as  at  the  bottom.  In  this  manner,  every  rib  in  succession 
must  be  ci instructed,  until  they  are  all  finished.  Each  rib 
ought  to  befitted  to  the  curvature  of  the  axal  section  of  the 
d(»me,  drawn  on  a  floor,  and  the  three  thicknesses  fixed 
together  throughout  the  whole  length,  before  it  is  removed. 
If,  in  addition  to  the  fixing,  the  joints  be  strapped,  it  will  add 
considerably  to  the  strength,  and  will  not  be  much  inferior 
to  that  of  a  solid  piece.  In  large  domes  of  this  construction, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  discontinue  the  ribs,  otherwise  an 
unnecessary  quantity  of  timber  would  be  employed  ;  and 
it  nnist  be  observed,  that  the  greatest  intervals  nuist  be  so 
regulated  in  their  dimensions,  as  not  to  be  greater  than  what 
Would  make  the  horizontal  ribs  for  the  boarding,  when  fixed, 
suflieiently  strong. 

As  all  domes  are  best  boarded  with  their  joints  in  vertical 
plaues  tending  to  the  axis,  horizontal  pieces  must,  in  this 


case,  1)6  strutted  between  the  ribs,  and  their  outer  sides 
formed  with  the  spherical  surface.  A  dome  constructed  in 
this  manner,  might  also  be  made  to  support  a  heavy  lantern, 
provided  the  strutting-picees  were  strapped  together,  hi 
the  above  manner  was  the  timber  dome  of  the  Ilalle  du  Bled, 
at  Paris,  constructed  by  Moulineau,  supposed  to  be  the  first 
of  the  kind. 

If  the  boarding  of  the  dome  is  required  to  be  bent,  with 
the  joints  in  horizontal  planes,  and  the  dome  have  no  lantern, 
a  very  good  method  is,  to  construct  it  with  several  vertical 
ribs,  their  planes  being  disposed  at  equal  angles  romid  the 
axis  as  their  common  vertex,  and  constructed  according  to 
the  above  method  ;  between  every  pair  of  such  ribs,  pliice 
other  ribs,  the  curvature  of  which  will  be  portions  of  less 
circles  of  the  sphere,  unless  one  stand  in  each  interval,  and 
its  plane  bisect  the  inclination  iif  the  vertical  planes  of  the 
two  adjacent  princi[ial  ribs:  dispose  of  these  ribs  in  eqtiidis. 
tant  parallel  planes,  and  fit  their  upper  ends  upon  the  sides 
of  the  principal  ribs.  This  disposition  of  the  ribs  will  be 
a  considerable  saving  of  timber,  besides  what  it  wo\ild  have 
been,  had  the  planes  of  all  the  ribs  tended  to  the  axis. 

In  the  construction  of  plaster  groins,  two  methods  are 
employed  in  the  disposition  and  fixing  of  the  ribs.  By  both 
methoils,  ribs  are  made  to  answer  the  intersections  at  the 
angles :  by  one  method,  ribs  are  formed  to  the  transverse 
sections  of  the  vatilt,  and  disposed  in  vertical  planes  accord- 
ingly ;  but  by  the  other,  the  ribs  are  prepared  straight,  and 
fixed  parallel  to  the  axis  of  each  vault. 

The  lathing  fcir  plaster  is  sustained  upon  walls,  by  a 
number  of  jiarallel  posts  of  very  small  scantlings,  called 
ba/tcniii;/,  aiid  ranged  acc<irding  to  the  figure  they  are 
intended  to  form. 

C'ONTABILATE,  to  floor  with  boards. 

CONTACT  (from  the  Latin,  conlactns,  touch)  the  nnitual 
toucliiiig,  or  meeting,  of  two  things. 

C/ONTACT,  in  geometry,  is  when  a  line  or  plane  meets  a 
figure  or  solid,  without  cutting  it,  though  the  line  or  plane 
be  produced.  Thus,  a  line  and  a  circle  are  in  contact  when 
the  line  is  a  tangent  to  the  circle  ;  and  two  circles  are  in 
mutual  contact,  when  thev  touch  each  other  without  cutting: 
the  like  is  to  l)e  understood  of  a  plane  aiul  a  convex  body,  as 
a  cylinder,  cone,  conoid,  t^e. 

CONTENT  (from  the  Latin,  coiiteiitiin)  that  which  is 
contained,  the  thing  held,  inckulcd,  or  conqu-ehcnded  within 
a  limit  or  line.  In  geometry,  the  area  or  quantity  of 
matte]-  or  space  included  in  cei'taiu  lines.  Linear  content, 
length  simply  ;  siiperficinl  eonteut,  area  or  surface ;  solid 
content,  the  numlier  of  cubic  inches,  feet,  yards,  &:c.  con- 
tained iu  a  given  space. 

CONTEXTUKE  (from  the  Latin,  coiitexo,  woven)  the 
disposition  or  union  of  the  constituent  ])arts  of  a  budy  iu 
respect  of  each  other. 

CONTKiNATlO.N  (from  the  Latin,  coutic/iuitio.  con  and 
tigniiiii,  a  beam),  a  frame  of  beams,  in  ancient  Roman  car- 
pentry, the  same  as  we  now  understand  by  naked  flooriii'j. 

CONTKiUlTY  (from  the  Latin,  contiynm,  to  meet)  the 
relation  of  surfaces  or  solids  whereby  their  sides  join  each 
other. 

CONTIcrOUS  ANGLES,  in  geometry.     See  Angles. 

CO.NTINUED,  a  term  applied  to  whatever  is  not  inter- 
rupted, tnit  jiroceeds  in  the  same  course. 

Continued  .Xttic,  an  attic  not  bmken  into  pilasters. 

CosTiNiED  Pedestal,  a  pedestal  with  its  tnonldings  and 
dado,  or  die,  continued  botli  through  the  column  and  inter- 
column,  without  being  broken. 

Continued  Proportion,  is  when  there  is  a  series  of  lines 
or  quantities,  such  that  the  first  is  to  the  second  as  the  second 


CON 


199 


COP 


is  to  the  thinl,  and  the  second  to  the  third  as  the  third  to  the 
(iiurth.  and  so  on. 

Continued  Socle,  the  same  as  a  conlinued  plinth.  See 
Pi,iNrii. 

CONTINUOUS  BEARINCS,  balks  of  timber  laid  under 
the  rails  of  a  railway  for  their  sujiport,  in  place  of  stone 
sleepers,  or  blocks  fixed  at  certain  intervals.  These  balks, 
or  longitudinal  sleepers,  as  they  are  generally  tei  ined,  are 
secured  to  cross  transoms  fixed  to  piles. 

Continuous  Impost,  in  mediajval  architecture,  the  mould- 
ings of  an  arch  carried  down  to  the  ground  without  inter- 
ruption, or  anything  to  mark  the  impost-point. 

CONTOliTKl),  wreathed.      See  Wreathed. 

CONTOUR  (t'rorn  the  French;  synonymous  ^nth  con- 
tonto,  Italian)  the  outline  of  a  body  ;  to  have  which  correct, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  requisites  in  drawing  and  painting. 

CONTIIAMURE.     See  Countermuhe. 

CoNTRAMURE  (tVoiii  the  French,  contre,  against,  and  mur, 
a  wall)  in  fortification,  an  external  wall  built  about  the  walls 
of  a  citv. 

CONTRARY  FLEXURE,  Point  of,  or  Point  of  Retro- 
GRESSION,  the  point  in  which  two  curves  meet  that  have  the 
convexity  of  the  one  and  the  concavity  of  the  other  on  the 
same  side  of  the  line. 

CONTRAST  (from  the  French,  contraste)  to  avoid  the 
repetition  of  the  same  thing,  by  introducing  variety  ;  as  is 
done  in  antique  edifices,  where  rectangular  and  cylindrical 
niches  with  spherical  heads  are  alternately  introduced  ;  also, 
in  the  dressings  of  niches,  as  in  the  Pantheon,  tabernacles 
are  introduced  with  circular  and  triangular  pediments  alter- 
iiatelv. 

CONTRAVALLATION,  (in  fortification),  a  trench 
guarded  with  a  parapet,  thrown  round  a  besieged  place  by 
the  besiegers,  to  protect  themselves,  and  check  sallies  of  the 
garrison. 

CONVENIENCE  (from  tiie  Latin,  convenientia)  an  easy 
or  accessible  distribution  of  apartments  in  lespect  to  the 
intention  of  the  design. 

CONVENT  (from  the  Latin,  co/iveiitiis,  an  assembly). 
See  MoxASTERV. 

Convent,  a  religious  edifice,  in  which  lived  assemblies  of 
persons  devoted  to  a  religious  life,  under  the  authority  of  a 
superior.  Convents  for  males  are  termed  monasteries,  those 
t'or  females,  nunneries;  when  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
abbot,  or  abbess,  they  are  named  abbeys,  and  under  that 
of  a  prior,  or  prioress,  priories. 

CONVENTUAL  CHURCH,  a  church  belonging  to  a 
convent,  and  consisting  of  regular  clerks,  professing  some 
order  of  religion,  or  ol'a  dean  and  chapter,  or  other  societies 
of  spiritual  men. 

CONVERGENT  CURVE.     See  Curve. 

Convergent  lines,  such  lines  as  if  produced  would 
meet. 

CONVEX  LINE,  that  side  of  a  curve  which  has  no  con- 
tniry  flexure,  and  on  which  a  tangent  may  by  drawn. 

Convex  Rectilinear  Surface,  a  curved"  surface,  such, 
that  if  any  [x»int  be  taken,  a  straight  line  passing  through 
the  point  can  only  be  drawn  in  one  direction,  and  if  another 
lX)int  be  taken  out  of  the  straight  line  so  drawn,  another 
straight  line  passing  through  this  and  the  former  point,  will 
pass  within  the  solid.  Bodies  having  this  property  are  cones, 
cylinders,  and  many  others. 
^  Convex  Surface  of  a  Solid,  a  curved  surface,  in  which, 
if  any  two  points  be  taken,  the  straight  line  joining  them 
will  p.ass  through  the  body  :  all  the  solids  generated  by  the 
revolutions  of  conic  sections,  except  the  triangle,  have  this 
property. 


CONVEXITY  (from  the  Latin,  convexiig)  the  same  as 
convex  surface. 

CONVOLUTIOiN  (from  the  Latin,  convoluiio)  a  winding 
or  turning  motion. 

COOPER  (from  the  Dutch,  k>jpe,a,  barrel)  a  person  whose 
business  it  is  to  make  vessels  of  wooden  hoards,  hooped  toge- 
ther around  a  circular  or  elliptic  circumference. 

COOPERY,  the  art  of  making  vessels  of  boards,  by  join- 
ing them  edge  to  edge,  and  binding  them  round  the  exterior 
sides  with  hoops,  so  as  to  form  a  hollow  body  of  circular  or 
elliptic  sections,  and  so  as  to  contain  a  liquid,  with  one 
or  two  ends. 

The  boards  of  which  vessels  are  made,  are  called,  in  the 
rough  state,  chip-boards  ;  but  when  wrought  up  in  the  ves- 
sels, they  are  called  staves. 

The  art  of  coopery  is  a  curious  branch  of  mechanism  ;  it 
requires  a  knowledge  of  geometry,  as  well  as  of  the  covering 
of  solids,  to  be  able  to  construct  a  vessel  or  cask  of  a  rotative 
figure,  agreeably  to  a  given  section  through  the  axis;  the 
edges  of  the  staves  require  to  be  of  a  particular  curvature, 
so  that,  when  joined  together,  they  may  form  the  reijuired 
contour  of  the  vessel.  This,  though  not  a  branch  of  aicliitec- 
ture,  is  founded  upon  the  s;vme  common  principles. 

CO-ORDINATE  (from  the  Latin,  con,  with,  and  ordi- 
natus,  order)  a  term  expressive  of  two  objects  holding  the 
same  rank. 

Co-ordinate  Pillars,  such  pillars  as  stand  in  equal  order. 

COPED  TOMB,  one  which  has  its  top  or  covering  sloping 
down  towards  both  sides. 

COPESTONE,  head  or  top-stone. 

COPING  (from  the  Dutch,  kop,  the  head)  in  masonry, 
the  stones  laid  on  the  top  of  a  wall,  to  strengthen  and  defend 
it  from  the  injui-ies  of  the  weather. 

Coping  of  equal  thickness,  is  called  parallel  coping,  and 
is  only  used  upon  inclined  surfaces,  as  on  a  gable  end,  or  in 
situations  sheltered  from  the  rain  ;  as  on  the  top  of  a  level 
wall  intended  to  be  covered  by  the  roof. 

Coping  thinner  on  one  edge  than  on  the  other,  for  throw 
ing  ofl"  the  water  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  is  called /farter 
edr/ed  coping. 

Coping  thick  in  the  middle  and  thin  at  each  edge,  whether 
the  back  be  formed  of  two  planes  meeting  in  an  angle  over 
the  middle  of  the  w-all,  or  whether  forming  the  arch  of 
a  circle  in  its  transverse  section,  is  called  saddle-hacked 
coping.  This  kind  of  coping  throws  the  water  on  both  sides, 
and  may  be  used  over  the  walls  of  sunk  areas,  or  of  a  dwarf 
wall,  which  is  to  have  an  iron-railing,  and  in  the  best-con 
strncted  fence-walls. 

Coping  upon  the  gable  end  of  a  house,  is  called  factabUng 
in  Liverpool. 

Coping,  in  the  pointed  styles  of  architecture,  is  cither 
inclined  upon  the  faces,  or  plumb.  When  inclined  upon 
the  faces,  the  sides  of  the  vertical  section  are  the  sides  of  an 
equilateral  triangle,  whose  base  is  horizontal.  This  sort  of 
coping  is  sometimes  in  one  inclined  plane,  terminated  with 
an  astragal  at  the  top,  while  at  the  bottom  it  changes  its 
direction  into  a  narrow  vertical  plane,  which  projects  with 
a  level  soffit  before  the  parapet.  Sometijnes  it  is  in  two 
inclined  planes,  parallel  to  each  other,  the  upper  terininated 
with  an  astragal  at  the  summit,  and  jirojecting  before  the 
lower,  and  the  lower  before  the  vertical  fiice  of  the  wall,  in 
the  same  manner  as  that  which  has  only  one  incline<l  plane. 
This  coping  is  used  in  plain  parapets,  or  in  battlements. 
When  used  in  battlements,  it  is  either  returned  on  the 
vertical  sides  of  the  embrasures  or  notches,  or  oidy  crowns 
the  top  of  the  ascendants,  and  bottom  of  the  notches. 

The  coping  of  battlements  with  vertical  faces,  has  a  small 


COR 


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C  O  11 


pn>joctioii  beyond  the  f:ice  of  the  wall,  anJ  the  coping  is 
ix-tuined  on  llie  sides  of  the  notches. 

Inclined  coping  is  sometimes  made  withont  the  astragal  at 
the  top,  and  the  sofiit  bcli^re  the  vei'tical  face  of  the  jiaiaiiet 
perpendicular  to  the  inclined  face  of  the  cnping. 

Copixo  OVER,  is  said  of  the  sofiit  of  a  piojectme  from  the 
naked  of  a  wall,  when  the  sollit  is  inclined  so  as  to  make  an 
acute  angle  with  the  veilieal  face  of  the  wall  below  it :  that 
is,  when  the  edge  uf  the  sofiit  in  the  surface  of  the  wall,  or 
next  to  it,  is  higher  than  the  outer  edge. 

tOIJBEILS  (from  the  Latin,  corbie,  a  basket)  a  piece  of 
carved  work,  representing  baskets  Idled  with  flowei-s  or  fruit, 
to  fini>h  some  ornament. 

CORBEL,  a  term  used  by  some  for  a  niche  or  hollow  in 
a  wall,  to  contain  a  statue,  bust,  &c. 

CoRBEi.,  a  block  of  stone  or  other  material  projecting  from 
the  face  of  a  wall,  and  used  to  support  a  superincumbent 
weight,  such  as  the  beams  of  a  roof,  ribs  of  vaulting,  columns, 
and  such  like.  The  term  is  confined  chiefly  to  sucli  supports 
employed  in  Gothic  architecture,  in  the  buildings  of  which 
styles  corbels  occur  very  frequently;  they  perform  somewhat 
of  a  similar  (jflice  to  the  modillions  or  consoles  used  in  Classical 
buildings,  but  their  more  perfect  prototype  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  projecting  figures  and  heads  supporting  consoles,  in  the 
remains  of  the  baths  of  Dioelesian,  at  Rome. 

Corbels  are  usually  carved  in  grotesque  heads,  animals, 
flowers,  i.Vc.  ;  in  the  Romanesque  style  they  are  either  sim|>le 
square  blocks  with  the  face  occasionally  romided,  or  carved 
in  the  shape  of  grotesque  heads ;  in  the  Early-pointed,  the 
corbels  are  sometimes  moulded,  and  in  the  richer  specimens 
carved  into  knops  of  foliage;  when  heads  or  Tiiasks  are  used, 
they  are  not  of"  such  grotesque  appearance  as  during  the  pre- 
ceding period  ;  in  the  next  style  they  are  more  frequently 
foliaged,  and  in  the  Perpendicular  carved  in  the  form  of 
angels  sometimes  bearing  shields  and  other  devices  ;  in  the 
later  styles,  the  corbel  is  usually  terminated  above  by  a 
moulding,  or  series  of  mouldings,  forming  a  kind  of  capital. 
Corbels  of  large  dimensions,  such  as  those  suj)porting  a  group 
of  clustered  columns,  are  generally  very  elaborately  orna- 
mented in  combinations  of  masses,  or  gi-oups  of  foliage 
springing  trom  one  or  more  points  underneath,  and  clustered 
together  luuler  the  cap ;  sometimes  groujis  of  figures  are 
introduced,  as  in  the  beautiful  specimens  to  be  seen  in  Exeter 
Cathedral. 

Corbels  are  not  unfrequent  in  castellated  architecture,  and 
when  so  employed  are  of  a  very  massive  character.  They 
have  usually  two  of  their  sides  vertical  planes,  perpendicular 
to  the  surface  or  face  of  the  wall ;  and  their  other  surfaces, 
which  are  their  edges  or  fronts,  quarters  of  cylindroids,  with 
the  greater  axis  of  their  section  perpendicular. 

The  edge  of  each  corbel  generally  consists  of  one,  two, 
and  sometimes  three  convex  rectilinear  surfaces :  when  the 
edge  of  each  bracket  consists  of  two  or  three  convex  recti- 
linear surfaces,  these  surfaces  arc  generally  separated  by 
fillets,  which  have  vertical  sides  parallel  to  the  face  of  the 
building,  and  horizontal  soffits. 

CoRHELS  are  also  a  horizontal  row  of  stones  or  timber, 
fixed  in  a  wall,  or  in  the  side  of  a  vault,  for  sustaining  the 
timbers  of  a  floor,  or  those  of  a  roof.  i\Iany  of  the  timber 
floors,  or  contignations,  in  old  buildings,  were  thus  supported  ; 
the  timbers  of  the  domio  roof  of  St.  Paul's  are  tied  to  the 
conic  vault  by  means  of  corbels.  The  ends  of  the  corbels 
are  generally  cut  into  a  convex  or  ogee  form. 

CoHBF.LS,  in  the  Caryatif  order,  are  those  parts  upon  the 
heads  of  the  Caryatides,  under  the  sofiit  of  the  architrave 
cornice,  that  represent  baskets,  or  jather  cushions,  and  have 
■ui  abacus,  as  iu  the  Grecian  orders. 


The  term  is  also  used  for  the  vase  of  the  Corinthian 
ca]iital.  it  being  in  form  of  a  basket. 

('oKBKL-BoLE,  a  moulding,  in  Norman  architcc-ture,  em- 
ployed frequently  to  support  a  blocking  course.  It  consists 
of  two  rows  of  billets  or  cubical  blocks  of  stone  disposed  at 
intervals,  and  so  arranged,  that  the  blocks  alternate  m  the 
two  rows,  a  block  coming  luider  a  space,  and  vice  rema.     See 

BlLLF.T-MoULDING. 

Correl-Steps,  sometimes  called  cori/c-steps.  a  term 
applied  to  steps  up  the  sides  of  a  gable;  when  the  parapet 
is  formed  into  a  kind  of  battlement,  broken  into  steps  or 
ledges,  which  converge  from  the  eaves  to  the  apex.  Speci- 
mens are  to  be  seen  in  many  old  houses,  especially  in  Scot- 
land, Flanders.  Holland,  and  Germany.  They  may  have  been 
used  perhaps  for  extinguishing  fire,  or  escaping  from  it,  or 
merely  f^n-  ornament. 

Corbel-Tadle,  a  series  of  corbels  disposed  at  regular 
intervals  projecting  from  a  wall,  to  support  a  par.npet  or  other 
continuous  projection,  and  frequently  seen  under  t^he  eaves 
of  a  roof.  The  corbels  are  occasionally  plain,  but  often  car\ed 
in  the  shape  of  grotesque  heads,  and  other  devices,  as  above- 
mentioned.  Sometimes  the  corbels  are  connected  by  small 
arches  which  intervene  between  them  and  the  superstructure, 
and  fc)rm  its  immediate  support ;  these  arches  vary  in  shape, 
according  to  the  style  of  arcliitectiu'c  of  the  building  in  which 
they  are  employed,  as  do  also  the  corbels  :  in  the  Romtniesque 
structures  they  arc  circular,  during  the  next  period  inter- 
secting, and  lastly,  pointed  and  trefoiled.  Corbel-tables  were 
more  frequent  in  the  Romanesque  styles  than  in  anj-  others, 
in  which  they  form  a  bold  and  effective  feature.  They 
are  found  in  a  peculiar  situ.ition  in  many  Lombardic  struc- 
tures, running  up  the  raking  sides  of  the  wall  beneath 
the  gable  ;  a  singular  instance  of  this  position  is  to  be  seen 
in  the  west  gable  of  Adel  Church,  Y(jrkshire. 

CORBETT,  a  word  used  by  Harris,  in  his  Lexicon,  for 
a  corbel.     Corbetts,  niches  for  images. 

CORBETTIS,  a  word  used  by  ("haucer,  for  stones  upon 
which  images  stand. 

CORES,  a  Spanish  word  f<ir  architectural  ornaments. 

CORD,  in  geometry.     See  Chord. 

CORDON,  the  edge  of  a  stone  on  the  outside  of  a 
building. 

CORE,  the  interior  part  of  anything.  Every  masonic 
wall  should  htive  thorough-stones  at  regular  intervals,  in  order 
to  strengthen  the  core,  which  is  generally  made  of  ndible- 
stones :  or,  otherwise,  when  thorough-stones  are  only  to  be 
had  with  diflieulty,  two  bond-stones  lapped  upon  each  other, 
one  from  each  face  of  the  wall,  may  be  used  :  or,  instead  of 
each  thorough-stone  lay  two  stones  level  on  tlie  upper  bed, 
and  one  large  stone  in  the  core,  lapped  upon  both,  observing 
that  the  tails  of  the  two  lower  stones  be  right-angled  ;  by  this 
means  the  two  sides  of  the  wall  will  be  completely  tied 
together. 

CORICEUM  (from  KioQiiifiov)  in  Grecian  antiquity,  the 
undressing  room  belongin<;  t'l  the  Gvmnasiiim. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  the  third  of  the  orders  of 
Classical  architecture,  and  the  first  of  the  foliaged,  under 
which  title  we  include  the  Corinthian  and  Composite.  These 
two  orders  might  conveniently  be  classified  together,  and 
reasonably  too,  if  we  consider  their  general  resemblance, 
and  also  that  some  examples  of  the  former  class  differ  as  much 
from  that  which  is  considered  their  most  perfect  type  or 
model,  as  do  those  which  are  included  under  the  Com|>osite 
or  Roman  order;  if  both  styles  were  coiriprised  tnider  one 
division,  it  woidd  form  a  very  distinct  and  marked  style, 
which  mi<iht  be  entitled  the  Roman  or  Foliaged  order. 

How  this  particular  class  of  examples  obtained  the  aj']  lel  !a- 


COli 


201 


C  ()  R 


tion  of  Corintliiiiii,  is  not  very  readily  accounted  for;  one 
would  naliiialiy  siippose  this  name  was  assigned  on  account 
of  the  origin  of  the  stylo,  or  the  prevalence  of  examples  in 
Corinth  or  its  neighljourhood,  but  snch  is  by  no  means  the 
case.  In  the  first  place,  the  origin  has  never  been  attributed 
to  that  locality  by  any  author  e.\cept  \'ilruvius,  and  evou  if 
we  uive  credit  to  his  account,  the  merit  of  the  first  idea 
ought  in  fairness  to  be  given  to  the  Athenians;  but  at  best 
the  story  told  by  this  author  rests  on  a  very  insecure  foun- 
dation, as  we  shall  jiresently  attempt  to  show.  No  other 
writer  has  alluded  to  any  buildings  of  this  order  as  existing 
at  Curiuth;  and  if  the  style  ever  did  prevail  in  that  city,  we 
have  now  not  a  single  example  remaining  to  testify  to  the  fiict. 

V'itruvius's  account  of  the  invention  of  the  capital,  is  as 
follows: — Calliinachus,  an  Athenian  sculptor,  passing  the 
tomb  of  a  young  lady,  observed  an  acanthus  growing  round 
the  sides  of  a  basket,  covered  with  a  tile,  and  placed  upon 
the  tomb,  and  seeing  tiiat  the  tops  of  the  leaves  were  bent 
downwards,  iu  the  form  of  volutes,  by  the  resistance  of  the 
tile,  he  took  the  hint,  and  e.xecuted  some  columns  with  folia- 
ted capitals,  near  Corinth,  of  a  more  slender  propi^rtion 
than  those  of  the  Ionic,  imitative  of  the  figure  and  delicacy 
of  virgins. 

Tliis  story,  though  bearing  no  marks  of  improbability  in 
itself,  when  compared  with  tacts,  loses  a  considerable  amount 
of  its  credibility,  and  stands  upon  the  same  level  as  the  other 
liineiful  tales  related  by  the  same  author.  As  regards  the 
one  more  immediately  before  us,  it  need  onl}'  be  remarked, 
that  the  earliest  specimens  of  this  order  have  but  little  in 
agreement  with  the  idea  which  one  would  suppose  to  have 
piesented  itself  to  the  mind  of  an  artist  under  the  cii'cum- 
stances  related  ;  the  foiUige  of  what  seems  to  be  the  earliest 
specimen  extant,  does  not  consist  of  acanthus  leaves  at  all, 
but  of  what  have  from  their  shape  been  termed  water-leaves ; 
it  is  in  the  Roman  examples  we  see  the  best  illustration  of 
the  basket  and  acanthus ;  in  short,  the  earlier  the  example, 
the  less  the  resemblance,  a  fact  which  throws  discredit  upon 
the  whole  story,  and  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  latter 
was  invented  by  Vitruvius,  not  the  order  by  Callimachus. 
Moreover,  there  is  reason  to  doubt  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
iirder  being  so  great  as  Vitruvius  would  have  us  believe; 
for  Callimachus  flourished  about  the  60th  Olympiad,  or  540 
years  before  the  Christian  sera.  We  are  iufornied  by  Pau- 
sanias,  lib.  viii.,  that'the  ancient  temple  of  Minerva,  at  Tegtea, 
in  Arcadia,  having  been  destroyed,  a  second  edifice  was 
erected,  under  the  direction  of  iScopas,  far  exceeding  in  splen- 
dour and  magnificence  every  building  of  the  kind  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  In  this  structure,  all  the  three  Grecian  or- 
ders were  employed ;  the  outside  was  ejnbellished  with 
colonnades  of  the  Ionic  order  ;  and  the  hypKthral  area  of  the 
interior  was  surrounded  with  porticos  and  galleries  above, 
formed  by  the  Doric  and  Coiinthian  orders.  This  ajra  of 
building  may  be  placed  in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ, 
and  is  the  first  in  which  a  distinct  account  of  the  Corinthian 
order  being  introduced  in  any  regular  building,  is  to  be  found. 
It  was  not  in  general  request  till  the  third  iige  of  Rome,  under 
the  emperors.  The  examples  which  are  to  be  found  in  Greece, 
are  but  few,  and  some  of  them  seem  of  a  date  posterior  to 
the  period  of  the  Romans  getting  possession  of  that  country  ; 
such  as  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens. 

Most  nioderu  writers  arc  of  opinion  that  the  Corinthian 
capital  was  invented  by  the  Egyptians,  and  with  good  reason  ; 
yet,  although  many  bell-formed  capitals  are  to  be  found  among 
the  ruins  of  Egypt,  the  taste,  the  delicacy  of  the  foliage,  the 
beautiful  fjrm  and  elegance  of  the  leaves,  caulicoli,  and  vo- 
lutes, with  the  symmetrical  and  easy  disposition  of  the  whole, 
sre  superior  to  anything  yet  discovered  among  the  Esyptiau 

2fi 


ruins ;  and  even  in  the  pre-^ent  day,  this  capital  exhibits  the 
utmost  elegance,  beauty,  and  richness,  that  have  ever  been 
attained  in  architectural  composition,  though  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  exceed  it. 

Some  writers  suppose  that  the  Corinthian  arose  naturally 
out  of  the  Doric  order,  and  cite  in  favour  of  their  hypothesis, 
the  absence  of  bases,  tlie  simple  capital,  and  the  square 
abacus,  in  the  Tower  of  the  Winds,  the  use  of  mutules  in 
the  shape  of  modi llions,  and  such  like;  but  we  think  those 
who  maintain  its  Egyptian  origin,  have  the  better  evidence 
on  their  side. 

The  Corinthian  order,  like  the  other  two,  after  being  in- 
troduced, continued  to  be  the  fashionable  oriier  in  Greece, 
Italv,  and  Asia;  and  was  the  only  order  well  understood, 
and  happily  executed,  by  the  Romans.  Among  the  superb 
ruins  of  Balbecand  Palmyra,  excepting  the  lower  Ionic  order 
in  the  circular  temple,  and  a  Doric  column  at  the  former 
place,  it  is,  we  believe,  the  only  order  to  be  f  lund. 

Vitruvius  says,  the  shafts  of  Corinthian  columns  have  the 
same  symmetry  as  the  Ionic,  and  that  the  difference  between 
the  entire  columns  arises  only  from  that  of  the  heights  of 
their  capitals  ;  the  Ionic  being  one-third,  and  the  Corinthian 
the  whole  diameter  of  the  shaft,  which,  therefore,  makes  the 
height  of  the  Corinthian  two-thirds  of  a  diameter  more  than 
that  of  the  Ionic  :  hence,  as  he  has  allowed  the  Ionic  to  be 
eight  diameters,  the  Corinthian  will  be  eight  and  two-thirds. 

The  average  height  of  the  column,  inclusive  of  capital  and 
base,  taking  a  mean  proportional  between  those  of  the  Pan- 
theon and  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  is  ten  diameters, 
the  shaft  containing  eight,  and  the  remainder  made  up  in  the 
capital  and  base. 

The  shaft  in  the  ancient  examples  was  almost  invariably 
fluted,  and  the  flutes  occasionally  filled  to  about  one-third  of 
their  height  with  cabling;  the  number  of  the  flutes  is  generally 
twenty-tour,  the  same  number  as  in  the  Ionic  order,  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  manner,  having  a  fillet  between  every 
two  channels.  The  only  ancient  examples  in  which  the  flutes 
were  omitted,  were  cases  in  which  the  shafts  were  composed 
of  polished  granite  or  some  variegated  marble,  in  which 
thei-e  was  suSicient  richness  and  play  of  colour,  without  fur 
ther  decoration. 

The  capital  is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  an  astragal  and 
cincture,  or  fillet,  and  is  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  bell,  the  or- 
namentation of  which  may  be  described  as  follows:  Imme- 
diately above  the  astragal,  are  two  rows  of  acanthus  or  olive 
leaves  one  above  the  other,  each  row  consisting  of  eight 
leaves;  the  upper  row  is  arranged  in  such  a  m.anner  as  to 
have  one  leaf  immediately  in  the  centre  of  each  side  of  and 
beneath  the  abacus,  and  one  other  under  each  corner  of  the 
abacus,  which  altogether,  one  in  the  centre  of  each  side,  and 
one  at  each  angle  of  the  capital,  will  make  up  the  eight  leaves. 
The  leaves  of  the  lower  range  are  disposed  so  as  to  alternate 
with  those  of  the  upper;  that  is  to  say,  the  spaces  left  be- 
tween the  lower  leaves  are  occupied  by  the  lower  portions 
or  stalks  of  the  upper  leaves,  or,  in  other  words,  the  upper 
leaves  rise  between  the  divisions  of  the  lower  ones.  Between 
every  two  of  the  leaves  of  the  upper  or  second  series,  rises 
a  stalk,  out  of  which  springs  a  bunch  of  foliage,  consisting  of 
two  leaves,  one  of  which  branches  towards  the  centre  of  the 
abacus,  and  the  other  towards  the  angle.  We  have  therefore 
eight  of  these  stalks,  termed  cunUcoles,  each  giving  out  two 
branches  or  leaves,  of  which  therefore  there  are  sixteen,  and 
if  we  consider  their  direction  a;  above  described,  we  shall  find 
that  we  have  two  of  them  tending  to  meet  at  each  angle,  one 
from  each  contiguous  side  of  the  capital,  and  two  likewise 
tending  towards  the  centre  of  each  side  above  the  central  leaf 
of  the  second  range.     Out  of  each  of  the  leaves  at  the  angles, 


COR 


202 


C  ()  R 


procee'ls  in  a  diagonnl  line.  a. spiral  horn  or  volute,  the  two 
;il  e.ich  aiisrlc  meeting  mid  'r  the  abacus,  which  they  support ; 
two  similar  though  smaller  ones  emerging  from  the  central 
leaves,  meet  under  the  centre  of  the  aliaeus,  and  are  sur- 
mounted by  a  small  flower,  called  the  flower  of  the  capital. 

The  abacus  is  square  in  its  general  plan,  or  rather  is  of 
such  form  as  may  l)e  inscribed  in  a  square;  the  sides  are 
ciiucave,  curving  out  towards  the  angles,  liut  the  points  which 
would  be  fiirined  by  the  interseetinn  of  the  curves,  are  most 
usually  cut  off;  sometimes  the  corners aie  pointed,  V)ut  rarely. 
This  shape  of  the  abacus  arises  out  of  the  form  of  the  capital, 
which  recedes  in  the  centre  of  each  side,  and  projects  at  the 
angles;  the  abacus  does  not  overhang  the  capital.  The 
mouldings  consist  of  a  cavetto,  fillet,  and  echinus,  the  first 
and  last  of  which  are  sometimes  enriched. 

The  proper  Corinthian  base  differs  from  the  Ionic  or  Attic, 
in  having  two  smaller  scotias  separated  by  two  astragals; 
both  bases,  however,  arc  used  indiscriminately,  and  perhaps 
tlie  Attic  is  more  generally  employed — it  was  preferred  both 
by  Palladio  and  Scamozzi. 

The  above  may  be  considered  as  a  description  of  the  stand- 
ard tiirm,  for  the  details  of  the  order  vary  to  a  verj-  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  different  examples,  to  such  an  extent, 
indeed,  that  there  are  scarcely  two  ancient  exam[>les  alike. 
The  ornamentation  of  the  cajn'tal  differs  very  greatly  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  examples;  in  the  foriner,  the  loaves  have 
angular  points,  and  are  almost  straight  on  the  sides,  while  in 
the  latter  they  are  altogether  of  a  more  rounded  form,  in  tact 
the  Gieek  leaves  were  more  harsh  and  stiff  and  have  the 
natural  character  of  the  acanthus,  whereas  the  Roman  are 
more  artificial.  In  the  Temple  of  the  Winds,  which  is  a 
very  early,  if  not  the  earliest  specimen  remaining,  the  upper 
row  of  leaves,  if  it  may  bo  said  to  have  more  than  one  row, 
is  merely  carved  upon  the  vase,  and  consists  of  broad  flat 
leaves,  which  have  been  named  from  their  appearance,  water- 
leaves;  there  are  no  volutes,  and  in  consequence  the  abacus 
is  not  curved,  but  is  merely  a  square  block  ;  add  to  this  the 
absence  of  a  base,  and  you  will  perceive  at  once  that  this 
specimen  disagrees  almost  entirely  from  the  description 
al)Ove  given.  In  the  temple  of  Vesta  at  Rome,  which  is 
probably  copied  from  that  at  .lackly  near  Mylasa.  the  lower 
range  of  leaves,  instead  of  following  the  line  of  the  shaft  as 
Usual,  project  beyond  it.  The  moninncnt  of  Lysicrates  is  a 
beaiitifiil  though  small  specimen,  and  differs  materially  from 
any  of  the  above;  in  short,  every  example,  whether  Greek 
or  Roman,  has  its  peculiarity. 

The  height  of  the  abacus  is  one-seventh,  the  lower  and 
upjier  tier  of  leaves  each  two-sevenths;  and  the  caulicoli 
and  volutes,  which  spring  from  the  stalks  between  every  two 
leaves  in  the  upper  row,  the  remaining  two-sevenths  of  the 
diameter:  the  breadth  of  the  capital  at  the  bottom  is  one, 
and  each  diagonal  of  the  abacus  two  diameters  of  the  column. 

\  itruvius  makes  no  mention  of  obtunding  the  corners  of 
the  abacus,  as  is  generally  practised  by  the  ancients  as  well 
as  the  Mioderns:  we  are  therefire  led  to  suppose,  that  each 
pair  of  the  four  faces  of  the  abacus  were  continued  till  they 
met  in  an  acute  angle  at  each  corner,  as  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  at  Rome,  and  in  the  Stoa,  or  Portico,  at  Athens. 
The  divi-ion  of  the  capital  is  the  same  as  is  frequently  used 
by  the  moderns  ;  but  the  entire  height  is  generally  made 
one-sixth  more  than  the  diameter  of  the  column,  while  that 
of  the  colunm  is  ten  diameters. 

This  order  does  not  appear  to  have  had  any  appropriate 
entablature  in  the  time  of  Vitruvius;  for,  in  book  iii.  chap.  i. 
he  informs  us,  that  both  Doric  and  Ionic  entablatures  were 
supported  by  Corinthian  columns  ;  whence  it  appears  that 
the  columns  constituted  the  order,  and  not  the  entablature. 


"The  Corinthian,"  says  he,  "has  no  cornice,  or  other  orn.a- 
ments  peculiar  to  itself,  but  has  either  triglyphs,  mutules  in 
the  cornice,  and  guttre  in  the  epistyliiim,  as  in  the  Doric  or- 
der; or  otherwise,  the  zophoras  is  ornamented,  and  dentils 
are  disposed  in  the  cornice,  as  in  the  Ionic." 

This  observation  of  Vitruvius  legarding  the  use  of  the 
Doric  entablature,  is  no  less  extraordinary  in  itself  than  that 
it  is  unstipportcd  by  any  ancient  examples;  but  liis  remark, 
concerning  the  Ionic,  is  verified  in  inany  instances  ;  as  in  the 
temple  at  Jackly  near  IMviasa,  the  tem)>le  of  Vesta  near 
Tivt)li,  and  that  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina  at  Rome  ;  the 
arch  of  Adrian  at  Athens,  the  Incantada  at  Salonica,  and  the 
portico  of  Septimius  Severus  at  Rome.  However,  in  the 
remains  of  antiquity,  we  more  generally  find  Corinthian  col- 
umns supporting  an  entablature  of  a  peculiar  species.  This 
consists  of  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  the  first  of  which 
is  divided  into  three  faces,  the  lowest  one  much  narrower 
than  the  upper  two,  with  mouldings  between  each;  the  up- 
per surmounted  by  an  astragal,  ogee,  and  fillet,  the  middle 
by  a  small  ogee,  and  the  lower  by  a  bead  :  these  mouldings 
were  fiequently  plain,  but  sometimes  enriched,  more  espe- 
cially the  two  last  mentioned.  The  frieze  was  sometimes 
plain,  sometimes  enriched  with  sculptured  figin-es,  foliage,  or 
other  ornamentation.  The  most  striking  peculiarities  are  to 
be  observed  in  the  cornice,  which  consists  of  the  denticulated 
band  of  the  Ionic,  supported  by  an  ogee  and  astragal  enrich- 
ed, and  surmounted  by  an  enriched  astragal  and  echinus  ;  over 
these  are  the  mutules  of  the  Doric,  liut  their  proportion  is 
changed,  and  their  figure  converted  into  a  console,  which 
shows  upon  the  ends  and  sides  of  each,  the  bottom  being 
covered  with  a  filiated  loaf  The  consoles  in  this  application, 
are  called  modillhins,  and  support  the  corona  which  consists 
of  the  same  mouldings  as  the  Ionic,  w'ith  occasionally  a 
greater  amount  of  enrichment ;  the  cymatium  is  often  deco- 
rated with  lions'  heads,  to  serve  as  spouts  or  gurgoyles. 
This  entablature  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in  use  in  the 
time  of  Vitruvius,  since  he  takes  no  notice  of  it;  though  very 
particular  in  many  other  points  less  worthy  of  attention. 
The  cornice  here  .specified,  is  not  only  to  be  found  in  most 
of  the  ancient  buildings  of  Italy,  but  is  observed  in  all  the 
celebrated  woiks  of  Balbec  and  Palmyra. 

Thus  the  Romans,  and  other  contemporary  nations,  affected 
togivc  the  Corinthian  orderan  appropriate  entablature,  though 
the  Ionic  was  .stimetimes  emjiloyed.  We  find  also  another 
form  of  comice  introduced  occasionally,  with  modillions con- 
sisting (jf  two  plain  faces,  instead  of  consoles,  without  any 
band  below,  either  plain  or  denticulated.  lCxam|)les  of  this 
are  only  to  be  found  in  the  frontispiece  of  Nero,  at  Rome, 
and  the  Poirile,  or  Portico,  at  .\thens.  In  some  instances, 
an  uncut  dentil  liand  is  substituted  in  place  of  dentils,  and  in 
the  temple  of  .Antoniiuis  and  Faustina,  both  doiUiN  and  mo- 
dillions are  omitted. 

The  above  disposition  inverts  the  order  of  the  original  hut, 
as  Well  as  the  description  given  by  Vitruvius.  The  only  ex- 
am|dc  where  dentils  are  placed  above  modillions,  is  in  the 
second  cornice  of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds,  at  Athens;  al- 
though Vitruvius  seems  to  assert  that  the  contrary  practice 
of  placing  the  modillions  uppermost,  was  never  resorted  to 
by  the  Greeks.  It  is  certain  that  the  Romans  employed 
modillions  in  the  latter  position,  as  is  evidenced  in  the  tem- 
ples of  Jupiter  Tonans  and  Jupiter  Stator,  as  also  in  the 
Forum  of  Ncrva. 

If  the  entablature  be  enriched,  the  shaft  should  be  fluted, 
unless  it  be  composed  of  variegated  marble  ;  for  a  diversity 
of  colours  confuses  even  a  smooth  surface;  and  if  decorated, 
the  ornament  increases  the  confusion  in  a  much  greater 
degree. 


COR 


203 


COR 


When  the  eoliiinns  are  within  reach,  the  lower  part  of  the 
flutes,  to  ah<mtone-lliiri:lot"lhi.'iilu-ight,  lsson)eliMies  lilleJ  with 
cables,  as  iu  the  case  oftho  interior  order  of  the  I'antheon,  with 
a  view  t<<  strengthen  the  edges.  In  rich  work  of  <oiiie  modern 
bnildiiigs.  tile  caliles  are  composed  of  reeds,  hnsks,  spirally- 
twisted  i-iljhanils.  flower.s,  and  varions  other  ornaments:  but 
these  triHes,which  are  of  Fieneh  origin,  would  lie  much  l)etter 
witliheld,  as  their  cost  would  l)e  employed  to  greater  ad  vantage 
ill  giving  majesty  or  grandeur  to  the  other  parts  of  the  fabric. 

As  the  cornice,  wliich  has  obtained  the  name  of  Girinthian, 
consists  of  so  many  members,  it  will  be  necessary  to  incicase 
the  whole  height  of  the  entabletnre  more  than  two  diameters, 
so  as  to  make  the  members  distinct,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  preserve  a  just  proportion  between  the  coinice,  fiieze,  and 
architrave,  making  the  height  of  the  entablature  two-ninths 
of  that  of  the  column  :  but  where  the  Ionic  cornice,  which  is 
very  appro]>riate.  is  to  be  employed,  or  the  dentils  and  their 
cymatium  omittrd,  two  diameters,  or  a  fifth  of  the  height  of 
the  coliimii,  will  lie  sufficient. 

It  is  by  some  considered  ridiculous  to  give  so  many  mem- 
bers to  the  cornice,  since,  say  they,  it  is  evident  that  these 
slight  columns  are  incapable  of  bearing  an  entablature  of 
the  same  part  of  their  height,  as  columns  of  fewer  dia- 
meters arc.  Notwithstanding  this,  however,  we  cannot  but 
think  thai  the  richer  and  deeper  cornice  is  more  in  keeping 
with  the  character  of  the  order,  on  account  of  the  increased 
height  and  enrichment  of  the  capital.  The  a|)parent  weight 
does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  real  bulk,  as  upon  the 
arrangement  and  proportions  of  the  ditferent  diim-nslons,  for 
were  this  the  case,  we  might  successfully  employ  the  argu- 
ment produced  by  those  who  object  to  the  loftier  entablature, 
to  disparage  the  beauty  of  the  entire  order.  We  might  re;i- 
son  thus: — the  Corinthian  shaft  is  of  the  same  proportions 
as  the  Ionic,  ami  therefore  eipially  light  in  appearance,  how 
contrary  to  sound  taste,  is  il,  therefore,  to  load  it  with  a 
capital  of  so  much  greater  bulk.  Iiow  much  heavier  the 
column  will  appear !  Our  objectors  will  readily  sec  that  this 
reasoning  is  false,  because  it  is  evident  to  the  .senses,  that  the 
Corinthian  column,  althougii  surmounted  by  a  capital  of 
much  greater  bulk  than  the  loinc,  has  a  much  lighter  and 
more  elegant  appearance;  and  what  is  the  cause  of  this?     It 


is  simply  that  the  proportions  are  regulated  in  a  difTerent 
manner;  in  the  Ionic  the  breadth  is  in  excess,  in  the  Corin- 
thian the  height.  But  there  is  another  reason  for  the  com- 
parative lightness  of  the  Corinthian  capital  ;  it  is  nnuh  more 
highly  enriched  than  the  Ionic,  and  this  enrichment  tends  to 
make  it  a  vast  deal  lighter  in  appearance  ;  the  ditTereuce 
between  the  unshapen  block  of  stone  and  the  finished  capital, 
will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  will  picture  the  two  in  his 
mind's  eye.  Now,  all  these  arguments  apply  with  equal  truth 
in  the  comparison  of  the  two  entablatures ;  for  onr  own  parts, 
we  think  the  larger  the  more  elegant  and  the  more  imposing, 
and  certainly  its  cornice  gives  the  more  complete  finish  to  the 
whole  order. 

"  The  symmetry  of  the  capital,"  says  Vitruvius,  "  is  as  fol- 
lows:— the  height  of  the  capital,  including  the  abacus,  is 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  column  at  its  lower  end.  The 
breadth  of  the  abacus  is  so  regulated,  that  its  diagonal,  from 
angle  to  angle,  may  be  twice  as  great  as  the  heiglit  of  the 
capital;  for  this  gives  a  proper  dimension  to  each  face;  the 
fronts  of  the  capital  are  bowed,  or  curved  inwardly,  from 
the  extreme  angles,  a  ninth  part  of  its  breadth.  The  bottom 
of  the  capital  is  as  thick  as  the  top  of  the  column,  without 
the  apothesis  and  astragal.  The  thickness  of  the  abacus  is  the 
seventh  part  of  the  height  of  the  capital.  The  remainder, 
when  tile  thickness  of  the  abacus  is  deducted,  is  divided  into 
three  equal  portictns,  of  which  tme  is  given  to  the  lower 
leaves;  the  second  is  for  the  height  of  the  middle  leaves;  and 
to  the  caulicoles,  or  stalks,  fnuii  which  the  leaves  [iroject  to 
support  the  abacus,  the  same  height  is  given,  llie  flowers 
on  the  four  sides  are  in  size  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
abacus."  From  a.  comparison  of  ancient  examples,  the 
height  of  the  capital  varies  in  height  from  60  minutes,  or 
i  diameter,  the  measurement  of  those  belonging  to  the  temple 
of  Tivoli,  to  87  minutes,  the  height  of  the  Lysiciates  exam[)le; 
the  capital  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stiitor  measures  60 
minutes.  In  the  first  case,  the  diagonal  of  the  abacus  is 
81  minutes,  in  the  last  97,  and  in  the  monument  of  Lysicrates, 
94  minutes. 

Thus  much  fiw  proportions;  how  greatly  they  vary  in 
dirt'erent  examples,  will  be  readily  seen  in  the  subjoined  table 
taken  from  Knight's  Cyclopjedia: — 


lBcant.i(la,  at  Salonica 

Temple  i>f  tlii>  Wimls  (witlioiit  ba.«e) 

Jlonuineiit  of  Lv-^iicratps,  at  Atheus 

tito.a,  or  Portico,  at  Atlieus 

Arcli  of  Trajiin,  Ancona 

Arch  of  Constantine 

Portico  of  Pantlieon,  at  Rome 

Interior  of  Pantbeon,  at  Rome 

Temple  of  Antoninns  ,inil  Faustina 

Temple  of  Vesta,  at  Tivoli 

Temple  of  .lupiter  Tonans 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator 

Temple  of  Ve<ita.  at  Rome 

Temple  at  J.ickly,  near  Mylasa,  in  Asia  Minor,  the  supposed 

site  of  Labranda 

Temple  of  M.irs  Ultor,  at  Rome  . 


Heisjht 

Diameter 

Upper 

Hei<;bt 

of 

of 

Diameter 

of 

Column. 

Base. 

of  Shaft. 

Entablature. 

Ft.     In. 

Ft 

111. 

Ft     In. 

Ft.     In. 

23     8.6   - 

2 

5.9 

6     7.75 

13     685 

1 

7.4 

11     7.67 

1 

2 

0     11.65 

2     8.218 

28     0.534 

2 

11.3 

23     2.7 

2 

4.25 

2       0.25 

5     6.3 

27     4.1 

2 

11.2 

2       9 

7     I.-.' 

46     5.2 

4 

10.4 

4       S.5 

10  11.6 

34  10.4 

3 

82 

3       2.3 

8     2.9 

46     7.7 

4 

10.3 

4       2.8 

10     9.1 

23     6 

2 

5 

2        1.8 

4     3 
Architrave. 

46     6.2 

4 

8.3 

3     11.4 

10     0 

48     4.9 

4 

10.2 

4       2.5 

12  10.3 

34     7.2 

3 

2.5 

2       8.1 

27     2.8 

2 

10.35 

2       3.6 

6     6.6 

57  11 

nearly  6  ft. 

5       1.6 

3  10.5 

The  proportions  of  this  order  vary  to  a  very  great  extent ; 
the  following  may  be  taken  as  an  average : — shaft,  16  modules 
20  minutes,  base  30  minutes,  capital  70  minutes,  which  gives 
10  diameters  for  the  whole  column;  the  diminution  of  the 
shaft,  from  the  base  to  the  neck,  is  7  minutes.     The  entabla- 


ture is  about  a  fifth  part,  or  a  quarter  the  height  of  the  column ; 
if  the  latter,  it  would  consist,  in  this  case,  of  5  modules,  or 
2-i-  diameters,  of  which  the  architrave  would  occupy  45 
minutes,  the  frieze  45  minutes,  and  the  cornice  60  minutes, 
having  altogether  a  projection  of  58  minutes. 


COR 


204 


COR 


Although  the  Romans  in  all  probability  borrowed  the  idea 
of  this  order  from  the  Greeks,  and  cannot  therefore  rightfully 
lay  claim  to  its  invention,  they  are  fully  entitled  to  the  praise 
due  to  its  perfection ;  the  order,  as  far  as  we  know  it,  is 
rather  Roman  than  Greek.  We  cannot  be  said  to  know  of 
more  tlian  three  examples  in  Greece,  and  these  are  the  Tower 
of  tiic  Winds,  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  and  the  Tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  at  Oiympia;  there  are  others,  it  is  true,  as  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Athens,  but  this  was  erected 
long  after  the  order  had  been  practised  by  the  Romans.  The 
principal  Italian  specimens  are  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator, 
three  columns  of  which  remain  in  the  Campo,  Rome,  and 
have  been  imitated  at  the  office  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
London  ;  the  Pantheon,  copied  in  the  portico  of  S.  Martin's 
Church;  the  temple  of  Vesta,  or  the  Sibyl,  at  Tivoli,  copied 
at  the  Bank;  the  temples  of  Mars  Ultor,  Jupiter,  Capi- 
toliniis,  Vesta,  at  Rome,  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  and  of 
Jupiter  Tonans.  Copies  of  the  columns  of  Choragic  monu- 
ment are  to  be  seen  at  S.  Philip's  Chapel,  S.  James's  and  at 
the  entrance  to  Exeter  Hull ;  original  fragments  may  be  seen 
in  the  Elgin  collection  at  the  British  Museum,  where  there 
are  also  casts  from  the  Pantheon,  and  the  temples  of  Jupiter 
Stator  and  Mars  Ultor.  Amongst  all  the  specimens  which 
have  come  to  our  knowledge,  there  are  not  two  alike,  they  all 
vary  in  detail,  and  some  very  much  so  ;  some  fragments  bear 
evidence  of  the  introduction  of  figures  of  animals,  &c. 

The  Corinthian  order  is  appropriate  (or  all  buildings  in 
which  magnificence,  elegance,  and  gaiety  are  requisite.  Its 
splendour  also  recommends  it  in  the  decorations  of  palaces, 
galleries,  theatres,  banqueting-rooms,  and  other  places  con- 
secrated to  festive  mirth,  or  convivial  recreation. 

The  Romans,  in  borrowing  their  architecture  from  the 
Greeks,  appear  to  have  indiscriminately  employed  the  Corin- 
thian order,  which  they  found  possessed  of  an  ornamental 
character,  adapted  to  the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  their 
tnste,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  early  Greeks  used  the 
Doric,  and  the  lonians  the  order  which  bear  their  name. 
Thus  the  Romans  erected  temples  to  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 
jNIars;  and  the  Greeks  to  the  same  deities,  of  the  Doric 
order.  Thus  the  temples  of  Minerva,  at  Athens  and  at 
Siiui.unx,  are  Doric,  and  the  temple  of  Minerva,  at  Priene, 
is  lonie.  The  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Elis,  was 
Doric ;  but  that  erected  to  the  same  idol,  by  Adrian,  at 
Athens,  is  Corinthian. 

The  orders  ofarchitecturc  appear  to  be  altogether  national ; 
thus  the  numerous  temples  of  Greece,  and  its  Sicilian  colo- 
nies, are  Dcjric,  and  bear  one  general  character:  the  Ionian 
cities  present  the  best,  the  most  elegant,  and  chaste  examples 
of  the  Ionic  order:  while  Italy,  Balbec,  and  Palmyia  exhibit 
the  Corinthian  order,  almost  to  the  e.xehision  of  any  other. 

Plate  1.  Figure  1. — Nos.  1  and  2  show  the  method  of  pro- 
jecting the  plan  and  elevation  of  the  capital :  thus,  beginning 
with  the  plan,  divide  the  semi-circumference  of  the  top  of  the 
shaft  into  four  equal  parts,  commencing  and  termin.ating  with 
hall' a  part,  which  will  give  the  stems  of  the  lower  range  of 
leaves,  then  complete  the  contour  of  the  leaves,  both  in  the 
elev.ition  and  plan,  as  shown  imder  the  article  Pbojbction; 
divide  each  of  the  parts  into  halves  on  the  said  seini-circuni- 
feience,  and  the  points  of  bisection  will  mark  the  stems  of 
the  second  or  superior  range  of  leaves.  BiU  if  the  true  forms, 
as  ascertained  by  the  principles  of  projection,  be  impressed 
on  the  mind  of  the  delineator,  and  if  great  nicety  be  not 
re()uisite,  after  dividing  as  above,  and  completing  the  outlines 
of  the  leaves  on  the  plan  by  his  eye,  he  may  then  draw  lines 
from  the  bottom  of  each  stem,  and  from  the  tips  of  each  on 
the  plan,  to  their  respective  places  on  the  elevation,  and  there 
complete  the  two  ranges  of  leaves  entirely  by  the  eye  ;  here 


the  jutting  points,  stems,  and  breadths  of  the  leaves,  are 
the  only  guides  in  the  formation  of  the  outline.  This  process 
being  only  a  preliminary,  though  necessary  step  to  the  rafliing 
of  the  leaves,  the  general  contours,  thus  found,  tnust  be  rubbed 
out,  after  inking  the  subdivisions,  in  order  to  make  the 
foliage  appear. 

Fir/ure  2,  is  the  profile  of  the  modillions;  No.  1,  being  the 
plan,  showing  soffit  inverted ;  and  No.  2,  the  elevation 
of  the  same. 

Figure  3,  is  a  leaf  completely  raffled  to  a  large  scale ; 
No.  1,  is  the  front  view  ;    No.  2,  the  profile  or  side  view. 

Figure  4,  shows  the  finished  flower  of  the  capital  on  a 
large  scale. 

Plate  II.  Some  few  of  the  more  noted  e.xatnples  of  Greece 
and  Rome. 

Plate  III.  A  finished  elevation  of  the  Corinthian  base, 
capital,  and  entablature.  The  example  here  chosen,  is  fiom 
the  three  famed  c<dumns  in  the  Campo  Vaccino,  at  Rome, 
supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator, 
and  certainly  one  of  the  most  perfect  and  elegant  remains  of 
this  order,  that  antiquity  can  produce. 

Phtle  IV.  A  general  outline  of  the  same,  with  the  propor- 
tions of  the  members  figured  in  minutes. 

CoRtsTiiiAX  (Ecrs,  an  cecus  decorated  with  the  Corinthian 
order.     See  (Ecus. 

CORNICE  (from  the  Latin,  corona,  a  crowning)  any 
moulded  projection  which  crowns  or  finishes  the  part  to 
which  it  is  affixed ;  thus  we  have  the  cornice  of  an  order,  of 
a  pedestal,  of  a  lunise,  of  a  pier,  of  a  door,  of  a  window,  &c. 

CoRNiCK  OF  .\s  Ordek,  a  secondary  member  of  the  order 
itself,  or  a  primary  member  of  the  entablature.  The  enta- 
blature is  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  the  upper  one 
being  the  cornice.  The  forms  of  the  particular  cornices 
belonging  to  the  orders,  will  be  found  under  the  heads  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthiam,  Tuscan,  and  Roman. 

According  to  Vitiuvius,  the  application  of  cornices  to  stone 
buildings  orininated  in  the  juttings  of  the  eaves  of  the  first 
wooden  structures,  the  cornice  representing  the  uppermost 
beams  of  the  roof,  which  are  described  by  this  author  as 
assers,  templates,  and  canthers,  of  which  the  last  is  supposed 
to  apply  to  the  common  rafters,  the  first  to  the  timbers 
immediately  beneath  tht'  tiles,  and  the  templates  to  the  cross 
pieces  between  the  two.  The  mutules  represent  the  ends 
of  rafters,  .and  dentils  the  ends  of  laths  for  supporting  the 
tiles,  or  covering;  but  as  the  lath  is  more  lofty  in  situation 
than  the  rafters,  so  ought  the  dentils  to  be  more  lofty  than 
the  mutules :  this,  however,  is  not  the  case  in  the  joint 
application  of  these  members  in  modern  cornices. 

Our  present  practice  of  architecture  was  borrowed  from 
the  Romans,  who,  in  all  their  works,  inverted  the  natural 
disposition  of  these  members.  Vitruvius  remarks,  "as  the 
mutules  represent  the  projectures  of  the  canthers  (ratters), 
the  dentils  of  the  Ionic  order  are  in  imitation  of  the  projecture 
of  the  assers  (laths).  For  this  reason,  in  Grecian  buildings, 
dentils  are  never  placed  under  the  mutules;  for  assers  cannot 
lie  under  canthers.  As,  therefore,  they  should  be  above  the 
canthers  and  templates,  if  they  are  represented  below  them, 
the  work  is  on  false  principles.  The  ancients,  likewise,  did 
not  approve  of  placing  imitules  or  dentils  in  the  fastigium, 
but  in  the  corona  only  ;  because  neither  canthers  nor  assers 
are  laid  towards  the  front  of  the  fastigium,  nor  can  they  there 
project,  for  they  are  laid  inclining  towards  the  eaves.  As, 
therefore,  it  could  not  be  done  in  reality,  they  judged  it  n<jt 
proper  to  be  done  in  representation,  for  the  propriety  of  all 
things,  which  they  introduced  in  works  of  perfection,  they 
derived  from  truth  and  nature,  and  approved  only  those 
which  could  bear  the  test  of  rational  argument." 


COIill^TMIAW     OKBKR,    PJ 


Jlru,  'by  a  Theiy, 


cokii:kthiak'  orbejr   plate  Ho 


TBMP1.E    OP    THE      WINDS 


PANTBEON 


MONUMENT     OF    LT31CRATES 


r^^ 


TEMPLE    OF  VESTA.  AT  TITO  LI 


WaB  S     ULTO  ft 


7   "^ 


Mma 


ANTONINUS  *  PAUfiTlMA 


MM 

JUPITER    TON  AN  S 


TEMPLE  or  VESTA  AT  ROME 


COBINTHITAB"     OH3JER ,   PIATE    HI. 


ijv'  MUiiyiiayi 


•TTO^Wi»/«Wfi*-^WWfrr. '■. ■  ""^^'.  "  "I," 


n;Hw^^. 


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1*S*S=^  / 

■■fiiMW Illi 

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SMi— ■        -       '■'    -^    ■ 

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..  ■>>, 

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.  J 

'llJl'. 

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fl.UE   I. 


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liffiiuiljiyiljijj^^ 


zmm&mMimMM^ 


T^m, 


V'lifeirH:"  ^^'ii/'j  1  (v^ii;"l'W>?j(f»y4' 


D  '^i' 


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p. 

1 

^>A.Jfe,;/l 


COR 


205 


COT 


We  have  no  example,  in  the  remains  of  well-authentiealed 
Grecian  antiquit_v,  of  cornices,  where  both  moilillions  and 
dentils  are  employed,  except  in  the  inner  cornice  of  the  Tower 
of  the  Winds,  at  Athens  :  in  this  instance,  the  assertion  of 
Vitruviiis  is  completely  verified  ;  for  there  the  dentils  are 
placed  above  the  mutules :  but  in  every  IJonian  example, 
where  both  ai-e  employed  in  the  same  cornice,  the  veiy  re- 
verse takes  jilaee;  yet,  with  respect  to  pediments,  we  have 
an  example  in  the  frc^ntispiece  of  the  doors  of  the  s.nid  Tower 
of  the  Winds,  where  dentils  are  employed  in  the  inclined 
cornices  of  tiie  pediment^,  contrary  to  the  observations  of 
\  itruvius,  and  to  the  original  piinciples  whence,  according  to 
his  theory,  these  members  derived  their  existence. 

In  the  cornices  of  all  Grecian  edifices,  particularly  those  of 
the  Doric  order,  we  always  find  one  very  bold  member, 
with  a  broad  vertical  face,  called  (he  corona,  vvliich  is  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  whole  coinice:  but 
in  some  of  the  Konian  buildings,  the  corona  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  fillet.     See  Coron-a. 

Cornices  are  divided  into  several  kinds : 

An  architrave  cornice  rests  upon  the  architrave,  and  the 
frieze  is  omitted.  An  instance  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the 
famous  Caryatie  portico,  at  Athens.  Cornices  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  adapted  to  situations  where  a  regular  entablature 
would  be  out  of  proportion  to  thu  body  which  it  crowns. 

A  miitiile  cornice  is  appropriate  to  thiL-  Doiic  order,  the 
nnitules  having  inclined  soffits. 

A  dentil  cornice  has  a  ilenliculated  band,  and  is  usually 
i-mplo\  ed  in  the  Ionic  order,  though  very  approiiriate  also 
for  the  Corinthian. 

A  iiwdi/tioii  cornice  is  one  with  modillions,  which  are  a 
kind  of  mutules  carved  into  consoles.  It  has  been  chiefly 
applied  to  the  Corinthian  order. 

A  bhc/c  cornice  is  that  where  plain  rectangular  prisms  with 
level  soffits  are  employed  to  support  the  corona,  instead  of 
mutules. 

A  canttilirer  cornice  is  constructed  of  a  horizontal  row  of 
timliers,  projecting  at  right  angles  from  the  naked  part  of  a 
wall,  f<)r  sustaining  the  superior  parts  of  the  cornice.  Some- 
times the  cantalivers  are  placed  on  the  soffits  and  vertical 
sides,  and  sometimes  they  are  cased  with  joinery. 

A  cored  cornice  is  one  with  a  large  cove,  and  generally 
lathed  and  plastered  upon  brackets.  Cornices  of  this  kind 
are  hardly  used  at  this  time,  but  are  frequently  found  upon 
old  houses. 

A  mu/ilated  cornice  has  some,  or  the  whole  of  its  mem- 
licrs  interrupted  by  another  object,  as  the  projection  of  a 
tal)let.  &c. 

CORNUCOPIA,  or  Corsucopi.e,  the  horn  of  plenty. 
Ovid  tells  us  in  his  "  Fasti,"  that  one  of  the  goats  of  Amal- 
thea,  who  nursed  the  infant  Jupiter  in  Crete,  broke  oft'  its 
horn  against  a  tree,  when  the  nymph  having  wreathed  it  with 
flowers,  and  lilled  it  with  truit,  presented  it  to  the  god.  When 
Jupiter  came  into  power,  he  called  Amalthea  to  the  skies, 
and  made  the  horn  the  emblem  of  fertility.  In  the  '•  Meta- 
morphoses," the  poet  derives  the  origin  of  the  Cornucopia 
from  a  diflerent  fible.  He  speaks  of  it  as  the  horn  of  the 
river-god  Achelous,  broken  ofl^by  Hercules,  and  consecrated 
by  the  Naiads.  The  real  meaning  of  the  fable  is  this,  that 
in  TJbya  there  is  a  little  territory,  shaped  something  like  a 
I'ulloek's  horn,  exceedingly  fertile,  given  by  king  Amnion  to 
his  daughter  Amalthea,  whom  the  poets  feign  to  have  been 
Jupiter's  nurse. 

In  architecture  and  sculpture,  the  cornucopia,  or  horn  of 
plenty,  is  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  larse  horn,  out 
of  which  i^sue  fruits,  flowers,  &c.  On  medals,  F.  Joubcrt  ob- 
serves, the  coriuieopia  is  given  to  all  deities,  genii,  and  heroes. 


CORONA  (from  the  Latin)  a  member  of  the  cornice,  with 
a  broad  vertical  face,  jind  a  bold  projection.  The  solid,  out 
of  which  it  is  formed,  is  generally  recessed  upwards  from  its 
soflit;  hence  the  Italians  call  lUh/occiola/ios  and  /iiffrimalios, 
the  French,  larmier,  and  the  English  worknu'U,  drip,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  discharging  the  rain-water  in  drops 
from  its  edge,  and  by  this  means  sheltering  the  subordinate 
parts  below. 

The  corona  is  one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  cornice, 
and  that  which  nuirks  its  distinctive  character,  by  the  mas-<ive 
shadow  which  it  produces  on  the  plain  surface  of  the  frieze. 
This  membej-,  trom  being  the  principal  feature  of  the  cornice, 
ought  never  to  be  omitted. 

Grecian  antiquity  affords  no  instances  of  an  order  without 
a  corona ;  nor,  indeed,  are  there  many  cxami)les  among  the 
Romans. 

There  is  nothing  in  architecture  better  su|i|iorted  by  reason, 
and  by  the  general  example  of  antiquity,  than  the  necessary 
use  of  the  corona.  It  is,  however,  omitted  in  the  temple  of 
Peace  at  Rome,  the  thii'd  order  of  the  Coliseum,  and  the  arch 
of  Lyons,  at  Verona.  It  is  singular,  that  in  the  arch  of  Con- 
stantine,  the  cornice  finishes  with  the  corona,  surmounted 
with  a  fillet  only;  and  in  several  other  examples  the  corona 
ha',  almost  dwindled  into  a  mere  fillet.  The  frontispiece  of 
Nero  presents  one  of  the  boldest  coronas  of  all  the  Roman 
works,  being  very  nearly  16  mimites  in  height;  the  three 
columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccino  is  another  example  of  an 
elegant  and  bold  corona.  In  the  temples  of  Minerva  and 
Theseus,  at  Athens,  it  is  divided  into  two  faces.  The  term 
corona  is  sometimes  applied  by  Vitruvius  to  the  whole  cor- 
nice, the  w'oid  originally  signifying  a  cron'n. 

CouoN'A  Lccis,  a  kind  of  chandelier  anciently  employed 
in  churches,  of  beautiful  and  appropriate  design,  and  admit- 
ting of  delicate  elaboration. 

COROSTROTA,  .-iccording  to  Pliny,  a  kind  of  inlaid 
work. 

CORPS,  (from  the  French)  any  part  that  projects  or  ad- 
vances beyond  the  naked  of  the  wall,  to  be  used  as  a  ground 
for  some  decoration. 

CORPSE-GATE,  the  same  as  Lich-gate,  whiih  see. 

CORRIDOR,  (from  the  French)  a  long  gallery  or  passage 
around  a  building,  leading  to  the  several  apartments ; 
sometimes  open  one  side,  and  sometimes  enclosed  on  both 
sides. 

CORSA,  the  same  as  Platband,  which  see. 

CORTILE,  a  small  enclosed  court. 

COSSUTIUS,  a  Roman  citizen,  who  was  architect  to  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Athens. 

COST,  in  building,  the  expense  of  any  design,  a  knowledge 
of  which  is  to  be  obtained  by  analyzing  the  whole,  and  m.a- 
king  separate  calculations  of  the  quantity  and  expense  of 
each  part.  In  buildings  of  a  similar  description,  the  expense 
of  the  whole  can  be  roughly  ascertained,  by  taking  the  num- 
ber of  cubic  feet  at  an  average  rate;  but  when  the  price  of 
materials  or  labour,  or  of  both,  is  subject  to  variation,  this 
method  will  be  liable  to  mislead. 

COTTAGE,  a  name  mostly  applied  to  a  small  house, 
erected  for  the  use  and  accommodation  either  of  the  farm 
labourer,  or  those  engaged  in  some  other  occupation,  but 
more  generally  of  those  employed  in  agricidturc. 

The"  word  cottage  is  also  used  in  modern  parlance  to 
designate  a  small  elegant  residence,  more  properly  a  villa, 
or,  as  sometimes  called,  a  cottage  orne.  Houses  of  this 
description,  however,  do  not  belong  to  our  present  subject, 
which  must  be  understood  as  treating  of  the  cottage  in  the 
acceptation  of  the  term  explained  in  the  preceding  para 
graph. 


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206 


COT 


Cottages  were  formerly'  constructed  of  rude  and  ]ierishable 
materials ;  as,  earthy  substances  mixed  with  straw  ;  and 
cottages  of  this  consistence  were  denominated  miid  cottages 
in  some  districts,  and  cab  and  Job  in  others  ;  hvit  tiiese  liave 
now  given  way  to  a  more  durable  kind,  whirh,  though  per- 
haps as  expensive  in  the  erection,  are  much  more  comforta- 
ble, and  cheaper  in  the  end,  as  they  require  little  or  no  re- 
pairs for  many  yeais. 

In  the  construction  of  cottages,  economy,  convenience, 
cleanliness,  comfort,  aud  decency,  must  be  the  chief  points 
in  view,  and  these  ought  to  be  united  with  as  much  pictu- 
resque beauty  as  circumstances  will  admit. 

"The  aceominodation  required,"  observes  Mr.  Dean,  in 
his  very  interesting  work,  "Essays  on  Agricultural  Uuild- 
ings,"  "  is  not  such  as  would  be  looked  for  by  persons  moving 
in  a  higher  sphere  of  life,  aud  who  are  a'^customed.  compara- 
tively, to  luxuries;  the  labourer  belongs  to  a  totally  distinct 
class  of  society.  Let  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  be  scientifi- 
cally constructed,  and  much  illness  and  misery  will  lie  pre- 
vented. In  elfecting  this,  the  whole  community  is  interested, 
as  parochial  expenses  are  increased  or  diminished  according 
to  the  healthy  state  of  the  labouring  population. 

"  Cottages  should  be  warm  and  substantial ;  judgment 
will  also  be  displayed  when  the  architectural  character  of  the 
building  is  in  harmony  with  its  use.  Their  exteriors  may 
be  made  exceedingly  ornate  by  the  a[)pIication  of  a  correct 
taste,  which  does  not  necessarily  create  nuu-h  expense  ;  aud 
although  ornament  is  not  a  necessary  appendage  to  stability 
or  comfort,  it  frequently  happens  that  ornamental  buildings 
are  preferred,  aud  when  judiciously  disposed,  will  materially 
assist  in  heightening  the  landscape.  It  then  becomes  a  ques- 
tion with  the  owner  of  an  estate,  whether  he  will,  in  the  erec- 
tion of  cottages,  incur  a  small  additional  outlay  f  >r  this  pur- 
pose. 

"  England  has  justly  been  designated  a  cultivated  garden, 
and  perhaps  in  no  particular  possesses  a  greater  pi-e-eminence 
of  appearance  over  other  countries,  than  in  the  beauty  of  her 
niral  scenery  ;  which,  it  is  submitted,  may  be  greatly  en- 
hanced by  the  substitution  of  cottages  erected  in  accordance 
with  architectural  principles,  in  lieu  of  the  clumsy-looking 
and  comfortless  buildings  existing  in  many  districts." 

We  fully  agree  with  Mr.  Dean  in  these  observations,  and 
we  trust  that  noblemen  and  gentlemen  in  the  management 
of  their  estates,  will  not  only  provide  for  the  condbrt  of  the 
poor  in  the  erection  of  warm,  well-constructed  cottages,  but 
that  they  will  add  some  little  in  the  way  of  ornament  also. 
IIiiw  much  may  the  picturesipic  appearance  of  the  cottage  be 
increased  by  entrance-porches,  overhanging  roofs,  and  stacks 
of  chimney-shafts,  having  ornamental  summits.  The  porch, 
independent  of  its  architectural  ctfcct,  allbrds  both  warmth 
and  shelter,  as  does  also  the  overhanging  roof  The  lofty 
chinmey  clustered  shafts,  besides  assisting  to  prevent  a  smoky 
room,  have  a  very  pleasing  appearance. 

In  the  erection  of  cjttages,  it  is  preferable  to  build  them 
in  pairs  if  possible,  as  the  cost  is  considerably  less  than  when 
singly  placed,  and  they  are  much  warmer.  The  site  also  is 
a  most  important  consideration,  as  himses  placed  on  low 
nnirshy  soils,  are  liable  to  be  damp.  Independently  of  the 
miasma  arising  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  such  situa- 
tions, there  is  a  continual  humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  which 
communicates  itself  to  all  objects  surmundcd  by  it.  This 
vapouris  a  deadly  poison. acting  on  the  human  system  through 
the  medium  of  the  lungs,  and  producing  fevers  and  other 
epidemics. 

Good  drainage  is  the  next  important  consideration,  and 
this  may  generally  be  obtained  at  small  cost.  The  common 
earthenware  pipes,  of  an  oval  or  egg-shaped    form,   about 


5  inches  by  2^  inches  at  bottom,  are  suflicicntly  capacious 
to  carry  off  the  drainage  from  a  cottage;  they  are  not  .-o 
costly  as  brick  drains,  and  are  more  efficient. 

All  drains  should  be  trapped  with  a  syphon  trap,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  foul  air,  and  the  admissit)n  of  vernun 
to  the  dwelling.  The  djains  should  communicate  with  a 
cesspool  sunk  in  the  garden,  domed  over  with  brick,  having 
a  stone  man-hole  or  flap  to  eanable  the  cottager  to  repair  or 
cleanse  it  ;  or  to  avail  himself  of  its  conterjts  for  manuring 
his  garden.  A  drain  should  also  lead  from  the  sink  in  the 
scullery  to  the  cesspool  (trapped  as  before  described),  and 
this  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  carry  off  the  water  used 
for  washing  the  floors,  when  they  are  of  stone,  brick,  or 
composition.  The  che.-qiest  and  best  form  for  the  cesspool 
is  that  of  a  parallelogram  about  o  feet  long,  2  feet  (i  inches 
wide,  and  3  feet  (J  inches  deep. 

Cottages  may  be  divided  into  several  classes,  or  sizes  :  one 
of  the  smallest  size  for  the  common  labourer  ;  the  second  size 
for  the  lab(.)urer,  who,  by  his  frugality  and  industry,  iu  earn- 
ing more  than  ordinary  wages,  deserves  a  more  comfortable 
dwelling  than  that  of  the  most  common  labourer:  the  third 
size,  for  the  village  shopkeeper,  shoemaker,  tailor,  butcher, 
baker,  &c.  ;  the  fourth  size,  for  the  small  firmer,  nuiltster,  ale- 
house, or  other  trades,  requiring  room  ;  the  fifth  size,  for  the 
large  opulent  farmer.  Every  cottage  should  have  at  least  two 
apartments,  and  in  many  cases  three,  or  even  four.  If  the 
apartmenis  be  two  in  number,  and  in  two  floors,  one  roof  will 
cover  both;  but  then  there  must  be  the  expense  of  an  addi- 
tional floor,  aiid  a  stair  to  get  up  to  it,  besides  a  loss  of  room 
in  both  floors,  for  the  space  occupied  by  the  stairs;  however, 
with  respect  to  a  sleeping  apartment,  a  roiun  in  an  upper 
story  is  more  healthy  than  in  a  lower.  In  cottages  which  are 
built  singly,  the  families  are  less  liable  to  contention  than  in 
those  which  are  joined  :  but  in  those  which  are  built  toge- 
ther, a  considerable  expense  of  walliug  will  be  saved,  as  the 
flues  may  be  carried  up  in  one  common  stalk,  and  in  case  of 
sudden  trouble,  one  family  may  assist  another. 

Where  a  cottage  consists  of  two  stories,  with  a  sleeping- 
room  in  the  upper  one,  it  would  tend  much  to  the  comfort  of 
the  cottager,  if  the  upper  story  were  warmed  by  means  of  a 
flue  from  the  fire  below  ;  for  this  purpose,  the  vent  ought  to 
be  carried  up  the  middle,  with  its  sides  as  thin  as  possible. 
Another  mode,  suggested  by  Mr.  Beatson,  is  to  permit  the 
heated  air,  which  always  ascends  from  the  ceiling  f)f  the  lower 
story,  to  ascend  through  an  aperture  in  the  floor  of  the  upper 
story;  this  may  be  done  by  means  of  gratings,  or  turning- 
plates,  in  the  least  frequented  part  of  (he  floor. 

With  respect  to  economy,  Mr,  Loudon,  in  his  treatises  on 
country-residences,  has  suggested  a  plan,  by  which  he  liiinks 
much  more  heat  may  be  thrown  out  from  a  given  quantity  of 
fuel,  than  by  any  other  method  yet  proposed,  and  even  by 
more  simple  means.  The  grate  which  contains  the  fuel  being 
placed  on  a  level  with  the  surfice  of  the  floor,  makes  the 
smoke  ascend  slowly,  aud  thus  in  its  passage  allows  it  time  to 
give  out  its  heat.  In  snuill  cottages,  the  staircase  ought  to  be 
so  constructed,  as  to  take  up  as  little  room  as  possible. 

The  chief  conveniences  of  a  single  square  cottage,  are  an 
eating-room  of  about  12  feet  square  ;  over  this  a  sleeping- 
apartment,  wliieh  may  be  partitioned  in  such  a  way,  as  will 
best  accommodate  the  decency  to  beprescrveil  in  the  fanuly  ; 
an  idea  of  this  construction  may  easily  be  formed  without  a 
plan.  If  the  dimensions  of  the  buildings  be  two  or  even  three 
feet  more,  it  will  give  much  nuire  advantage  in  point  of  con- 
venience. VuY  cottages  built  in  rows,  the  acconnnodations  nuvy 
be  as  follow:  a  room  below,  of  16  feet  square,  «ith  the 
entrance-door  aud  one  window  in  front  ;  the  fire-place  with 
an  oven  opening  into  it  by  means  of  a  fl  le  ;  a  doer  opening 


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207 


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into  a  lean-to,  at  the  back,  for  covering  fuel,  the  tools  of  the 
labourer,  and  sheltering  for  a  pig,  6^0. ;  a  pantry,  fitted  up 
with  shelves,  may  be  made  undo]'  the  stairs,  in  the  lower 
ruoni. 

To  accommodate  a  large  family,  with  children  of  different 
sexes,  the  necessary  separation  may  be  effected,  by  placing 
one  bed  over  the  other,  and  the  entrance  to  each  of  the  beds 
on  alternate  or  diflerent  sides. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cottages,  English  and  Scottish,  used 
in  Groat  Britain,  of  very  distinct  characters. 

The  old  English  cottages  were  constructed  of  clay,  liirf,  and 
other  similar  materials,  supported  and  strengthened  by  posts 
and  wooden  braces,  with  a  roof  of  very  steep  pitch,  in  order 
to  lessen  its  pressure  upon  the  walls,  and  to  discharge  the 
rain.  The  eaves  of  the  roof  were  continued  downwards,  so 
that  the  prnjeetion  might  throw  the  water  from  the  surliice 
of  the  walls,  and  by  this  means  prevent  not  only  the  waste  of 
materials,  but  the  dampness  which  the  interior  would  other- 
wise be  liable  to;  the  rain-water  is  also  thus  kept  from  the 
window  s  and  door.  The  chimneys  were  generally  carried  up 
singly,  in  one  or  both  ends  of  the  building,  most  commonly 
on  tile  outside  of  the  wall.  The  covering  of  the  roof  con- 
sisted principally  of  straw,  reeds,  or  slate-stone.  Garrets 
were  sometimes  formed  in  the  loof,  with  a  w indow,  either  in 
the  sloping  sides,  or  in  one  of  the  gables.  In  consequence 
of  the  lowness  of  the  side-wall,  and  to  give  sufficient  light, 
the  horizontal  dimension  of  the  window  was  much  greater 
than  the  height.  The  long  bearing  of  the  lintel,  or  head  of 
the  window,  was  supported  in  the  middle  by  an  upright  piece 
of  timber,  called  a  muitnion.  The  glass-frames  were  made  to 
revolve  upon  hinges  with  a  vertical  axis,  glazed  with  small 
squares  of  glass,  inserted  in  lead,  and  stiflened  by  cross  pieces 
of  wood,  or  frequently  ii'on,  called  saddle-bars ;  the  form  of 
the  squares  sometimes  rectangular,  but  frequently  rhoniboidal, 
and  the  lead  into  which  they  were  inserted  fixed  to  an  iron 
frame.  To  this  construction  the  cottager  frequently  added  a 
small  shed,  for  keeping  a  cow,  and  sonietimes  one  or  more 
hovels  to  the  end  of  the  side,  which  might  be  used  as  a  pan- 
try, or  as  a  place  wherein  to  deposit  his  tools,  or  other  arti- 
cles of  convenience.  It  is  probable  that  cottages  were  at  first 
built  of  a  single  story  only  ;  but,  in  course  of  time,  they  were 
constructed  two  stories  in  height,  and  as  the  lower  story  could 
not  then  be  protected  by  the  I'oof,  a  projection  of  wood  or 
slate-stone  was  introduced  over  the  lower  apertures,  to  pre- 
vent the  rain-water  from  falling  upon  the  wall.  To  make 
these  projections  ornamental,  they  were  formed  into  labels  of 
hewn-stone,  after  the  manner  of  those  in  Gothic  edifices. 

The  width  of  the  English  cottage  does  not  admit  of  more 
than  one  room  :  the  chimneys  are  variously  ornamented,  some- 
times several  flues  are  united  in  one  shaft,  which  is  built  in 
a  \  ariety  of  fanciful  forms,  and  sometimes  several  shafts  are 
carried  up  separate-ly,  and  united  under  one  cope. 

The  best  English  cottages,  of  late,  have  been  generally 
constructed  of  brick,  and  covered  with  slate  :  and  the  use  of 
these  materials  has  changed  the  external  features  very  con- 
siderably, though  the  general  disposition  of  the  parts  remains 
nmch  the  same. 

The  roofs  of  many  English  cottages  are  partly  gabled  and 
partly  hipped  ;  and  in  general  the  roof  is  extended  at  both 
ends,  so  as  to  oversail  the  gables  :  the  projection  thus  afford- 
ing protection  to  the  walls  in  the  same  manner  as  the  eaves 
over  the  front  and  rear  walls ;  by  this  means  the  gable  tops, 
neing  under  cover,  are  less  liable  to  want  repair.  The  walls 
of  English  cottages  are  generally  adorned,  either  by  white- 
wa>hing  or  colouring  the  walls;  or  with  creepers  of  vari- 
ous kinds. 

The  Scottish  cottages  differ  considerably  in  form  and  fea- 


tures from  the  English,  not  only  in  being  generally  pi  in- 
structed of  stone,  which  is  the  material  most  easily  proeuied 
in  the  conntry,  but  from  their  being  so  wide  as  to  admit  of  two 
apartments;  and  being  commonly  one  story  only  in  height. 
(_)ne  of  these  circumstances  is  sufficient  to  occasion  a  great 
dissimilarity  when  compared  with  the  proportion  of  the  Eng- 
lish cottage,  in  making  the  roof  top-heavy,  and  the  general 
appearance  of  the  building  squat ;  and  when  both  are  united, 
this  ell'ect  will  be  still  more  apparent. 

In  the  Scottish  cottage,  the  roof  has  only  a  very  small  pro- 
jection over  the  walls;  the  windows  and  doors  are  generally 
plain  ;  the  gables  most  frequently  surmount  the  roof;  the 
apei'tui'es  of  dooi's  and  windows  are  therefore  not  so  well  pro- 
tected from  rain  as  in  the  English  cottage;  but  this  want  of 
pirojection  is  counterbalanced  by  the  great  thickness  of  the 
walls,  and  by  the  narrowness  of  the  windows,  which  are 
made  to  slide  in  a  vertical  position,  in  grooves  on  the  sides  of 
a  surrounding  frame. 

An  inducement  to  make  the  windows  narrow,  was  the  length 
of  the  stones,  which  would  not  have  been  easih-  obtained 
otherwise.  In  order  to  |irocure  the  greatest  quantity  of  light, 
the  sashes  were  glazed  with  planes  of  glass  comparatively  much 
larger  than  those  used  in  English  cottages,  and  the  sides  of 
the  windows  were  splayed  from  the  glass-frame,  so  as  to  fiirm 
very  obtuse  angles  with  the  interior  surface  of  the  wall.  The 
windows  of  the  Scottish  cottage  are  thus  not  only  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  English,  in  being  without  dressings, 
and  of  a  diflerent  proportion,  but  also  in  their  manner  of 
glazing  and  shutting  them.  The  chimneys  are  either  carried 
up  in  one  or  both  gables,  or  in  a  partition-wall,  which  sepa- 
rates the  two  apartments  in  the  length :  when  cai-ried  up  in 
the  ends,  as  the  walls  are  always  made  sufficiently  thick  to 
receive  the  flues,  the  walls  are  not  recessed  upon  the  flanks  of 
the  stalk  of  chimneys,  in  order  to  save  materials.  These,  con- 
sisting of  ci-ude  stone  cemented  with  mortar,  being  of  little 
value.  The  chimney  shafts,  or  the  tmrets  surmounting  the 
roof,  are  generally  plain,  finished  on  the  top  with  a  coping  of 
hewn-stone. 

In  many  old  constructions  of  Scottish  cottages,  the  chimney 
is  placed  iu  the  front-wall,  with  a  lai-ge  recess  all  ro\md  the 
fire,  which  gave  great  advantage,  in  admitting  nioi-e  than 
double  the  number  which  the  modern  construction  admits 
of,  and  was  therefore  useful  in  times  when  the  master  and  his 
servants  sat  in  common  with  each  other.  In  the  old  construc- 
tions, the  roof  was  covered  with  thatch,  turf,  or  heath,  as 
being  the  most  ready  materials ;  but  these,  as  in  England, 
have  generally  given  place  to  the  more  durable  coverings  of 
slate  and  tile,  for  similar  reasons. 

Few  appendages  are  used  in  Scottish  cottages ;  and  in  days 
of  old,  so  little  attention  was  paid  to  cleanliness,  that  the  cot- 
tager who  was  blessed  with  a  cow,  admitted  the  beast  to  lodge 
at  night  in  the  same  house  with  himself,  without  any  other 
partition  than  the  back  of  a  bed  or  press,  to  separate  his 
apartment  from  that  of  the  animal.  We  are,  however-,  happy 
to  find,  that  among  many  other  improvements  in  the  norili. 
comfort  and  cleanliness  are  now  as  much  objeets  of  the  w  ishes 
of  the  inhabitants,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom; 
but  even  in  the  present  time,  from  the  impression  of  ancient 
forms,  though  the  cow-house  be  separated  from  the  cottage, 
they  are  still  in  one  continued  formal  line,  and  want  that 
picturesque  beauty  which  an  appendage  would  give,  as  in  the 
English  cottage. 

The  common  kind  of  the  present  cottages  in  the  north,  are 
made  very  wide,  either  to  receive  a  framed  bedstead  and 
press,  or  to  form  recesses,  by  means  of  a  partition,  for  the 
reception  of  the  bed  and  cupboard,  on  the  side  of  the  apart- 
ment opposed  to  the  window. 


COT 


208 


C  U  T 


The  gables  on  some  old  cottages  in  North  Britain,  are  sur- 
mounted with  steps,  following  the  sides  of  the  roof,  instead  of 
the  |(lain  coping,  wliieh  formed  the  thatch-wav. 

Seottish  cottages  are  frequently  decorated  liy  ti'aining 
lionevsuekUs  or  ivy  upon  the  walls,  and  a  row  of  house-leek 
is  disposed  along  tlie  ridge,  and  not  imfrequcntly  upon  the 
sloping  sides,  in  case  of  a  thatched  roof. 

The  materials  to  be  used  in  the  erection  of  cottages  will 
necessarily  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  the  locality  in  which 
they  are  to  be  built.  Cottages  are  built  of  clav,  or  turf, 
bricks  with  wood,  crude  stone,  flint,  large  pebbles'  cuh.  &c. : 
those  used  for  the  covering  are  turf,  straw,  tiles,  slate,  tarred 
paper,  tessera,  &c.  When  \.\\-  abounds,  as  in  the  north  of  Scot- 
land, this  timber  may  be  used  both  for  boardins  and  scant- 
ling; in  placesyieldingstone— thatmaterial  with  fliig-stones— 
tor  roofing. 

In  some  parts  of  Lancashire,  houses  arc  built  with  a  frame- 
work of  wood,  filled  up  with  wattled  shed-work,  and  after- 
waids  covered  with  a  composition  of  clay  and  wet  straw, 
locally  termed  "  clot  and  clay ;"  this,  when  plastered  and  limc- 
whited,  has  a  neat  appearance.  In  Devonshire,  walls  of  a 
similar  character  are  called  "cob-walls;"  in  France,  june. 
Houses  in  the  departemcnt  of  the  Isere,  Rhone,  and  Din,  the 
walls  of  which  are  formed  with  this  material,  have  existed 
lor  upwards  of  a  century,  and  eflectually  resist  the  inclemencv 
of  the  weather. 

Clay  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  a  similar  manner  in 
this  country  if  properly  prepared,  and  applied  with  judgment. 
It  should  by  well  tempered,  and  mixed  with  a  portion'of  fine 
gravel,  or  sand  ;  this  facilitates  the  drying,  and  prevents  the 
composition  from  ciacking.  In  formi'ng  the  walls,  fix  tem- 
porarily in  the  ground  two  parallel  rows  of  poles,  planked  on 
the  inner  sides — a  space  of  20  inches  between  being  left  for 
the  thickness  of  the  wall:  ram  the  prepared  clay  well  into 
this  space,  raising  the  planks  as  the  work  proceeds," care  being 
taken  that  the  walls  are  carried  up  perpendicular.  Iron- 
hoo-ping  should  be  laid  diagonally  in  the  substaii.ce  of  the 
wall,  as  bond.  Overall  the  openings,  stout  lintel  should  be 
laid;  and  the  door  and  window-frames  fixed  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses. When  the  walls  have  set.  remove  the  jilanks  and 
poles,  which  may  serve  as  timlier  for  joists  and  rafters.  After 
the  walls  are  completed  and  thoroughly  dry,  the  exterior  may 
be  rough-cast,  and  a  coating  of  plaster  laid  on  the  interior.' 

A  good  method  of  keeping  such  walls  dry,  is  to  build  in, 
at  intervals,  small  perfiirated  drain-pipes,  these  should  be 
luid  in  the  substance  of  the  walls,  the  bottom  resting  upon  a 
framed  opening  defi'uded  by  a  cast-iron  air-brick ;  the  top 
having  a  small  orifice  under  the  caves  leading  outward.  The 
current  of  air  passing  through  these  pipes  will  carry  off  all 
moisture  exuding  from  the  walls.  The  improvement  of  the 
dwellings  of  the  industrial  classes  is  now  occupying,  in  a  con- 
siderable degree,  the  attention  of  jihilanthropists.  Several 
societies  have  been  formed  exfiressly  to  carry  out  so  bene- 
volent an  object,  and  their  attention  has  been  especially 
directed  to  the  erection  of  a  better  description  of  cottage  for 
the  agricultural  labourer.  The  young  architect,  in  the  outset 
of  his  professional  career,  may'possibly  be  called  upon  to 
furnish  designs  for  such  buildings,  and  "with  a  view  to  assist 
Inm,  we  have  subjoined  the  following  specification  principally 
takeii  from  a  work  we  have  before  quoted,  Mr.  Dean's  '■  Essay- 
on  Farm  Buildings."  Mr.  Dean  is  a  practical  architect,  and  i's 
thoroughly  master  of  the  subject  on  which  he  has  written  ; 
and  his  -'Es.says"  may  be  consulted  with  advantage  by  those 
who  are  about  to  erect  agricultural  buildings. 

1  he  specification  is  for  a  pair  of  labourers  cottages,  semi- 
detached, but  may  be  altered  as  to  materials,  &c.,  according 
to  locality  and  circumstances. 


The  general  conditions  are  as  usual,  and  it  is  unnecessary 
to  occupy  space  by  transcribing  them. 

"Sl'ECIFIC.\TION. 

^'■Excavator.  Dig  out  the  earth  for  the  foundations  to  the 
several  walls,  drains,  and  cesspools,  as  shown  in  the  diaw- 
ings,  or  herein  described.  The  cesspools  to  privies  to  be 
sunk  outside  the  building.  Fill  up  the  trenches  to  the 
de[ith  and  width  shown  in  drawings  with  concrete  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  ground-stone  lime  to  six  of  aravel, 
broken  stone,  or  clean  l)allast.  Fill  in  and  well  ram  the 
ground-work  to  the  trenches  and  walls,  stj  as  to  prevent 
the  rain  soaking  down  to,  or  standing  against,  the  walls 
and  foundations." 

^^  Brlck-ldijer.  The  footings  to  the  walls  to  be  formed  with 
sound,  hard,  well-burnt  stock-brii-ks  or  buis  from  the  brick- 
field, filled  in  s(]lid,  and  well  flushed  with  mortar.  On  the 
footings  spread  a  layer  of  gas-tar  and  sand,  and  over  this 
a  course  of  slate  is  to  be  laid,  should  there  be  the  slightest 
chance  of  dampness  arising  from  the  foundation.  The 
cesspools  to  be  built  in  A^  inch  l)rickwork,  steened  and 
domed  over,  having  stone  man-holes  let  in.  The  drains 
from  the  sinks  to  be  3  inches  diameter,  of  glazed  earthenware, 
with  syphon  traps.  The  cesspools  and  drains  to  be  com- 
pleted previous  to  the  walls  being  erected.  Carry  up  the 
walls  and  chimneys  in  old  English  bond,  leaving  a  space 
of  about  2  inches  in  the  centre  of  the  thickness  of  the 
walls,  and  insert  air-bricks  where  required.  Carry  up 
from  the  ceiling  of  each  room,  on  corbel-stones,  a  ventila- 
ting flue  6  by  9  inches.  All  the  flues  to  be  well  pargettod 
and  cored  out  at  the  completion  of  the  works.  The  chim- 
ney flues  not  to  be  gathered  over  sharply,  and  twisted  as 
much  as  possible. 

"The  external  walls  are  to  be  faced  with  best  red  stock- 
bricks,  white  Suflbjlv  bricks  being  used  for  jilinths,  quoins, 
and  dressings  to  windows  and  chimney-shafts ;  all  of  which 
are  to  be  carried  up  in  the  manner  shown  in  drawings. 
No  wall  to  be,  at  any  time  during  the  progress  of  the  works, 
more  than  4  feet  higher  than  any  other  wall.  No  indents 
or  toothings  will  be  allowed,  and  no  f  uir  course  of  bricks 
to  exceed  1 1^  inches  in  height. 

'•  All  the  brickwork  imist  be  worked  in  sound  regular  bond, 
with  a  close  joint  neatly  struck;  every  course  well  flushed 
in  with  mortar,  and  the  whole  made  perfectly  level,  straight, 
and  perpendicular.  The  chimney  openings  to  have  chim- 
ney bars  to  turn  up  at  each  end.  The  quarter  partitions 
to  be  brick-nogged  with  bricks,  laid  flat,  and  well  bonded. 

"  All  openings  to  have  arches  turned  over  them,  with 
proper  skew  backs,  and  left  neatly  pointed.  The  chimney 
and  jambs  are  to  be  chamfered,  to  have  plinths,  and  two 
projecting  bricks,  cut,  as  shown  in  drawing,  to  support 
mantel  shelf  The  fire-places  are  to  be  lined  with  fire- 
bricks, and  an  oven  built  at  back.  The  bottom,  sides,  and 
top  of  oven  to  be  of  fire  tiles,  with  flues  fir  carrying  the 
fire  under  and  up  the  sides  of  the  oven.  The  smoke-flue 
to  be  provided  with  dampers,  and  a  door  provided  with 
damper  leading  to  the  oven,  which  is  to  be  fixed  in  chim- 
ney jamb.  Fire-grates  are  to  be  formed  by  letting  round 
iron  bars  into  the  brickwork  of  fire-places. 

"  The  privies  to  be  provided  with  Bonlton  and  Watt's 
closet-pans,  and  srhizeil  earthenware  pipes  leading  to  cess- 
pools. The  boilers  to  be  set  with  rounded  bricks,  and  the 
inside  work,  where  exposed  to  the  fire,  lined  with  fire- 
brick. The  mortar  to  be  composed  of  one  part  of  good 
lime  to  three  of  sharp  sand,  or  fine-sifted  gravel ;  the  whole 
to  be  Well  tempered.  Properly  bed  all  lintels,  plates, 
frames,  and  sills;  point  round  all  frames  and  sills;  stop 
all  putlock  holes,  and  leave  the  works  in  a  complete  state. 


GO  T 


209 


COU 


"  Mason  and  Paviour.  Provide  and  fix  4  inch  tooled  York 
stone  steps  to  porches  and  entrance-doors.  Provide  and 
fix  3  incii  York  stones  over  cesspools  ;  4  inch  stones  for 
corbels,  to  carry  brickwork  to  air-flues  ;  a  circular  space 
about  4  inches  diameter,  to  be  cut  in  these  stones,  and 
a  ventilating  valve  inserted  in  each.  Inch  hare-hill  hearths, 
and  baek-h.artlH  to  all  chimney  openings,  with  stonc-kirbs 
miind  to  act  as  fenders.  The  kitchens  to  have  ash-pits 
with  iron  movable  gratings  over.  Sink-stones  to  wash- 
houses  2  feet  0  inches  by  1  foot  9  inches,  out  of  7  inch 
stone,  properly  dished  (or  wood  lined  with  zinc  may  be 
used),  each  sink  to  be  provided  with  a  bell-trap.  Pave 
the  porches  and  panti'ies  with  10  inch  tiles,  well  bedded, 
the  aroinid  bi'ing  previously  well  rammed.  The  rest  of  the 
ground-floors  to  be  made  with  concrete.  Two-inch  York 
stone  treads,  and  risers  to  stairs,  properly  cramped,  and 
supported  by  dwarf  brick  walls.  The  floors  of  privies  to 
be  paved  with  1^  inch  York  stone." 

"  Carpenter.  The  fir  timber  to  be  free  from  sap,  large  knots, 
and  shakes.  The  oak  to  be  English,  die-square.  The 
framing  to  be  executed  in  the  most  approved  manner,  and 
to  be  of  the  following  scantlings  : — Wall-plates  4J  by  2^ ; 
lintels  over  all  openings,  4  by  4  ;  chamber-joists  7  by  1^, 
12  inches  apart,  with  bays  of  herring-bone  struts  2  feet 
apart,  thin  iron  hooping  being  nailed  to  the  under  side  of 
the  joists,  and  the  space  between  the  joists  to  be  filled  up 
solid  with  broken  stone  or  clay  and  mortar.  Trimming- 
joists  7  by  3  ;  struts  4  by  2  ;  partitions  to  have  heads  and 
sills  4  by  3  ;  uprights  and  braces  4  by  2.  Door-frames 
chamfered  on  the  edges  4  by  3  ;  rafters  4J  by  2J  ;  purlins 
4  by  3;  collars  to  every  sixth  pair  of  rafters,  0  by  2; 
ridge,  7  by  Ij",  f  yellow  deal  battens  to  carry  slates. 
Prov'de  and  fix  2  inch  cut  and  splayed  barge-boards,  with 
pinnacles,  &c.,  as  shown  on  drawings." 
'^Joiner,  External  doors  to  be  square-framed  and  battened, 
hung  with  4  inch  butts,  with  7  inch  drawback  locks, 
C  inch  round  bolts,  (3  to  each  door,)  and  Norfolk  thumb- 
latches  ;  3-  ledged  internal  doors,  and  \  ledged  privy, 
pantry,  and  coal-closet  doors,  with  bolts  and  latches.  The 
doors  to  have  inch  jamb-linings  and  stops." 

"  Windows.  Solid  deal  frames,  4j  by  3,  with  oak-sunk  sills  ; 
\\  ovolo  sashes,  suspended  by  pivots ;  those  in  the  pantries 
to  be  filled  with  perforated  zinc." 

'■'•  F'dtings.  Inch  deal  seats  and  risers  to  privies,  on  fir 
carriages.  The  seats  to  have  flaps  hung  with  2J  inch 
butt  hinges ;  1  shelf  to  be  fixed  round  each  cupboard 
closet  in  bed-rooms,  and  3  in  those  in  kitchens:  1^  inch 
dresser-tops,  and  3  shelves  to  pantries.  Angle  staves  to 
be  provided  and  fixed  to  all  angles ;  \  clamped  shutters 
to  dwelling-rooms,  hung  as  flaps,  with  deal  framed  brackets, 
to  be  turned  on  pivots,  the  flaps  forming  tables.  Fir 
mantel-shelves,  6  by  2  inches,  over  each  opening." 

''^Plasterer.  The  walls  of  the  dwelling-rooms  and  bed-rooms 
to  be  rendered  and  set.  The  ceilings  and  rafters  lathed 
with  iron  hooping  ;  the  space  between  the  joists  and  rafters 
filled  up  solid  with  broken  stone,  or  earth  and  lime.  The 
ceilings  to  be  plastered,  set,  and  whiteil.  The  chamber 
floors  to  be  laid  with  floor  plaster,  and  trowelled  to  a  smooth 
snrtiice.  The  walls  of  the  sculleries,  pantries,  coal-closets, 
and  privies,  to  be  twice  lime-whited  ;  cement  skirting, 
G  inches  high,  to  be  run  round  all  the  kitchens  and 
bed-rooms." 

•'  Slater.  Cover  the  roofs  with  countess  slates,  laid  hollow 
to  a  proper  guage.  The  ridges  to  be  of  slate,  bedded  in 
cement." 

"  Ironmonger.    Fix  No.  8  1^  round  iron  bars  to  all  the  fire- 
places, to  form  stove.     Fix  iron  pans  in  sculleries.       Fix 
27 


where  directed  an  iron  pump,  with  double  handle  ;  fix 
No.  4,  stacks  of  4  inch  descending  pipes,  with  ci.stern 
heads  and  shoes,  the  bottom  length  to  be  of  cast  iron. 
Provide  and  fix  No.  12  cast  iron  air  bricks,  to  be  fixed 
where  directed  ;  fix  No.  8  Arnott's  valves  where  directed. 
Fix  perforated  zinc-plates  to  doors  of  rooms  not  having 
chimney  openings  in  them.  Provide  No.  10  chimney 
bars,  to  turn  up  at  each  end." 
"  Plumber.  Inch  lead  waste  pipes  from  sinks  to  drains 
curved  round  so  as  to  form  stink-traps,  and  provided  with 
bell-traps.  Lead  flashings  to  chimneys,  5  pound  to  the 
foot  super.  Provide  and  fix  15  feet  of  1^  suction-pipe 
from  well  to  pump." 
"  Glazier  and  Painter.  Glaze  the  several  sashes  with  3d 
Newcastle  crown  glass.  Stain  the  whole  of  the  wood- 
work of  the  exterior  with  a  composition  of  gas-tar  and 
Roman  ochre,  laid  on  when  boiling  hot.  The  interior 
to  be  stained  with  '  Stephen's  stain,'  and  afterwards 
varnished." 

The  above  Specification  is  so  carefully  drawn,  that  we 
have  thought  it  expedient  to  extract  it  entire,  as  a  nsefid 
guide  to  the  young  architect.  It  may,  of  course,  be  altered 
according  to  circumstances,  and  it  may  not  always  be 
desirable  to  incur  so  large  an  outlay.  The  estimate  for 
a  pair  of  cottages  similar  to  those  specified,  would  range 
from  £200  to  £300,  according  to  the  amount  of  ornament 
bestowed  on  them. 

COUCH,  in  general,  the  lay  of  any  mueilaginous  substance 
on  any  material,  as  wood  or  plaster,  in  order  to  protect  the 
surface  of  that  material  from  the  weather,  and  thereby 
render  it  more  durable,  or  less  vulnerable  to  the  corroding 
influence  of  the  atmosphere. 

C<:)UCH,  in  painting,  denotes  a  lay  or  impression  of  colour, 
whether  in  oil  or  water,  with  which  the  painter  covers  his 
canvass,  wall,  wainscot,  or  other  material  to  be  painted. 

Paintings  are  first  covered  with  a  couch  of  varnish. 
A  canvass,  to  be  painted,  must  first  have  two  couches 
of  size  before  the  colours  are  laid  :  two  or  three  couches  of 
whitelead  are  laid  on  wood  before  the  couch  of  gold  is 
applied. 

COULISSE,  French  ;  the  pieces  of  wood  which  hold  the 
floodgates  in  a  sluice ;  also  any  timbers  having  grooves  in 
them. 

COUNTER,  COMPTER,  (from  the  Latin,  computare)  the 
name  of  two  prisons  in  London,  for  the  use  of  the  city,  to 
confine  debtors,  breakers  of  the  peace,  &c. 

Counter,  a  term  formerly  used  among  engineers  to  denote 
the  superintendent  of  a  canal,  or  other  great  work,  under  the 
resident-engineer.  His  business  was  to  keep  an  account  of 
the  time  of  the  men  employed,  not  only  in  different  depart- 
ments of  the  work,  but  in  different  soils  also,  as  a  check  on 
the  charge  of  the  men  ;  and  thereby  to  enable  the  resident- 
engineer,  who  received  his  accounts,  to  ascertain  the  rate  of 
any  quantity  of  common  measure  in  similar  operations.  The 
counter  seems  to  have  been  the  same  as  what  we  now  call 
clerk  of  the  works. 

Counter  Db.iin,  a  ditch  or  channel  parallel  to  a  canal  or 
embanked  water-course,  for  collecting  the  soakage-water  by 
the  side  of  the  canal  or  emb.ankment,  to  a  culvert  or  arched 
drain  under  the  canal,  by  which  it  is  conveyed  away  to 
lower  ground. 

Counter  Drawing,  the  copying  of  a  design  by  means  of 
a  fine  linen  cloth, oiled  paper,  &c.,  laid  on  the  drawing;  the 
strokes  of  the  drawing  appearing  through  the  ti-ansparent 
cover,  being  traced  and  marked  with  the  pencil. 

Sometimes  drawings  are  copied  on  glass,  or  with  frames 
or  nets  divided  into  squares.     The  pentagraph  is  not  only 


cou 


210 


COU 


useful  in  making;  fac-similes,  but  for  reducing  or  enlarging 
drawings  in  anv  proporlion  ;  but  of  all  instruments  employed 
in  cojning  reclilinear  or  regular  curved-lined  drawings,  or 
mixed  of  the  two,  the  proportional  compass  is  the  most  accu- 
rate, the  most  expeditious  and  convenient  instrument  ever  yet 
invented ;  and  if  the  parts  of  the  drawing  stand  at  different 
oblique  angles,  a  pair  of  triangular  compasses  will  be  neces- 
sary to  assist  in  taking  the  angles.  Although  the  penta- 
graph  will  of  itself  enlarge  or  reduce,  or  make  equal,  and 
rind  the  iiuantity  of  the  angle,  it  requires  much  room,  and 
for  drawing  straight  lines  and  curves,  the  tracer  to  be  drawn 
along  a  straight-edge.  In  retrograding  or  retracing  a  line 
in  the  same  path,  towards  the  contrary  extremity  to  which  it 
was  drawn,  the  representative  line  is  liable  to  be  doubled. 
The  pentagraph  is  therefore  a  cumbersome  and  inaccurate 
instrument  fur  such  purposes,  and  should  only  be  used  in 
reducing  for  rough  or  sketch-maps,  &c.,  where  great  accu- 
racy may  not  be  absolutely  necessary. 

Counterforts,  projections  of  masonry  or  brickwork  from 
a  wall,  built  at  regular  intervals,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
wall,  or  to  resist  a  pressure  of  earth  behind  it,  the  coijnterforts 
increasing  the  breadth  of  its  base,  and  thereby  aiding  the 
resistance  against  the  power  which  tends  to  overturn  it. 

Counter  Guage,  in  c^nrpentry,  a  method  used  to  measure 
the  joints  by  transferring,  e.  g.  the  lircadth  of  a  mortise  to  the 
place  of  the  other  timber  where  the  tenon  is  to  be  made,  in 
order  to  adapt  them  to  each  other. 

CoL-.VTER  Lath,  in  tiling,  a  lath  placed  between  every  two 
gunged  ones,  so  as  to  divide  every  interval,  as  near  as  can  be 
judged  by  the  eye,  into  two  equal  intervals. 

Counter  Light,  a  window  opposite  to  anything  which 
makes  it  appear  to  a  disadvantage  :  a  single  counteHight  is 
sufficient  to  take  away  all  the  beauty  of  a  fine  painting. 

Counter  Parts,  of  a  building,  are  the  similar  and  equal 
parts  of  the  design  on  each  side  of  the  middle  of  the 
edilice  ;  they  arc  absolutely  necessary  to  the  character 
oi  a  Grecian  or  Roinan  edilice,  but  in  Gothic  buildings 
a  duplieature  of  parts  is  not  requisite. 

COl  NTU\ -HOUSE,  as  its  name  implies,  one  erected  in 
the  country.  In  the  erection  of  these,  under  a  liberal  em- 
ployer, the  architect  has  the  greatest  scope  for  his  fancy, 
ingenuity,  and  skill  in  contrivance.  lie  is  not  confined  io 
space,  as  in  town-houses,  and  therefore  has  it  in  his  power 
to  extend  in  any  direction  consistent  with  the  natm-e  of  his 
design.     For  farther  information,  see  Villa,  and  House. 

COUPLE-CLOSE,  a  pair  of  spars  of  a  roof. 

COUPLED  COLUMNS,  those  which  are  disposed  in 
pairs,  making  a  narrow  and  wide  interval  succeed  each 
other  alternately.  Of  this  disposition  of  columns,  ancient 
architecture  atlbrds  no  instance;  for,  although  in  the  temple 
of  Bacelms  at  Home,  the  columns  are  ci)npled,  or  stand  in 
pairs,  still  the  intervals  between  are  all  equal.  The  only  use 
of  coupled  columns  is  in  low  colonnades,  or  porticos  of  edi- 
fices wliich  hive  large  piers,  where  the  employment  of  single 
Columns  would  have  a  meagre  appearance.  The  ancient  <lis- 
po>ition  of  c-nlumns  in  the  same  range  was  always  beautiful, 
on  account  of  the  proportion  of  the  intercolumn  being  always 
liarrow.  In  the  ap|i!ication  of  columns  to  modern  architec- 
ture, the  intercolnmniations  nmst  be  regulated  by  the  aper- 
tures of  our  domestic  edifices,  but  the  ancients  were  under  no 
such  restrictions.  The  perspective  succession  or  gradation  of 
coupled  columns,  is  not  so  harmonious  as  when  columns  sfcind 
single.  If  a  design  be  well  suggested,  there  w  ill  be  little  occa- 
sion for  their  employment.     See  Column,  Colonnade. 

COUPLES,  rafters  framed  together  in  paiis,  with  a  tie, 
whici)  is  generally  fixed  above  the  feet  of  the  rafters.  This 
m  'le  of  framing  is  used  in  the  ordinary  houses  of  Scotland, 


without  either  principals  or  purlins.  The  rafters  called  spars, 
are  most  commonly  notched,  and  the  tie  which  couples  them 
is  also  notceed  with  a  dovetail.  In  a  building  about  25  feet 
wide,  the  spars  may  be  7  inches  at  bottom,  0  inches  at  top, 
2^  inches  thick,  and  about  2  feet  2  inches  apart,  for  boarding 
covered  with  slate. 

Couples.  Main,  or  Main  Couples,  the  same  as  trusses 
for  roofs,  which  support  the  roof  in  ditferent  bays :  this  term 
is  also  used  in  the  north. 

COURSE,  a  continued  level  range  of  stones  or  bricks  in  a 
wall,  as  far  as  the  solid  part  runs.  It  sometimes  happens, 
that  a  course  of  masonry  is  only  laid  to  a  certain  length,  and 
the  other  part  or  complement  divided  into  two  courses,  in 
the  same  height  as  the  single  course  ;  but  this  ought  not  to 
be  admissible,  and  should  be  specified  against,  in  countries 
where  the  contractors  are  ready  to  take  every  advantage  in 
order  to  save  the  expense  of  larger  stones,  or  to  accommo- 
date themselves  with  those  already  at  hand. 

Course  of  the  Face  of  an  Arch,  the  arch-stones,  whose 
joints  radiate  to  the  centre.  In  stone  work,  the  arch-stones 
are  called  voussoirs  or  ring-stones,  in  the  face  of  the  arch,  and 
each  radiating  part  consists  of  one  stone  only.  In  brick- 
work, each  part,  of  one  thickness  of  brick,  sometimes  consiste 
of  several  bricks  in  length :  but  whether  one  or  several 
bricks  be  contained  between  two  adjacent  radiating  joints, 
the  quantity  thus  disposed  is  called  a  cotirse. 

Course,  in  slating  and  tiling,  a  row  of  slates  or  tiles,  dis- 
posed with  their  lower  ends  in  the  same  level,  which  line 
may  either  be  a  straight  line  or  a  circle. 

Course  of  Plinths,  the  continuity  of  a  plinth  in  the  face 
of  a  wall,  to  mark  the  separation  of  the  stones.  The  course 
of  plinths  is  otherwise  called  string  course,  which  is  most 
frequently  executed  with  stone,  but  sometimes  also  with 
plaster,  to  save  expense. 

Course,  Barge.     See  Barge-Course. 

Course,  Blocking.     See  Blocking-Course. 

Course,  Bonding,  that  which  is  farther  inserted  into  the 
wall  than  either  of  the  adjacent  courses,  for  the  purpose  of 
binding  the  wall  together.  Two  bonding-cuurses  lapping 
upon  each  other,  one  from  the  fece,  and  the  other  from  the 
back,  make  excellent  work:  these  courses  should  be  placed 
so  as  to  leave  regular  intervals  for  stretching  courses  between 
them,  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

Course,  Heading,  the  same  as  Bonding-Course.  See  the 
last  article. 

Course,  Springing.     See  Springing-Course. 

Course,  Stretching.     See  Stretching-Course. 

CouHSED  Masonrv,  that  in  which  the  stones  run  in 
courses. 

Coursing  Joint,  the  joint  between  two  courses. 

COURT,  an  hypatliral,  or  uncovered  area,  either  in  front 
of  a  house,  or  surrounded  entirely  by  the  walls.  As  it  is 
impossible  on  the  same  floor  to  light  apartments  surrounded 
with  other  apartments  on  all  sides,  and  these  again  com- 
pletely covered  with  other  apartments,  it  will  be  impossible 
to  execute  an  extensive  building,  which  may  have  more  th.an 
three  rooms  in  length  and  breadth,  and  moie  than  one  story 
in  height,  without  the  intermediate  rooms  being  entirely 
dark,  or  receiving  their  light  by  secondary  windows  from  the 
exterior  rooms  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  introducing  as  many 
intermediate  courts  as  the  extension  of  the  building,  with 
regard  to  the  number  of  rooms,  both  in  length  and  breadth, 
may  require,  will  be  obvious.  !Mr.  Barry  has  made  advan- 
tageous use  of  a  court  of  this  description  in  the  Travellers' 
Club-house.  See  Club-House.  It  is  true,  that  a  building 
can  be  executed  without  courts,  and  that  it  may  contain  any 
number  of   rooms ;  but  it  must   have   only  two  rooms  in 


GOV 


211 


CRA 


bieaiUh,  or  otherwise  the  plan  cannot  be  a  simple  rectan- 
gular ligure.  Courts  may  be  oriiainL'iitcd  in  the  most 
ek'gaiU  manner,  and  lieiiig  more  contiiioil  than  the  external 
parts  of  the  edifice,  the  ornaments  may  be  of  a  more  delicate 
nature;  and  if  any  parlsof  the  building  can  admit  of  arcades, 
or  of  two  or  more  orders,  one  above  the  other,  a  court  is 
certainly  the  most  susceptible  of  such  decoration.  We  arc 
informed  by  Vitruviiis  (book  vi.  chap,  iii.)  that  the  ancients 
had  five  kinds  of  courts,  called  cauwdii,  distinguished  by  the 
denominations  of  Tirscan,  Corinthian,  tetraslijle,  displuvi- 
nated,  and  testudiiiated.  For  the  description  of  each,  see 
Cav.edium. 

COUSINET,  CoussiNET,  a  Cushion,  a  stone  placed  upon 
the  impost  of  a  pier  or  pedroit,  for  i-eceiving  the  first  stone  of 
an  arch.  If  the  arch  be  the  segment  of  a  circle,  the  cousinet 
mav  be  an  isosceles  triangle,  with  the  base  upon  the  impost, 
and  the  two  sloping  sides  radiating  to  the  centre  ;  or  if  the 
arch  be  a  semicircle,  the  cousinet  will  be  the  first  arch-stone 
itself,  or  otherwise  the  arch  must  spring  aliove  the  impost. 

CoL'siNET  is  also  employed  to  denote  that  part  in  the  front 
of  the  Ionic  capital,  contained  between  the  abacus  and  the 
echinus,  or  quarter-round.  It  is  this  which  forms  the  hori- 
zontal fillet,  or  band,  in  common  volutes,  or  the  band  and 
festoons  in  the  Grecian  Ionic,  from  which  the  volutes  on  each 
side  of  the  column  depend. 

COVE,  any  kind  of  concave  moulding,  or  the  concavity  of 
a  vault. 

Cove  Bracketing,  is  the  bracketing  of  any  cove,  but  more 
generally  understood  to  be  that  of  the  quadrantal  cove,  which 
is  sometimes  employed  between  the  flat  ceiling  and  the  wall. 
See  Bracketing. 

COVED  Ax\D  FLAT  CEILING,  one  whose  section  is  a 
portion  or  quadrant  of  a  circle,  springing  from  the  walls  of 
the  room,  and  rising  to  a  flat  surface  in  the  middle. 

Coved  and  flat  ceilings  seem  to  be  altogether  of  modern 
invention,  and  admit  of  some  beauty  in  the  decoration.  It  is 
a  sort  of  compromise  between  the  flat  or  horizontal  ceiling, 
and  the  various  forms  of  arched  ones  practised  by  the 
ancients.  It  does  not  require  so  much  height  as  the  latter 
mode,  and  has  therefore  been  of  considerable  use  in  the 
finishing  of  modern  apartments;  but  as  its  form  is  a  com- 
pound, it  wants  both  elegance  of  figure,  and  grandeur  of 
design  ;  nor  does  it  admit  of  that  beauty  in  decoration,  that 
entire  arched  ceilings  are  susceptible  of.  The  ancient  forms 
were  of  three  kinds,  the  cylindric  arch,  the  dome,  and  the 
groin.  We  find  no  arches  of  any  description  in  Grecian 
antiquity  ;  but  in  the  Roman  edifices  all  the  three  varieties 
are  to  be  found  ;  and  among  other  ceilings  in  the  ruins  of 
Balbec,  the  quadrantal  coved  ceiling,  with  the  flat  in  the 
middle,  may  be  distinctly  traced,  at  least  in  length,  if  not  in 
breadth.     See  Ceiling. 

Cover,  in  slutlng,  the  part  of  the  slate  that  is  hid  or 
covi-reil ;  the  other  part  exposed  to  view,  is  termed  tlie  mar- 
gin of  the  slate. 

Cover  Wav,  in  roofing,  the  recess  or  internal  angle  left  in 
brickwork  or  masonry  to  receive  the  covering. 

Covered  Way,  a  passage  covered  over.  The  term  Cov- 
ered Way,  or  Covert  Way,  is  also  used  in  fortification  to 
denote  the  piece  of  ground  level  with  the  field  on  the  edge  of 
the  ditch,  three  or  four  fathoms  broad,  extending  quite  round 
the  works  towards  the  country.  It  has  a  parapet  raised  on 
a  level,  together  with  its  banquettes  and  glacis.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  counterscarp. 

Covering.     See  Roofing. 

coving,  the  exterior  projecture  over  the  ground-plan 
of  buildings,  made  in  an  arched  form  with  lath  and  plaster : 
it  is  not  now  in  use.     In  former  times,  when  the  streets  were 


very  narrow,  the  upper  rooms  were  made  in  part  to  jut  over 
the  wall,  in  order  to  give  room. 

Covings  of  a  Fireplace,  the  inclined  vertical  parts  on 
the  sides,  for  contracting  the  opening,  and  throwing  out  the 
heat. 

COW-HOUSE,  a  building  where  cows  or  other  cattle  are 
kept,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  severities  of  the 
weather.     See  Cattle  Shed. 

Cow- Yard,  the  enclosure  in  which  cows  are  kept,  to  shel- 
ter them  from  the  weather. 

CRAB,  an  instrument  used  in  masonry  for  raising  large 
stones. 

CRACKING  OF  BUILDINGS,  those  fissures  occasioned 
by  improper  management  in  the  foundation,  or  in  carrying 
up  the  work.  Cracks,  so  frequent  in  modern  buildings,  vj'ill 
for  the  most  part  be  found  to  arise  from  unequal  settlement, 
caused  by  insufficient  foundations,  from  inadequate  coverings 
to  apertures,  such  as  what  are  called  French  arches,  or  from 
the  employment  of  improper  or  inferior  materials,  soft  bricks, 
unseasoned  timber  and  such  like. 

Cracking,  in  plastering,  the  fissures  occasioned  by  an 
undue  tempering  or  mixing  of  the  materials,  or  by  an  un- 
seasonable application. 

CRADLE,  or  Coffer,  in  engineering,  a  large  wooden 
trunk,  open  at  top,  with  movable  ends,  large  enough  to 
receive  a  barge  or  vessel  when  floating  on  a  canal,  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  or  lowering  it  to  a  higher  or  lower  pond 
of  the  canal,  by  cranes  or  other  means,  without  the  use  of  a 
pond  lock. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  segment  of  a  hollow  cylin- 
der formed  of  ribs  and  lattice,  similar  to  centering,  used  by 
bricklayers  and  mas(jn<,  for  turning  culverts  and  arches;  the 
inside  is  smooth,  and  the  exterior  ixiugh,  for  supporting  and 
retaining  the  >hape  of  the  inverted  arch  of  the  lower  half  of 
the  culvert  in  soft  ground,  particularly  in  quicksands  and 
peaty  places.  A  very  slight  cradle  of  this  kind,  will  some- 
times prevent  the  distortion  or  ultimate  fall  of  a  barrel  cul- 
vert. This  precaution  should  never  be  omitted  in  laying 
culverts  under  canals  or  roads,  in  soft  groinids,  as  the  falling 
of  the  culvert  may  prove  of  the  greatest  inconvenience. 

Cradle-Vault,  a  word  improperly  applied  to  cylindric 
vaults. 

CRADLING,  the  mass  of  timber-work  disposed  in 
arched  or  vaulted  ceilings,  for  sustaining  the  lath  and 
plaster.  For  the  application  of  the  various  species  of 
cradling,  see  the  words  Cylindric- Vault,  Cove-Brackrt- 
ING,  Dome,  Groin,  and  Niche.  The  compound  term,  difsh- 
ing-out,  is  sometimes  used  by  workmen,  instead  of  cradling. 

Cradling  is  also  used  for  the  rough  timber-work  for  sus- 
taining an  entablature  for  a  shop-front. 

CRAMP,  an  iron  instrument,  about  4  feet  long,  with  a 
screw  at  one  entJj  and  a  movable  shoulder  or  arm  at  the 
other,  by  which  mortise  and  tenon  work  is  forced  together. 

CRAMPERN,  or  Cramp-Iron,  an  iron  bent  at  each 
extremity,  towards  the  same  side  of  the  middle  part,  used  to 
fasten  stones  together  in  a  building. 

When  stones  are  required  to  be  bound  together  with 
greater  strength  than  that  of  mortar,  a  chain,  or  bar  of  iron, 
with  different  projecting  nobs,  is  inserted  in  a  cavity  cut  in 
the  upper  side  of  the  course  of  stones  across  the  joints, 
instead  of  single  cramps  across  the  joints  of  each  two  stones. 
Cramps  are  generally  employed  in  works  which  require  great 
solidity,  as  in  the  piers  and  abutments  of  bridges,  and  the 
voussoirs  of  large  arches.  They  are  also  employed  in  uniting 
the  stones  of  copings,  and  cornices,  and  generally  any  external 
work  upon  the  upper  surface,  or  between  the  IkmIs  of  the 
stone.     External  work  liable  to  the  injuries  of  the  weather. 


C  li  E 


212 


CRU 


ought  to  be  craip^ed.  The  most  secure  manner  of  fixing 
cramps  is  to  let  .hem  into  the  stones  their  whole  thickness, 
and  run  them  >•,  ith  lead  ;  but  in  slight  works,  it  is  sufficient 
to  bed  them  in  plaster,  as  is  the  practice  in  chimney-pieces. 
Iron  is  used  in  modern  buildings,  but  the  Romans,  who  were 
accustomed  to  employ  cramps  in  the  greatest  profusion,  used 
bronze,  a  material  much  more  durable  than  iron,  as  it  is  not 
so  liable  to  rust. 

Bronze  or  copper  is  preferable  to  iron,  not  only  on  account 
of  its  own  durability,  but  likewise  because  it  is  not  so  liable 
to  destroy  the  masonry  which  it  connects  :  the  rust  which 
accumulates  round  iron  cramps,  tends  to  rupture  the  masonry 
to  a  much  greater  extent,  than  the  cramps  to  keep  it 
together  ;  besides  this,  if  placed  near  the  surface,  iron  is  sure 
to  discolour  it.  in  general  work,  if  the  masonry  be  well  put 
together,  there  will  be  but  little  need  of  cramps,  especially 
if  the  separate  masses  be  of  moderate  size  ;  nor  even  if  they 
be  of  small  dimensions,  is  there  any  absolute  necessity  for 
their  employment,  as  we  may  gather  from  the  works  of  the 
ancients.  Mr.  Muipliy  instances  the  spires  of  Salisbury 
cathedral,  and  of  the  church  of  Batalha,  Portugal,  which 
though  not  more  than  seven  inches  in  thickness,  are  for  the 
most  part  coimected  without  the  aid  of  iron  cramps.  These 
observations  apply  with  greater  emphasis  to  wrought  than 
to  cast  iron. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren  used  a  large  cramp  or  chain  below 
the  springing  of  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  in  order  to  distribute 
the  pressure  equally.  This  architect,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  fully  aware  of  the  caution  requisite  in  the  use  of 
iron  in  stone  buildings,  for  he  observes  in  his  Farentalia, 
'■  It  has  been  observed  in  removing  cramps  from  masonry 
at  least  four  hundred  years  old,  which  were  so  bedded  in 
mortar  that  all  air  was  perfectly'  excluded,  that  the  iron 
appeared  as  fresh  as  when  it  came  fiom  the  forge.  In 
cramping  stones  therefore,  no  iron  should  lie  within  nine 
inches  of  air  if  possible  ;  for  air  is  the  menstruum  that 
consumes  all  materials.  When  for  want  of  large  stones 
the  use  of  iron  is  requisite,  care  should  be  taken  to  exclude 
the  air  from  it." 

Copper,  bronze,  or  gun-metal,  form  excellent  niid  incorro- 
sive  substitutes  for  iron  in  cramping  masonry  ;  they  are 
more  expensive  at  the  first  outlay,  but  will  be  found  in 
reality  more  economical  ;  the  first  material  may  be  mixed 
with  a  small  portion  of  tin,  which  imparts  to  it  greater 
durability. 

The  above  objections  to  iron,  do  not  hold  good  as  regards 
brickwork  ;  the  only  inconvenience  in  this  case  arises  from 
the  stain  with  which  the  rust  is  apt  to  disfigure  the  work, 
if  the  iron  be  placed  too  near  the  facing. 

CRAMPOONS,  pieces  of  iron  hooked  at  the  ends,  for 
drawing  or  pulling  up  timber,  stones,  &c. 

CRANE-lIOUtjE,  a  house  to  shelter*  crane;  it  should 
be  constructed  of  brick. 

CREALS,  a  sort  of  jetties,  or  weir  hedges,  sometimes 
erected  on  the  shores  of  rivers  or  the  sea,  for  checking  the 
force  of  ihe  tide  in  particular  places,  and  occasionuig  a 
deposit  of  filth  or  mud  in  place  of  the  constant  wear  and 
encroachment  of  the  water  upon  the  land.  Smeaton's 
Jicp'irls,  i.  p.  4. 

CPiEASlNG,  Tile.     Ste  Tile-Creasing. 

CREDENCE,  a  shelf  or  small  table  by  the  side  of  a 
Christian  altar,  on  which  the  sacred  elements  are  placed 
pr.nious  to  consecration.  Sometimes  the  credence  is  simply 
a  shelf  in  the  niche  above  the  piscina,  but  at  other  times  a 
separate  table.  At  the  church  of  S.  Cross  is  a  beautiful 
specimen,  rectangular  in  plan,  having  its  front  decorated 
with  panels,  and  the  stone  slab  supported  above  a  cornice 


enriched  with  flowers,  it  is  fixed  in  a  corner  so  that  only  two 
sides  are  exposed  ;  at  Fytield,  Berks,  is  another  specimen, 
semi-octagonal  in  plan,  supported  on  a  stem  of  similar  plan, 
but  of  smaller  dimensions  ;  the  sides  are  panelled  all  the 
way  up. 

CRENELLE,  the  embrasure  of  a  battlement,  sometimes 
applied  to  the  whole  battlement,  as  also  to  the  loopholes  and 
other  small  apertures  in  the  wall  of  a  fortress,  through  which 
missiles  were  discharged. 

CRESCENT,  an  ornament  used  by  the  Mahometans  in 
their  mosques. 

Crescent,  a  series  of  buildings,  disposed  in  the  arc  of 
a  circle,  which  is  either  the  half  circumference,  or  the  arc 
of  a  segment  less  than  the  half 

CRESILLA,  a  Grecian  sculptrix,  who  chiselled  seven 
statues  of  the  Amazons,  for  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
and  was  accounted  the  third  in  merit  among  the  numerous 
competitors  who  vied  in  decorating  that  famed  edifice — being 
only  inferior  to  Polycletus  and  Phidias. 

CRESSET,  an  open  metal  fjame  or  cage,  used  to  contain 
a  light  or  beacon-fire. 

CREST,  the  ornamental  finishing  at  the  summit  of  a 
structure,  consisting  of  battlements,  open  tracery,  finials  and 
crockets,  or  even  plain  coping. 

Crest-Tiles,  tiles  placed  along  the  ridge  of  a  roof  over- 
lapping on  both  sides  like  a  saddle  ;  they  are  sometimes 
plain,  and  at  others  ornamented,  moulded  in  the  form  of 
battlements,  Tudoi'-flowers,  crockets,  leaves,  &c. 

CREUX  (from  the  French)  a  term  in  sculpture,  implying 
a  hollow,  out  of  which  anything  has  been  scooped  ;  and 
hence  it  has  been  \ised  to  denote  that  kind  of  sculpture 
and  graving,  where  the  lines  and  figures  are  cut  and  formed 
within  the  surface  carved  or  engraved  upon. 

There  is  no  word  in  the  English  language  that  answers 
to  this  idea,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  adopting  the  term. 
It  is  opposed  to  the  word  relievo,  where  the  lines  and  figures 
are  prominent,  and  project  without  the  surface. 

CRIB,  the  rack  or  manger  of  a  stable,  or  the  stall  or 
cabin  of  an  o.\.  It  is  also  used  for  any  small  habitation, 
as  a  cottage. 

CROCKET  (from  the  French,  croc,  a  hook,  or  fork)  an 
ornament  used  to  decorate  or  finish  the  raking  arrises  of 
parts  of  Gothic  buildings,  such  as  spires,  pinnacles,  gables, 
canopies,  &c.  ;  consisting  of  projecting  leaves,  flowers, 
or  knops  of  foliage,  and  terminating  usually  in  a  larger 
ornament  or  bunch  of  flowers  or  leaves  at  the  siunmit,  called 
a  finial.  Sometimes  they  are  used  in  vertical  lines,  as  at 
the  cathadral,  Lincoln,  where  they  mn  up  the  mullions  of 
the  tower  window.  Crockets  of  the  Eai-ly  English  style  are 
often  simple  trefoil  leaves,  and  sometimes  bunches  of  such 
leaves,  placed  at  considerable  intervals,  and  curled  backwanis, 
in  a  similar  manner  to  the  head  of  a  bishop's  pastoral  staft": 
early  specimens  are  to  be  seen  at  Salisbury  and  Wells 
cathedraN,  but  the  simplest  example  exists  at  Lincoln,  which 
exhibits  a  simple  curve,  curling  round  downwards.  In  the 
Decorated  period,  the  leaves  were  usually  continued  for  some 
distance  attached  to  the  moulding,  and  curled  upwards 
towards  the  extremity,  sometimes  the  extreme  point  was 
turned  up  ;  a  similar  form  prevailed  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  but  they  are  sometimes  merely  flat  square  leaves  united 
to  the  moulding  by  the  stalk  and  one  edge.  In  some  eases 
we  meet  witli  animals  in  the  place  of  crockets,  as  ou  the 
flying  buttresses  of  Henry  YH.'s  chapel,  Westminster,  and 
the  gables  of  the  hull  at  Hampton  Court;  on  the  tomb  of 
Archbishop  Kempe,  Canterbury,  we  find  swans,  and  on  that 
of  Bishop  Bingham,  Salisbury,  angels  are  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 


CKO 


21£ 


C  li  O 


CROISSANTE  CROIX,  having  a  crescent  or  halfmoon, 
fixed  to  each  end  thereof. 

CKOKET.     See  Crocket. 

ClvONACA,  SIMONE,  a  Florentine  architect,  born  in 
the  year  1454.  This  artist  travelled  to  Rome,  and  other 
cities  of  Italy,  in  order  to  take  accurate  admeasurements  of 
the  ancient  edifices.  When  he  returned  to  Florence,  he 
accjuirod  considerable  reputation,  and  was  employed  to  finish 
the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  which  was  bcsjun  by  Benedetto  da 
Maiano.  Among  his  other  works  in  this  city,  are  the  sacristy 
of  the  church  of  Santo  Sjiirito,  and  the  cimnh  of  S.  Fian- 
cesco  del  OHervanza,  at  S.  Mini:ito,  in  the  suburbs  of  the 
city.  lie  died  in  tlie  year  1509,  and  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  8.  Ambrozio  Vasari. 

CROOKED  LINE,  one  tliat  cannot  have  a  tangent  on 
any  point  to  the  two  adjacent  parts  of  the  line  on  each  side 
of  tlio  point  of  contact.    ■ 

CiiOSETTES,  in  the  decorations  of  apertures,  the  trusses 
or  consoles  on  the  flanks  of  the  architrave,  under  the  cor- 
nice ;  they  are  otherwise  named  ears,  elboios,  ancones,  or 
profhi/riJes. 

CROSIER,  a  bishop's  staff;  it  was  originally  a  plain  rod 
with  a  cross-head  at  its  summit,  and  subsequently  with  a 
curved  top  similar  to  a  shepherd's  crook.  Crosiers  were 
sometimes  of  a  very  costly  description,  being  formed  of  gold 
or  silver,  engraved,  enamelled,  and  inlaid  with  jewels  and 
precious  stones.  A  good  specimen  is  that  of  William  of 
\V\  keham,  preserved  at  New  College,  Oxford.  The  crosier 
ol'  an  archbishop  is  surmounted  by  a  cross,  and  that  of  a 
primate  or  patriarch  by  a  double  cross. 

CROSS,  a  figure  consisting  of  four  branches,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other:  or  a  geometrical  figure,  consisting  of 
five  rectangles,  each  side  of  one  angle  being  common  with 
one  side  of  each  the  other  four. 

The  cross,  as  the  most  prevalent  symbol  of  the  Christian 
religion,  was  often  introduced  into  their  architecture.  Their 
churches,  more  especially  the  larger  ones,  were  frequently- 
built  on  a  cross  plan,  and  were  decorated  internally  and  exter- 
nally with  this  symbol;  crosses  ot  a  highly  decorative  cha- 
racter and  beautiful  design  were  often  affixed  to  the  apex  of 
gables,  and  in  the  interior  were  depicted  on  the  walls ; 
a  large  ornamental  cross,  usually  of  wood,  called  the  rood,  was 
set  above  the  screen,  which  separates  nave  and  chancel,  and  a 
small  one  of  metal,  enriched  with  jewels,  &c.,  on  the  altar. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cruciform  plans  used  in  ecclesiastical 
buildings  ;  one,  in  which  all  the  five  rectangles  are  equal ;  or, 
in  which  each  of  the  four  wings  is  equal  to  the  middle  part 
lormed  by  the  intersection,  is  called  a  Greek  cross.  The 
o;her,  in  which  only  two  opposite  wings  are  equal,  and  in 
whi.-h  the  other  two  are  unequal,  and  the  three  rectangles 
in  the  direction  of  the  unequal  parts  of  greater  length  than 
thj  three  parts  in  the  direction  of  the  equal  parts,  is  called 
a  Latin  cross,  the  middle  part  in  each  direction  being 
conituon. 

Stone  crosses  were  erected  in  front  of  the  entrance  to  the 
church,  and  these  consisted  of  a  tall  shaft  raised  on  one  or 
moru  steps,  and  surmounted  by  an  ornamental  cross  ;  the  shaft 
was  usually  of  a  simple  character,  but  sometimes  enriched 
with  sculpture.  Besides  these,  there  were  boundary,  memo- 
rial, sepulchral,  preaching,  and  market  crosses. 

Boundary-crosses  were  of  a  very  simple  character,  being 
usually  merely  upright  stones  ornamented  with  some  simple 
sculpture;  memorial  crosses  Were  of  a  like  plain  description, 
there  is  a  specimen  at  Bloiv-heath,  Staflbrdshire.  The  crosses 
erected  by  king  Edward  I.  at  the  places  where  the  corpse  of 
his  qu.-en  Ele:inor  was  rested  during  its  progress  from  Lin- 
colnshire to  Westminster  for  interment,  would  probably  come 


under  this  head,  but  if  so,  they  are  of  a  very  different  descrl p. 
tion  to  the  majority.  Out  of  fifteen  of  these  originally  existing, 
only  three  now  remain,  at  Geddington,  Northampton,  and 
Waltham  :  of  tliose  now  destroyed,  five  are  known  to  have 
been  erected  at  the  following  places.  Lincoln,  Stamford, 
Dunstable,  St.  Alban's,  and  Charing.  They  were  very  ela- 
borate structures,  consisting  of  several  stories  of  multangular 
plans,  each  story  being  somewhat  smaller  than  the  one  below 
it,  so  as  to  give  the  erection  a  pyramidal  form,  having  the 
apex  surmounted  by  a  cross,  and  the  whole  enriched  with 
sculpture,  statuary,  &c ;  that  at  Waltham  consists  of  three 
stories,  and  is  hexagonal  in  plan,  the  lower  stoiy  is  richly 
panelled,  the  second  canopied,  containing  statues  of  the 
queen,  the  third  panelled,  similarly  to  the  lowest,  and  the 
whole  finished  at  the  top  with  a  decorative  cross. 

The  preaching-cross  was  a  covered  pulpit  usually  erected  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  church,  the  most  noted  is  that  of  St.  Paul,  Lon- 
don, which  was  an  erection  of  wood  raised  on  steps,  and  covered 
with  a  canopy  ;  it  was  octagonal  in  plan,  closed  in  on  all  sides, 
with  the  exception  of  the  entrance  and  the  aperture,  through 
which  the  preacher  addressed  the  people.  Specimens  of  this 
class  exist  at  Hereford,  Iron  Acton,  Gloucestershire,  and 
Holbeach,  Lincolnshire. 

Market-crosses  seem  to  have  been  originally  of  a  similar 
form  to  those  of  Queen  Eleanor,  but  having  open  arches  at 
the  sides  in  the  lowest  story.  In  the  later  and  more  general 
form,  the  plan  of  the  basement  was  considerably  extended, 
so  as  to  present  a  space  of  considerable  size  covered  with  a 
vaulted  roof,  and  having  a  central  pillar  or  pier  to  support 
the  superstructure,  which  at  the  same  time  was  much  reduced 
in  height;  the  shape  of  the  original  plan  was  preserved,  the 
only  difl'erence  being  in  its  size ;  thus  the  market-cross  at 
Leighton  Buzzard,  Bedfordshire,  is  pentagonal,  that  at  Sails- 
bury,  hexagonal,  and  that  at  Malmsbury,  which  is  a  beautilul 
specimen,  hexagonal.  Other  market-crosses  exist  at  Win- 
chester, Cheddar,  and  Chichester,  and  there  were  two  excel- 
lent ones  at  Coventry  and  Glastonbury.  They  served  to 
shelter  the  people  attending  market  from  heat  and  rain. 

The  cross  at  Chichester  is  the  most  beautiful  specimen  of 
the  kind.  It  is  supported  on  eight  buttresses  and  a  central 
column,  from  which  issue  a  number  of  ribs  dividing  the  vaulted 
roof:  between  the  buttresses  are  eight  arches  moulded, 
and  surmounted  by  an  ogee  canopy,  which  is  crocketed, 
the  finial  supporting  a  pinnacle ;  the  spandrels  of  the  canopy 
are  richly  panelled,  as  are  also  the  walls  above,  the  whole 
being  finished  by  a  panelled  parapet.  The  buttresses  termi- 
nate in  crocketed  pinnacles.  The  structure  is  covered  exter- 
nally by  an  ogee  cupola,  crocketed  ribs  springing  from  each 
of  the  buttresses  at  the  angles,  and  the  whole  is  surmounted 
by  a  small  octangular  turret  pierced  with  eight  arches,  and 
otherwise  elaljorately  ornamented. 

Crosses  of  a  simple  character  were  originally  erected  at  the 
entrance  of  towns  and  villages,  at  the  intersection  of  cross- 
roads and  sides  of  highways,  to  arrest  the  attention  of  tra- 
vellers, and  excite  their  devotion. 

Cross-banded,  in  hand-railing,  is  when  a  veneer  is  laid 
upon  the  upper  side  of  the  rail,  with  the  grain  of  the  wood 
crossing  that  of  the  lail,  and  the  extension  of  the  veneer  in 
the  direction  of  its  fibres  less  than  the  breadth  of  the  rail. 

Cross  Garnets,  hinges,  with  a  long  strap,  which  is  fixed 
to  the  closure  of  the  aperture,  and  with  a  cross  part  on  the 
other  side  of  the  knuckle,  which  is  fastened  to  the  joint. 

Cross-grained  Stiff,  wood  with  its  fibres  in  contrary 
directions  to  the  surface,  and  which  therefore  caiuiot  be  made 
perfectlv  smooth  by  the  operation  of  the  plane,  without  cither 
turning  the  plane  or  the  stuff.  This  most  frequently  arises 
from  a  twisted  disposition  of  the  fibres  in  the  act  of  growing. 


~:^- 


CRO 


214 


CRO 


Cross  ^rin,Tii>Lic.\TiON,  a  term  used  by  artificers  for  the 
peculiar  aiilliiiietiea!  process  employed  in  llie  mensuration  of 
their  work.  Cross  imilliplieation  and  duodecimals  are  gene- 
rally confounded  together  as  being  synonymous  expressions  ; 
but  the  order  of  perforniiiig  their  operations  is  materially 
ditferent.  In  cross  multiplication,  the  parts  are  actually  mul- 
tiplied crosswise,  as  well  as  in  direct  order,  and  the  terms  of 
each  factor  are  confined  to  feet  and  inches;  whereas,  in 
duodecimals,  the  terms  of  e.ich  of  the  foetors  are  not  confined 
to  number,  and  the  parts  are  multiplied  in  the  order  of  com- 
mon multiplication. 

The  rule  in  cross  multiplication  is  as  follows  :  Write  the 
given  numl)ers,  as  in  addition.  The  sum  of  the  products  of 
the  alternate  parts,  and  the  product  of  each  pair  of  parts  in 
each  denomination,  will  be  the  product  of  the  whole.  It 
must  be  remembered,  that 

Feet  multiplied  by  feet  give  feet. 
Feet  multi|)lied  l)y  inches  give  inches. 
Feet  multiplied  bj'  seconds  give  seconds. 
Inches  multiplied  by  inches  give  seconds. 

The  method  of  performing  the  operation  will  be  seen  in 
the  following  examples. — What  is  the  area  of  a  board,  the 
length  of  which  is  25  feet  1 1  inches,  and  the  breadth  23  feet 
7  inches  I 

ft.  in. 
25  11 
23       7 


0 

6     5 

— . 

7     X    11 

14 

7 

= 

7     X   25 

21 

1 

= 

23  X    11 

575 

:= 

23   X   25 

611       2     5 

Required  the  product  of  58  feet  9  mches,  by  36  feet  6  inches, 
ft. 


58 
36 


m. 

9 

6 


0 

4     6 

=     6X9 

29 

=     58   X  6 

27 

=     36  X   9 

2088 

=     58   X  36 

2144    4     6 

The  following  method  is  another  form  of  cross  multipli- 
cation, discovered  by  ilr.  P.  Nicholson,  in  which  side  oper- 
ations are  unnecessary,  and  consequently,  as  a  part  of  the 
work,  must  either  be  wrought  on  the  margin,  as  above,  or  in 
the  mind  :  the  work,  by  the  method  proposed,  will  be  shorter 
than  the  above,  or  less  liable  to  mistake,  if  the  side  operations 
be  not  used.     The  rule  is  thus  : 

Multi))ly  the  inches  together,  and  the  product  is  seconds; 
divide  the  product  by  12,  if  so  divisible,  the  quotient  is 
inches,  and  the  remainder  seconds ;  then,  placing  the  feet 
and  the'iuches  in  their  respective  order,  one  after  the  other, 
set  the  products  of  the  two  cross  parts  in  inches,  under  the 
inches  of  the  former  quotient ;  add  the  three  numbers  toge- 
ther, and  divide  their  sum  by  12.  the  quotient  will  be  feet, 
and  the  remainder  inches;  multiply  the  feet  of  the  multiplier 
by  the  feet  of  the  multiplicand,  an.l  place  the  products  inider 
the  feet  of  the  last  division,  then  the  sum  of  these  products 
will  be  the  number  of  feet  in  the  whole  contents,  and  the 
remainders  of  inches   and   seconds,  if  any,  the  parts  which 


are  required  to  complete  the  whole  product.  We  shall  take 
the  two  former  examples,  and  the  one  method  will  be  the  best 
proof  of  the  truth  of  the  other. 


First  Example. 

Second  Example 

ft.      in. 

ft.      in 

25     11 

58     9 

23       7 

36     6 

6 

5 

4 

6 

175 

348 

253 

324 

12)434 

2 

12)676 

36 

56 

4 

75 

348 

50 

174 

611 

2     5 

2144 

4     6 

By  this  means,  the  whole  is  performed  in  one  operation, 
without  laying  any  stress  on  the  memory,  and  will  therefore 
be  particularly  useful  to  those  who  have  not  sufiicient  prac- 
tice to  fi.x  the  products  and  quotients  of  small  numbers  on 
their  memory:  and  it  is  the  shortest  method  of  the  two,  if 
the  number  of  marginal  figures  be  counted  into  the  work 
of  the  former  method  of  operation. 

In  duodecimals  the  process  is  as  follows:  beginning  with 
the  last  term,  or  the  farthest  from  the  left-hand  in  the  multi- 
plier, multiply  by  it  each  term  of  the  multiplicand  from  the 
right-hand  to  the  left,  carrying  one  for  every  twelve  to  each 
successive  product,  but  the  denominations  must  not  be  car- 
ried farther  than  the  place  of  feet  ;  again,  multiply  all  the 
terms  of  the  multiplicand,  hy  each  successive  term  towards 
the  left  of  the  multiplier ;  then  place  the  products  one  under 
the  other,  with  the  first  term  of  every  product  on  the  left, 
under  the  second  term  of  the  product  of  the  horizontal  row 
immediately  above  ;  then  add  the  similar  denominations  of 
each  product  :  the  sum  will  be  the  whole  product.  Observe, 
in  the  first  place,  to  put  the  highest  denomination,  viz., 
the  feet,  under  the  first  term  on  the  left  of  the  multiplicand, 
and  the  terms  of  the  product  under  each  respective  term  of 
the  multiplicand  will  be  of  the  same  denomination  with 
each  other. 

Example. — Suppose,  again,  it  were  required  to  multiply 
25  feet  11  inches  hy  23  feet  7  inches,  by  duodecimals. 

11    X    7   =     77 


25 

11 

23 

7 

15 

1 

5 

596 

1 

611     2    5 


25   X   7 

= 

0     5 
175 

181 

11    X   23 

15     1    =^ 
253 

25   X     3 
25  X  20 

21     1    = 
75 
500 

596 

Cross  multiplication  is  much  better  adapted  to  finding  the 
superficial  contents  of  a  piece  of  work,  where  there  .<ire  only 


CIJO 


215 


CKY 


tun  terms  in  each  factor,  and  where  the  feet  of  the  multiplier 
iini  to  a  high  nnmlnr,  as  well  as  the  feet  of  the  multipli- 
caiiil,  and  more  partieiihirly  the  second  mode  of  cross  multi- 
plication ;  as  in  duodecimals,  the  calculator  must  cither 
liave  a  very  good  memory  to  require  no  marginal  work,  or 
otherwise  the  quantity  of  marginal  operations  will  exceed 
iliat  of  the  principal  work.  Artificers  and  measurers  never 
take  any  account  of  denominations  less  than  inches,  except 
in  glazier's  work,  and  hence  cross  multiplication  is  almost  the 
only  useful  method  of  finding  the  contents;  but  where  more 
denoniiiialions  are  concerned,  recourse  must  be  had  to  duode- 
cimals or  decimals,  as  when  the  terms  of  each  factor  are  more 
than  two,  cross  multiplication  cannot  be  applied. 

When  the  terms  of  tlie  multiplier  are  under  10,  the 
operation  will  be  exceedingly  easy,  as  the  following  example 
will  show. 

Kxxuiiple. — Multiply  8  feet,  3  inches,  5  seconds,  and  7  thirds, 
by  5  feet,  4  inches,  9  seconds,  and  6  thirds. 


ft.  in.    ii     iii 
8     3     5     7 

5     4 


9     6 


4     18     9     6 
6     2     7     2     3 
2     9     1   10     4 
41     5     3  11 

44     9     0     6     3     0     6 


It  will  be  perceived  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
cross  multiplication  and  duodecimals,  and  the  purposes  to 
which  each  may  be  most  advantageously  applied  ;  but  the 
reader  who  ■wishes  for  farther  information  on  this  subject, 
may  have  i-ecourse  to  the  articles  Decim.\ls,  Duodecimals, 
and  PiiACTiCE. 

Cross  Sprikoers,  in  groins  of  the  pointed  style,  are  the 
ribs  that  spring  from  one  diagonal  pier  to  the  other. 

Cross  Vaulting,  a  vault  tbrmed  by  the  intersection  of 
two  or  more  simple  vaults.  Wheu  each  of  the  simple  vaults 
rises  from  the  same  level  to  the  same  height,  the  cross  vault- 
ing is  denominated  a  groin;  but  when  one  of  two  simple 
vaults,  in  cross  vaulting,  is  below  the  other,  the  intersection 
is  simply  demominated  an  arch  of  that  particular  species 
wliicli  expresses  both  the  simple  arches  ;  thus  if  one  cylinder 
pierce  another  of  greater  altitude,  the  arch  so  formed  is  called 
a  ci/liiu/ro-cylindric  arch  ;  and  if  the  portion  of  a  cylinder 
pierce  a  sphere  of  greater  altitude  than  the  cylinder,  the  arch 
is  denominated  a  spliero-cyUiidric  arch  :  and  thus,  for  any 
other  species  of  arch  whatever,  the  part  of  the  qualifying 
word  which  ends  in  o,  denominates  the  simple  vault  which 
has  the  greater  altitude,  and  the  succeeding  part  the  other  of 
less  altitude. 

CROUDE,  a  suliterraneous  vault  or  crypt. 

CROW.  a  bar  of  iron,  used  in  bricklaying  and  quarrying. 

CROWN,  in  architecture,  the  uppermost  member  of  a  cor- 
nice, comprehendlni;  the  corona  and  its  superior  members. 

Crown  of  an  Arch,  the  most  elevated  line  or  point  that 
can  be  taken  on  its  surface. 

Crown,  in  geometry,  a  plane  ring,  the  surface  being  con- 
tained between  the  circumferences  of  two  concentric  circles. 

The  area  will  be  found  by  multiplying  half  the  sum  of  the 
two  circumferences  by  its  breadth;  for  it  is  easy  to  conceive, 
that  if  radiating  lines  be  equidistantly  drawn  indefinitely  near 
each  other,  the  whole  will  be  divided  into  truncated  isosceles 
triangles,  or  trapezoids,  whose  opposite  angles  are  equal  to 
two  right  angles;  then  the    broad  and  narrow  ends  beins; 


placed  alternately  in  a  straight  line,  and  the  sides  in  conti- 
guity with  each  other,  the  whole  will  form  a  rectangle,  whose 
length  is  equal  to  the  half  sum  of  the  two  circumferences, 
and  the  breadth  that  of  the  ring;  for  all  the  middle  breadths 
are  in  one  straight  line,  equal  to  the  length  of  the  rectangle. 
Examp/e. — Suppose  the  greater  circumference  of  a  crown 
to  be  24  feet  8  inches,  and  the  lesser  21  feet  6  inches,  and  the 
breadth  2  feet  9  inches,  required  the  superficial  content? 


cross  mult 

ft.    in. 
24    8 
21    6 

iplication. 

By  decimals. 

24.666  =  24f 
21.5       =  2l| 

2)46    2 

2)46.166 

23    1 
2    9 

23.083 

2.75  =  2f 

0 

207 

2 

9 
5 

115415 
161581 
46166 

12)209 
17 

63.47825  content  in  ft.  &  dec 
12 

46 

5.73900  inches 
12 

fi.^ 

.f;    Q 

8.868  seconds. 


See 


Crown    Glass,    the   finest   sort    of  window-glass, 
Glass. 

Crown-Post,  in  truss-roofing,  the  truss-post,  which  is 
placed  between  a  pair  of  principal  rafters,  or  depending  fiom 
the  summit  of  the  principals,  in  order  to  support  braces  or 
struts  for  sustaining  the  intermediate  bearing  of  the  princi- 
pals, or  keeping  them  from  being  bent  by  the  weight  of  the 
coverini;.  It  is  otherwise  called  king-post  and  joggle-pnst.  See 
Post  and  Truss-Post. 

CROWNING,  in  general,  the  part  that  terminates  any 
piece  of  architecture.  Thus  the  cornice,  a  pediment,  acroteria, 
&c.,  are  called  crownings. 

CRUCIFIX,  a  cross  with  a  figure  or  representation  of 
S.  Saviour  crucified,  affixed  to  it. 

CRYPT,  according  to  Vitruvius,  the  under  part  of  a  build- 
ing, answering  nearly  to  our  cellar. 

The  term  is  more  particularly  applied  to  a  vaulted  apart;- 
ment  beneath  a  church,  either  entirely,  or  partly  under 
ground.  Crypts  owe  their  origin  to  the  circumstance  of  the 
early  Christians  being  compelled,  for  the  sake  of  secresy  and 
concealment,  to  perform  their  sacred  services  in  caves  and 
subterraneous  places,  some  of  which  are  still  pointed  out  at 
Rome.  Crypts  are  not  unfrequent,  especially  under  large 
churches,  they  seldom,  however,  extend  the  whole  length  of 
the  church,  being  usually  confined  to  the  choir  or  chancel, 
and  sometimes  not  extending  so  fir  as  this:  they  are  usually 
low  and  massive,  of  an  earlier  and  plainer  style  than  the 
superstructure.  Many  crypts  are  claimed  as  belonging  to  the 
Saxon  style,  as  those  of  Lastingham  Church,  Yorkshire;- 
S.  Peter's,  Oxford  ;  Repton Church,  Derbyshire;  and  portions 
of  those  of  many  of  our  cathedrals. 

Crypts  were  formerly  used  for  service,  and  accordingly  are 
provided  with  altars  and  other  furniture  requisite  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  most  extensive  building  of  this  kind  is  that  inider 
Canterbury  Cathedral,  which  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Britton  • 


C  V  B 


216 


CUB 


"  Liki!  tho-ie  at  Winchester,  the  crypts  of  Canterbury  Cathe- 
dral appear  to  have  been  built  at  dillerent  times.  Tiielr 
eastern  termination  is  semicircular  ;  which  fijrm  has  been 
also  observed  in  the  small  lateral  chixpels.  The  interior  lenijth 
of  the  Canterbury  crypts  is  286  feet  6  inches.  The  age  of  the 
oldest  part  has  long  been  the  subject  of  controver.sy ;  but  from 
its  similarity  to  the  crypt  at  Oxford,  it  may  be  regarded  as 
contemporaneous  with  that;  it  was  most  probably  the  work 
of  Lafrauc,  about  a.d.  1080.  The  larger,  or  western  crypt, 
is  divided  into  a  nave  and  four  aisles,  by  two  rows  of  massive 
piers,  and  by  a  double  range  of  small  columns;  whilst  the 
piers  and  walls  of  the  aisles  h;ive  semi-columns  to  support  the 
vaulting.  Branching  latiMally  from  each  aisle  is  a  vaidt  or 
clia|iel  ;  that  on  the  south  side,  the  vaidting  of  which  is 
adorned  with  many  ribs,  bears  evident  marks  of  innovation, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  converted  into  a  chantry  chapel 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  whose  arms  are  seen  among  its 
ornaments.  Towards  the  eastern  end  of  this  crypt  was  a 
chapel,  inclosed  with  screen-work,  and  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Virgin.  The  crypt  under  the  Trinity  Chapel,  or  east  end 
of  the  cathedral,  is  singular  in  form  and  character.  Its  plan 
assumes  the  figure  of  an  horseshoe;  and  is  divided  into  a 
nave  and  aisles  by  a  series  of  eight  piers,  each  formed  of  two 
columns,  engaged  about  one-quarter  of  their  diameter,  sup- 
porting four  semicircular  and  five  pointed  arches,  their 
respective  forms  being  induenccid  by  the  width  of  the  inter- 
columniations.  In  its  central  division,  or  nave,  are  two  small 
insulated  shafts,  with  large  capitals  and  bases  to  support  the 
ribbed  groining,  which  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
western  crypt  by  cross-springers  and  bold  mouldings.  At  the 
eastern  extremity  is  a  small  vaulted  chamber,  forming  the  ter- 
mination of  these  interesting  apartments." 

Amongst  the  smaller  examples,  may  be  noticed  that  of 
Hythe,  Kent,  and  those  of  Kepton,  and  St.  Peter's  in  the 
East,  O.vford,  before-mentioned. 

Crvi'to-Porticus,  a  subterraneous  passage,  as  the  original 
word  implies.  If  we  may  judge  (says  Winckelman)  from  the 
remains  of  antique  edifices,  particularly  those  of  the  Villa 
Adriani,  at  Tivoli,  we  might  be  led  to  believe  that  the  an- 
cients preferred  darkness  to  light:  for,  in  fact,  we  find  scarcely 
any  chamber  or  vault  among  these  ruined  edifices,  which  has 
any  appearance  of  windows.  It  seems  probable,  that  in  some, 
tlie  light  was  only  admitteil  through  an  opening  in  the  middle 
o(  the  vault,  but  as  the  vaults  are  generally  fallen,  this  point 
cannot  be  ascertained.  The  inhabitants  of  Italy  are  naturally 
attached  to  the  shade  and  coolness  of  half  lighted  apartments. 
The  long  galleries  of  the  Villa  .Vdriani,  which  are  undoubtedly 
crypto-porlicos,  receive  a  feeble  light  at  each  end,  from  em- 
bracing near  the  ceiling. 

The  term  crypto-porticns  was,  however,  applied,  in  course 
of  time,  to  apartments  similar  to  our  galleries. 

We  find,  in  Pliny's  description  of  his  house  at  Laurontium, 
that  the  crypto-porticus  hail  windows  on  each  side,  looking 
towards  the  sea,  and  upon  his  garden  ;  also  other  w'iudows 
over  these.  When  the  weather  was  cold,  they  were  shut  on 
the  side  that  sheltered  them  from  the  wind,  but  in  warm  and 
serene  weather  they  were  all  set  wide  open. 

CUHATUllE,  or  CuBATioN',  of  a  solid,  the  solid  contents 
according  to  any  common  measure,  as  a  solid  inch,  foot,  yard, 
&c.,  which  is  called  the  measuring  unit.  The  cubature  is  the 
"sarao  in  respect  to  the  contents  of  a  solid,  as  the  qnailrature 
is  in  respect  of  a  superficies. 

There  is  one  general  rule  that  will  apply  to  finding  the 
cubation  of  nearly  all  the  regular  solids  as  entire  bodies,  or 
to  their  frustums  or  segments,  viz.  ''to  ft)ur  times  the  area 
of  the  miildle  section  add  the  area  of  each  end;  multiply 
one-sixth   of  this    sum    (which  is  the  mean    area)    by    the 


distance  between  the  ends,  and  the  product  will  give  the 
Content  of  the  solid." 

This  rule  has  been  applied  to  three  particular  cases,  viz., 
in  the  prismoid,  cask  measuring,  and  the  frustum  of  the 
hyperboloid  ;  it  has  also  been  demonstrated  rather  as  a 
theoretical  curiosity,  than  as  a  practical  rule,  at  the  end  of 
Dr.  Hutton's  Mensuration,  applied  to  solids  generated  from 
conic  sections. 

This  rule,  however,  applies  to  solids  in  general,  and  com- 
prehends the  whole  of  mensuration  in  its  principle  ;  though 
such  an  extension  has  never  been  noticed  by  any  writer 
on  the  subject,  yet  it  cannot  fiil  to  be  of  the  utmost  use  in 
assisting  the  memory  ;  for  when  particular  rules  are  forgotten, 
this  general  one  may  be  easily  remembered.  It  will  apply 
with  accuracy  to  prisms,  pyramids,  prismoids,  cones,  conoids, 
cuneoids,  spheres,  spheroids,  and  to  all  their  segments  and 
frustums,  cut  by  planes  parallel  to  their  axes. 

Some  may  object,  however,  by  saying  it  is  not  easy  to 
come  at  the  dimensions  of  the  middle  section  ;  but  in  straight 
solids  these  will  be  very  readily  ascertained,  by  taking  half 
the  sum  of  the  two  ends;  in  complete  spheres  and  spho-oids, 
the  middle  dimension  is  absolutely  given.  In  the  hyperboloid 
and  its  frustums,  the  dimensions  of  the  middle  section  is 
much  easier  obtained  than  either  the  transverse  or  conjugate 
diameters,  one  of  which,  or  both,  it  would  otherwise  be 
necessary  to  have.  In  the  paraboloid  and  its  frustums,  the 
middle  area  is  half  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  two  ends.  The 
reader  who  is  desirous  of  seeing  the  application  of  this 
general  rule,  may  consult  the  article  Solid. 

CUBE  (from  KViSog,  teisera,  die)  a  solid,  bounded  by  six 
squares  ;  it  is  otherwise  called  a  hexahedron,  from  its  six  sides. 
Its  simple  properties  are,  that  its  sides  are  all  equal  and  at 
right  angles  with  each  other:  it  has  also  its  opposite  sides 
parallel  to  each  other.  The  cube  may  be  conceived  to  be 
generated  by  a  square  figure  along  a  right  line,  of  eipial  length 
to  the  side  of  the  square,  and  perpendicul.ir  to  the  plane. 
From  its  construction,  it  is  evident  that  all  sections  of  the 
solid,  parallel  to  any  side,  are  equal. 

The  envelope,  rete,  or  net,  m.ay  be  thus  constructed  :  Draw 
two  lines,  A  D  and  a  b,  at  a  right  angle  with  each  other; 
make  a  n  equal  to  the  side  of  one  of  the  squares,  and  a  d 
equal  to  four  times  a  u,  marking  the  points  of  divisicHj, 
E  G  I ;  draw  b  c  parallel  to  a  d,  and  d  c  parallel  to  a  b, 
parallel  to  which  also  draw  ef,  Git,iK,  cutting  bc  at  f,  n,  k: 
produce  e  f  and  g  ii  on  both  sides,  to  l  and  m  on  the  one  side, 
and  N  and  o  on  the  other,  making  e  l,  g  m,  f  n,  ii  o,  each  equal 
to  E  p,  and  join  l  m  and  n  o  ;  this  will  complete  the  envelope 
required. 

Hence  the  superficies  of  a  cube  is  fjun  1  by  multiplying 
tlie  area  of  one  of  its  sides  by  6. 

The  solidity  of  a  cube  is  found  by  multiplying  the  area  of 
one  of  its  squares  by  one  of  the  lineal  sides  of  a  square. 
Hence  if  one  lineal  side  Ix!  10,  the  solidity  will  be  1,000; 
and  if  13,  it  will  be  1728;  wherefore  a  cubic  perch  contains 
1.000  cubic  feet,  and  a  eulsic  foot  of  1728  cubic'  inches. 

Cubes  are  to  one  another  in  the  triplicate  ratio  of  their 
lineal  sides. 

CUBIC  NUMBER,  one  which  arises  by  multiplying  two 
equal  numbers,  and  the  product  again  bv  another  equal 
number:  thus,  12  X  12  =  144,  and  144  X  12  =  1728. 

CUBICLE,  a  bed-chamber.  See  Chamber,  and  the  next 
word. 

CUBICULUM,  among  the  Romans  ^  bed-eliamlior.  This 
name  was  also  given  to  the  balcony  or  logia,  in  which  the 
emperors  were  placed  at  the  public  games. 

CUBIT,  a  lineal  measure  used  by  the  ancients,  p.articularly 
by  the  Ilebrew^s,  taken  from  th:it  part  of  a  man's  arm  between 


CUR 


217 


CUR 


tlu'  elbow  and  tip  of  the  hand.  The  English  cubit  may  be 
fdculated  at  18  inches,  the  Raman  at  17.406,  and  the  Hebrew 
at  Sl.f^SS  inches. 

CUL-DE-FOUR.  or  Ca-DE-FonR,  a  sort  of  low  spherical 
vault,  ovenlike.  This  is  the  deliiiition  generally  given  ;  but 
this  term,  as  also  the  following,  are  altogether  void  of  specific 
meaning.  As  they  define  nothing,  we  have  only  retained 
them  as  being  found  in  all  large  encyeiopicdias  and  builder's 
dictionaries,  in  order  that  our  architectural  nomenclature 
should  not  be  thought  deficient.  What  is  miiint  by  a  low 
spherical  roof?  Is  it  a  segment  less  than  a  hemisphere? 
Where  is  the  similarity  between  an  oven  and  a  spherical 
surface  ?      Is  not  the  latter  defniite,  but  the  foimer  indefinite  ? 

CuL-DE-FoiR  OF  A  NiCHE,  denotes  the  arched  roofs  of  a 
niche  on  a  circular  plan.  These  two  definitions  are  of  French 
origin. 

There  may  be  many  forms  of  arched  roofs  or  heads,  on  a 
circular  plan  ;  however,  the  probability  is,  that  it  is  either 
spherical  or  spheroidal,  terms  perfectly  specific,  unless  it  be 
in  the  quantity  or  portion  of  the  surface  employed. 

CULMEX,  in  ancient  Konian  carpentry-,  answers  to  what 
we  denominate  the  ridge-piece  of  a  roof. 

CULVERT,  an  arched  drain  for  conveying  rills  and  brooks 
of  water  under  canals  or  roads,  from  the  higher  level  on  one 
side,  to  the  lower  level  on  the  other  side  of  the  canal  or  road. 

They  are  also  employed  for  discharging  the  rain-water  out  of 
hollows  on  the  upper  side  of  a  canal.  When  such  a  drain 
or  water-passage  has  a  descent,  so  as  to  make  it  lower  in  the 
middle,  it  is  said  to  he  broken-backed. 

CUNEUS,  one  of  the  mechanical  powers.     See  Wedge. 

CuNEUs,  in  Roman  antiquity,  that  part  of  the  theatre  where 
the  spectators  sat,  which  was  so  named  on  account  of  its 
resemblance  to  a  wedge.  This  form  became  necessary  on 
account  of  the  elliptic  figure  of  the  edifice,  and  of  the  stair- 
eases  and  doors,  which  were  fixed  in  radial  directions,  and 
divided  the  seats  into  wedge-form  compartments. 

CUPBOARD,  a  recess  in  a  wall,  fitted  up  with  shelves, 
to  contain  articles  when  not  in  use. 

CUPOLA,  a  roof  or  vault,  rising  in  a  circular  or 
elliptic  curve,  from  a  circular,  elliptic,  or  polygonal  plan,  to 
its  summit,  with  its  concavity  towards  the  plan,  the  interior 
or  exterior  surfaces  being  such,  that  every  horizontal  section, 
whether  the  one  or  the  other,  are  similar  figures.  A  cupola 
is  otherwise  termed  tholus,  or  dome.  See  the  latter  word  for 
its  history  and  properties. 

CURB,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  a  check  or  restraint. 

Curd  for  Brick  Steps,  a  timber  nosing  generally  of  oak, 
employed  not  only  to  prevent  the  steps  from  wearing,  but  also 
from  being  dislocated  or  put  out  of  their  places.  When  the 
steps  are  made  to  return,  the  curb  also  returns,  but  when 
they  profile  against  a  wall,  the  ends  of  the  curb  or  nosing- 
pieces,  house  at  each  end  into  the  wall. 

Curb  Plate,  a  circular  continued  plate,  either  scarfed 
together,  or  made  in  two  or  more  thicknesses.  The  wall- 
plate  of  a  circular  or  elliptically  ribbed  dome,  is  termed  a  curb 
plate,  as  also  the  horizontal  rib  at  the  top,  on  which  the 
vertical  ribs  terminate;  likewise  the  plate  of  a  skylight  or  a 
circular  frame  for  a  well. 

Curb  Plate,  also  the  horizontal  piece  of  timber  supported 


B  i 

:  B  A-,  or  c  /  :  :  s.B  ^:  2,  or  a  b  c 

c  / 

:  /  ni,  or  D  0  :   :  s.c  m  /,  or  m  c  n 

D  0 

:  op,  or  E  r  ;  :  s.n  p  o,  or  po  q 

E  r 

:  s  r,  OT  FU  :  :  s.e  s  r,  or  v  f  n 

Therefore,  b  i 

:                F  V  :  :  s.F  V  71,  or  V  F  w 
:  F  V  :  :  s.a  B  c  X  s.v  fuXs.vfw 

Therefore,  b  i  :  t  v  :  :      .   .'  °    .   .  ■ 

28 


by  the  upper  ends  of  the  lower  rafters,  for  receiving  the  feet 
of  the  upper  rafters,  in  a  curb  roof 

Curb  Rafters,  the  upper  rafters  on  both  sides  of  acurb  roof. 

Curb  Roof,  a  roof  formed  of  four  contiguous  planes,  of 
which  each  two  have  an  external  inclination,  the  ridge  being 
the  line  ofconcour.se  of  the  two  middle  planes,  and  the  highest 
of  the  three  lines  of  concourse.  This  construction  is  frt^quently 
denomin.atcd  a  Mansard  roof,  Mansard  being  the  name  of  its 
inventor.  It  is  very  well  adapted  to  a  house  surmounted  by 
a  parapet,  .so  high  as  to  cover  the  lower  plane  of  the  roof,  as 
it  gives  a  free  or  uninterrupted  space  from  the  level  of  its 
base  to  that  of  the  .summit  of  each  lower  plane,  or,  to  the 
base  of  the  two  upper  planes.  In  curb  roofing,  there  is  no 
danger  of  springing  the  walls  by  lateral  pressuie,  for  the 
distance  between  the  base  of  the  lower  sides  and  the  base  of 
the  upper  sides,  being  suftieieiitly  high  for  head-room,  ties 
can  always  be  fixed  in  these  two  situations,  which  will  prevent 
all  danger,  hideed,  if  the  four  sides  of  the  roof  be  properly 
balanced,  the  space  may  bo  made  a  complete  void  to  the  very 
ridge,  or  the  upper  part  may  be  thrown  into  a  cylindric  arch. 

A  curb  roof  has  great  advantages  over  a  common  roof,  on 
account  of  the  lower  rafters  pitching  almost  perpendicularly 
to  their  bases,  and  forming  very  nearly  a  continuation  of  the 
walls  :  whereas,  in  common  roofs,  the  great  inclination  of 
the  sides,  and  the  quantity  of  head-room  required,  diminishes 
the  space  for  lodging,  in  the  breadth  of  the  building  ;  in  most 
cases  there  will  be  a  loss  of  about  1.5  or  16  feet  at  least,  and 
consequently,  in  small  houses,  no  lodging-room  whatever. 

Cnrb  roofs  are  generally  lighted  from  dormer  windows  in 
the  lower  side. 

The  following  contains  the  theory  and  practice  of  curb 
roofing,  which  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  parts 
in  the  science  of  carpentry  : 

Proposition  ].  Figure  1.  The  position  of  several  rafters, 
a  B,  B  c,  c  D,  D  E,  &c.,  being  given  in  a  vertical  plane,  and 
movable  about  the  angular  points  b,  c,  d,  e,  &c.,  while  the 
points  a  and  g  remain  stationary  ;  it  is  required  to  find 
the  proportion  of  the  forces  at  the  angles,  so  that  the  raftei-s 
may  be  kept  in  equilibrio. 

Through  the  points  b,  c,  d,  &o.,  draw  the  vertical  lines  b  /, 
c  m,  D  ;j,  &c.,  the  direction  of  the  forces  ;  make  b  i  of  any 
indefinite  length,  and  complete  the  parallelogram  s  h  i  k  ; 
make  c  /  equal  b  k,  and  complete  the  parallelogram  c  I  mn. 
Proceed  in  this  manner  with  all  the  remaining  parallelograms, 
making  the  two  opposite  forces  in  the  direction  of  each  rafter 
equal,  and  the  diagonals  b  i,  c  m,  d  p,  &c.,  will  represent  the 
forces  required,  as  is  evident  from  the  construction.  Then, 
to  find  the  proportion  of  the  vi'eights  upon  any  two  angles, 
the  sine  of  any  angle  is  the  same  with  the  sine  of  its  supple- 
ment ;  therefore,  the  sine  of  the  angle  a  b  c  is  the  same  as 
the  sine  of  b  k  i,  and  the  sine  of  b  c  d  the  same  as  the  sine 
of  c  m  n  ;  likewise,  the  sine  of  the  angle  cm  I  is  equal  to  the 
sine  of  the  alternate  angle  m  c  «,  and  the  sine  of  the  angle 
D  ^  o  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  p  v  g  ;  moreover,  the 
sine  of  the  angle  i  b  k  is  eqnal  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  m  c  /, 
and  the  sine  of  the  angle  m  c  n  is  eqnal  to  the  sine  of  the 
angle  ]}  d  o,  and  so  on  :  then,  because  the  sides  of  the  triangle 
are  the  saine  as  the  sines  of  their  opposite  angles,  it  will  be 
by  trigonometry, 

:  s.B  i  k,  or  i  b  h. 
:  B.m  c  I,  or  i  b  k. 
:  B.p  D  o,  or  m  c  n. 
:  S.E  s  r,  OT  p  Dq. 
:  s.v  u  p,  or  e  f  o. 
:  S.i  B  /(  X  S  i  B  X-  X  S.E  F  o. 
S.EFO 
S.iB/iXS.iBi- ■    S.VFU  'K  S.VFW. 


CUR 


218 


CUR 


I'hat  is,  the  weights  on  any  two  angles  are  as  the  sines 
of  these  angles  directly,  and  reciprocally  as  the  product  of 
the  sines  of  the  two  parts  of  these  angles  formed  by  the 
vertical  lines. 

CoroUonj  1.  Hence  the  weights  on  any  two  angles  are  as 
the  sines  of  the  angles  directly,  and  as  the  produce  of  the 
co-sines  of  the  angles  of  elevation  reciprocally.  For,  draw 
B  H  perpendicular  to  b  i,  and  produce  i  b  and  a  b  to  i  and  k, 
then  will  the  angle  k  b  i,  equal  the  angle  h  b  i,  be  the  com- 
jilement  of  the  angle  h  bk,  viz..  the  complement  of  the  angle 
of  elevation  of  the  rafter  a  b  above  the  horizon  ;  and  because 
c  B  I  is  the  supplement  of  c  b  j,  the  angles  c  b  i  and  c  b  I  have 
the  sdlne  sine,  and  the  angle  c  b  i  is  the  complement  of  the 
angle  h  bc,  viz.  the  angle  of  elevation  of  the  rafter  b  c. 

Corullarij  2.  Ilence  also  the  weights  on  any  two  angles 
are  as  the  sines  of  the  angles  directly,  and  as  the  products 
of  the  secants  of  elevation  jointly  ;  for  the  secants  of  any  two 
angles  are  reciprocally  as  the  co-sines  of  these  angles. 

Corollary  3.  The  force  which  any  rafter  makes  in  its 
own  direction,  is  as  the  secant  of  its  elevation.  For,  make 
A  p  equal  to  n  h,  draw  the  lines  p  N,  k  H,  n  L,  &c.,  parallel 
to  the  vertical  lines  b  i,  c  /«,  &c.,  and  draw  a  n,  b  n,  cl,  &c., 
parallel  to  the  horizon  ;  then  because  the  angles  n  a  p,  h  b  A', 
L  c  II,  &c.,  are  the  angles  of  elevation,  and  a  n,  b  h,  c  l,  &c.. 
are  all  equal,  if  a  n,  b  ii,  c  l,  &c.,  be  considered  as  radii,  a  p, 
B  k,  c  n,  &c.,  arc  the  secants  of  elevation,  and  also  represent 
the  forces  on  the  rafters. 

Corollary  4.  Hence  the  horizontal  pressures  at  a  and  c 
are  equal ;  for  all  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  the  opposite 
angles  of  each  parallelogram  to  meet  the  vertical  diagonal, 
are  all  equal. 

Corollary  5.  Hence,  if  the  position  of  any  two  rafters, 
and  the  proportion  of  the  weights  be  given,  the  position  of 
the  remaining  rafters  may  be  determined. 

Corollary  6.  If  the  vertical  line  s  d  v  be  drawn,  the  hori- 
zontal line  a  V  G  and  the  lines  a  s,  A  r,  A  q,  a  t,  &c.  be  drawn 
parallel  to  the  rafters  A  b,  b  c,  c  d,  d  e,  &c.  meeting  the 
vertical  lines  in  s,  u,  Q,  T ;  then  will  a  s,  a  r,  a  q,  A  t,  repre- 
sent the  f  )rccs,  and  s  r,  r  Q,  q  t,  the  forces  upon  the  angles ; 
for  A  s,  A  R,  a  Q,  A  T,  &c.  are  the  secants  of  the  elevation,  and 
the  triangles  a  s  r,  a  r  q,  a  q  t,  are  all  similar  to  the  triangles 
h  B  /,  /  c  TO,  o  B  p,  &c. 

Corollary  7.  In  every  roof  kept  in  equilibrio  by  the  weight 

of  the  rafters,  if  u,  v,  w,  &c.  be  the  centres  of  gravity  of  the 

rafters,   and  also  represent  their  weights,  then    the  weight 

pressing  verticiilly  on  b,  will  be 

auXu     vcXv        ,  ,,          .  , ,             vbxv 
— — I ll-,  and  the  weight  on  c= 

AB  BC  BC 

■WDXW          j                      tt             auXu      vcXv 
-j ll_,   and    so    on.     Hence    — — — | 1^ — 


VB  X  V     wdXw 


BC  CD  s.hniXs.inK'  s./cwXs.toc/i 

Corollary  8.  Ilence,  if  the  rafters  be  prismatic  figures, 
the  weights  on  the  angles  d,  c,  d,  &c.  will  be  respectively 
as  a  B-fB  c,  B  c  +  c  D,  c  D-f n  E,  and  so  on. 

Proposilion  II.  Fiynre  2.  Given,  the  vertical  angle  of  a 
roof,  and  the  pro|xirtion  of  the  rafters  on  each  side  ;  to  describe 
the  J-oof  of  a  given  width,  so  that  it  shall  be  e<iuiIil)rio. 

Let  the  proportion  of  the  rafters  from  the  bottom,  upwards, 
be  as  4,  3,  2  : 

Then  4-f  3=7  represents  the  weight  on  o. 
3  +  2  =  5  represents  the  weight  on  h. 
and      2+2=4  represents  tne  weight  on  i. 
Now  let  F  B  E  be  half  the  given  angle,  produce  e  b  through 
c  to  D,  draw  f  a  m  perpendicular  to  e  d  cutting  e  d  at  a  ; 


make  a  e  equal  to  a  b,  and  join  e  f  ;  let  be  represent  the 
weight  on  the  vertical  angle  :  e  b,  b  c,  c  d,  to  one  another 
as  4,  5,  7  ;  join  f  d,  f  c,  f  e  ;  from  any  scale  of  e(|ual  parts 
make  f  g  =  7  ;  draw  o  ii  parallel  to  f  c,  equal  to  5  parts,  and 
n  1  parallel  to  f  b,  equal  to  4  parts,  and  the  contiguous!  ines 
F  o,  o  b,  ii  I,  will  be  similar  to  the  half  roof  The  other  half 
will  be  found  by  drawing  the  vertical  line  i  w,  and  ordinates 
perpendicular  thereto,  from  the  points  g  h,  to  l  and  k,  and 
making  the  distances  on  both  sides  of  i  n  equal.  Tin's  figure 
may  be  reduced  or  enlarged  to  any  given  width,  by  making 
a  similar  figure  upon  a  given  line. 

Proposition  III.  FiyiireS.  Tlic  angular  points  at  the  meet- 
ing of  every  two  rafters  of  a  roof  in  equilibrio,  by  equal  weights 
hung  at  the  angles,  in  directions  equidistant  from  each  other, 
are  in  the  curve  of  a  parabola. 

Let  abode,  &c.  be  kept  in  cquililirio,  by  equal  weights 
suspended  at  the  angular  points  b,  c,  d,  e,  &c.,  in  the  equi- 
distant directions  b  f,  c  g.  d  h,  e  i,  &c.,  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d, 
E,  &c.,  are  in  the  curve  of  a  parabola. 

For,  let  the  lines  b  f,  c  g,  d  h,  and  e  i,  meet  a  n  at  f,  o, 
a,  I :  draw  a  k  parallel  to  d  e,  a  l  parallel  to  c  d,  and  a  m 
parallel  to  b  c,  cutting  f  b  at  k,  l,  m.  Draw  b  q,  c  p,  d  o, 
parallel  to  a  n,  cutting  the  middle  line  i  E  at  Q.  P,  o. 

Then,  because  that  the  weights  on  the  angles  are  equal, 
F  K,  K  L,  L  M,  M  B,  are  as  the  numbers  1,  2,  2.  2,  therefore, 
f  K,  f  L,  F  M,  F  b,  are  as  the  odd  numbers  1,  3,  5,  7 ;  but 
because  of  the  equidistant  lines  b  f,  c  o,  d  h,  and  parallels 
D  o,  c  p,  B  Q,  the  triangles  afk,  afi.,afm,  are  respectively 
equal  and  similar  to  the  triangles  doe,  csd,  brc;  there- 
fore F  K  is  equal  to  o  e,  f  l  equal  to  s  d  equal  to  o  p,  r  m  equal 
to  R  c  equal  to  p  q,  and  lastly,  b  f  is  equal  to  q  i ;  therefore 
e  o,  o  p,  p  Q,  Q  I,  are  to  one  another  as  the  numbers  1,  3,  5,  7, 
and  E  o,  E  p,  E  Q,  E  I,  are  as  the  square  numbers  1,  4,  8,  16, 
but  the  lines  o  d,  p  c,  Q  b,  are  to  one  another  as  1,  2,  3,  4 ; 
therefore  the  abscissas  e  o,  e  p,  e  q,  e  i,  are  as  the  squares  of 
the  ordinates  o  d,  p  c,  q  b,  and  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  are  in 
the  curve  of  a  parabola. 

In  the  same  manner  it  may  be  shown  that  this  is  the  case, 
whatever  be  the  number  of  ordinates. 

Corollary.— Hence  a  roof  of  this  construction  may  bc 
described  to  any  given  height  and  vertical  angle,  or  to  a  given 
width  and  height  with  any  nimihcr  of  rafters  on  each  side. 

Example. — To  describe  a  roof  with  any  given  number  of 
rafters  on  each  side,  of  a  given  width  and  height,  so  that  all 
the  weights  suspended  from  the  angular  points  of  the  rafters 
in  vertical  equidistant  lines,  may  Ijeep  the  rafters  in  equi- 
librio. 

Figure  3. — Let  there  be  four  rafters  on  each  side,  let  i  n  be 
half  the  width,  and  i  e,  the  height.  Draw  n  t  and  e  t  parallel 
to  I  e  and  i  n  ;  divide  n  t  into  four  equal  parts,  n/,/?,  e  d, 
d  T,  and  draw  dg  e,  e  h  T.,/i  e  :  likewise  divide  i  n  into  four 
equal  parts,  ic,  c  b,  Ij  a,  a  s,  and  draw  c  g,  h  h.  a  i,  parallel  to 
I  E.  Join  E  g,g  h,  h  i,  i  n,  and  these  lines  will  be  the  rafters 
of  half  the  roof  required.  For  the  demonstrati<in,  see  the 
article  Conic  Sections. 

Proposition  IV.  Figure  4. — Suppose  it  were  required  to 
construct  a  curb  roof  to  have  the  bottom  rafter  to  the  upper 
rafter  as  2  to  3,  to  a  given  vertical  angle  at  the  top,  and  a 
given  width  a  b. 

Now  the  weight  on  the  upper  angle  is  to  the  weight  on 


=  3  is 


.,        ,  ,  2  H  I  .      .      H  I  +  I  A    ,,     .      .       3  +  3 

the  lower  angle,  as is  to . that    is,  

^    '  2  2  2 

O     1     O 

to'         —2^,  this  is  in  the  proportion  of  6  to  5,  or  the  half 

weight  at  ii  is  to  the  bottom  weight  at  i,  as  3  to  5. 

Bisect  A  B  by  the  perpendicular  c  d,  and  make  the  angle 


C1UE.1B    B-OOT, 


FiffJ^ 

C 

^^       ^ 

~~\ 

n--'''''^ 

R 

\>- 

--JO        \ 

/ 

j^ 

\Ar-A 

y 

/ 

1  /*^ 

I 

G 

O 

HE      A' 


O 


CUR 


219 


CUR 


A  E  c  equal  to  half  the  vertical  an<;le,  or  the  angle  e  a  c,  equal 
to  its  complement.  Make  e  d  to  e  c  as  5  to  c  ;  join  d  a  and 
D  B ;  in  AD,  take  any  point,  f  ;  draw  f  g  parallel  to'  a  k, 
making  a  f  to  f  g  as  2  to  3 ;  draw  a  g  h,  cutting  c  d  at  h, 
and  H  I  parallel  to  f  G  or  e  a,  cutting  ad  at  i ;  make  b  k 
equal  to  a  i,  and  join  k  h,  then  a  i  ii  k  b  is  the  contour  of  the 
roof  required.  This  is  so  evident  from  its  construction,  that 
its  does  not  require  demonstration. 

Proposition  V.  Fiz/iire  5. — To  describe  a  roof  with  four 
equal  rafters,  that  shall  be  in  eijuilibrio  by  the  weight  of  the 
rafters,"  of  a  given  width  a  e,  and  height  fc. 

Join  c  E,  and  bisect  it  in  h  by  a  perpendicular,  d  h  g, 
meeting  a  e  in  o  ;  on  g,  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  g  e  or 
G  c,  describe  the  circle  ceo.  Draw  k  h  i  parallel  to  fe,  to 
meet  the  vertical  line  o  c  in  k,  and  the  circle  in  i.  Draw 
IDC,  and  join  d  e,  than  make  the  side  c  b  a  similar  to  c  d  e, 
and  a  B,  B  c,  c  D,  D  E,  will  be  the  rafters  of  the  roof  required. 

For,  in  Figure  6,  complete  the  parallelogram  c  d  q  b,  and 
join  B  D,  I  f,  and  draw  c  l  perpendicular  to  o  f,  and  equal  to 
fg;  on  L,  with  the  distance  ge  describe  the  cii-cle  n  i  f, 
meeting  the  vertical  line  at  n  and  ip;  produce  e  d  to  meet  it 
also  in  m.  and   b  c  to  p. 

Then  because  k  f  is  equal  to  k  c,  and  r  c  equal  r  q,  the 
triangles  g  i  f  and  c  d  q,  are  similar ;  therefore  i  f  is  parallel 
to  D  Q,  and  because  the  two  segments  n  i  f  and  ceo  are 
equal  to  one  another,  the  angle  n  i  f  is  equal  to  the  angle 
GEO,  equal  to  twice  the  angle  c  e  f,  or  twice  the  alternate 
angle  e  c  l,  equal  to  ecd  +  dcl;  but  e  c  d  is  equal  to 
half  the  e.\ternal  angle  m  d  c,  and  d  c  l  is  half  the  angle 
D  c  p  ;  equal  to  d  c  (j.  Therefore  the  angle  n  i  f  is  equal 
to  the  angles  m  d  c  +  c  d  q,  equal  to  the  angle  m  d  q.  conse- 
quenth",  cf:cn::cq:cm,  l>ut  c  f  and  c  n  are  equal,  there- 
fore c  Q  and  c  m  are  equal ;  but  c  q  is  to  c  m  as  the  weight  on 
0  is  to  the  weight  on  b  or  D,  therefore  the  weights  on  c  and 
B  are  equal,  and  the  rafters  a  b,  b  c,  c  d,  d  e,  are  in  equilibrio. 

Curb  Stones,  (sometimes  written  Kerb  or  Kirb^)  those 
common  to  the  foot  and  carriage  pavements  in  a  street, 

CURI.\.  a  court  of  justice.     See  Basilica. 

CURLING  STUFF,  that  which  is  occasioned  by  the. 
winding  or  coiling  of  the  fibres  round  the  boughs  of  the  tree, 
where  they  begin  to  shoot  out  of  the  trunk. 

The  double-iron  plane,  now  in  use,  is  a  most  complete 
remedy  against  cross-grained  and  curling  stuff;  this  plane,  if 
well  set,  will  work  nearly  as  smooth  against  the  grain  as 
with  it. 

CURRENT,  the  necessary  slope  of  a  piece  of  ground  or 
pavement,  for  discharging  the  water  from  the  surface. 

CURSOR,  a  point  screwed  on  a  beam-compass,  and  which 
may  be  moved  or  slid  along  the  beam,  for  striking  greater  or 
less  arcs  of  circles.  It  is  also  that  part  of  a  proportional 
compass  which  holds  the  two  legs  together,  and  by  which  the 
points  are  set  in  any  given  ratio.  The  sliding  parts  of  the 
trammel,  rood,  or  ellipsograph,  are  also  called  cursors.  See 
Co-mpasses. 

CURTAIL  STEP,  the  first  step  by  which  a  stair  is 
ascended,  finishing  at  the  end  in  the  form  of  a  scroll,  follow- 
ing the  plan  of  the  hand-rail.     See  the  article  Stair. 

CURTx\lN,  (from  the  French  courtine,)  in  fortification, 
that  part  of  the  rampart  which  is  between  the  flanks  of  two 
bastions,  bordered  v.ith  a  rampart  five  feet  high,  behind 
which  the  soldiers  stand  to  fire  on  the  covered  way,  and  into 
the  moat. 

CURTICONE.    See  Frustum  and  Truncated  Coxe. 

CURULE,  a  sort  of  raised,  embellished  chair  or  seat  of 
ivory,  gold,  &c.,  placed  in  a  chariot,  wherein  the  chief  officers 
of  Rome  were  wont  to  be  carried  into  council.  It  was  also 
a  mark  of  distinction  for  dictators,  consuls,  prsetors,  censors. 


and  ediles,  who  were  from  this  circumstance  called  curnles. 
Curule  chairs  were  of  various  shapes,  but  the  one  generally 
used  was  a  stool  without  a  back,  so  made  as  to  be  folded  up, 
and  ojicnod  again  in  the  manner  of  a  camp  stool. 

CURVATURE,  that  degree  in  a  curve,  in  which  the 
curve  recedes  in  a  perpendicular  from  a  tangent,  at  a  given 
distance  from  the  jwint  of  contact ;  and  consequently  if  two 
curves,  or  two  parts  of  the  same  curve,  have  each  a  tangent, 
and  if  any  equal  distance  from  each  point  of  contact  be  taken, 
and  a  perpendicular  be  drawn  from  each  point  of  distance  to 
the  curve  ;  then,  in  each  of  these  curves,  or  portions  of  the 
same  curve,  the  intercepted  perpendicular  being  greater  or 
less,  the  curvature  will  also  be  greater  or  less. 

CURVE,  a  line,  such  that  only  one  straight  line  can  be 
made  to  touch,  without  cutting  it,  when  the  straight  line  is 
extended  on  both  sides  of  the  point  of  contact ;  or  a  curve  is 
a  line  in  which,  if  a  point  be  taken,  only  one  straight  line 
can  pass  that  point  without  cutting  the  line  in  which  the 
point  is  taken.  Tlie  straight  line  so  drawn  is  called  a  tangent 
to  the  curve. 

The  cirele  is  the  most  simple  of  all  curves,  depending  only 
upon  the  arbitrary  extension  of  its  radius,  which,  if  given, 
the  circle  is  determined  in  magnitude.  Its  circumference  is 
one  uniform  curve,  or  has  its  curvature  everywhere  equal, 
and  equally  distant  from  the  centre. 

In  every  curve  line  whatever,  it  is  evident  that  a  very 
small  portion  may  be  taken  as  a  circular  arc  at  any  point ;  or 
that  there  is  a  certain  circular  arc  at  that  point  which  has 
the  same  curvature  as  an  indefinitely  small  portion  of  the 
curve,  but  a  greater  curvature  than  an  indefinitely  small 
portion  of  the  curve  upon  the  one  side  of  the  point,  and 
also  a  less  curvature  than  the  nearest  indefinitely  small 
portion  on  the  other  side  of  the  point.  The  radius  of  a 
circle  of  equal  curvature  to  the  curve  at  any  proposed 
point,  is  called  the  radius  of  curvature  at  that  point,  and 
is  the  measure  of  the  curvature  of  all  curves.  The  circle  of 
equal  curvature  with  the  curve,  is  called  the  equicurve  circle, 
or  the  osculating  circle.  Hence,  if  the  osculating  circle  and 
the  curve  have  a  common  tangent,  no  other  circle  whatever 
can  be  drawn  between  the  two  curves ;  and  when  the  curve 
is  continually  upon  the  increase  or  decrease  in  its  curvature, 
the  arc  of  the  osculating  circle  will  be  on  the  concave  side 
of  the  curve  on  one  side  of  the  point  of  contact,  and  on  the 
convex  side  on  the  other  side  of  the  said  point ;  or  the  curve 
will  be  between  the  tangent  and  the  circumference  of  the 
osculating  circle  on  the  one  side  of  the  point  of  contact,  but 
the  circumference  of  the  osculating  circle  will  be  between 
the  tangent  and  the  curve  on  the  other  side  of  the  point  of 
contact. 

The  principal  curves  that  are  useful  in  architecture,  are 
the  conic  sections,  namely,  the  circle,  the  ellipsis,  the  parabola, 
and  the  hyperbola;  also,  the  cycloid,  the  conchoid,  the  spiral 
of  Archiniedes,  and  the  logarithmic  spiral.  The  definitions 
and  the  most  useful  properties,  will  be  found  under  each 
word. 

Curve  of  Double  Curvature,  a  curve,  of  which  all  its 
parts  are  not  in  the  same  plane. 

Thus,  if  the  surfaces  of  two  cylinders  of  the  same  diameter 
intersect  each  other,  and  their  axes  also  intersect  each  other, 
the  common  intersection  will  be  a  curve,  of  which  its  parts 
are  all  in  the  same  plane  ;  or  if  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  and 
cylindroid  intersect  each  other,  and  their  axes  also  intersect 
each  other;  and  if  the  semidiameter  of  the  cylindroid  be 
perpendicular  to  a  plane  passing  through  the  two  axes,  and 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  cylinder,  then  the  parts  of  the 
curve  formed  by  the  two  surfaces,  are  likewise  in  one  plane : 
or  if  the  surface  of  one  cylindroid   meet  that   of  another 


CUT 


■^■20 


CYC 


cvlinilroid,  and  their  axes  intersect  each  other  ;  and  if  the 
seiiii-diaiiicters  of  both  cylindroids,  perpendicular  to  a  plane 
[lassing  liirough  the  two  axes  bo  equal  to  each  other,  the 
curve  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  cylindroidic  surfaces 
will  have  all  its  parts  in  one  plane:  not  any  of  these 
thus  defined,  are  curves  of  double  curvature.  But  if  the 
surfaces  of  two  cylinders  of  unequal  diameters  meet  in  a 
common  line,  this  line  is  a  line  of  double  curvature:  of  this 
description  are  cylindro- cylindric  groins.  Many  other 
instances  of  two  geometrical  solids  meeting  each  other,  pro- 
ducing lines  of  double  curvature,  may  be  laid  before  the 
reader,  but  perhaps  what  has  already  been  adduced  will  be 
sullicient. 

Cl-rved  SfRFACE  OF  A  SoLiD,  that  iu  which,  if  any  point 
be  taken,  and  if  the  solid  can  be  cut  by  a  plane  through  the 
point,  and  thence  form  a  section,  such  section  is  terminated 
by  a  curve :  Thus  a  cylinder  or  a  cone  may  be  cut  by  a 
plane,  through  any  given  point,  so  as  to  make  the  common 
section  of  the  cylinder  or  cone  with  the  plane,  a  curve,  or  a 
straight  line  ;  but  if  a  sphere,  spheroid,  or  any  of  the  conoids 
be  cut  by  a  plane  through  any  point,  the  common  section 
of  the  plane,  and  the  surface  of  any  such  solid  will  be  a 
curve. 

CURVILINEAR,  (from  the  Latin  curvus,  a  curve,  and 
liitea,  a  line)  or  Curvilineak  Figure,  a  superficies  bounded 
by  curve  lines,  or  by  a  curve  and  straight  line,  when  the 
properties  of  the  curve  depend  upon  the  straight  line. 

The  circle  and  ellipsis  are  entire  curves,  or  such  as  have 
no  straight  line  in  iheii-  boundary  ;  but  the  parabola  and 
hyperbola  are  both  bounded  by  a  curve  and  a  straight  line. 

Curvilinear  Angle.     See  Angle. 

Curvilinear  Roof,  that  which  is  erected  upon  a  cur- 
vilinear plan,  as  a  circular,  or  elliptical,  or  portions  of  these 
curves. 

Curvilinear  Superficies  of  a  Solid.  See  Curved  Sur- 
face OF  A  Solid. 

Curvilinear  Triangle,  one  whose  sides  are  curves. 

CUSHION  RAFTER.     See  Principal  Brace. 

CUSP,  (from  the  Latin  ciispis.)  one  of  the  pendants  of  a 
pointed  arch,  or  one  of  .several  pendants  forming  what  may 
be  denominated  a  polyfoil ;  two  cusps  form  a  trefoil,  three  a 
quatrefoil,  four  a  ciiiquefoil,  &c.  In  other  words,  the  term 
may  be  explained  as  the  points  generated  by  the  intersection 
of  the  small  arcs  or  segments  of  circles,  forming  the  foliations 
which  frequently  terminate  the  internal  curves  of  Gothic 
arches,  more  especially  window  arches,  in  the  shape  of  tre- 
foils and  other  polyfoils. 

This  name  was  iirst  given  by  Sir  James  Hall,  of  Dunglass, 
in  an  Essay  on  the  Oiigbi  of  Gothic  Architecture.  He  says, 
in  a  note  at  the  bottom  of  p;igc  23,  that  "assemblages  of 
these  cusps  are  spoken  of  in  the  descriptions  of  Gothic 
works,  by  the  means  of  trefoil,  quatrefoil,  semitrcfoil,  &c. ; 
but  no  jJi-oper  word  has  been  used  to  describe  the  form, 
wherever  it  occurs,  or  however  combined." 

CUSTOM-HOUSE,  an  edifice  in  some  chief  city,  or  port, 
for  the  receipt  of  the  customs  and  duties  of  importation  and 
exportation  imposed  on  merchandise,  by  the  uutiiority  of  the 
sovereign.  The  custom-house  in  Oulilin  is  a  very  elegant 
edifice. 

CUT,  in  inland  navigation,  the  same  with  canal,  branch, 
or  arm. 

Cut  Brackets,  such  as  are  modelled  on  the  edge. 
Cut  Roof,  a  truncated  roof. 

Cut  Standards,  for  shelves,  are  those  whose  front  edge 
is  cut  into  mouldings. 

Cut  Stone,  hewn  stone,  or  that  which  is  brought  into 
shape  by  the  mallet  and  chisel. 


Cut-water,  the  lower  portion  of  the  pier  of  a  bridge, 
where  the  two  sides  meet  at  a  point,  so  disposed  to  meet  the 
current,  and  offer  as  little  resistance  as  possible  to  the  force 
exerted  by  it  against  the  pier. 

CUTl'lNG  PLANE,  a  plane  supposed  to  cut  or  divide  a 
solid  into  two  parts,  in  any  position. 

CUVILLER,  FRANCOIS,  an  architect,  born  in  the 
year  1C98,  at  Soissons,  in  France.  He  was  employed  by 
the  elector  of  Munich  in  many  public  buildings,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  service  of  that  court  till  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened in  the  year  17(50,  leaving  behind  him  many  plans  and 
designs,  which  were  afterwards  engraved  by  difl'erent  artists, 
and  published  by  his  son,  Francois  Cuviller,  who  was  born 
at  Munich,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  architect  to  the 
court. 

CYCLOGRAPH,  (from  the  Greek,  inmXog,  a  circle,  and 
y(>a<l)eiv,  to  describe)  in  practical  geometry,  an  instrument  for 
describing  the  arc  of  a  circle  to  any  chord  and  versed  sine; 
but  chiefly  used  in  flat  segments,  or  those  whose  curvatures 
approach  to  sti-aight  lines.  There  are  several  constructions 
of  cyclographs,  of  which  the  following  is  one.  The  principle 
consists  of  two  rules,  a  b,  and  c  n,  connected  by  a  folding 
joint,  E,  the  pin,  /c,  of  which  projects  upwards,  and  is  mortised 
to  receive  a  bar,  k  r/,  which  is  fastened,  but  movable  round 
the  centre  of  the  folding  joints;  upon  the  connected  rules, 
a  b  and  c  d,  at  equal  distances,  from  the  centre  of  the 
folding  joint,  are  fastened  the  ends  i  and  k,  of  two  other 
equal  bars  ci,  ck,  connected  by  a  movable  joint,  c,  so 
as  to  form  a  rhombus,  A  k  c  i,  movable  round  each  of  the 
joints,  cihu;  then  the  bar,  h  </,  which  jinsses  througli 
the  centre,  h,  of  the  two  first  rules,  being  made  also  to  pass 
through  a  projection  of  the  pin,  c,  of  the  opposite  angle  of 
the  rhombus,  is  made  to  slide  into  the  mortise  as  at  c.  The 
use  of  the  bar  is  to  fiisten  tiie  instrument  in  any  position  by 
means  of  a  screw  inserted  from  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the 
upright  pillar  at  c,  which  receives  the  sliding  end  of 
the  bar. 

The  instrument  being  supposed  to  be  placed  upon  a  level 
plane,  and  the  pin,  A,  of  the  folding  joint  being  made  to 
project  upwards;  another  bar,  l  m  n,  bent  to  a  right  angle 
with  a  longitudinal  slit,  op,  is  fitted  upon  it,  so  as  to  have 
a  motion  upon  the  pin  A,  in  the  section  of  the  slit,  but  may 
be  fastened  at  any  required  point,  by  means  of  a  screw  from 
the  top.  The  other  end,  n,  of  this  bar  is  mortised  in  the 
direction  of  the  slit,  to  receive  the  lower  bar,  hff,  so  as  to 
have  a  longitudinal  motion.  The  middle  line  of  the  upper 
bar  stands  in  the  same  vertical  plane  with  the  middle  line  of 
the  lower  bar,  and  these  two  lines  are  pandlol  in  all  positions 
of  the  instrument. 

Tlie  end  of  the  bar,  lm,  at  the  external  side  of  the 
folding  joint,  has  a  deep  socket  for  holding  a  pin  or  pencil, 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  instrument.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  upper  bar  being  movable,  to  which  the  pin  or 
pencil  is  attaihod,  is  to  admit  the  point  of  the  pin  or  jiencil 
to  be  brought  into  the  intersection  of  the  sides  b  a,  c  d,  of 
the  instrument. 

To  describe  the  segment  of  a  circle  by  means  of  the  cyclo- 
graph,  fasten  two  pins  in  the  plane,  or  steel  edges  made  on 
purpose,  and  adjust  the  angle  of  the  instrument  ;  place  the 
outer  edges  u[)c>n  the  pins,  and  the  angle  close  upon  one  of 
them  ;  move  the  instrument  laterally  close  to  the  pins,  and  a 
pen  or  pencil  will  describe  the  curve. 

The  princi[)le  of  this  instrument  is  founded  upim  the 
twenty-first  proposition  of  the  third  Book  of  Euclid's 
Elements,  in  which  it  is  announced  and  proved  that  ''the 
angles  in  the  same  segment  of  a  circle,  are  equal  to  one 
another." 


C  YL 


221 


CYL 


This  instrament  may  also  be  applied  to  the  drawing  of 
lines  to  any  inaccessible  points,  by  means  of  the  middle  bar, 
which  always  bisects  the  angle,  and  therefore  will  be  indis- 
pensably useful  in  the  practice  of  perspective. 

CYCLOID,  (from  the  Greek  KVKXoq,  a  circle,  and  eiSog, 
form)  a  figure  described  by  rolling  a  circle  upon  a  plane, 
along  a  straight  edge;  then  the  moving  point  will  trace  the 
curve  called  a  cycloid,  or  trochoid.  The  middle  portion  of 
this  figure  is  very  appropriate  for  the  arch  of  a  bridge,  which 
roi|uir"es  to  have  its  roadway  raised  on  the  top,  as  the  extrados 
of  tJiis  curve  has  a  gentle  convexity. 

CYa.OPEAN  AKCHITECTL'RE,  that  practised  by 
the  early  eulonists  of  Greece,  more  remarkable  for  its  massive 
construction  than  any  other  feature,  whence  also  its  name. 
Sve  Pelasgi.vx  Architectlre. 

CYCLOSTYL.\n,  a  term  applied  to  those  erections  which 
consist  of  a  circular  range  of  columns,  without  a  central 
building. 

CYLINDER,  (from  the  Greek  kvXivSeiv,  to  roll)  a  solid 
formed  by  moving  a  straight  line  in  the  periphery  of  a  circle, 
parallel  to  another  straight  line,  which  passes  through  the 
centre,  and  which  makes  any  given  angle  with  the  plane  of 
the  circle,  until  the  line  come  again  into  its  first  position. 

The  surface  described  by  the  moving  line  from  the  circle  to 
any  indefinite  extension,  is  called  a  cijliiidric  surface  ;  the 
straight  line  which  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  circle  is 
ca'led  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  circle  the  base  of  the 
eylindcr. 

If  the  axis  be  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  base,  the 
cylinder  is  called  a  right  ojlinder  ;  but  if  at  oblique  angles, 
then  it  is  called  an  ohlique  cylinder. 

Euclid  confines  his  definition  only  to  a  right  cylinder,  and 
defin  ;s  it  to  be  a  solid  formed  by  revolving  a  rectangle  round 
one  of  its  sides. 

It  is  evident  from  this  definition,  that  all  sections  passing 
through  the  axis,  or  parallel  to  the  axis,  have  their  opposite 
sides  parallel ;  viz.,  those  which  are  formed  by  the  cutting 
plane  and  the  cylinJric  surface.  From  the  definition  here 
given,  the  following  consequences  may  he  drawn,  as  being 
too  obvious  to  require  any  formal  demonstration.  If  a  plane, 
parallel  to  another  plane,  drawn  along  the  axis  of  a  cylinder, 
touch  the  periphery  of  the  base,  the  plane  so  posited  will 
touch  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  will  meet  it  in  a  line 
parallel  to  the  axis  ;  but  if  such  plane  cut  the  plane  of  the 
base  of  the  cylinder  within  its  periphery,  it  will  cut  the 
cylindric  surface  in  two  parallel  lines,  and  the  common  section 
of  the  plane  and  the  cylinder  will  be  a  parallelogram,  and, 
lastly,  the  common  section  of  a  plane,  parallel  to  the  base, 
with  the  cylindrical  surface,  is  a  circle  with  its  centre  in  the 
axis.  Let  us  now  consider  the  property  of  a  section  which 
will  meet  the  plane  of  the  base  of  the  cylinder,  but 
whieh  will  neither  pass  along  the  axis,  nor  be  parallel 
thereto. 


Figwe  1. — Let  a  m  i.  b  be  a  section  of  the  cylinder  through 
the  axis,  cutting  the  section  proposed,  and  let  the  cutting 
plane  meet  the  plane  of  the  base  afebno  in  rs:  through 
the  centre  d  of  the  base,  draw  the  diameter  a  b,  at  right  angles 
to  R  s.  Let  the  plane  be  drawn  through  a  b  and  the  axis  u  n 
of  the  cylinder,  meeting  the  cutting  plane  in  the  line  m  n  g  l  t, 
and  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  in  a  m  and  b  l.  Through 
H  and  any  other  point,  c,  in  m  i.  draw  q  k  and  ip  jiarallel  to 
R  s ;  through  k  q  and  d  h,  draw  the  plane  k  q  o  r,  and  through 
I  p  draw  the  plane  i  p  n  e,  parallel  to  the  plane  k  q  o  f,  cutting 
A  B  at  c  ;  and  because  k  q  and  i  p  are  par.allel  to  r  s,  the 
planes  k  q  o  f  and  i  p  n  e,  are  also  parallel  to  r  s  ;  therefore 
F  o  and  E  N.  are  respectively  parallel  to  k  q  and  i  p  ;  conse- 
quently, the  figures  k  Q  o  F  and  i  p  n  e,  are  parallelograms, 
and  therefore  k  q  is  equal  to  f  o,  and  i  p  equal  to  e  n  :  because 
E  N  is  parallel  to  r  s,  it  is  at  right  angles  to  a  b,  and  hence  it 
is  plain  that  i  p  is  bisected  by  m  l.  Now  the  triangle  a  m  t, 
has  the  side  a  t  cut  into  several  parts  by  the  intermediate 
points  D,  c,  B,  and  m  t  cut  into  other  parts  at  the  intermediate 
points  H,  G,  L,  by  lines  parallel  to  the  side  a  m,  and  theicfore 
the  parts  ad,  d  c,  c  b,  are  respectively  in  the  same  ratio 
with  the  parts  m  h,  h  g.  g  l  ;  these  being  premised,  we  have 
therefore 


A  c  :  A  D  :   :  M  6  ;  M  H 

" 

cb:ad::gl:mh 

G  L 

Therefore  acXcb    :ad'::mgx 

:   M  H 

but  AC    X    cb  =  ec'  =   gi'& 

ad' 

=  hk' 

consequently               g  i"  :  h  k'  :  :   m  g    X 

G  L 

:    M  H 

therefore  the  section  is  an  ellipsis. 

But  this  demonstration,  which  is  in  principle  that  com- 
monly given,  only  shows  the  general  property  in  respect  of 
the  axis,  or  at  most  in  respect  of  only  two  conjugate  dia- 
meters, of  which  one  must  be  parallel  to  the  base  ;  and  as  we 
have  never  seen  a  general  pioof  of  this  valuable  propertv 
for  any  two  conjugate  diameters  drawn  from  simple  princi- 
ples, without  being  under  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  drudg- 
ing through  nearly  a  whole  treatise  of  conic  sections,  before 
we  are  able  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion,  we  therefore  subjoin 
the  following  demonstration. 

Figure  2. — Let  there  be  any  cylinder,  right  or  oblique, 
standing  upon  the  base  g  e  ap  q  d,  and  let  c  be  the  centre  of 
the  base ;  through  c  draw  o  q  at  pleasure,  and  a  c  d  at  right 
angles  to  g  q.  Through  g  q  and  the  axis  c  m  draw  the  plane 
G  Q  s  H,  cutting  the  section  proposed  in  the  straight  line  h  s, 
also  through  a  d  and  the  said  axis  draw  the  plane  a  d  n  k, 
cutting  the  section  in  the  straight  line  k  n.  In  one  of  the  dia- 
meters, A  D,  of  the  base,  take  any  point,  b,  between  a  and  c, 
and  draw  e  p  parallel  to  o  q,  and  the  plane  e  p  r  f,  parallel  to 
the  plane  g  q  s  h,  cutting  the  section  in  f  r. 

From  the  construction  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  evident  that  the 
lines  K  N,  F  R,  H  s,  are  each  divided  into  parts,  which  are  as  the 
parts  of  the  lines  a  d,  e  p,  g  q.  Therefore  as  e  p,  g  q,  and  a  d, 
are  bisected,  so  will  f  b  at  l,  h  s  at  m,  and  k  x  at  m. 


From  the  premises  we  have ab:  ac::kl:km 

and  by  proportional  lines B  d  :  a  c  :  :  l  y  :  k  ii 

Now,  by  multiplying  the  homologous  terms       .     .     .     .  abXbd:ac'::klXi-n:km' 

But  from  the  property  of  the  circle abXbd^eb'&ac'^gc' 

Therefore,  by  substitution,  we  have E  b'  :  g  c'  :  :  k  l     X   l  n  :  k  m' 

Now  again,  by  proportional  lines eb:gc::fl  :hm 

Squaring  the  terms  of  the  last  analogy e  b'  :  o  c'  :  :  f  l''  :  h  m' 

but  by  the  fourth  analogy,  we  have e  b'  :  g  c'  :  :  k  l      X    l  n  :  k  m' 

And  by  comparing  the  antecedents  and  consequents  of  the 

last  two  analogies  we  obtain f  l'  :  h  m'  :  :  k  l     X   l  n  :  k  m* 


CYL 


222 


CYL 


which  is  a  general  property  of  every  two  diameters,  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  planes  passing  along  the  axis  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  These  diameters,  it  is  evident,  will  bo 
parallel  to  tangents  to  the  curve,  at  the  extremities  of  each 
other.  For,  suppose  two  planes  touching  the  cvlindric  >iir- 
face,  each  in  a  line  which  passes  from  the  extremities  of  each 
radius  at  a  right  angle  with  each  other,  these  tangent  planes 
will  be  respectively  parallel  to  each  plane  passing  along  the 
axis  and  through  the  said  radii  ;  the  two  tangent  planes,  and 
the  two  planes  passing  along  the  axis,  will  be  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  or  each  opposite  pair  will  be  f)arallel ;  therefore, 
if  these  be  cut  by  a  fifth  plane,  the  intersections  of  the  oppo- 
site planes  with  such  fifth  plane,  in  any  position,  will  be 
parallel  lines ;  and  since  the  touching  planes  do  not  cut  the 
suiface  of  the  cylinder,  the  lines  at  the  extremities  of  each 
diameter  will  be  parallel  to  the  curve,  and  are  what  are 
termed  conjugate  diameters. 

A  cylinder  is  a  species  of  prism,  because  all  its  parallel 
sections  are  equal,  and  every  section  parallel  to  the  base  is 
equal  to  that  base;  therefore  the  solidity  of  a  cylinder  is 
determined  by  multiplying  the  area  of  an  end  by  the  parallel 
distance  between  the  two  ends. 

Example  I.  What  is  the  solidity  of  a  cylinder,  whose 
height  is  10  feet,  and  the  diameter  of  the  base  2  feet 
6  inches  ? 

in. 
6 

2.5 

2.5 


j^  =  .5  in  decimals 
the  diameter 


125 
50 

6.25 
.7854 

2500 
3125 
5000 
4375 

4.908750 
10 

49.087500 
Example  II.  What  is  the  solidity  of  a  cylinder,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  base  being  7.85  feet,  and  the  height  15  feel? 

7.85 
7.85 


3925 
G2S0 
5495 

61.62-25 
.07958 

4929800 
3081125 
5546025 
4313575 

4.903918550 
15 

24519592750 
4903918550 

73.558778250 


The  curved  surface  of  everj'  cj'linderis  equal  to  a  rectangle, 
one  of  whose  dimensions  is  the  length  of  the  axis,  that  is, 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  other 
dimensiun  equal  to  the  perimeter  or  girt.  This  is  a  general 
princi]ile,  whether  the  cylinder  have  its  ends  perpendicular 
or  nblique  to  the  axis;  and  hence  the  following — 

Rule.  Multiply  the  girt  of  the  cylinder  by  the  length  of 
the  axis,  and  the  product  will  be  the  cylindric  surface. 

Example.  Suppose  a  cylinder,  girt  5  feet  9  inches,  and  the 
length  of  its  axis,  or  side  parallel  to  the  axis,  be  9  feet 
7  inches,  w  hat  is  the  superficial  content  of  the  surface  ? 


Cross  Multiplication. 

ft.  in. 

Decimals 

5     9 

9.583 

9     7 

5.75 

5 

3 

47915 

35 

67081 

81 

47915 

)  121 

55.10225 

12 

10 
45 

1 

1.22700 

12 

55 

1  . 

3 

2.724 

See  the  first  method  in  this  example  under  the  article 
Cross  Mitltiplic^tion,  and  the  second  method,  under 
Decimal  Multiplication.  These  two  methods  would  have 
agreed  exactly,  but  no  decimal  corresponding  to  7  inches  can 
be  precisely  found. 

The  method  by  the  girt  is  what  every  man  in  practice  would 
naturally  prefer,  if  the  object  be  before  him,  since  the  girt 
can  be  as  easily  measured  as  the  diameter,  and  with  equal 
accuracy,  by  means  of  a  string  ;  nor  would  any  person,  whose 
mind  is  crowded  with  the  afl^airs  of  business,  take  the  addi- 
tional trouble  of  finding  the  circumference  from  the  diameter, 
when  it  may  be  so  expeditiously  obtained  another  w'ay. 
However,  for  the  satisfoction  of  those  who  wish  to  be  informed 
of  every  mode  of  operation,  we  shall  add  the  following,  as 
some  cases  may  occur,  in  whieh  the  perimeter  cannot  be 
obtained  without  the  diameter  ;  though  the  contrary  might 
as  likely  be  the  case. 

If  the  cylinder  be  a  right  cylinder,  find  its  circumference, 
whieh  will  then  be  the  same  as  its  ends  ;  then  proceed  as 
before  to  multiply  the  circumference  by  the  axis,  and  the 
product  is  the  superficial  content.  This  is  so  easy  as  not  to 
require  an  example.  But  where  the  axis  is  inclined  to  the 
base,  the  section  of  the  cylinder  will  be  elliptic,  the  diameter 
of  the  circular  ends  w  ill  be  the  greater  axis,  the  lesser  one  will 
depend  upon  the  inclination  of  the  cylinder,  and  may  be 
thus  found : — 

As  the  radius 

is  to  the  sine  of  inclination, 

so  is  the  diameter  of  the  circular  ends 

to  the  shorter  axis  of  the  ellipsis. 

From  the  two  axes  being  now  found,  find  the  perimeter  of 
the  ellipsis,  then  proceed  as  in  the  first  rule. 

Example.  Suppose  the  length  of  the  axis  to  be  22  feet, 
and  the  inclination  of  the  same  to  the  plane  of  the  base  50 
degrees,  and  the  diameter  of  each  end  3  feet  6  inches;  required 
the  area  of  the  curved  surface. 


CYL 


223 


CYL 


By  logai'ithms. 
Then  as  radius  laOOOOOO 

is  to  the  sine  of  50°       i.).884-254 
so  is  3.5  544868 


10.428322 
10. 


to  the  shorter  axis  .428322  =  uat.  num  2.68 
2.68 
3.5 


2)6.18 


3.09  mean  diameter. 


H 


9.27 
.44 


9.71  elliptic  primeter. 
22 


1942 
1942 


213.62  the  area  required. 

The  above  method  of  finding  the  extension  of  the  elliptic 
prinK'tur  being  the  most  expeditious,  is  the  most  useful  for 
]iractical  purposes,  but  those  who  wish  to  work  with  greater 
accuracy  niav  consult  the  word  Ellipsis. 

A  cylinder  is  said  to  be  given  in  position,  when  its  base  and 
maguilude,  and  tlie  inclination  and  length  of  its  axis,  are 
given. 

A  point  is  said  to  be  given  on  the  surface  of  a  cylinder, 
when  its  distance  from  tliat  point  to  the  liase,  measured  in  a 
line  parallel  to  the  axis  is  known,  and  the  point  on  the 
circumference  of  the  base  given. 

Figure  3. —  Given  a  riylU  cylinder  and  three  points  on  its 
snrface  to  find  the  section  of  the  cylinder.,  by  a  plane  passing 
through  the  three  points.  Let  the  straight  lines,  a,  b,  c,  be  the 
distances  of  the  three  points,  the  circle  d  e  f  k,  the  base  of 
the  cylinder  ;  l  the  centre  of  the  base.  Through  the 
points  D  and  f  draw  the  straight  line  p  o  ;  perpendicular 
thereto  draw  each  of  the  lines  d  g,  e  h,  f  i,  respectively  equal 
to  A,  B,  c.  Draw  D  E  Q  and  o  n  q,  intersecting  at  q  ;  also  draw 
GIG,  meeting  p  o  in  o,  then  q  o,  which  is  the  intersection  of 
the  cutting  plane.  Through  l  draw  r  l  s  t,  cutting  q  o  at  x. 
In  u  o  take  any  point  m,  draw  m  u  perpendicular  to  g  o,  pro- 
duce u  m  to  M  in  o  p,  and  draw  m  u  perpendicular  to  p  o, 
cutting  Q  o  at  u.  From  the  point  o,  with  the  distance  o  u, 
describe  an  are,  cutting  m  u  at  u;  perpendicular  from  r  t, 
draw  a  p  and  l  n,  cutting  p  o  at  p  and  n.  Draw  p  p  and  n  n 
perpendicular  to  p  o,  cutting  o  g  produced  at/;,  and  n.  Parallel 
to  u  o,  draw  the  lines  p  r  and  f  n  I  h  ;  make  o  t  equal  to  o  T 
and  /)  r  equal  to  p  r,  and  draw  r  I  s  t ;  make  /  s  equal  to  I  r, 
and  /  y  and  I  h  each  equal  to  r  l,  the  semi-diameter  of  the 
base,  then  will  /  r  /  /  be  the  semi-axis  of  the  elliptic 
section. 

Demonstration. — It  is  shown  under  the  article  Inclined 
Planks,  that  if  d,  e,  f,  be  any  three  points,  and  the  lines 
A,  B,  c,  the  height  of  three  points  in  the  space  above  the 
plane  d  e  f,  that  q  o  will  be  the  intersection  of  the  plane  in 
space  with  the  original  plane  p  o  q  or  its  continuation  :  under 
the  article  Stereography  and  Stereotomy  it  is  shown,  that 


if  p  o  Q  and  p  o  phe  any  two  plane  angles,  to  be  placed  at  a 
right  angle  with  each  other,  that  the  plane  angle  o  o  w,  will  be 
the  hypothenusal  plane,  and  consequently  when  the  three 
planes,  p  o  q,  p  o  ;>,  and  p  o  u  are  turned  into  their  position  ; 
the  straight  line  o  u  will  coincide  with  o  u  ;  therefore,  if  a  [)lane 
be  perpendicular  to  the  intersection  of  two  planes,  it  will  he  at 
right  angles  to  each  of  these  planes  ;  and  that  the  section  of 
any  vertical  line,  whose  seat  is  givcMi,  will  be  found  by  drawing 
a  line  on  the  original  plane,  parallel  to  the  intersection  from 
the  seat,  to  the  intersecting  line  of  the  vertical  plane;  thence 
a  line  perpendicular  to  this  intersection  to  the  common  inter- 
section of  the  vertical  and  cutting  planes,  and  thence  a  line 
from  this  point  parallel  to  the  cointerscction  ;  then,  by  making 
this  line  equal  to  the  line  drawn  from  the  seat  to  the  common 
intersection  of  the  original  and  inclined  planes,  and  thus 
the  point  r  being  the  seat  of  r,  and  /,  the  scat  of  l,  and  the 
plane  passing  through  r  l  s  t,  being  peipendieular  to  q  o,  the 
common  intersection  of  the  inclined  and  original  planes,  r/,?< 
will  be  the  intersection  of  a  plane  passing  through  the  axis 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  intersection  o  q,  and  therefore  pei-- 
pendicular  to  o  u  ;  consequently  r  «  and  /  h  are  at  right 
angles  to,  and  bisect  each  other,  and  are  therefore  the  axes  of 
the  ellipsis. 

The  segment  of  a  cylinder  is  any  portion  of  the  cylinder 
made  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  axis. 

The  plane  parallel  to  the  axis  is  called  the  chord-plane. 
The  two  lines  of  concourse  firmed  by  the  cylindric  surface 
and  the  chord-plane,  are  termed  the  sides  of  the  chord-plane, 
and  the  other  two  lines  of  concourse  made  by  the  chord- 
plane  and  the  two  ends  of  the  solid,  are  terined  the  bases  or 
ends  of  the  chord-plane. 

A  line  of  position  is  said  to  be  given,  when  the  said  line  is 
drawn  through  a  given  point  on  each  side  of  the  chord-plane, 
or  to  make  a  given  angle  at  a  given  point  in  the  base  of  the 
chord-plane,  or  in  the  base  continued. 

The  position  of  the  cutting  plane  is  said  to  be  given,  when 
the  line  of  position  through  which  the  cutting  plane  passes, 
and  the  angle  which  the  cutting  plane  and  chord  plane  make 
with  each  other,  are  known. 

Figures  4  and  5. —  To  find  the  section  of  the  segment  of 
a  cylinder ;  given  its  base  and  the  position  of  the  cutting 
plane. — Let  a  b  c  be  the  base  of  the  solid,  A  d  and  c  e 
the  sides  of  the  chord  plane  perpendicularly  situated  in 
respect  of  a  c,  the  chord  of  the  base,  and  let  d  e  be  the  line 
of  position  of  the  cutting  plane.  Through  any  point/ in  d  e 
draw  hfg,  at  right  angles  to  d  e;  make  the  angle  (//A- equal 
to  the  inclination  which  the  planes  of  the  chord  plane  and  sec- 
tion make  with  each  other  ;  take  any  point  m  ii\fg,  Figure  4, 
or  fh,  Figured,  and  draw  to  k  parallel  to  d  e,  cutting/i-  in  k, 
and  m  n  parallel  to  c  a,  cutting d  e  at  n ;  make/ A  equal  to/X-, 
and  join  h  n.  Parallel  to  e  c  draw  m  q,  cutting  a  c  at  p,  and 
n  r,  meeting  it  at  r :  make  p  q  equal  to  m  k,  and  join  r  q.  To 
find  any  point  in  the  curve  of  the  section,  take  any  point,  a, 
in  the  "arc  a  b  c  ;  draw  a  b  parallel  to  q  r,  cutting  a  c  at  6  ; 
draw  b  c  parallel  to  c  e,  cutting  d  e  at  c,  and  draw  c  d 
parallel  to  n  h  ;  make  c  d  equal  lo  b  a,  and  the  point  (/  is  in 
the  curve. 

In  the  same  manner,  as  many  points  may  be  found  as  will 
be  sufticient  to  draw  the  curve  with  accuracy. 

This  method  is  an  improvement  upon  that  published  in 
The  Carpenters  Guide,  in  the  year  1792  ;  but  as  that 
method  has  been  verv  generally  employed,  it  will  be  well  to 
insert  it  likewise  in  the  plate,  as  the  coiniection  of  the  prin- 
ciple  may  be  clearly  deduced  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

Figures  6  and  l.—To  find  the  section  of  the  segment  of 
a  cylinder,  by  another  and  older  method,  supposing  everything 
given  as  before.— Let  a  b  c,  No.  2.  be  the  inclinations  of  the 


CYL 


2-24 


CYL 


planes  of  the  chord  plane  and  section.  In  No.  2,  draw  b  d 
perpendicular  to  b  a,  and  make  b  d  equal  to  the  distance 
Ijrtween  the  parallel  lints  e  f  and  z  m,  No.  1,  and  draw  d  c 
parallel  to  B  A.  Through  any  point,  d  in  i  k,  No.  1,  draw 
N  V  at  right  angles  to  i  k  ;  make  d  n  equal  to  d  c,  No.  2,  and 
(/  V,  No.  1,  equal  to  b  d,  No.  2.  In  No.  1  draw  n  o  parallel 
to  V  E,  meeting  i  k  at  o,  and  join  o  v.  Draw  n  q  and  o  l 
parallel  to  k  f,  meeting  e  f  at  q  and  l  ;  produce  n  q,  meeting 
z  M  (irodueed  at  v,  and  join  l  t.  Draw  any  number  of  lines 
a  a,  h  b,c  c,  &c.,  parallel  to  o  l,  cutting  the  lines  e  f  and  i  k, 
lit  the  points  a,  h,  c  ;  from  the  points  «,  /^,  c,  in  i  k,  draw  the 
lines  a  1,  62,  c  3,  &c.,  parallel  to  o  v,  and  through  the  points 
o,  li,  c,  in  E  F.  draw  the  lines  a  I,  6  2,  c  3,  &c.,  parallel  to 
L  T.  Make  all  the  linos  a  1,  6  2,  c  3,  &c.,  from  i  k,  equal 
to  their  corresponding  distances  o  1,  6  2,  c  3,  &c.,  from  e  f. 
A  curve  being  drawn  through  the  points  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  the' 
extremities  of  the  ordinates  fjom  i  k,  will  give  the  section 
I  V  K  I  of  the  segment  of  the  cylinder.  Or  take  any  point 
point  L  in  e  f,  and  draw  l  o  parallel  to  f  k,  the  one  side  of 
the  rectangle,  cutting  i  k  at  o;  produce  o  l  to  m,  and  draw 
z  M  parallel  to  E  F,  to  touch  the  base  in  m.  In  No.  2,  draw 
B  D  at  a  right  angle  with  b  a  ;  make  b  d  equal  to  l  m,  and 
draw  D  c  parallel  to  b  a.  In  No.  1,  draw  c  ii  parallel  to  i  k, 
at  the  distance  D  c.  No.  2  ;  draw  o  N  parallel  to  E  F,  cutting 
G  n  at  N  ;  draw  n  q  parallel  to  o  l,  cutting  e  f  at  q  ;  produce 
N  Q  to  meet  z  M  produced  at  y,  and  join  L  y  ;  draw  n  v  at 
right  angles  to  i  k,  cutting  i  k  at  (/  ;  make  d  v  equal  to  b  c, 
and  join  o  v  ;  then  proceed  to  find  the  ordinates  as  before. 

Th"  difference  between  the  old  and  the  first  method  is,  that 
in  the  old  methoil,  the  lireadth  of  the  segment  or  base  of  the 
solid  is  limited,  in  order  to  find  the  dissecting  lines  of  the 
ordinates,  and  two  diagrams  are  employed  in  the  construction  ; 
whereas  in  the  first  method,  one  diagram  only  is  used,  and 
the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  planes  of  the  section  and  chord 
being  made  as  directed,  the  measure  of  the  first  side  of  the 
hypothenusal  side  of  the  right-angled  triangle  formed  by  it, 
is  arbitrary  ;  by  this  the  other  parts  are  regulated.  The  reader 
must  observe,  that  it  is  only  the  angles  which  are  required  ; 
the  length  of  the  lines  is  of  no  other  consequence  than,  if 
they  be  too  long,  they  will  be  rather  cumbrous,  and  if  too 
short  they  will  not  be  a  sufficient  guide  for  drawing  the 
ordinates.  This  limitation  has  been  the  occasion  of  some  not 
under.stauding  the  principle,  by  supposing  the  point  v  to  be 
in  the  curve,  which  may  be  either  on  the  one  side  or  the 
other,  according  to  this  method, 

A  knowledge  of  the  sections  of  prisms,  which  include 
segmental  cvliiiders,  is  an  ac(piisition  of  the  first  irnpiu-fance 
to  the  carpenter  and  joiner,  and  is  the  very  essence  of  the 
art  of  constructing  hand-railings  and  groins. 

The  method  by  having  the  position  of  the  cutting  plane,  is 
not  so  Well  adapted  to  practice,  as  that  of  having  three  given 
points  on  the  surface  of  the  segmental  cylinder, 

Under  such  given  data  we  have  already  shown  how  the 
section  is  to  be  found  for  a  whole  cylinder,  by  describing  the 
curve  through  the  extremities  of  the  axis,  which  are  given  in 
position.  \Ve  shall  now  show  how  the  curve  is  to  be  obtained 
by  ordinates  in  the  segmental  cylinder  from  the  same  data. 

'  1h  a  segment  of  a  cylinder  are  given  three  points,  one  on 
each  com'mon  Hue  of  the  ehord-planc,  and  curved  surfitce, 
and  one  upon  the  intermediate  curved  surface  itself,  to  find 
the  section  passing  through  these  three  points. 

Firpircs  8  and  9. — In  both  figures  let  A  n  c  be  the  base  of 
the  solid,  and  a.  b,  c,  the  seats  of  the  given  points,  draw  a  d 
and  c  E  perpendicular  to  a  c  :  make  a  d  equal  to  the  height 
of  t  he  point  upon  its  seat  a,  and  c  e  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
point  upon  its  scat  c  ;  also  from  c  e  take  c  f  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  intermediate  point,  from  its  seat  b.     Draw  f  o 


parallel  to  a  c,  cutting  d  e  in  o  ;  draw  c.  h  parallel 
to  e  c,  cutting  AC  at  n ;  join  ii  b.  Produce  c  a  and 
E  D  to  meet  in  i ;  in  e  i,  Figure  8,  also  in  e  i  produced  Figure 
9,  take  any  point,  n,  and  draw  n  m  perpendicular  to  n  e  ; 
prculuce  M  N  to  meet  I  c  at  K,  Figure  8  ;  in  Figure  9,  M  N 
will  cut  c  I,  produced  in  k.  In  both  figures  draw  k  l  per- 
pendicular to  K  c,  and  i  l  parallel  to  ii  b  ;  fi-om  i,  with  the 
distance  i  l,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  n  m,  at  m  ;  join  i  m. 

To  find  any  point  in  the  curve  of  the  section;  take  any 
point  o,  in  a  c,  and  draw  a  h  parallel  to  l  i,  cutting  the  arc 
A  B  c  at  6,  draw  a  c  parallel  to  c  e  cutting  d  e  in  c  ;  draw  c  d 
parallel  to  i  m  ;  make  c  d  equal  to  a  h,  and  (/  is  a  point  in  the 
curve.  In  the  same  manner  as  many  points  may  be  foiuid  as 
will  be  sufiicieiit  to  complete  the  section. 

Another  method  Figure  10,  let  a  b  c  be  the  base  of  the 
segment  as  before  ;  also,  let  a,  b,  c,  be  the  seats  of  the  three 
points,  as  before  ;  and  r  gh  their  respective  heights.  Draw 
a  D,  B  p,  c  E,  each  perpendicular  to  a  c,  respectively  eqtial  to 
F,  G,  II ;  draw  a  n  i  and  d  v  i,  also  a  c  k  and  d  e  k  ;  then  draw 
the  iutersiction  i  k.  In  d  k  take  any  point  l,  and  draw  i,  m 
perpendicular  to  D  K ;  produce  m  l  to  meet  a  k  at  n  ;  draw  n  o 
perpendicular  to  A  K,  cutting  i  K  at  o.  From  k,  with  the  dis- 
tance K  o  describe  an  arc,  cutting  i,  m  at  M,  and  join  K  M. 

Then,  to  find  any  point  rf,  in  the  curve  of  the  section  ;  in 
A  c  take  any  point  a  ;  draw  a  b  parallel  to  k  o,  meeting  the 
arc  ABC  at  h  ;  draw  a  c  parallel  to  a  d,  meeting  d  e  at  c  ; 
draw  c  d  parallel  to  k  m,  and  make  c  d  equal  to  a  h  ;  and  thus 
for  any  other  point. 

The  very  same  description  of  words  applies  to  Figure  11, 
except  that  the  point  l  is  in  d  k  produced,  instead  of  between 
D  and  K,  and  also  the  point  n,  in  a  k  produced,  instead  of 
between  a  and  k.  The  same  is  also  the  case  with  the  preced- 
ing method. 

Figure  12.  To  form  the  edge  of  the  envelope  of  a  cylindiio 
surface,  terminated  by  a  line,  so  that,  when  the  envelope  is 
folded  upon  the  cylindric  surface,  the  edge  formed  may  coin- 
cide with  a  plane  passing  through  three  given  points,  one  in 
each  common  line  of  the  chord-plane  and  curved  surface,  and 
the  other  in  the  intermediate  curved  sni'face  itself 

Let  A  n  c  be  the  base  of  the  solid  ;  draw  a  n  and  c  e  per- 
pendicular to  A  c,  making  a  d  equal  to  the  height  of  the  point, 
whose  seat  is  a,  and  c  e  equal  to  the  height  of  the  point,  whose 
seat  is  c  ;  make  c  f  on  c  e  equal  to  the  height  of  the  point, 
whose  seat  is  b,  and  join  d  e.  Draw  f  g  parallel  to  c  a,  cut- 
ting E  D  at  G  ;  draw  g  n  parallel  to  k  c,  cutting  c  a  at  ii,  and 
join  II  B,  Divide  the  arc  ABC  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts,  and  extend  them  upon  a  c  produced  to  i,  marking  the 
j)oints  of  division  at  a,  b,  c,  &c.,  to  i  ;  the  corresponding 
points  of  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  on  the  arc  cab. 

To  find  any  point  in  the  line  of  the  envelope  required,  sup- 
pose  that  which  corresponds  to  its  seat  1,  on  the  base  of  the 
solid. 

Draw  1  /(  parallel  to  B  ii,  cutting  A  c  in  /(  ;  draw  h  h 
parallel  to  c  e,  cutting  e  d  at  h  ;  also  draw  a  p  parallel  to 
c  E,  and  make  n  p  equal  h  A,  then  p  is  a  point  in  the  line 
required  ;  and  thus  the  whole  line  v.  p  qr  s  t  u  v  K  is  obtained, 
and  this  line  is  the  edge  of  the  envelope  E  c  i  k  required. 

Cylinder,  Scalinc.  When  the  axis  of  a  cylinder  stands 
at  oblique  angles  with  its  base,  it  is  called  a  scaline  or  oblique 
cylinder. 

CYLIi\DRlCAL,  something  peculiar,  similar,  or  relating 
to  a  cylinder. 

Cylindrical  Ceiling,  a  ceiling  which  is  either  a  semi- 
cylinder,  or  a  segment  less  than  a  semi-cylinder. 

Cylindrical  ceilings  are  vulgarly  called  by  some  workmen 
waggnn-liended  ceilings. 

When  an  apartment  is  suflfieiently  high,  a  semi-cylindric 


€inLi:^]D)Em. 


PL.ITE  [ 


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Tnrenb  \byPN 

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Ufttmi  bv  P NwhoUon. 


CYL 


2-25 


CYZ 


coving  ought  to  be  adopted,  as  it  rises  from  the  surface  of  the 
wall,  which  forms  a  tangent  plane  to  the  curvature  at  the 
springing  of  tlie  arch ;  whereas  the  tangent  plane  at  the 
springing  of  a  ceiling,  which  is  less  than  a  semi-cylinder, 
always  forms  an  angle  with  the  plane  of  the  wall,  and  excites 
the  idea  of  lameness  or  inipeifec-tion.  Tiiis  kind  is  therefore 
only  employed  when  the  height  of  the  apartment  is  not 
sufficiently  great  to  admit  of  a  semi-cylindiic  ceiling. 

A  semi-cylindrical  ceiling  admits  of  being  pierced  by 
lunettes,  which  are  windows  or  openings  of  less  height  than 
the  ceiling,  and  conscqueiilly  form  cylindro-eylindric  arches, 
by  the  intersection  of  the  curved  surfaces. 

No  traces  of  cylindrical  ceilings  are  to  be  found  among  the 
ruins  of  Grecian  edifices,  but  numerous  instances  are  to  be 
met  with  ainong  the  Romans,  in  their  small  temples  and  the 
side-branches  of  the  larger  ones.  The  ceiling  of  the  temple 
of  ^sculapius,  in  the  palace  of  Dioclesian,  at  Spalatro,  in 
Dalmatia,  is  a  decided  instance.  Tlie  proper  decorations  for 
cylindrical  ceilings  are  coffers,  separated  at  regular  intervals 
by  bands  or  arcs  (hmbteux,  or,  as  called  by  some,  soffits,  which 
are  enriched  with  guilloches. 

CvLrNDRicAL  CoLUMN.     See  Column. 

Cylindrical  Vaulting,  a  vault  which  is  the  portion  of 
a  cylinder.  Its  section  is  generally  a  semicircle,  though 
sometimes,  for  want  of  room,  it  is  a  smaller  segment.  In 
cylindrical  vaulting,  the  equilibrium  of  the  arch  and  the 
horizontal  thrust  of  the  piers  must  be  attended  to. 

Cylindrical  Walling,  is  that  erected  upon  a  circular 
plan,  which  of  course  forms  a  cylinder,  or  a  portion  of  a 
cylinder,  according  as  the  plan  is  an  entire  circumference,  or 
only  a  segment. 

Cylindrical  walling  is  generally  estimated  at  about  half  as 
much  more  than  the  price  of  plain  walling;  but  the  price 
or  ratio  ought  to  depend  upon  the  diamt;ter,  and  should  be 
greater  as  the  diameter  is  less. 

Cylindrical  Work,  any  kind  of  work,  ]iartaking  of  the 
shape  of  a  cylinder,  of  any  material,  whether  stone,  brick, 
wood,  &c. 

Cylindrical  Work,  in  joinery.     See  Joinery. 

CYLINDROID,  (from  KvXivdpog,  cylinder,  and  etdof,  form) 
a  solid  of  such  property,  that  all  sections  parallel  to  either 
end,  are  equal  and  similar  ellipses,  and  that  a  straight 
line,  called  the  axis,  will  pass  through  the  centre  of  the 
ellipses. 

AH  the  axal  sections  of  a  cylindroid,  and  every  section 
parallel  to  an  axal  section,  are  parallelograms  or  rectangles. 

All  parallel  sections  of  a  cylindroid  are  equi-angular,  and 
of  equal  length  to  the  axis. 

If  an  oblique  cylinder  be  cut  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to 
the  axis,  near  to  each  end,  it  will  be  cut  into  three  parts, 
of  which  the  middle  portion  will  be  a  cylindroid. 

The  cylindroid  is  frequently  employed  in  vaulting,  instead 
of  a  segmental  cylinder,  less  than  the  half,  where  the  height 
would  not  admit  of  a  semi  cylinder.  It  is  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  composition  of  groins,  and  where  the  transverse 
openings  vary  in  their  horizontal  dimensions,  and  where  it  is 
required  to  keep  the  angles  of  the  groin  straight,  one  of  the 
simple  vaults  is  necessarily  a  semi-cylindroid. 

The  solidity  of  a  cylindroid  is  found,  as  in  the  prism  or 
cylinder,  by  multiplying  the  area  of  one  of  the  ends  by  the 
distance  between  the  two. 

The  superficial  content  of  the  curved  surface  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  girt  by  the  length  of  the  axis,  as  in  the 
cylinder. 

The  method  of  finding  the  envelope  is  the  same  as  that  of 
29 


a  cylinder  with  an  edge,  so  that  when  the  envelope  is  lapped 
roiuid  the  solid,  its  edge  may  coincide  with  a  plane  passing 
through  three  given  points. 

The  method  of  finding  the  envelopes  of  cylinders  and  cylin- 
droids,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  parts  of  Stereography,  not 
only  in  forming  the  coverings  of  bodies,  but  in  forming  the 
angles  of  all  parts  of  work,  where  the  surfaces  of  two  different 
solids  meet  each  other. 

CYMA-RECTA.     See  Cymatium. 

CY'MATIUM,  Cima,  Cyma,  or  Sima  (from  KVfiaTiov, 
undttia,  the  diminutive  ofKVfia,  a  wave)  a  moulding,  whose  sec- 
tion is  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure;  it  is  commonly  denominated 
by  workmen  an  ogee.  This  is  the  strict  sense  in  which  the 
term  ought  to  be  employed,  though  Vitruvius  uses  it  for  any 
subordinate  moulding  which  terminates  a  principal  member, 
and  the  particular  form  is  specified  by  prefixing  another  word, 
as  Doric  cymatium,  Lesbian  cymatium.  In  the  same  sense  also 
he  uses  the  word  Cijsis,  which  signifies  separation.  But 
notwithstanding  this  great  authority,  in  the  general  usage 
of  the  term  we  shall  abide  by  the  definition  as  above, 
signifying  an  undulated  form,  as  being  most  generally 
understood. 

When  the  concave  part  of  the  moulding  projects  beyond 
the  convex  part,  the  cymatium  is  denominated  a  sima-recta  ; 
l)Ut  when  the  convex  part  has  the  greatest  projection,  the 
cymatium  is  denominated  a  sima-inversa.  The  siina-recta  is 
otherwise  called  r/ula-recta,  or  doucine,  and  the  sima-inversa, 
gula-inversa,  or  talon.  Palladio  distinguishes  the  cymatium 
of  the  cornice  by  the  name  intavolata.  Our  architects,  in 
speaking  of  the  uppermost  member  of  a  cornice,  call  it  cima, 
ci/ma,  or  ci/rnafiiim  ;  but  we  see  no  reason  for  the  word  being 
appropriated  to  this  situation,  as  the  propriety  of  terms  con- 
sists in  their  proper  application  to  definite  forms. 

The  cymatia  which  are  particularized  by  the  terms  Tuscan, 
Doric,  and  Lesbian,  mentioned  by  Vitruvius,  are  not  defined 
by  this  ancient  author,  and  their  meaning  is  only  guessed  at 
by  his  commentators  and  readers. 

The  Tuscan  is  supposed  to  be  an  ovolo,  or  quarter-round ; 
the  Doric,  an  ovolo,  or  cavetto  ;  and  the  Lesbian,  the  sima- 
inversa,  or  talon. 

Philander  makes  two  Doric  cymatia,  one  of  which,  be  says, 
is  that  said  to  be  Tuscan.  The  projeoture  allowed  to  the 
Doric  and  Lesbian  cymatia,  is  subduple  of  the  height. 

CYMBIA,  a  fillet.     See  Fillet. 

CYPHERING.     See  Chamfering,  which  is  most  in  use. 

CYZICENE,  Triclinium,  or  Hall,  an  apartment  of 
ancient  Grecian  houses,  in  the  porticos,  which  look  towards 
the  north. 

It  is  thus  explained  by  Vitruvius,  book  vi.  chap.  vi. 
"  There  are  some  mci,  not  made  in  the  Italian  manner,  these 
the  Greeks  call  cyzicenus.  They  arc  situated  towards  the 
north,  generally  have  a  view-  of  the  garden,  and  have  valved 
windows  in  the  middle.  They  are  of  such  length  and 
breadth,  that  two  triclinia,  with  their  surrounding  appen- 
dages may  be  placed  opposite  to  each  other  ;  they  have  also 
valved  windows  on  the  right  and  left,  that  the  garden  may 
be  seen  through  the  space  of  the  window^s :  their  height  is 
equal  to  one  and  one-half  their  breadth." 

The  cyzicenus  or  cyzicena,  were  of  the  same  use  among 
the  Greeks,  that  the  triclinia  and  coenacula  were  among 
the  Romans. 

CYZICUM  MARMOR,  a  species  of  marble,  so  called  by 
the  ancients,  from  the  great  use  made  of  it  by  a  statuary 
named  Cyziciis.  It  was  white,  with  fine  narrow  veins  of 
black,  and  was  also  called  proconnessium. 


DAI 


»26 


DAI 


D. 


DADO  (an  Italian  word,  signifjing  a  die),  a  term  for  the 
die  or  plain  fice  of  a  pedestal ;  that  part  of  a  room  com- 
jirehenileil  between  the  base  and  surbaso.  The  dado  employed 
ill  the  interiors  of  buildings,  is  a  continuous  pedestal,  with 
a  plinth  and  base  mouMing,  and  a  cornice  or  dado  moulding 
suiniounling  the  die.  This  continuous  pedestal  with  its  mould- 
ing is  sonutiines  only  made  of  stucco  or  plaster;  but  in  well- 
li^i^h^■d  rooms  is  constructed  of  wood,  and  is  usually  about  the 
height  (if  the  back  of  a  chair.  Its  present  purpose,  when  em- 
]>loy  ed,  is  to  protect  the  stucco-work  or  paper  of  the  walls,  but 
oiiginally  it  was  used  as  an  architectin-al  decoration  to  a  room. 

The  dado  is  made  of  deal  boards,  glued  edge  to  ed^e,  the 
heading  joints  ploughed  and  tongucd  together,  and  the  back 
keyed  ;  the  stuff  generally  employed  for  this  purpose  is  whole 
deal  ;  the  keys  are  always  made  to  taper  in  their  breadth, 
and  may  be  about  three  inches  broad  in  the  middle  ;  they 
are  let  into  the  back  of  the  dado  by  a  transverse  groove, 
which  is  cither  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  surface,  or  it 
is  first  made  of  a  square  section,  which  is  again  grooved  on 
each  side  next  to  the  bottom.  Though  the  keys  should 
sin-ink,  those  of  this  last  form  will  always  keep  their  inner 
suitace  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  grooves. 

Some  workmen  prefer  the  broad  end  of  the  key  to  be 
placed  downwards  ;  the  lower  end  should  rest  firmly,  either 
upon  the  ground  or  floor,  and  the  dado  should  be  left  at 
liberty  to  slide  downwards  upon  the  keys.  Others,  again, 
jireter  the  wide  end  of  the  key  to  be  placed  upwards,  and 
tlie  dado  to  be  fixed  by  this  ;  the  key.  as  it  shrinks,  will  fall 
down  from  its  own  weight. 

The  dado  should  be  grooved  and  tongued  at  the  internal 
angles,  and  mitred,  or  made  with  a  lap  and  mitre,  at  the 
external  ones. 

The  dado  is  also  framed  with  panels,  but  this  mode  is 
seldom  seen  in  London  ;  it  is,  however,  very  frequently 
so  prepared  in  the  country. 

DAGOUNG,  or  Shcedaoon.  temple  of  (signifying  temple 
of  Golden  Dagon)  an  edifice  situated  about  two  miles  and 
a  half  north  of  Rangoon,  the  chief  port  of  the  Birinan  empire. 
It  is  a  very  elegant  building,  and  though  not  so  high  by  25 
or  30  feet,  is  much  more  ornaEiiental  than  that  of  Shoemadoe, 
at  Pegue. 

It  is  surrotnided  by  a  terrace,  which  stands  upon  a  rocky 
eminence,  consiilerably  higher  than  the  circumjacent  countrv. 
The  building  is  ascended  by  100  steps,  which  are  now  very 
tuueli  in  decay  ;  its  elevated  situation  makes  it  a  conspicuous 
object  for  many  miles.  The  fop  and  the  whole  spire  are 
richly  gilt,  so  that  when  the  sun  shines,  they  exhibit  a  most 
splendi.l   .■ippearancc. 

DA  1 11 V,  the  name  usually  given  to  the  place  where  the 
milk  of  cows  is  kept,  and  converted  into  butter  or  cheese. 
The  occupatii)n  is  sometimes  Ciiiled  dairi/hig  ;  and  the  land 
which  is  chiefly  appropriated  to  feed  cows  for  this  purpose, 
is  called  a  dainj-furm. 

"  A  dairy-house,'"  observes  a  writer  in  the  Penny  Cyclo- 
paedia, "  should  be  situated  on  a  dry  spot  somewhat  elevated, 
on  the  side  of  a  gentle  declivity,  and  on  a  porous  soil.  It 
should  be  on  the  west  or  north-west  side  of  a  hill,  if  possilile, 
or  at  least  >heltered  from  the  north,  east,  and  south,  by  high 
trees.  In  some  countries,  where  there  are  natural  caveins 
with  an  opening  to  the  west,  and  springs  of  water  at  hand,  | 


the  best  and  coolest  dairies  are  thus  prepared  by  nature. 
Artificial  excavations  in  the  sides  of  freestone  rocks  are 
sometimes  formed  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  milk,  and  more 
frequently  wine.  Where  no  such  natural  advantages  exist, 
the  reqtiisite  coolness  in  summer,  and  equal  temperature  in 
winter,  which  are  essential  in  a  good  dairy,  may  be  obtained 
by  sinking  the  floor  of  the  dairy  some  feet  imder  ground, 
and  forming  an  arched  roof  of  stone  or  brick.  In  cold  climates 
flues  around  the  dairy  are  a  great  advantage  in  winter  ;  and 
an  ice-hoMsc  in  warm  summers  is  equally  useful.  But  these 
are  only  adajited  to  those  dairies  which  are  kept  more  as  a 
luxury  than  as  an  object  of  profit.  In  mountainous  countries, 
suchasSw  itzerland,  where  the  summers  are  hot  in  the  valleys, 
and  the  tops  of  the  mountains  or  high  valleys  between  them 
are  covered  with  fine  pastures,  the  whole  estaltlishment  of 
the  dairy  is  removed  to  a  higher  and  cooler  atmosphere, 
where  the  best  butter  .and  cheese  are  made.  Coolness  is  also 
produced  by  the  evaporation  of  water,  an  abundant  supply 
of  which  is  essential  to  every  dairy.  It  is  also  a  great  advan- 
tage, if  a  pure  stream  can  be  made  to  pass  through  the  dairy, 
with  a  current  of  air  to  carry  off  the  efHuvia,  and  keep  the 
air  continually  renewed." 

The  dairy,  in  farm  building,  should  be  so  situated,  with 
respect  to  other  ofliees,  as  to  be  convenient,  and  to  prevent 
unnccess.ary  labour. 

A  milk  dairy  requires  at  least  two  good  rooms,  one  for  the 
reception  of  the  milk,  and  another  for  the  purpose  of  serving 
it  out,  and  fir  scalding,  cleaning,  and  airing  the  different 
utensils. 

The  entrance  to  the  dairy  should  commimicate  with  the 
scalding-room,  which  should  liave  a  copper,  for  heating  water 
and  other  purposes,  placed  in  a  shed  adjoining,  in  order  that 
the  heat  may  be  kept  at  as  great  a  distance  as  possible  from 
the  milk.  In  the  bottom  of  the  copper  is  fixed  a  cock,  tor 
conveying  the  hot  water  through  a  trough  or  pipe,  across  the 
scalding-room,  in  which  another  cock  should  be  fixed,  for 
the  convenience  of  washing  smaller  titensils  ;  the  heated 
water  passes  through  the  wall  into  the  milk-leads  for  the 
purpose  of  scalding  the  whole  range  of  pans,  trays,  or  coolers, 
and  may  be  retained  at  pleasure.  The  trough  for  the  passage 
of  the  water  through  the  walls  of  the  dairy,  should  be  of 
sufficient  dimensions  to  admit  the  discharging  a  pailful  of  milk 
into  it  with  safety,  having  a  hair-sieve  so  jilaced  in  it,  that 
the  whole  of  the  milk  of  the  cows  may  be  made  to  pass 
through  it  into  the  necessary  trays  or  coolers,  in  which  it  is 
to  stand  in  order  to  keep  it  clean.  A  trough,  pipe,  or  some 
other  contrivance,  should  be  introduced,  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  the  waste  milk,  whey.  <Sic.,  frotn  the  dairy-house 
to  the  cisterns  containing  the  wash  for  the  pigs. 

The  temperature  may  be  regulated  cither  l)y  double  walls 
and  roofs,  or  by  means  of  holK>w  walls  ;  and  for  common 
purposes,  by  having  8  or  10  inches  in  width  from  the  wall 
to  the  lath  and  plaster,  as  is  suggested  by  Mr.  Loudon,  in  his 
Treatise  on  Country  Residences. 

The  size  of  milk-houses  should  be  regulated  by  the  number 
of  cows.  The  usual  dimensions  in  the  Gloucester  dairy- 
houses,  f  )r  40  cows,  are  20  feet  by  10,  and  for  100  cows, 
30  feet  by  40.  To  accomplish  the  objects  of  convenience, 
the  situation  of  the  dairy  should  be  near  the  cow-standings, 
so  that  the  milk   may  be  readily  conveyed  to  them.     See 


T,  i.-  --;-  \  i   I 


/  VV  \'\  VA 

y 

r 

7^ 

'i 

j 

P^ 

^™i# 


ert  Ard\'  a£l 


N°  1 .  Dancette  MonldiTig. 

N°2.DenUl. 

N"  3.  Diagonal  Buttress, 

N°  4  Diaper 


NPS.Ditriilyph  :.      L  ,  Dovetail  M.. 

N"  6. Dogs.  N".  10. Dripstone, 

T^°  7.  Dogtooth  Moulding,  N».ll.Dro-ps 

N9  8. Dormer.  N<!12EgJs 


.'j.Kn^a^ed  Column, 
N"  14,  Entablature 
N°15.Entre3ole. 


BJhfW.SL: 


DAI 


227 


DEA 


Dr.    Young's   Calendar   of  Hushandry,  and    Mr.   Loudon's 
Trejlise  on  Coniilnj  Residences. 

Gentlemen's  dairies  ai  e  often  built  expensively,  and  highly 
ornaniontod ;  but  they  seldom  unite  all  the  eonvcniences 
essential  to  a  <;ood  dairy,  generally  from  a  want  of  practical 
knowledge  of  the  sid>ject  in  those  by  whom  they  are  designed, 
hi  Switzerland  and  Holland,  the  cow-house  and  dairy  often 
have  a  very  neat  appearance  within  a  short  distance  from  the 
principal  residence.  In  the  commun  dairy-farms  in  Holland, 
the  farmer  and  his  family  freipiently  live  under  the  same 
roof  with  the  cows  ;  in  north  Holland  and  Friesland,  a  cow- 
house is  as  clean  as  any  dwelling-house,  and  the  family  often 
assemble  and  take  their  meals  in  it. 

The  following  description  of  a  cow-house  and  dairy  under 
one  roof,  combines  all  that  is  useful,  with  considerable  neat- 
ness internally  and  externally.  "It  is  a  building  about  sixty 
(ect  long,  by  thirty  wide,  with  a  veranda  running  round 
three  sides  of  it.  The  dwelling  is  not  here  attached,  as  it 
usually  isincommondairies,  and  the  building  is  not  surrounded 
by  a  farm-yard  ;  these  are  the  only  eiicumstiinees  in  which 
it  differs  from  that  of  a  common  peasant.  The  dairy-room 
is  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  soil,  and  is  paved  with  brick. 
The  sides  are  covered  with  Dutch  tiles,  and  the  arched  joof 
with  hard  cement.  The  cow-house,  like  all  in  Holland,  has 
a  broad  passage  in  the  middle,  and  the  cows  stand  with  their 
heads  towards  this  pa^^sage,  which  is  paved  with  clinkers  or 
bricks  set  on  edge.  Their  tails  are  towards  the  wall,  along 
which  runs  a  broad  gutter  sunk  six  or  eight  inches  below 
the  level  of  the  place  on  which  the  cows  stand.  This  gutter 
slopes  towards  a  sink  covered  with  an  iron  grate,  which 
communicates  by  a  broad  arched  drain  with  a  vaulted  tank 
into  which  all  the  liquid  flows.  The  gutter  is  washed  clean 
twice  a  day  before  the  cows  are  milked.  The  cows  stand  or 
lie  on  a  sloping  brick-floor,  and  have  but  a  small  quantity 
of  litter  allowed  them,  which  is  removed  every  day,  and 
carried  to  the  dung-heap,  or  to  the  pig-sties,  to  be  more  fully 
converted  intodnng.  Whenever  the  litter  is  removed,  the  bricks 
are  swept  clean,  and  in  summer  they  are  washed  with  water." 

In  Holland,  the  cows  never  leave  the  house  from  November 
till  May.  In  summer  they  are  driven  home  to  be  milked,  if 
in  pastures  near  to  the  cow-house,  but  if  the  pastures  are  far 
ofl",  they  are  milked  there,  and  the  milk  is  brought  home  in 
boats.  This  is  thought  not  so  good  for  the  butter,  which 
is  then  churned  from  the  whole  quantity  of  the  milk,  without 
allowing  the  cream  to  rise.  The  finest  butter  is  always  made 
from  the  cream  as  fresh  as  possible,  and  the  milk  should,  to 
make  this  cream  rise,  be  set  as  soon  as  milked.  The  best 
quality  of  butter  is  churned  from  cream  skimmed  from  the 
milk  after  six  hours  setting;  an  inferior  kind,  from  a  second 
skimming. 

The  utensils  of  the  dairy,  such  as  pails,  churns,  vats,  &c. 
are  usually  made  of  white  wood,  and  require  to  be  kept,  as 
does  everything  about  a  dairy,  scrupulously  clean  and  neat. 
Utensils  of  brass  and  tin  are  sometimes  used  ;  in  Holland, 
the  milk  is  invariably  carried  in  brass  vessels.  There  is  some 
danger  in  the  use  of  brass  utensils,  but  a  very  little  attention 
will  obviate  it.  Cast-iron  pans  have  been  invented,  tinned 
in-^ide  ;  but  there  is  nothing  so  safe,  or  so  neat,  as  well-glazed 
white  crockery  ware  of  the  common  oval  from. 

A  dairy  for  cheese,  well  constructed,  should  consist  of  four 
rooms  :  one  for  the  reception  of  the  milk  ;  another  for  the 
scalding  and  pressing  of  the  cheese;  a  third  for  the  purpose 
of  salting;  and  the  fourth  for  stowing  the  cheese,  which  last 
may  be  a  loft  made  over  the  dairy,  though  it  is  sometimes 
placed  at  a  distance,  which  makes  it  inconvenient. 

The  butter  dairy  should  consist  of  three  apartments, 
namely,  a  milk-room,  a  churning-room,  and  a  room  for  the 


diffeient  utensils,  and  for  cleaning  and  airing  them  in.  The 
churning-room  should  be  fitted  up  with  the  necessary 
apjiaratus. 

D.\1S,  or  Deis,  the  raised  platfurm  or  wooden  flooring 
which  was  laid  at  the  upper  end  of  a  large  hall  or  banqueting 
room,  such  as  is  still  seen  in  college-halls,  and  in  most  of  the 
halls  belonging  to  the  city-companies  in  London,  and  those 
of  the  inns  of  court. 

In  royal  halls,  there  were  more  than  one  dels.  At  a 
dinner  which  Charles  V.  of  France  gave  to  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.  in  1377,  there  were  Jive  deis.  The  principal 
table  in  entertainments  of  state  is  always  placed  on  the  dais. 
Also  a  seat  with  a  high  back,  and  sometimes  with  a  canopy, 
for  those  who  sat  at  the  upper  table.  Sometimes  the  canopy 
itself 

DAM,  a  boundary  or  confinement ;  as,  to  dam  up,  or,  to 
dam  out. 

Dam,  a  bank,  or  mole,  constructed  of  stone,  timber,  or  any 
other  materials,  for  penning  up  water,  in  order  to  divert  its 
course  into  another  direction,  for  turning  a  mill,  or  other 
purpose.     See  Embankment. 

Damper,  a  valve  inserted  in  a  flue  to  regidate  the  draught. 
DANCETTE,  a  name  applied  to  a  moulding  very   fre- 
quently employed  in  Norman    architecture,  and  otherwise 
termed  the  chevron  or  zifiznc/  mouldinrj. 

DARK  TENT,  a  portable  camera  obscura,  formed  like 
a  desk,  and  fitted  up  with  optic  glasses,  to  take  prospects  of 
buildings  and  fortifications. 

DATUM-LINE,  the  base  line  of  a  section  from  which  all 
the  heights  and  depths  are  calculated. 

DAY,  or  Bat,  one  of  the  lights  or  compartments  in  great 
windows  of  the  pointed  style  of  architectuie,  from  mullion 
to  mullion,  clear  of  any  intermediate  one. 

In  the  Saxon  and  early  Norman  styles,  windows  of  moderate 
dimensions  were  without  mullions  ;  but  upon  the  introduction 
of  the  pointed  arch,  windows  becoming  long  and  narrow, 
two  of  these  lancets  placed  together,  in  order  to  transmit  a  suf 
ficient  quantity  of  light,  suggested  theideaofa  single  mullioned 
window,  which  therefore  contained  two  days  or  bays.  From 
this  junction,  windows  with  two  or  more  mullions,  and  three 
or  more  days  or  hays,  succeeded,  until  the  numberof  days  or 
bays  were  multiplied  to  seven,  or  even  nine.  The  windows 
thus  comparted,  were  decorated  with  an  endless  variety  of 
tracery,  consisting  principally  of  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  Cathar- 
ine-wheels, &c. 

From  the  time  of  king  Henry  VIII.,  mullioned  windows 
were  superseded  again  by  plain  window-s.  And  thus  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  great  eastern  and  western  windows  in 
our  cathedrals. 

DEAD  SHOAR.     See  Shoaring. 

DEAFENING,  a  term  used  in  Scotland  for  sound  board- 
ing ;  sometimes  also  used  in  wooden  partitions  for  the  same 
purpose,  viz.  for  preventing  the  communication  of  ^onnd. 

Deafenisg,  in  plastering,  a  term  used  in  Scotland,  for 
Pugging,  which  see. 

DEAL  (fiom  the  Dutch,  deel)  the  wood  of  the  fir-tree,  as 
cut  up  for  the  use  of  building,  which  Is  of  two  kinds,  yellow 
and  white. 

Deals  are  chiefly  imported  from  Christiana,  and  other  parts 
of  Norway  ;  from  Dantzig,  and  several  parts  of  Prussia ; 
from  Petersburg,  Archangel,  and  various  parts  of  Russia. 
They  are  sold  by  the  piece  or  standard. 

In  London,  .stufl^that  is  kept  on  hand,  consists  generally  of 
dealsof  various  lengths,  mo.st  commonly  three  inches  thick,  and 
seldom  exceeding  nine  inches  w  ide.  They  are  broken  or  cut 
down  into  various  thicknesses,  called  boards  or  leaves,  so  that 
a  deal  will  always  have  one  cut  less  than  there  are  leaves. 


DEC 


228 


DEC 


Whon  the  leaves  are  thinner  tlian  half  an  inch,  the  deal  will 
divide  into  five  or  more  parts,  and  is  therefore  termed  Jive-cut 
stuff,  and  thus  the  qualifying  word  is  applied  according  to 
the  number  of  pieces.  Whole  deal  is  one  inch  and  a  quarter 
thick,  and  slit  deal  the  half  of  that. 

Deals  arc  formed  by  sawing  the  trunk  of  a  tree  into 
longitudinal  pieces,  of  more  or  less  thickness,  according  to 
the  purpose  they  are  intended  to  serve.  They  are  rendered 
much  harder  by  throwing  them  into  salt-water  as  soon  as 
they  are  sawu,  keeping  them  in  three  or  four  days,  and  after- 
wards drying  them  by  exposing  them  to  the  air :  l)ut  neither 
this  nor  any  other  method  will  preserve  them  from 
shrinking. 

The  quality  and  well-seasoning  of  deals  are  very  essential 
to  the  construction  of  buildings.  They  arc  employed  in 
naked  flooring,  partitions,  the  boarding  of  floors,  doors, 
windows,  architraves,  cornices,  mouldings,  dados,  plinths, 
bases,  surbases,  wainscoting,  linings,  columns,  pilasters, 
chimney-pieces,  &c. 

White  deal  should  only  be  used  for  inside  work,  as  in  bed- 
chambers ;  it  is  less  liable  to  shrink  than  yellow,  and  being 
a  cheaper  article,  is  to  be  preferred  in  panelling.  Yellow 
deal,  on  account  of  its  hardness,  from  being  saturated  with 
turpentine,  is  more  fit  to  endure  violence  and  e.\posure  to  the 
weather. 

DEBASED,  a  term  applied  to  that  style  of  English  archi- 
tecture, so  to  speak,  which  succeeded  the  Late  or  Perpendicular 
Gothic,  and  in  which  some  peculiarities  of  the  Italian  style 
began  to  be  introduced.  For  more  detailed  information,  See 
Gothic  Architectdre. 

DECAGON  (from  (Je/cct,  ten,  and  ywvia,  an  elbow  or 
corner)  a  plane  figure,  with  ten  sides  and  angles.  If  all  the 
sides  and  angles  be  equal,  it  is  called  a  regular  decagon,  and 
may  be  inscribed  in  a  circle  :  the  method  is  thus  :  first  de- 
scribe a  pentagon,  as  is  shown  under  that  article ;  bisect  each 
of  the  arcs,  of  which  the  sides  of  the  pentagon  are  chords ; 
join  every  point  of  bisection  to  the  extremity  of  each 
adjacent  chord,  and  the  decagon  will  be  completed. 

If  the   side   of   a   regular   decagon   be   1,  its   area  will 


be 


-^5-f  2(5)^  =7.6942088. 


To  find  the  area  of  a  regular  decagon :  multiply  the 
square  of  the  side  by  7.G942088,  and  the  product  will  give 
the  area :  oi-,  for  practical  use,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
side  by  7.0942. 

Example.  What  is  the  area  of  a  decagon,  the  side  of 
which  is  25  feet  ? 

25 
25 


125 
50 


625 
7.6942 

1250 

2500 
5625 
8750 
4375 

4808.8750  equal  the  area  required. 
This  figure  may  also  be  measured  by  the  general  rule   of 
finding  the  superficial   content   of  any  polygon  whatever. 
See  PoLTOON. 


DECAIIEDUO.N  (Greek,  6eKa,  ten,  and  edqa,  a  base.) 
A  solid  llijuri.'  contained  by  ten  sides. 

DECAMETlili  (Greek,  dtKa,  ten,  and  jxerpov,  meaxure,) 
a  French  linear  measui'e  containing  ten  metres,  and  equal  to 
393.71  English  inches. 

DECANICL'M,  a  prison  in  which  ecclesiastical  offenders 
were  confined. 

DECASTYLE,  or  Dec.\sttlos  (from  the  Greek,  6eKa, 
ten,  and  g-vXag,  a  column)  a  colonnade,  or  front  of  a  portico, 
consisting  of  ten  columns. 

DECEMPEDA  (fiom  the  Greek,  dsKanovg;  or /rem  the 
Latin,  decern,  ten,  and  pes,  pedis,  foot)  a  ten-foot  rod,  used 
by  the  ancients:  the  foot  Mas  subdivided  into  twelve  inches, 
and  each  inch  into  ten  digits.  This  rod  was  used  by  archi- 
tects to  give  the  proper  dimensions  and  proportions  to  their 
buildings. 

Horace  (lib.  ii.  od.  15)  blaming  the  magnificence  and 
delicacy  of  the  buildings  of  his  time,  observes,  that  it  was 
otherwise  in  the  limes  of  Romulus  and  Cato ;  that  in  the 
houses  of  private  persons,  there  were  not  then  known  any 
porticos  measured  out  with  the  decempeda,  nor  turned  to 
the  north  to  take  the  cool  air. 

The  dccempoda  was  also  used  in  land-measuring,  in  the 
same  manner  as  our  cluiin. 

DECIMAL  (from  the  Latin,  decimiis)  any  number  in- 
creasing by  the  order  of  tens. 

Decimal  ARiTn.METic,  the  art  of  computing  by  fractions 
whose  denominator  is  10,  100,  &c.  Decimal  fractions  dilier 
from  vulgar  fractions  in  this ;  that  the  denominator  is  not 
written ;  instead  of  writing  j^,  or  yj^g-,  the  fraction  would 
be  written  decimally,  .4  or  .15.  The  decimal  point  before 
it  is  used  to  distinguish  it  fioni  whole  numbers. 

To  reduce  any  vulgar  fraction  to  a  decimal,  say. 
As  the  denominator  of  the  vulgar  fraction 
is  to  the  denominator  of  the  decimal, 
so  is  the  numerator  of  the  vulgar  fraction 
to  the  numerator  of  the  decimal. 

Example.  To  reduce  |  to  a  decimal  fraction,  whose 
denominator  is  10. 

It  will  then  be  as  3  :  10  :  :  2 

10 


3)20 


6 


so  that  6  is  the  numerator  required  :  but  then  there  is  a 
remainder  of  2,  consequently  the  numerator  is  more  than  6, 
but  less  than  7 ;  therefore  -j*^  is  the  nearest  decimal  fraction, 
whose  numerator  consists  of  a  single  unit.  In  order  to  come 
nearer  to  the  truth,  we  must  then  suppose  the  denominator 
of  the  decimal  to  be  divided  into  more  parts,  say  100. 

Then  again  3    :    100    :    :    2 
2 


3)200 

66 

but  here  is  still  a  remainder  of  2,  that  is,  66  is  too  small  and 
67  too  great,  therefore  th«  decimal  fraction  ^^^,  is  still  too 
small  ;  CG  is,  however,  a  greater  portion  t>f  100,  than  6  is 
of  10:  we  have  therefore  come  nearer  to  the  truth  in  the 
latter  operation  than  in  the  first.  We  shall  thus  find,  that 
if  the  number  arising  by  multiplying  the  denominator  of  the 
decimal  fraetimi  by  the  numerator  of  the  vulgar  fraction,  be 
not  divisible  by  the  denominator  of  the  vulgar  fraction,  ;in 
increase  of  the  denominator  of  the  decimal  will  give  a  more 


DEC 


229 


DEC 


exact  portion  of  the  unit,  than  when  fewer  figures  are  used ; 
and  thus,  if  worth  the  troul)le,  the  numerator  of  a  decimal 
fraction  may  be  found  to  any  degree  of  exactness  at  pleasure, 
by  augmenting  the  number  of  figures  in  the  denominator, 
either  till  the  division  terminate,  or  till  as  many  figures  be 
found  as  will  render  the  operation  sufficiently  exact  for  the 
intended  purpose. 

A  decimal  fraction  may  be  sufficiently  denoted,  by  throw- 
ing away  the  denominator,  and  using  any  character  or  mark 
instead  of  it,  since  the  denominator  is  always  1,  followed  by 
one,  two,  three,  or  a  series  of  ciphers,  which  is  the  only  thing 
tliiit  is  variable  ;  to  ascertain  this  point,  the  number  expressed 
bv  the  numerator,  is  always  less  than  the  denominator,  and 
always  consists  of  as  many  figures  as  there  aie  ciphers  ; 
therefore,  if  a  point  be  placed  before  the  numerator  of  a 
decimal  fraction,  it  will  siiow  that  the  number  following  it 
is  a  decimal  fraction,  and  by  reckoning  a  cipher  fur  every 
figure,  and  supposing  unity  placed  before  them,  the  number 
thus  expressed  will  show  how  many  decimal  parts  the  unit 
is  divided  into,  and  the  figures  themselves  that  portion  of 
these  parts  taken. 

Thus  ^   is  represented  by  .6 
"         .66 

.785 
.085 

But  instead  of  saying  66  hundredths,  785  thousandths,  &e,, 
say,  as  in  the  second,  6  tenths  and  6  hundredths  ;  as  in  the 
third,  7  tenths,  8  hundredths  and  5  thousandths;  and  as  in 
the  fourth,  8  hundredths  and  5  thousandths,  as  the  cipher,  0, 
occupies  the  place  of  tenths  ; 


66 
Too 

7  05 
I  000 

1000 


for 


and 


also 


To 


+ 


6 


100 

8 

loo 

5 


+ 


7 
10  + 

-^+  — =  — 
100       1000       1000 


66 

100 

5 

1000  ' 

085 


785 
1000 


The  point  is  not  only  useful  in  marking  the  following 
number  to  be  a  decimal  fraction,  but  is  likewise  necessary 
in  separating  the  decimal  parts  from  integers,  when  both 
are  concerned. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  observable  that  decimal 
fractions  decrease  in  the  same  order  from  unity  towards  the 
right  hand,  that  integers  increase  towards  the  right. 

Thus,  in  348.5683,  unity  is  the  place  where  the  numbering 
commences  both  for  integers  and  for  decimals  ;  going  over 
the  places  of  the  integers,  we  have  units,  tens,  hundreds,  348 ; 
then,  numbering  the  decimals,  we  have  units,  tenths,  hun- 
dredths, thousandths,  ten  thousandths,  which  is  5  tenths, 
6  hundredths,  8  thousandths,  and  3  ten  thousandths ;  in  this 
notation  of  the  fractions,  the  unit's  place  was  not  reckoned, 
as  being  already  counted  into  the  whole  numbers. 

Supposing  now,  that  the  notation  is  completely  understood, 
we  will  proceed  to  the  reduction  of  decimal  fractions. 

To  reduce  a  vulgar  fraction  to  a  decimal :  set  down  the 
numerator  of  the  fraction,  with  a  point  upon  the  right  side 
of  it,  add  as  many  cip'iers  in  succession,  towards  the  right- 
hand,  as  may  be  thought  necessary  ;  then,  if  the  denominator 
consist  of  one  single  figure,  or  of  two,  not  exceeding  12,  draw  a 
horizontal  line  below  the  row  of  figures  so  set  down,  and 
a  vertical  line  upon  the  left  side  of  the  left-hand  fixture :  set 
down  the  denominator  upon  the  left  of  this  line,  proceed  as 
in  short  division,  placing  a  point  under  the  other,  then  if  the 
succeeding   figures   towards  the  right  begin  under  the  first 


figure  after  the  point,  these  figures  will  be  the  decimal,  but 
if  not,  the  number  corresponding  to  the  upper  row  must  be 
made  out,  by  adding  a  ci|iher  to  the  left  hand. 
Example  1.  Required  the  decimal  of  \. 
4)  1.00 

,25  the  decimal  required. 
Example  II.  Required  the  decimal  of  i. 
2)  1,0 


,5  the  decimal  required. 
Example  III.  Required  the  decimal  of  \. 
4)  3.00 


.75  the  decimal  required. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  employ  decimals  in  his  calcula- 
tions, should  have  the  decimals  .25,  ,5,  .75,  of  ^,  \,  \,  fixed 
on  his  memory. 

Example  IV.  Required  the  decimal  of  1  inch  in  terms  of  a 
foot.     Here  1  inch  is  the  twelfth  part  of  a  foot,  therefore  the 


vulgar  fraction  is  j'j. 


12)  1.00000 


.08333 

Example  V.  Required  the  decimal  of  2  inches.  Now 
2  inches  is  ^^  or  J  ;   therefore 

12)  2.00000         or  6)  1.00000 

.16666  .16666 

Example  VI.  What  is  the  decimal  of  3  inches  ?  3  inches 
is  equal  to  ^  or  A,  therefore  the  decimal  will  be  ,25, 
as  above. 

Example  VII.  Required  the  decimal  of  4  inches.  4  inches 
is  equal  to  -^^  =  l  therefore, 

12)  4.00000         or         3)  1,00000 

,33333  ,33333 

In  this  manner,  the  decimals  for  every  number  of  inches 
under  twelve  are  to  be  found,  as  the  following  table  shows  : 
The  decimal  of  1  inch  —   ,08333 

2  =  .16606 

3  r=  .25 

4  =   .33333 

5  =  .41666 

6  =  .5 

7  =  .58333 

8  =  ,66666 

9  =  ,75 

10  =  ,83333 

11  =  ,91666 

In  most  practical  cases,  three  figures  of  decimals  will  be 
found  sufficient. 

When  inches,  seconds,  thirds,  &c.  are  to  be  reduced  to  a 
decimal,  the  best  method  is  to  reduce  the  feet,  inches,  &c,  to 
the  last  denomination,  then  divide  as  often  by  12  in  succession 
as  there  are  denominations,  and  the  last  quotient  will  be  the 
decimal  required. 

Example  I.  Required  the  decimal  of  9  firsts,  or  inches, 
and  6  seconds. 

Now  here  are  two  denominations,  therefore 
9     6 
12 


12)  114  seconds  in  the  whole. 
12)       9.5 

7-9166  the  decimal  required. 


DEC 


230 


DEC 


Example  II.  To  find  the  decimal  of  5  seconds  and  4  thirds. 
Now  ill  tiiis  e.vample,  there  are  three  places  of  duodeeiiiuils, 
therefore 

0     5     4 
12 


12)  64  number  of  thirds  in  the  whole. 
12)    5.33333 


12)      .44444 


.03703 


And  thus  for  any  other  number  of  denominations  whatever. 

If  each  foot  of  our  measuring-rules  for  taking  the  lineal 
dimensions  were  divided  into  ten  parts,  instead  of  twelve, 
and  each  of  these  ten  parts  again  into  ten  others,  we  should 
have  no  occasion  for  reduction  of  decimals,  as  the  rule  itself 
would  give  the  decimal.  In  most  cases  we  shoulil  not  then 
have  occasion  to  work  with  more  than  two  places  of  decimals  ; 
the  tenth  part  of  the  tenth  part,  that  is,  the  hundredth  part 
of  a  foot,  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the  eighth  part  of  an  inch, 
or  the  ninety-si.xtii  part  of  a  foot,  being  only  a  small  matli-r 
less  than  the  eighth  of  an  inch.  Were  measuring-rules  thus 
divided,  the  wurk  by  decimals  would  be  much  shorter  than 
any  other  denominalion  whatever.  The  principal  reascm  of 
operations  in  measuring  by  decimals  being  longer  than 
duodecimals,  arises  from  the  necessity'  of  reducing  the  duode- 
cimals to  decimals,  and  this  in  many  cases  cannot  be  done 
with  the  same  accuracy,  without  having  four  or  five  denomi- 
nations. In  practical  cases  there  are  never  more  than  three 
places  of  duodecimals,  atid  if  rules  were  divided  decimally, 
there  would  not  be  more  than  three  places. 

A  decimal  part  of  a  foot  being  given,  to  find  its  equivalent 
in  duodecimals. 

Multi|ily  the  decimal  by  12,  cut  off  as  many  decimals  from 
the  product  as  there  are  places  of  figures  in  the  multiplicand, 
from  the  right-hand  to  the  left,  and  the  figure  or  figures 
remaining  on  the  left,  if  any,  will  show  the  number  of  inches  : 
multiply  the  number  of  decimals  so  cut  off,  if  an)',  again  by 
12.  and  cut  otl'as  many  figures  from  the  left-hand  of  the  new 
product  as  there  are  decimal  ]ilaces  in  the  multiplicand,  and 
the  remaining  figures  on  the  left  will  show  the  seconds,  if 
any.  Proceed  in  this  manner  as  often  as  there  is  a  remainder, 
or  as  often  as  may  be  thought  necessary  to  obtain  a  sufficient 
degree  of  accuracy,  and  the  places  cut  off  will  be  equivalent 
to  the  given  decimal,  if  no  remainder,  and  very  nearly  so  if 
there  is,  but  in  tliis  case  something  less. 

Example.  Reduce  .44005  of  a  foot  to  a  decimal. 

.44005 

12 


5.28060 
12 

3.3672 
12 

4.4064 
12 

4.8768 

To  add  decimals ;  write  down  the  several  parts  under 
their  respective  denominators,  viz.,  all  the  points  in  a  vertical 
line,  the  tenths  in  a  succeeding  vertical  line,  and  so  on  ;  add 
the  several  columns,  as  in  common  addition,  from  right  to 
left  ;   place  a  point  under  the  column  of  points,  or  cut  off  as 


many  decimal  parts  from  the  right-hand  figure  towards  the 
left,  as  there  are  colunms,  and  the  figure  or  figures  upon 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  point,  if  any,  will  be  integers, 
and  those  upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  point  will  be 
decimals. 

Example  I.    Add    the    following    decimals    together,   viz., 
.7854,  .07958,  .5236. 

.7854 

.07958 

.5230 

1.38858  the  sum  required. 
To  subtract  decimals ;   place  the  numbers  as  in  addition, 
the  less  under  the  greater,  and  perform  the  operation  as  in 
subtraction  of  integers. 

Example  1.  Subtract  .25  from  .75. 
.75 
.25 

.50  the  number  required. 
If  the  parts  of  a  foot  are  given  in  feet,  inches,  &c.,  they 
must  be  reduced  to  the  farthest  denomination  from  the  place 
of  feet. 

To  multiply  in  decimals,  proceed  as  in  multiplication  of 
integers,  and  point  as  many  figures,  beginning  with  the  first 
figure  from  the  right  in  the  product,  ;is  the  number  of  decimals 
ill  both  factors  ;  and  the  remaining  figures,  if  any,  upon  the 
left-hand,  will  be  integers  ;  but  if  there  are  not  as  many 
figures  in  the  proiluct  as  in  both,  the  deficiency  must  be 
made  up  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  ciphers. 
Exampile  I. 

Multiply  .9087 
by  .852 

18174 
45435 
72()96 


Product  .7742124 

In  large  decimals,  the  work  m.ay  be  contracted  thus : 
Write  the  units'  place  of  the  multiplier  under  that  place 
of  the  decimals  in  the  multi[ilicand,  whose  place  you  would 
reserve  in  the  product ;  write  the  other  figures  in  the  multi- 
plier in  a  contrary  order. 

Begin  with  the  figure  of  the  multiplier  nearest  the  right 
hand,  and  multiply  by  the  next  figure  towards  the  right 
of  it,  in  the  multiplicand,  if  any  ;  and  if  this  product  be  five, 
or  above  five,  in  the  number  of  tens  in  the  product,  carry 
one  more  than  there  are  tens  in  the  last  product  to  the  next 
product;  then  set  down  the  overplus  above  the  tens  for  the 
first  figure,  and  carry  the  tens  to  the  next  place,  and  proceed 
througli  the  line  as  in  common  multiplication.  Proceed  with 
every  other  line  in  the  same  manner,  observing,  however, 
to  place  the  first  figure  of  every  line  directly  under  the  first 
figure  of  the  last  line,  and  the  product  so  found  will  be  the 
answer. 

Example  I. — What  is  the  product  of  .9087  multiplied  by 
.852,  in  order  to  retain  four  places  of  decimals? 

By  contraction.  By  the  common  method. 

.9087  .9087 

258.0  .852 


7270 

454 

IS 

.7742 


908    X    8   +   6 

90   X   5   +  4 

9x2  +  0 


18172 
4.5435 
72696 

.7742122 


DEC 


231 


DEC 


III  this  example,  the  multiplier  being  placed  as  directed, 
bigin  with  8,  the  first  figure  of  the  multiplier,  and  multiply 
il  by  7,  the  next  figure  to  the  right  of  it  in  the  multiplicand, 
and  the  product  is  56,  which  is  more  than  5  above  5  tens, 
therefore  wirry  ($ :  multiply  8  by  the  next  figure.  8  towards 
tlie  left,  the  product  is  64,  and  (!  carried,  makes  70,  set  down 
a  cipher  for  the  first  figure,  and  carry  7  to  the  next ;  proceed 
thus  for  the  whole  line,  and  7-270  will  be  the  product.  Pro- 
ceed with  the  remaining  figures  of  the  multiplier,  in  the  same 
manner,  writing  down  the  left-hand  figures  of  every  row 
uniler  each  other. 

To  divide  a  decimal  or  mixed  number  by  a  decimal  or 
mixed  number:  divide  as  in  whole  numbers,  and  cut  olf  as 
many  figures  Ironi  the  right-hand  of  the  quotient  as  the  deci- 
mal places  of  the  dividend  exceed  those  of  the  divisor. 

If  the  nunitier  of  figures  in  the  quotient  be  less  than  the 
excess  of  the  decimal  figures  in  the  dividend  above  those  of 
the  divisor,  the  defect  must  be  supplied  by  prefixing  ciphers 
(Ml  the  left  hand.  Should  there  be  a  remainder,  annex 
ciphers  to  it,  and  thus  the  quotient  may  be  carried  to  any 
degree  of  exactness,  observing,  however,  that  every  cipher 
annexed  in  carrying  out  the  work,  must  be  accounted  a 
decimal  place  in  the  dividend. 

Etample  I.— Divide  43.95  by  5. 
.5)43.95 


8.79  the  quotient  required. 
Example  II.— Divide  4.368  by  .0078. 
.0078)4.3680  (560 
390 

468 
468 

...0 

Decimal  Sc.\le,  a  scale  divided  into  tenths.  Scales  thus 
divided  are  much  used  in  designs.  A  \  inch  scale  is  that 
wherein  the  \  inch  is  divided  into  ten  parts :  a  \  inch  sc;de 
is  when  the  -J  inch  is  divided  into  ten  equal  parts.  One 
drawing  may  be  made  greater  or  less  than  another,  by  using 
two  ditlerent  scales  made  to  the  proportion  of  each  drawing; 
but  the  best  method  of  reducing  or  enlarging  drawings,  is  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  proportional  compasses,  which  give  both 
greater  accuracy  and  expedition,  with  much  less  trouble,  than 
working  by  scales. 

DECIMETRE,  a  French  linear  measure  equal  to  the  tenth 
part  of  a  metre,  or  3.9371  English  inches. 

DECLINATION,  of  the  Doric  mutules,  is  the  acute  angle 
which  the  planes  of  the  wall  and  soffit  make  with  each  other, 
liy  which  the  soffit  is  lower  at  its  projecting  extremity,  than 
in  the  receding  extremity,  whence  it  commences.  All  the 
ancient  examples  of  the  Doric  order  have  declining  mutules. 

DECLINATOR,  an  instrument  used  in  dialing,  whereby 
the  declination,  inclination,  and  reclination  of  planes  are 
determined. 

DECLINING  DIALS,  are  those  which  either  cut  the 
plane  of  the  prime  vertical  circle,  or  the  plane  of  the  hori- 
zon, obliquely. 

The  use  of  declining  vertical  dials  is  very  frequent,  because 
the  walls  of  houses  whereon  dials  are  commonly  drawn,  gene- 
rally decline  from  the  cardinal  points.  Inclinersand  recliners 
are  very  rare,  and  more  particularly  decliners. 

DECOR,  a  term  used  by  Vitruvius,  signifying  propriety, 
arising  either  fjom  dispr)<ition  of  the  parts  of  an  edifice,  or 
from  due  observance  of  custom.     See  Decorim. 


DECORATED,  the  title  given  to  the  most  perfect  style  of 
Gothic  architecture,  which  prevailed  during  the  reigns  of  the 
first  three  Edwards,  from  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
It  is  otherwise  named  the  mvldk-pninled,  or  jyiire  Golhic. 

The  various  styles  of  Gothic  architecture  are  so  implicitly 
connected  the  one  with  the  other,  that  it  has  been  deemed 
advisable,  at  the  risk  of  extending  the  article  to  a  greater 
length  than  is  customary  in  works  of  this  nature,  to  consider 
them  all  under  one  head.     See  Gothic  AKCHtTECTUHE. 

DECORATION,  anything  that  adorns  or  enriches  any 
part  of  an  edifice.  Atasteful  combination  of  ornamental 
details  employed  in  the  enrichment  of  a  building. 

True  decoration  consists  not  in  the  mere  addition  of  orna- 
ment, but  rather  in  its  appropriate  and  judicious  application. 
Decoration,  when  artistically  applied,  possesses  not  only  rich- 
ness, but  also  meaning,  not  only  a  body,  but  a  soul ;  it 
delights  the  eye,  and  at  the  same  time,  engages  and  instructs 
the  mind.  No  artists,  perhaps,  so  highly  excelled  in  the 
just  and  tasteful  employment  of  decorative  detail,  as  did 
those  of  what  are  vulgarly  termed  the  dark  ages;  in  the 
glorious  monuments  of  their  skill,  which  have  been  preserved 
to  us.  we  find  specimens  of  the  most  delicate  enrichment,  all 
of  which  exhibit  the  reasonableness  of  its  introduction ;  and 
the  majority,  a  depth  and  tone  of  feeling  rarely  to  be  met 
with  in  other  works. 

The  application  of  the  Classic  orders,  however,  as  a  means 
of  decoration,  is  frequently  resorted  to,  and  not  without 
success  ;  they  may  be  applied  both  internally  and  externally, 
and  are  themselves  likewise  frequently  charged  with  further 
decorations. 

Plain  surfices,  when  very  extensive,  are  often  decorated 
with  paintings. 

DECORATION  EXTERNAL,  the  Building  act,  (7  and 
8  Victoria,  cap.  84),  requires,  that  in  external  decorations, 
every  coping,  cornice,  facia,  w  indow  -  dressing,  portico, 
balcony,  balustrade,  or  other  external  decoration  or  projec- 
tion whatsoever,  to  any  building  now  or  hereafter  to  be  built, 
or  to  any  addition  or  enlargement  of  any  such  building,  shall 
externally  be  of  brick,  stone,  burnt-clay,  or  artificial  stone, 
stucco,  lead,  or  iron ;  except  the  cornice  and  dressings  to  shop- 
windows :  and  it  is  further  provided  with  regard  to  buildings 
hereafter  to  be  built  or  rebuilt,  in  reference  to  projections 
therefrom : — 

As  to  copings,  parapets,  cornices  to  overhanging  roofs, 
blocking-courses,  cornices,  piers,  columns,  pilasters,  entabla- 
tures, facias,  door  and  window-dressings,  or  other  architec- 
tural decorations,  forming  part  of  an  external  wall,  all  such 
may  project  beyond  the  general  line  of  fronts  in  any  street 
or  alley,  but  they  must  be  built  of  the  same  materials  as  are 
by  this  act  directed  to  be  used  f  u-  building  the  external  walls 
to  which  such  projections  belong,  or  of  such  other  proper 
and  sufficient  materials,  as  the  official  referees  may  approve 
and  permit. 

And  as  to  all  balconies,  verandas,  porches,  porticos,  shop- 
fronts,  open  inclosures  of  open  areas,  and  steps  and  water- 
pipes,  and  to  all  other  projections  from  external  walls  not 
forming  part  thereof,  every  such  projection  (except  part  of 
shop-fronts,  and  the  frames  and  sashes  of  the  windows  and 
doors,  in  reference  to  the  necessary  wood-work  thereof)  may 
stand  beyond  the  general  line  of  fronts  in  any  street  or  alley, 
but  they  must  be  built  of  brick,  stone,  tile,  artificial  stone, 
slate,  cement,  or  metal,  or  other  proper  and  sufficient  fire- 
proof materials ;  and  they  must  be  so  built  as  not  to  overhang 
the  ground  belonging  to  any  other  owner,  nor  so  as  to  obstruct 
the  light  and  air,  or  be  otherwise  injurious  to  the  owners  or 
occupiers  of  the  buildings  adjoining  thereto  on  any  side 
thereof. 


DEC 


232 


DEF 


J'riijeclioiis  from  walln  of  hvihliufjn  over  public  mit/.i. 
And  with  ri'j;arxl  to  all  buildings  hereafter  to  be  built  or 
rebuilt,  in  reference  to  projections  from  the  walls  of  such 
buildings,  including-steps,  cellar-doors,  and  area  inclosures, 
the  walls  of  all  such  buildings  must  be  set  back,  so  that  all 
projections  therefrom,  and  also  all  steps,  cellar-doors,  and 
area  inclosures,  shall  only  overhang  or  occupy  the  ground  of 
the  owner  of  such  building,  without  overhanging  or  encroach- 
ing upon  any  public  way. 

Friijected  buildings  hetjond  the  general  line  of  buildings, 
and  from  other  external  walls. 

And  with  regard  to  buildings  already  built,  or  hereafter 
to  be  rebuilt,  as  to  bow  windows  or  other  projections  of 
any  kind. 

Such  projections  must  neither  be  built  with  nor  be  added 
to  any  building  on  any  face  of  an  external  wall  thereof,  so 
as  to  extend  beyond  the  general  line  of  the  fronts  of  the 
houses  (which  general  line  may  be  determined  by  the  sur- 
veyor, exccjit  so  far  as  is  herein  before  provideil  with  regard 
to  porticos  ]irojected  over  public  ways;  and  with  regard  to 
projections  from  face- walls  and  shop-fronts,  not  so  as  to  over- 
hang the  ground  belonging  to  any  other  owner,  nor  so  as  to 
obstruct  the  light  and  air,  or  be' otherwise  injurious  to  the 
owner  or  occupiers  of  the  buildings  adjoining  thereto  on  any 
side  thereof 

Projections  from  insulated  buildings. 

Provided  alwavs,  with  regard  to  any  insulated  buildings. 
that  if  the  projection  be  at  the  least  8  feet  from  any  public 
way,  and  if  they  be  at  least  20  feet  from  any  other  building 
not  in  the  same  occupation,  then  such  projections  are  excepted 
from  the  rules  and  directions  of  this  act. 

Wooden  shopfronts  and  shutters. 

And  with  regard  to  shop-fronts  and  their  entablatures, 
their  shutters,  and  pilasters  and  stall-boards  made  of  wood. 

If  the  street  or  alley  in  which  such  front  is  situate,  be  of 
less  width  than  30  feet,  then  no  part  of  such  shop-front  must 
be  higher  in  any  part  thereof  than  15  feet ;  nor  must  any 
part,  except  the  cornice,  project  from  the  face  of  a  wall, 
whether  there  be  an  area  or  not,  more  than  5  inches;  nor 
must  the  cornice  project  therefrom  more  than  13  inches. 

If  the  street  or  alley  be  of  a  greater  width  than  30  feet, 
then  no  part  of  such  shop-front,  except  the  cornice,  must 
project  from  the  face  of  a  wall,  whether  there  be  an  area  or 
not,  more  than  10  inches ;  nor  must  the  cornice  project 
theiefrom  more  than  18  inches. 

And  the  width  of  such  street  or  alley  must  be  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  same,  as  directed  by  the  act. 

And  the  wood-work  of  any  shop-front  must  not  be  fixed 
nearer  than  four  and  a  half  inches  to  the  centre  lino  of  a 
party  wall. 

And  with  regard  to  such  wood-work,  if  it  be  put  up  at 
such  distance  of  four  and  a  half  inches,  then  a  pier  or  corbel 
built  of  stone  or  of  brick,  or  other  incombustible  material, 
and  of  the  width  of  four  and  a  h.ilf  inches  at  the  least,  must 
be  fixed  in  the  line  of  the  party  wall,  so  as  to  be  as  high  as 
such  wood-work,  and  so  as  to  project  one  inch  at  the  least 
in  front  of  the  face  thereof 

And  the  height  of  every  shop-front  must  bo  ascertained 
by  measuiing  from  the  level  of  the  public  foot  pavement  in 
front  of  the  building. 

And  every  sign  or  notice-board  fixed  against  or  upon  anv 
part  of  any  house  or  other  building  standing  close  to  anv 
public  way,  must  be  so  fixed  that  "the  top  shall  be  within 
18  f.-et  at  the  most  above  the  level  of  such  public  way. 

Dkcoratiou  of  the  Sceserv  of  a  Theatre,  is  the 
representation  of  the  subject  by  which  the  scenes  are 
charged. 


The  ancients  used  two  kinds  of  decoration  in  their  theatres, 
the  one  called  versatiles,  with  three  sides  of  liices,  which 
were  turned  successively  to  the  spectators  ;  the  other,  cjilled 
ducliles,  showing  a  new  decoration,  by  drawing  or  sliding 
another  before  it. 

The  latter  kind  is  still  in  use,  and  the  change  is  almost 
made  in  an  instant ;  whereas  the  ancients  were  obliged  to 
draw  a  curtain  whenever  a  change  of  decoration  w;is 
required. 

DECORUM,  or  Decor,  in  architecture,  is  the  suitableness 
of  a  building,  and  the  several  parts  and  oinaments  thereof, 
to  the  station  and  occasion.  "  It  consists,"  says  Vitruvins, 
(book  i.  chap  2.).  "  in  the  proper  appearance  of  a  work, 
and  its  being  compounded  of  approved  and  anthoiized  parts. 
This  has  regard,  either  to  station,  which  the  (irecks  call 
thematismos,  custom,  or  nature.  To  station,  when  tem])les 
which  are  erected  to  Jove  the  Thunderer,  the  heavens,  the 
sun,  or  the  moon,  are  built  uncuveieil  and  exposed  to  the  air, 
because  the  influences  and  effects  of  those  deities  are  per- 
ceived in  the  open  air;  when  to  Minerva,  Mar.s,  Hercules, 
Doric  temples  are  built ;  for,  on  account  of  the  attributes  of 
these  deities,  edifices  constructed  without  delicacy  are  most 
suitable.  To  Ventis.  Flora,  Proserpine,  and  the  nymphs  of  the 
fountains,  the  Corinthian  kind  arc  erected  with  propriety  ; 
for  by  reason  of  the  delicacy  of  those  goddesses,  the  graceful, 
gay  manner,  with  f(;liage  and  ornanunted  volutes,  give  a  due 
decorum  to  the  work.  To  Jnno,  Diana.  Bacchus,  and  such 
other  deities,  Ionic  temples  are  constructed,  as  holding  a  posi- 
tion between  the  two  ;  for  being  tenipcred  of  the  severity  of 
the  Doric,  and  the  tenderness  of  the  Corinthian,  they  become 
most  suitable.  Decor,  with  regard  to  custom,  is  observed 
when  the  internal  parts  of  edifices  being  magnificent,  the 
accesses  are  also  made  suitable  and  elegant:  for,  if  the  inte- 
rior parts  be  elegant,  and  the  approaches  mean  and  ignoble, 
it  will  not  have  decor.  So,  likewise,  if  dentils  be  carved  in 
the  cornice  of  the  Doric  epistyliuin,  or  in  the  abacus  of  the 
capital,  or  if  triglyphs  be  represented  in  the  epistylium  of 
Ionic  columns,  transferring  the  characteristics  of  one  kind 
of  work  to  another ;  it  oft'cnds  the  eye,  because  custom  has 
established  a  dillerent  order  of  things. 

"  Decor,  with  regard  to  nature,  consists  in  all  temples 
being  placed  in  a  salutary  situation,  with  fountains  of  water 
in  the  places  where  the  fane  is  built ;  but  especially  the  tem- 
ples of  ^'Eseulapius,  of  Health,  and  such  deities,  by  whose 
healing  influences  numbers  of  sick  appear  to  be  recovered. 
For  the  diseased  bodies  being  removed  from  an  unhealthy  to 
a  healthy  situation,  and  the  salutiferous  wati-r  of  the  foun- 
tains being  administered,  they  arc  soon  restored.  By  this 
means  it  will  happen,  that  the  natural  effects  of  the  place  will 
increase  the  received  opinion  of  the  power  of  the  divinity. 

"  Decor,  with  iTgard  to  nature,  is  also  observed,  when 
chambers  and  libraries  receive  their  light  from  the  east ; 
baths,  and  winter  apartments,  from  the  west  :  picture- 
galleries,  and  such  apartments  as  require  as  steady  light,  from 
the  north;  because  that  region  of  the  heavens  is  rendered 
neither  lighter  nor  darker  by  the  course  of  the  sun,  but  is 
equal  and  immutable  the  whole  day." 

DEI)IC.\TI()X,  the  act  of  consecrating  a  temple,  altar, 
statue,  palace,  &c.,  to  the  honour  of  soine  deity. 

DEFINITION,  (defnire,  to  mark  out  a  boundary),  is  the 
process  of  stating  the  exact  meaning  of  a  word,  by  means  of 
other  words,  or  an  enumeration  of  the  principal  attributes 
of  a  thing,  in  order  to  convey  or  explain  its  nature  ;  thus, 
a  circle  is  defined  to  be  a  figure  whose  circumference  is  every 
where  equidistant  from  its  centre.  Wolfius  defines  a  real 
definition  to  be  a  distinct  notion,  explaining  the  genesis  of  a 
thing;   that   is,  the    manner   wherein    the   thing  is  made,  or 


DEM 


233 


DEN 


done;  such  is  that  of  a  circle,  whereby  it  is  said  to  he 
formed  by  the  motion  of  a  rigiit  line  round  a  fixed  point  ; 
on  which  footing,  what  was  before  instanced  as  a  real  defi- 
nition of  a  circle,  amounts  to  no  more  than  a  nominal  one. 

This  notion  of  a  real  definition  is  very  strict  and  just ;  and 
affords  a  sufiicient  distinction  between  a  real  and  a  nominal 
one.  But  though  it  has  the  advantages  of  analogy,  distinct- 
ness, and  convenience,  on  its  side  ;  yet  being  only  itself  a 
nominal  definition,  t.  e.,  a  definition  of  the  term  real  defi- 
iiitioti,  we  must  consider  it  in  the  light  of  an  idea  fixed  arbi- 
trarily to  that  word,  and  which  Wolfius  always  denotes  by 
that  word  in  the  course  of  his  book. 

Of  the  parts  enumerated  in  a  definition,  some  are  common 
to  other  things  beside  the  thing  defined  ;  others  are  peculiar 
thereto  :  the  first  are  called  the  genus,  or  kind ;  and  the 
second,  the  difference.  Thus,  in  the  former  definition  of  a 
circle,  by  a  figure  whose  circumference  is  everywhere  equi- 
distant from  its  centre  ;  the  wowl  jigure  is  the  kind,  as  being  a 
name  common  to  all  other  figures  as  well  as  to  the  circle  ;  the 
rest  the  difierenee,  which  specifies  or  distinguishes  this  figure 
from  every  other.  And  hence  arises  that  rule  of  F.  de  Colonia, 
for  the  making  of  a  definition.  "  Take,"  says  he,  "  something 
that  is  common  to  the  thing  defined  with  other  things,  and 
add  to  it  something  that  is  proper,  or  peculiar  to  it ;  /.  e.,  join 
the  genus  and  specific  difference,  and  you  will  have  a  defi- 
nition." The  special  rules  for  a  good  definition  are  these  : — 
1.  A  definition  must  be  universal  or  adequate,  that  is,  it  must 
agree  to  all  the  particular  species,  or  individuals,  that  are 
included  under  the  same  idea.  2.  It  must  be  proper,  and  pecu- 
liar to  the  thing  defined,  and  agree  to  that  alone.  These  two 
rules  being  observed,  will  always  render  a  definition  reci- 
procal with  the  thing  defined,  that  is,  the  definition  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  the  thing  defined  ;  or  they  may  be 
mutually  afiirmed  concerning  each  other.  3.  A  definition 
should  be  clear  and  plain  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  a  general  rule 
concerning  the  definition  both  of  names  and  things,  than  no 
word  should  be  used  in  either  of  them  which  has  any  difficulty 
in  it,  unless  it  has  been  before  defined.  4.  A  definition 
should  be  short,  so  that  it  must  have  no  tautology  in  it,  nor 
any  words  superfluous.  5.  Neither  the  thing  defined,  nor 
a  mere  synonymous  name,  should  make  any  part  of  the 
definition'?  ' 

DEFLECTION,  a  term  applied  to  the  distance  by  which 
a  curve  departs  from  a  straight  line,  or  from  another  curve. 
It  is  used  where  any  "  beading  ojf "  takes  place ;  the  word 
deflection,  in  fact,  means  "  bending  off"." 

DEINCLINING  DIALS,  such  as  both  decline  and 
incline,  or  recline. 

DELUBRUil,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  temple  with  a  large 
space  of  consecrated  ground  round  it.  Also  that  portion 
of  a  temple  in  which  the  altar  or  idol  was  placed.  See 
Temple. 

DEMI-RELIEVO,  a  term  applied  to  that  class  of  sculp- 
ture in  which  the  figures  are  raised  only  halfway  above  the 
surface. 

DEMONSTRATION,  (from  the  Latin)  in  mathematics,  a 
method  of  reasoning,  whereby  the  tiuth  of  an  assertion  is 
shown  by  two,  or  a  series  of  propositions,  whose  truth 
is  already  established. 

Thus  the  47th  proposition  of  the  first  book  of  Euclid 
demonstrates  a  certain  property  of  a  right-angled  triangle, 
on  the  supposition  : — 1,  that  all  the  preceding  propositions  are 
true;  2,  that  the  axioms  used  in  geometry,  whether  expressed 
or  implied,  are  true  also.  It  makes  the  consequence  as  cer- 
tain as  the  piemises,  by  means  of  the  indubitable  character 
of  the  connecting  process.  This  strict  use  of  the  term 
demonstration  belongs  to  the  science  of  logic,  which  is  the 
30 


art  of  demonstrating  from  premises,  without  reference  to  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  the  premises  themselves.  In  efitct, 
the  demonstrations  of  mathematicians  are  no  other  than 
series  of  enthymemes  ;  everything  is  concluded  by  force  of 
syllogism,  only  omitting  the  premises,  which  either  occur 
of  their  own  accord,  or  are  recollected  by  means  of  quota^ 
tions.  To  have  the  demonstration  perfect,  the  premises  of 
the  syllogisms  should  be  proved  by  new  syllogisms,  till  at 
length  you  arrive  at  a  syllogism,  wherein  the  premises  are 
either  definitions,  or  identical  propositions. 

Indeed,  it  might  be  demonstrated,  that  there  cannot  be  a 
genuine  demonstration,  i.  e.,  such  a  one  as  shall  give  full  con- 
viction, unless  the  thoughts  be  directed  therein  according  to 
the  rules  of  syllogism.  Clavius,  it  is  well  known,  resolved 
the  demonstration  of  the  first  proposition  of  Euclid  into 
syllogism  :  Herlinus  and  Dasipodius  demonstrated  the  whole 
first  six  books  of  Euclid,  and  Ilenischus,  all  arithmetic,  in 
the  sjllogistic  form. 

Yet  the  generality  of  persons,  and  sometimes  even  mathe- 
maticians, imagine,  that  mathematical  demonsttations  are 
conducted  in  a  manner  far  i-emote  from  the  laws  of  syllogism  ; 
so  far  are  they  fiom  allowing  that  those  derive  all  their  force 
and  conviction  from  these.  But  men  of  the  greatest  ability 
have  taken  our  view  of  the  question.  M.  Leibnitz,  for 
instance,  declares  that  demonstration  to  be  firm  and  valid, 
which  is  in  the  form  prescribed  by  logic  ;  and  Dr.  Wallis 
confesses,  that  what  is  proposed  to  be  proved  in  mathematics 
is  deduced  by  means  of  one  or  more  syllogisms  ;  the  great 
Hu3'gens,  too,  observes,  that  paralogisms  frequently  happen 
in  mathematics,  through  want  of  observing  the  syllogistic 
form. 

Problems  consist  of  three  parts  :  a  proposition,  resolution, 
and  demonstration. 

In  the  proposition  is  indicated  the  thing  to  be  done. 

In  the  resolution,  the  several  steps  are  orderly  rehearsed, 
whereby  the  thing  proposed  is  performed. 

Lastly,  in  the  demonstration,  it  is  shown,  that  the  things 
enjoined  by  the  resolution  being  done,  that  which  was  required 
in  the  proposition  is  eflfected.  As  often,  therefore,  as  a  pro- 
blem is  to  be  demonstrated,  it  is  converted  into  a  theorem  ; 
the  resolution  being  the  hypothesis,  and  the  proposition  the 
thesis ;  for  the  general  tenor  of  all  problems  to  be  demon- 
strated is  this  :  that  the  thing  prescribed  in  the  resolution 
being  performed,  the  thing  required  is  done. 

The  schoolmen  make  two  kinds  of  demonstration  :  the  one 
T«  Sloti,  or  propter  quod  ;  wherein  an  effect  is  proved  by  the 
next  cause  ;  as  when  it  is  proved,  that  the  moon  is  eclipsed 
because  the  earth  is  then  between  the  sun  and  moon.  The 
second,  t«  oti,  or  quia  ;  wherein  the  cause  is  proved  from 
a  remote  effect;  as  when  it  is  proved  that  fire  is  hot,  because 
it  burns  ;  or  that  plants  do  not  breathe,  because  they  are  not 
animals;  or  that  there  is  a  God,  from  the  works  of  creation. 
The  former  is  called  demonstrution  a  priori,  and  the  latter 
demonstration  a  posteriori. 

Demonstration,  Geometrical,  is  that  framed  of  reasonings 
drawn  from  the  elements  of  gcotnetry. 

Demonstration,  Mechanical,  is  that,  the  reasonings 
whereof  are  drawn  from  the  rules  of  mechanics. 

DENDERAH,  the  Tentyra  of  the  ancients,  a  ruined 
town  of  Upper  Egypt,  celebrated  for  its  temple,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  splendid  remains  of  antiquity  in  all  Egypt. 
Dr.  Richardson,  Bdzoni,  and  others,  have  given  descriptions 
of  this  temple,  which  the  first-named  traveller  considers  to 
have  been  erected  in  the  period  of  the  Ptolemies.  Its  remains 
occupv  a  vast  extent  of  ground,  and  consist  of  various  build 
ings,  besides  the  temple  itself  These  are  enclosed  within 
a  wall  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  in  some  places  35  feet  high, 


DEN 


234 


DEN 


and  15  fi-et  thick.  The  portico  in  front  of  the  temple  is 
formed  of  24  columns,  ranged  in  four  rows,  having  quadran- 
gular capitals,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  colossal  head,  sur- 
mounted bv  another  quadrangular  member,  containing  in  each 
face  a  temple  doorway  with  two  winged  globes  above,  and 
other  decorations.  The  shafts  of  the  columns  are  cylindrical, 
and  of  equal  diameter  throughout.  The  whole  height,  includ- 
ing cafiital,  &c.,  being  a  little  above  48  English  feet. 

The  front  is  adorned  with  a  beautiful  frieze,  covered  with 
figures,  over  the  centre  of  which  the  winged  globe  is  predo- 
minant. The  walls,  columns,  ceilings,  and  also  the  interior 
chambers,  are  in  the  same  manner  covered  with  hierogly'phics 
and  sculptures,  in  which  the  figure  of  Isis  is  repeated  in 
numberless  instances.  The  light  in  the  chambers  comes  in 
tiirough  small  holes  in  the  wall ;  the  sanctuary  itself  is  quite 
dark.  The  ceiling  of  the  portico  is  occupied  by  a  number  of 
figures,  by  some  travellers  supposed  to  be  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  but  with  greater  accuracy  shown  by  Dr.  Richardson 
and  recent  travellers  and  archreologists,  to  be  merely  a  col- 
lection of  mythological  emblems,  without  any  reference  to 
astronomy. 

On  the  ceiling  of  one  of  the  apartments  in  the  upper 
story,  under  the  roof  of  the  temple,  there  was  another 
assemblage  of  mythologi&il  emblems,  similar  to  those  already 
mentioned,  but  fewer  in  number,  and  differently  arranged. 
This  was  called  a  planisphere  or  zodiac,  because  in  the  middle 
of  it  figures  resembling  those  usually  adopted  to  represent 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac  were  observed.  The  opinion  of  well-- 
informed  travellers,  however,  with  respect  to  this  collection 
of  figures,  as  to  the  former,  is  that  it  is  only  a  represen- 
tation of  gods  and  goddesses,  and  religious  processions,  and 
has  no  astronomical  meaning  whatever. 

The  so-called  circular  zodiac,  which  was  sculptured  on 
a  kind  of  sandstone,  was  cut  out  of  the  ceiling  by  a  Freneh- 
man.  with  the  permission  of  the  pasha,  and  conveyed  to 
France;  when  it  was  purchased  by  the  French  government, 
and  deposited  in  the  Museum,  at  Paris. 

DEXDROilETEIi,  (from  6tv6gov,  a  tree,  and  fiergeo),  I 
meoxiire),  an  instrument  for  measuring  trees. 

The  same  name  has  also  been  applied,  though  improperly, 
to  instruments  contrived  for  measuring  distances  and  magni- 
tudes from  a  single  station. 

DE.XTICLES.   See  Dentils. 

DENTILS,  (from  the  Latin,  de/is,  a  tooth)  a  row  of  similar 
and  equal  solids  in  a  cornice,  disposed  at  equal  intervals,  each 
presenting  four  sides  of  a  rectangular  prism,  the  sides  parallel 
to  the  vertical  face,  and  the  one  parallel  to  the  soffit,  being 
attached  to  the  vertical  and  horizontal  [)lanes  of  an  internal 
right  angle. 

The  surfaces  of  the  vertical  face  are  therefore  all  in  the 
same  plane  :  and  those  of  the  soffits  are  in  the  same  hori- 
zontal plane. 

The  whole  series  of  dentils  in  the  same  range,  is  called 
llie  denticulated  hand. 

The  proportions  given  by  Vitruvius  are,  that  "  the  denti- 
cnlus  is  to  be  equal  in  height  to  the  middle  facia  of  the  archi- 
trave, and  its  projection  to  be  the  same  as  its  height :  the 
width  of  the  dentils  is  one-half  of  its  height,  and  the  interval 
between  them  two-thirds  of  this  quantity." 

The  proportions  of  some  of  the  best  examples  where 
dentils  are  to  be  found,  areas  follows: — 

In  the  Ionic  temple  of  Bacchus,  at  Teos,  the  dentils  are  in 
height  aliout  one-fouith  of  that  of  the  cornice,  exclusive  of 
the  inferior  bead  and  fillet  ne.\t  to  the  architrave  :  the  breadth 
of  the  dentils  is  about  two-thirds  (jf  their  height,  and  the 
breadth  of  the  interval  about  two-thiidsof  that  of  the  dentil: 
tlieir  projection  is  about  one-fourth  of  the  height  of  that  part 


of  the  cornice  between  their  soffits  and  the  summit  of  the 
cornice  :  the  angle  is  vacant. 

The  dentils  in  the  Ionic  order  of  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias,  at  Priene,  are  something  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
height  of  the  cornice,  or  nearly  equal  to  two  twenty-fifths  of 
that  of  the  entablature;  their  projection  is  three  times  the 
half  of  their  height ;  their  breadth,  two-thirds  of  their  height ; 
the  breadth  of  the  interval,  about  four-fifths  of  that  of  the 
dentils:  the  corner  is  without  a  dentil,  and  the  soffit  over 
the  vacant  angle  is  enriched  with  a  honeysuckle. 

In  the  Corinthian  order  of  the  Choragic  monument  of 
Lyseirates,  at  Athens,  the  dentils  of  the  cornice  are  in  height 
nearly  two-sevenths  of  that  of  the  cornice,  exclusive  of  the 
terminating  ornament  ;  their  breadth  is  two-thirds  of  their 
height ;  and  the  interval  between  them,  two-thirds  of  their 
breadth;  the  angle  of  the  coniice  at  the  dentil  band  is 
vacant. 

In  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  at  Rome,  the  height  of 
the  dentil  is  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  whole  cornice  ;  its  breadth, 
two-thirds  of  its  height  ;  and  the  breadth  of  the  interval, 
about  one-half  of  that  of  the  dentil ;  the  angle  of  the  dentil- 
band  is  filled  with  a  dentil. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  see  the  rules  of  Vitnivius, 
respecting  the  placing  of  dentils,  may  consult  the  article 
Cornice. 

In  the  frontispiece  of  the  door-way  of  the  Tower  of 
the  Winds,  at  Athens,  the  inclined  cornices,  as  well 
as  the  level  one,  have  dentils,  contrary  to  the  doctrine 
of  Vitruvius. 

In  the  interior  cornice  of  the  same  tower,  both  dentils  and 
modillions  are  employed  ;  the  dentils  occupying  the  superior 
part  of  the  cornice,  agreeably  to  the  Vitruvian  theory,  but 
contrary  to  every  other  antique  example. 

The  only  ancient  example  of  the  Doric  order,  in  which 
dentils  are  to  be  found,  is  in  the  theatre  of  Marcellus, 
at  Rome. 

The  examples  of  the  Ionic  order  which  have  denticulated 
cornices,  are,  the  temples  of  Bacchus,  at  Teos;  of  Minerva 
Polias,  at  Priene  ;  the  aqueduct  of  Adrian,  at  Athens  ;  the 
temple  of  Fortune,  and  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  at  Rome  ; 
and  the  arch  of  Constant iiie;  the  temple  of  Concord,  at 
Rome,  has  both  dentils  and  modillions  in  the  cornice. 

The  following  edifices  of  the  Ionic  order,  are  without 
dentils  in  the  cornice,  viz.,  the  Ionic  temple  upon  the  Ilissus, 
the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  and  that  of  Erechtheus,  at 
Athens;  and  in  the  Coliseum,  at  Rome,  the  dentil-band 
is  uncut.  Exam[)les  of  the  Corinthian  order,  which  have 
denticulated  cornices,  are,  the  monument  of  Lysierates.  the 
arch  of  Adrian  at  Athens,  and  the  ruins  at  Salonica.  Both 
dentils  and  modillions  are  to  be  found  in  the  following 
Corinthian  edifices:  the  temples  of  Jupiter  Stator,  and  of 
Peace,  the  piazza  of  Nerva,  and  the  baths  of  Diocletian, 
at  Rome ;  the  lower  range  of  the  interior,  and  the  porticos 
of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  and  the  vestibulum  to  the  peristylium, 
at  Spalatro  ;  all  the  ruined  edifices  at  Balbec.  and  at  Palmyra, 
excepting  the  interior  order  of  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  among 
the  latter. 

The  following  edifices  of  the  Corinthian  order  have  the 
dentil-band  iineiit,  viz.,  the  Coliseum,  the  portico  of  the  Pan- 
theon, the  temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  and  the  portico 
of  Septimius  Severus,  at  Rome. 

Examples  of  the  Composite  order,  which  have  denticulated 
cornices,  are,  the  arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  and  that  of  the 
Goldsmiths,  at  Rome,  and  the  upper  range  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter,  at  Spalatro ;  but  in  the  areh  of  Titus,  at  Rome, 
both  modillions  and  dentils  are  to  be  fi)und. 

The   frontispiece  to    the   door-way   of  the  Tower  of  the 


DES 


235 


DES 


Winds,  at  Athens,  though  it  cannot  be  classed  as  a  regular 
ordi'i-,  has  dentils  in  the  cornice. 

A  denliculated  cornice  is  employed  in  the  Caryatic  portico 
of  tlie  temple  of  PanJrosus,  at  Athens. 

Thus  it  may  be  observed,  tiiat  dentils  and  modillions  arc 
frequently  employed  in  Corinthian  and  Composite  cornices  ; 
and  sometimes  both  are  omitted,  as  in  the  temple  of  Vesta  at 
Tivoli,  and  in  the  temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  and  the 
little  altars  within  the  Pantheon,  at  lliMiie. 

In  very  small  work,  it  would  be  better  to  omit  modillions 
and  dentils :  and,  indeed,  it  is  the  opinion  of  some,  that 
though  the  work  be  ever  so  large,  it  would  be  better  to 
employ  one  of  them  only  ;  as,  were  all  the  members  to  be 
admitted  iii  a  Corinthian  cornice,  and  if  the  individual  parts 
of  the  cornice  bear  the  same  proportion  to  the  whole  height, 
as  in  the  Doric  or  Ionic  orders,  the  cornice  would  either  be 
too  high  for  the  entablature,  or  the  entablature  too  high  for 
the  colunni  ;  consequently,  the  cornice  must  either  be  too 
great  a  load  for  the  entablature,  or  the  entablature  too  great 
a  load  for  the  column  ;  which,  in  eithercase,  is  contrary  to 
the  laws  of  strength  :  for  it  would  be  giving  the  greater 
burden  to  the  slender  column,  and  the  lighter  burden  to  the 
more  massive.     See  Cornice. 

DEPARTMENT,  (from  the  French)  that  jiart  of  an 
edifice  destined  to  some  peculiar  purpose,  as,  in  a  palace,  the 
department  of  a  kitchen,  of  the  stables,  &c. 

DEP6T,  (French)  in  military  architecture,  an  edifice  for 
the  preservation  and  reservation  of  stores,  provisions,  &c., 
also  a  station  for  the  reception  and  training  of  recruits. 

A  depot  sho\ild  contain  a  great  number  of  bomb-proof 
buiklinnrs,  the  lower  tier  of  which  should  be  reserved  as 
store-rooms  for  provisions  requnmg  to  be  kept  cool,  and,  if 
possible,  be  below  the  surface  of  the  area  ;  the  ground-floor 
should  be  allotted  fir  artillery  and  ordnance-stores ;  the  walls 
and  piers  being  furnished  with  strong  wooden  battens  (pro- 
jecting a  little,  to  obviate  the  danger  of  damp)  for  the  support 
of  nmskets,  carbines,  pistols,  swords,  halberts,  bayonets, 
pikes,  and  other  descriptions  of  small-arms.  The  second 
floor  should  be  devoted  to  the  reception  of  camp-equipage, 
and  the  upper  to  the  lodgment  of  ready-filled  cartridges. 
The  great  magazines  for  powder  should  be  separate  :  the 
whole  of  the  principal  body  should  be  casemated  for  the 
accommodatinn  of  troops,  and  pierced  through,  perhaps 
masked,  for  the  reception  of  heavy  cannon.  The  out-works 
should  be  of  the  best  materials,  and  constructed  on  the  most 
compact  system  of  defence. 

DESCRIBENT,  (from  the  Latin,  describo,  to  describe)  in 
geoinetry,  a  line  or  surface  which  produces  a  plain  figure  by 
motion. 

DESCPJPTION,  of  a  building,  an  explanation  of  all  the 
materials,  specifying  their  qualities,  proportions,  how  used, 
sizes  of  timbers,  &c. 

The  following  articles  are  most  frequently  employed  in 
buildings,  in  the  carpenter's  department : — 


Timber  in 
foundations 


Bonding 


Carpentry. 
\  Spikes 


Piling 
Planking 

'Sleepers 

Bond-timbers  in  brick  walls 
Templets 

(  Under-sleepers 
Wall-plates  }  Under-joists 

(  Under-roof 
Lintels 


Common 

naked 

flooring 

Framed 

naked 

flooring 


Common 
roofing 


Trussed 

roofing 


Sound 
boarding 

Nine-inch 
brickwork 

Brick- 
nogging 

Common 

wooden 

partitions 


Truss 
partitions 


Boarding 


4 


Trimmers 

Trimming-joists 

Strutting-pieces 

Girders 

Bindingjoists 
Bridguig-joists 

Rafters 

Ceiling-joists,  ties,  or  tie-beams 

Colhir-beams 

Puncheons 

Hips 

Valleys 

Ridge  pieces 

Beams  for  platforms 

Beams  for  skylights 

for  slates,  |-inch  thick 

for  platform  )  ^,  .^^^  ^^.^^ 

for  gutters     J     » 

Arris  fillet 
Bearers  for  gutters 

Wall  plates 

Diagonal  ties 

Dragon-beams 

Tie-beams 

Pole-plates 

Hammer-beams 

rp  ,      (  King- posts 

1  russ-posts    ■{  r\ 

^  (  Queen-posts 

Braces 

Struts 

Auxiliary  rafters,  or  principal  braces 

Studs 

Principal  rafters 

Hip-rafters 

Valley-rafters,  or  valleys 

Collar-beams,  or  straining-beams 

Purlins 

Camber-beams 

Straining-sill 

Common  rafters 

Boarding,  generally  |^-inch  thick 

Arris  fillet,  f-inch  by  3  inches 

Nails,  what  kind 

Fillets,  1^   inch  by  1   inch,  nailed  at   1 

distance 
Boarding,  |-inch  thick,  with  or  without  nails 


foot 


y  Wood  bricks,  2^  inches  by  4  inches 

Quarterings 

Nogging-pieces 

Lintels 

(  Sills 

<  Quarterings 

(  Top-pieces 

Sills,  or  plates 
Door-posts 

(  King-posts 
Truss-posts    }  Queen-posts 

(  Side-posts 
Braces 

Inter-tie,  or  straining-piece 
Common  quarterings,  1 1  inch  thick 


^ 


DES 


230 


DES 


Battening 
for  walls 


Grounds 

Angle-staff 
Ribbing 

Lath 


Plugging,  at  what  distances 
Battens,  2  inches  by  ^inch 

Nails 

'for  windows,  edge-chamfered  or  grooved 
for  mouldings 
for  chimneys 
for  doors 
for  cupboards 
Square 
Beaded 
Ceiling-joists 
Bracketing  1^  inch  thick 
on  walls 
on  ceilings 
behind  shutters 
and  back  of  skirtings 


Joinery. 

Pulley-pieces 
Inside  facings,  or  linings 
Outside  linings 
Sash-frames  ■(  Back  linings 
Heads 
Sills 
Beads 
Primed 

Glazed,  with  oil-puttjr 
■{  Pulleys 
Weights 

Lines  of  the  best  quality 
Hatch  windows 
Square  skylights 
Polygonal  skylights 
Circular  or  elliptic  conic  skylights 

grooved  and  tongued,  or 
straight-jointed 

grooved  and  tongued,  or 
doweled  together 


Sashes 


Skylights 


Boarding 
for  floors 


brads 
J.  191b. 
per  M. 


Boarding 
for  walls 

Cupboard 
linings 

Miscella- 
neous 

Door 
linings 


Do 


Dado 


Recess  to 
windows 


I 


Plugs 

Battens 

Boards 

Nails 

Sides 

Backs 

Door  stops 

Shelvin 

Dado 


used  in  shops,  water-closets,  &c. 
When  less  than  the  whole  height 
a  coping  is  used 


j  Frami 
(  Plain, 


med 

glued  together 


Jambs 
Soffits 

Stiles 
Rails 


1  Mouldings  laid  in  or  planted,  or 
moulded  on  one  or  both  sides 
of  framing,  or  bead  and  flush, 
or  bead  and  butt. 
Panels,  flat  or  raised,  or  with  planted  beads 

framed  ]     '^^^ 

Backs 

Elbows 

Soffits 

Bo.xings 

Back-linings 


Shutters 


Mouldings 


Front  shutters 
Closers 

of  interior  doors,  framed  doors,  linings,  backs, 
elbows,  sofllits,  and  shutters,  to  be  all  simi. 
lar. 


Finishings 


Skirtings 

Base  mouldings 


Pilasters 


Kitchen 

Water- 
closet 


Water  con 
veyances 

Stair 


Base  of  rooms 

Surbases 

single  faced 
Architraves  I  double  faced 

Blocks  to  be  used  or  not 

plain 
_  sunk 
Facings 
Belts 
Skirtings 

Wood  moulding  upon  stone  skirting 
Jamb  mouldings 
Chimney-pieces 
Hatch-boards 

Kitchen  drc£ser 

Belting  ruund  kitchen 

Wired  or  latticed  windows  for  larder 

j  Flap,  clamps,  as  also  the  top  seat 
(  Riser,  framed  bead  and  flush 

lOltS 


Troughs,  with  hooks  and 

Water  trunks 

Cover  for  rain-water  pipes 

Risers 

Treads 

Rail,  of  deal  or  mahogony. 
A  clause  in  specification,  describing  the  quality  of  wood. 
Joiner  to  take  the  plaster  work  ofl"the  plasterer's  hand,  or 
to  make  it  good  if  damaged  by  his  men. 
Time  of  finishing  the  joiuery. 

DESCRIPTIVE  CARPENTRY,  the  art  of  forming  a 
diagram  on  a  plane  by  the  rules  of  geometry,  in  order  tc 
construct  any  piece  of  carpentry  of  a  known  property,  from 
certain  given  dimensions  of  the  thing  to  be  constructed. 

This  liranch  is  only  the  application  of  stereography  to 
Carpentry  :  and,  indeed,  the  only  difference  between  stereo- 
gra[)hy  and  descriptive  carpentry,  is,  that  in  the  former,  the 
bodies  are  entire  solids,  but  in  the  latter,  the  bodies  to  be 
formed  consist  of  ribs,  disposed  in  parallel  lines  or  planes,  or 
in  lines  tending  to  a  point,  or  in  planes  tending  to  an  axis  ; 
so  that  descriptive  earjientry  shows  the  methods  of  forming 
the  separate  pieces  in  order  to  construct  the  whole  body  or 
solid.  Stereography  is,  therefore,  not  only  employed  in  the 
construction  of  individual  pieces,  but  also  in  the  whole,  when 
brought  into  a  mass,  or  taken  as  one  body.  This  branch  is 
a  necessarv  qualification  to  an  architect,  not  only  to  enable 
him  to  anticipate  the  effect,  but  to  judge  of  the  pro])riety  of 
the  execution  of  any  proposed  work. 

It  is  too  (jften  the  case,  that  young  men  professing  to  be 
studying  the  science  of  architecture,  will  not  submit  to  that 
which  they  are  pleased  to  deem  the  drudgery  of  the  profes- 
sion. Instead  of  acquiring,  by  constant  practice  and  studious 
diligence,  the  necessary  elements  of  descriptive  and  construc- 
tive knowledge  of  the  various  parts  of  an  edifice,  they  attempt, 
before  they  are  qualified  by  such  knowledge,  to  design 
edifices,  fanciful  in  conception,  as  they  would  be  ridiculous 
if  executed. 

The  result  of  this  want  of  careful  training,  is  well  described 
by  Mr.   Bartholomew,  in  the  following  passage  : — "  Taken 


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237 


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fiom  school  at  an  age  in  which  he  cannot  liave  imljibcd  in 
any  degree  sufficient  of  a  polite  and  liberal  education,  the 
architectural  pupil,  frequently  with  no  knowledge  whatever 
of  geometry,  never  acquires  any  beyond  the  mere  manual 
dexterity  of  drawing  circular  and  plain  lines;  abandoned  by' 
his  master  while  yet  scarcely  arrived  at  manhood,  forced 
into  premature  and  profitless  practice  with  all  the  expenses 
of  a  separate  establishment,  it  cannot  be  wondered  at,  that 
the  adolescent  architect  sometimes  has,  in  afler-life,  bitter 
cause  to  repent  the  cireumstances  and  the  rashness,  which 
led  him  to  acquire  practical  design  and  practical  construction, 
solely  by  his  youthful  failures  ;  for  it  is  then,  with  deep 
repentance,  that  he  perceives  the  confusion  of  styles  into 
which  he  has  fallen,  the  whole  chronology  of  gothic  arches 
whicli  he  has  paraded  in  the  same  fafade,  the  mixture  of 
lionian  forms  and  luxury  with  the  severe  and  elegant  sim- 
plicity of  the  Greeks  ;  in  many  a  breaking  up  and  fracture, 
lie  has  the  mortification  to  find  that  inventions  upon  which 
he  has  relied  for  eternal  duration,  have  not  survived  their 
inventor's  ruin  ;  that  he  has  formed  his  pinnacles  with 
graduated  outlines,  as  if  Rosslyn  chapel  or  some  other  impure 
source  were  his  only  pursuit ;  he  regrets  that  he  has  placed 
his  columns  opposite  apertures,  instead  of  opposite  piers  ; 
he  regrets  that,  from  false  bearing,  want  of  plumb  and  equi- 
poise, his  work  is  so  fractured,  that  even  a  man  of  more 
experience  than  himself  cannot  restore  it;  he  perceives  too 
late,  that  his  patronage  of  mean  and  fragile  stone,  and 
pretended  substitutes  for  it,  his  reliance  on  bad  timber,  has 
added  something  to  the  wreck  of  his  country's  architecture  ; 
he  perceives  with  deep  mortification,  that  his  want  of  mathe- 
matical and  mechanical  skill,  both  theoretical  and  practical, 
has  led  him  to  perform  that  which  a  professor  of  more 
experience  would  avoid  ;  broken  arches,  tie-less  roofs,  walls 
thrust  from  their  right  position,  partitions  falsely  trussed, 
and  groaning  beneath  loads  which,  formed  otherwise,  they 
might  have  borne  unflinchingly,  and  a  foundation  which 
fails  in  all  directions  from  want  of  sufficient  spread  to  the 
footings,  or  from  the  building  being  carried  up  piecemeal, 
or  ft-om  other  causes — these  are  a  lew  of  the  faults  and 
disasters,  which  in  after  times  make  a  precocious  practitioner 
wish  he  had  studied  five  or  ten  years  more,  before  he  had 
risked  himself  or  his  employer's  property." 

This  was  not  the  case  formerly  ;  men  endeavoured  in  those 
days  to  qualify  themselves  for  the  practice  of  their  profession, 
by  long  study,  practice,  and  unceasing  diligence. 

Architects,  among  the  ancients,  were  highly  accomplished 
characters,  being  skilled  in  all  the  geometrical  and  mechanical 
knowledge  of  their  time  ;  and  in  this  country  they  have  had 
much  claim  to  eminence  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
Since  that  time,  however,  a  gradual  declension  of  the  art  is 
equally  perceptible  in  all  public  edifices,  as  well  as  in  all 
works  of  architectural  literature. 

Thougli  travelling  adds  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  judicious 
architect,  it  is  among  the  least  of  the  necessary  qualifications ; 
a  careful  observer  will  lay  up  greater  stores  of  knowledge  at 
home,  than  he  who  has  travelled,  with  inferior  abilities  ;  and, 
indeed,  if  the  architect  have  no  farther  views,  than  that  of 
travelling,  iu  order  to  produce  what  he  calls  drawings  of  taste, 
he  will,  in  most  instances,  become  ostentatious,  and  will 
ultimately  lose  the  good  opinion  of  his  employers.  Travelling 
improves  the  man  of  science,  but  inflates  the  sciolist  with 
vanity,  and  renders  him  ten  times  more  a  subject  of  com- 
miseration than  before. 

As  those  parts  of  carpentry  which  are  objects  of  descrip- 
tion, are  placed  under  their  proper  denominations,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  each  particular  term,  for  further  information 
upon  this  useful  subject. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY,  the  art  of  representing 
a  definite  body  upon  two  planes,  at  right  angles  with  each 
other,  by  lines  falling  perpendicularly  to  the  planes  from  all 
the  points  of  the  concourse  of  every  two  contiguous  sides  of 
the  body,  and  from  all  points  of  its  contour ;  and,  vice  versa, 
from  a  given  representation  to  ascertain  the  parts  of  the 
original  object. 

Descriptive  geometry  may  tiierefore  be  considered 
synonymous  with  orthographical  projection,  upon  which 
subject,  w  ith  the  exception  of  a  treatise  by  Mr.  P.  Nicholson, 
(first  published  in  1795,  and  rc-publishcd  with  improve- 
ments in  the  year  1809),  nothing  had  appeared  in  the 
English  language,  until  the  publication  of  this  Dictionary. 

About  the  year  1794,  the  celebrated  Monge,  who  has  been 
called  the  inventor  of  descriptive  geometry,  published  in 
France  his  Geometrie  Descriptive,  one  of  the  most  elegant 
and  lucid  elementary  works  in  existence.  Previous  to  the 
appearance  of  this  work,  the  science  of  perspective  and 
many  other  applications  of  geometry  to  the  arts,  had  required 
isolated  methods  of  obtaining  lines,  angles,  or  areas,  described 
under  laws  not  readily  admitting  of  the  application  of  algebra, 
and  its  consequence,  the  construction  of  tables.  The  des- 
criptive geometry  of  Monge  is  a  systematized  form  of  the 
method  by  which  a  ground-plan  and  an  elevation  are  made 
to  give  the  form  and  dimensions  of  a  building.  The  pro- 
jections of  a  point  upon  two  planes  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  being  given,  the  position  of  the  point  itself  is  given. 
From  this  it  is  possible,  knowing  the  projections  of  any  solid 
figure  upon  two  such  planes,  to  lay  down  on  either  of  those 
planes,  a  figure  similar  and  equal  to  any-  plane  section  of 
the  solid. 

This  necessary  and  neglected  part  of  education,  had  been 
also  much  cultivated  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  and  with  such 
success,  that  his  works  have  always  been  referred  to  by 
succeeding  writers  as  authorities.  In  addition  to  the  treatise 
above  mentioned,  and  also  some  parts  of  the  carpentry  in 
Rees'  Cyclopedia  ;  the  numerous  valuable  articles  in  this 
Dictionary  attest  the  sound  practical  know  ledge  of  the  writer, 
and  his  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  subjects  on  which  he 
has  written.  It  is  due  to  his  meinory,  to  state  that  he  had 
at  that  time  no  knowledge  of  any  foreign  work  on  Descripti\  e 
Geometry,  and  that  the  treatise  by  Monge  did  not  fall  into 
his  hands  until  the  year  1812.  While  strongly  recommend- 
ing that  work,  however,  to  the  study  of  all  those  who 
are  desirous  of  attaining  truth  in  delineation,  he  con- 
siders his  own  views,  differently  conceived,  as  undoubtedly 
they  were,  from  those  of  Monge,  to  have  equal  claims  to 
originality. 

As  we  are  desirous  of  omitting  nothing  that  may  tend  to 
enlarge  the  bounds  of  science,  we  shall  here  insert  so  much 
of  Monge's  work  as  we  conceive  to  be  conducive  to  this  end, 
referring  Mr.  Nicholson's  own  ideas  on  this  branch  of  geo- 
metry, to  the  article  Projection,  a  name  better  understood 
in  this  country  than  that  of  Descriptive  Geometry. 

To  facilitate  the  knowledge  of  this  subject,  the  reader 
should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  eleventh  book  of 
The  Elements  of  Euclid,  which  tieats  partii-ularly  of  planes, 
and  the  manner  in  which  solids  are  constituted. 

"  Figure  1. — If  from  all  the  points  of  an  indefinite  right 
line,  however  situated  in  space,  we  imagine  perpendiculars 
to  be  dropped  upon  a  given  plane,  i,  m  n  o,  all  the  points  of 
these  perpendiculars  will  fall  upon  the  plane  in  another  inde- 
finite" right  line,  a  b,  for  they  will  be  all  comprised  in  the 
plane  described  by  a  b,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  l  m  n  o, 
and  can  only  meet  the  latter  in  the  line  of  intersection  com- 
mon to  both  planes,  which  is  a  right  line. 

"  The  right  line  a  b,  which  pas.«os  through  the  projections 


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238 


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of  all  tlie  points  of  the  right  liiu'  a  b,  upon  the  plane  i-  m  no, 
is  ciilkd  the  projection  of  the  right  line  a  b  upon  this  plane. 

"  As  two  points  are  sufficient  for  determining  the  position 
of  a  right  line  ;  it  is  only  necessary,  in  constiucting  the  pro- 
jection of  a  right  line,  to  construct  the  projections  of  two  of 
its  points,  and  the  line  which  they  describe  will  be  the 
rcquiied  projection. 

"  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  the  proposed  right  line  be  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  projection  will  bo 
n-dueed  to  a  single  point,  which  will  be  that  in  which  it  falls 
upon  the  plane. 

•^  Fiyure  2. — The  projections  a  b,  a'  //,  of  the  same  indefi- 
nite right  line,  a  b,  being  given  upon  two  planes,  n<it  jMrallel, 
L  M  N  o,  L  M  p  Q,  this  light  line  is  determined  ;  for,  if  from 
one  oJ  the  projections,  a  b,  we  imagine  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  L  M  N  o,  the  position  of  this  plane  being  known,  it  would 
necessarily  pass  through  the  right  line  a  b.  The  position  of 
this  right  line,  which  is  found  at  once  n])on  both  the  known 
planes,  consequently  at  their  mutual  inteisection,  is  therefore 
absolutely  determined. 

"  What  we  have  just  stated  is  to  be  understood  as  inde- 
pendent of  the  planes  i>f  projection,  and  takes  place,  whatever 
may  be  ihe  angle  formed  by  the  two  planes.  But  if  the  angle 
formed  by  the  two  planes  of  projection  be  very  obtuse,  that 
formed  by  their  perpendiculars  will  be  very  acute :  very 
triHing  mistakes  in  this  respect,  will,  in  practice,  lead  to  very 
grave  errors  in  determining  the  position  of  the  right  line, 
lo  obviate  this  cause  of  inaccuracy,  at  least  in  the  absence 
of  better  means,  it  is  usual  to  have  the  planes  of  projection 
perpendicular  to  each  other  :  besides  which,  as  most  artists, 
who  use  projections,  are  familiar  with  the  position  of  a  hori- 
zontal j)lane  and  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line,  they  gene- 
rally represent  one  plane  of  j)rojection  as  horizontal,  and  the 
oihtr  vertical. 

"The  necessity  of  representing,  in  drawings,  the  two  pro- 
jections upon  the  same  sheet,  and  in  larger  operations  upon 
the  same  area,  has  f  irther  determined  artists  to  represent  the 
vertical  |ilane  as  turning  and  folding  down,  as  upon  a  hinge, 
at  its  intersection  with  the  horizontal  plane,  so  as  tiiat  the 
two  may  form  but  one  plane,  upon  which  tliey  constiuct  their 
projections. 

"  The  vertical  projection  is  thus,  in  fact,  traced  upon  a 
horizontal  plane,  and  it  must  ever  be  kept  in  mind,  that  it 
must  be  corrected  and  put  in  its  place,  by  turning  it  one- 
fourth  of  a  revolution  round  its  intersection  with  the  hori- 
zontal plane  :  to  do  which  accurately,  care  must  be  taken  to 
trace  this  intersection  very  plainly  upon  the  design. 

'•  Thus,  in  FiffiD-e  2.  the  projection  a'  b'  of  the  right  line 
A  B,  could  not  be  drawn  upon  a  real  vertical  plane  ;  but  if  we 
Conceive  the  plane  to  be  turned  about  the  right  line  l  m,  so  as 
to  bring  it  in  contact  at  l  m  p'q',  we  shall  readily  execute  the 
vertical  projection  a'  />'. 

"  Besides  the  facilities  of  execution  presented  by  this  dis- 
position, it  possesses  the  additional  advantage  of  abridging  the 
labour  of  projections.  Thus,  suppose  the  points  a,  «',  to  be 
the  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the  puint  a,  the 
plane  indicated  by  the  right  lines  a  «,  A  a',  will  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  two  planes  of  projection  at  the  same  time, 
because  it  passes  along  the  right  lines  perpendicular  to  them  : 
consequently, it  will  be  perpendicular  to  their  common  inter- 
section L  M  ;  and  the  right  lines  a  c,  a'  c,  according  to  which 
they  cut  these  two  planes,  will  be  themselves  perpendicular 

to  L  M. 

"  Now,  if  the  vertical  plane  be  turned  about  l  m,  as  upon 
a  hinge,  the  right  line  a'  c,  still  continues  perpendicular  to 
L  M  ;  and  the  case  is  still  the  same,  when  the  vertic;il  plane, 
laid  down,  assumes  the   position  c  a".     Thus  the  two  right 


lines  a  c,  c  «",  passing  both  by  the  point  c.  and  being  both 
perpendicular  to  h  m,  are  in  prolongation  to  each  other  ;  the 
ease  is  similar  w  ith  the  right  lines  b  d,  d  b",  as  to  every  other 
point,  as  B.  Hence  it  follows,  that  when  we  have  obtained 
the  horizontal  projection  of  a  point,  the  projection  of  this 
same  point  upon  the  vertical  plane,  supposed  to  be  laid  down, 
will  be  in  the  right  line  drawn  along  by  the  horizontal  pro- 
jection perpendicularly  to  the  intersection,  l  m,  of  the  two 
planes  ot  projection,  and  this  recijirocally. 

"This  result  very  frequently  occurs  in  practice. 

"  We  have  hitherto  considered  the  right  line,  a  b,  Figitre  2, 
as  indefinite  ;  in  which  case  we  should  only  have  to  do  with 
its  direction;  but  we  must  now  consider  it  as  terminated  by 
the  points  a  b.  which  will  bring  us  to  take  its  extent  into  our 
calculation.  We  shall,  therefore,  examine  how  this  may  be 
deduced  fiom  a  knowledge  of  its  two  jirojections. 

"  When  a  right  line  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  planes  on 
which  it  is  projected,  its  length  is  equal  to  that  of  its  projec- 
tion on  the  ])lane  ;  for  the  line  and  its  projiclion,  Vicing  both 
terininated  at  two  points  perpendicular  at  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection, are  parallel  to  each  other,  and  comprised  between 
parallels.  In  this  particular  case,  therefore,  the  projection 
being  given,  the  length  of  the  right  line,  which  is  equal  to  it, 
is  also  given. 

"  A  right  line  is  always  parallel  to  one  of  the  two  planes  of 
projection,  when  its  projection  upon  the  second  is  parallel  tc 
the  first  of  its  planes. 

"  If  the  right  line  be  at  the  sanre  time  oblique  upon  two 
planes,  its  length  will  be  greater  than  that  of  either  of  its 
projections  ;  but  the  true  length  may  be  obtained  by  a  very 
simple  operation, 

"  Figure  2. — Let  a  b  be  the  right  line  ;  a  b,  a'  b'.  its  given 
projections  :  to  find  its  true  length.  From  one  of  the 
extremities  of  the  right  line  a,  in  the  vertical  plane  falling 
from  it,  imagine  a  horizontal  line,  a  e,  stretching  out  till  it 
meet  in  e  the  vertical  line  falling  from  the  other  extremity 
at  B  ;  this  will  give  the  rectangular  triangle,  a  e  b,  which 
must  be  constructed  in  order  to  obtain  the  length  of  the 
right  line  a  b,  which  is  its  hypothenuse.  In  this  triangle, 
independently  of  the  right  angle,  we  know  the  side  a  e, 
which  is  equal  to  the  given  projection,  a  b.  And  if,  in  the 
vertical  plane,  we  draw  fioni  the  point  a',  the  horizontal  line 
a'  e',  which  is  the  projection  of  a  e,  it  will  cut  the  vertical 
line  b'  d  at  the  point  e,  which  will  be  the  projection  of  the  point 
E.  Thus  //  e  will  be  the  vertical  projectinn  of  b  e,  and  con- 
sequently of  an  equal  length  with  it.  Having  ascertained, 
by  these  means,  the  two  sides  of  the  triangle,  it  will  lie  easy 
to  construct  the  triangle,  who>e  hypothenuse  will  give  the 
length  of  a  u, 

"  Fk/vre  2,— being  drawn  in  perspective,  has  no  atTinity  to 
constructions  done  in  the  maimer  of  projections,  \Ve  shall 
here  give  the  construction  of  this  first  question  in  all  its 
simplicity. 

"  Figure  3. — The  right  line  l  m  being  supposed  to  be  the 
intersect  inn  of  the  two  pianos  of  projection,  and  the  lines  a  b, 
a"  b",  the  given  projections  of  a  right  line  ;  to  find  the  length 
of  this  line.  Draw  through  the  point  a",  the  indefinite  hori- 
zontal II  e,  which  will  cut  the  line  b  6",  at  the  point  e,  and 
ujion  it  measure  the  length  of  a  b,  from  e  to  n.  Draw  the 
hypothenuse  h  i",  and  its  length  will  be  tliat  of  the  right  line 
required. 

"As  both  the  planes  of  projection  are  rectangular,  this 
operation,  which  is  performed  upon  one  of  the  planes,  may 
be  also  done  upon  the  other,  and  will  yield  a  similar  result. 

"From  what  has  been  taid,  the  reader  will  perceive,  that 
whenever  we  have  the  two  projections  of  a  body,  terminated 
by  plane  surfaces,  by  rectilinear  angles,  and  by  the  apices  of 


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solid  angles  (projections  which  are  reducible  to  the  system  of 
rectilineiif  angles)  it  will  be  easy  to  ascertain  the  length  of 
any  of  its  dimensions  :  for  this  dimension  will  either  be 
parallel  to  one  of  the  two  planes  of  projeetion,  or  it  will  be  at 
the  same  moment  oblique  to  them  both.  In  the  first  case, 
the  required  length  of  the  dimension  will  be  equal  to  its  pro- 
jection ;  in  the  second,  it  may  be  reilueed  from  the  two  pro- 
jections, by  the  method  just  described. 

"  We  come  now  to  describe  the  mode  by  which  the  pro- 
jections of  solids,  terminated  by  planes  and  rectilinear  angles 
arc  constructed  ;  though  there  is  no  general  rule  for  this 
operation  :  indeed,  the  construction  of  these  projections  will 
be  more  or  less  easy,  according  to  the  method  in  which  the 
position  of  the  apices  of  the  angles  of  the  solid  is  defined  ; 
the  nature  of  the  operation  being  governed  by  that  of  the 
definition.  The  case  is  precisely  here  as  in  algebra,  in  which 
there  is  no  general  method  of  reducing  a  problem  to  equa- 
tions. Ill  every  particular  instance,  the  process  depends  on 
the  mode  in  which  the  relation  between  the  given  quan- 
tities and  those  sought  for,  is  expressed  :  and  it  is  only  by  a 
variety  of  examples  that  young  students  can  learn  how  to  lay 
hold  of  these  affinities,  and  to  express  them  in  equations.  So 
likewise,  in  descriptive  geometry,  it  is  only  by  a  multitude  of 
examples,  and  by  the  use  of  the  rule  and  compasses  in  our 
schools,  that  we  can  acquire  the  habit  of  forming  construc- 
tions, or  accustom  ourselves  to  make  choice  of  the  most 
familiar  and  elegant  methods  in  each  particular  case.  We 
may  fartlier  observe,  that,  as  in  analyses,  when  a  problem  is 
reduced  to  etpiations,  there  are  methods  of  treating  those 
equations,  and  of  deducting  from  them  the  value  of  each 
unknown  quantity  ;  so  also,  in  descriptive  geometry,  when 
the  projections  are  made,  there  are  certain  geneial  methods 
of  constructing  whatever  may  result  from  the  terms,  and 
respective  positions  of  bodies. 

••  Nor  is  this  comparison  between  descriptive  geometry 
and  algebra  al  together  useless:  for  these  sciences  are  intimately 
connected.  There  is  no  construction  of  descriptive  geometry, 
but  what  may  be  reduced  to  an  analysis  ;  and  when  questions 
require  no  more  than  thiee  unknown  quantities,  each  analysis 
may  be  looked  upon  as  the  record  of  a  spectacle  in  geometry. 

"  It  is  much  to  be  wished,  that  these  two  sciences  were 
studied  together :  descriptive  geometry  would  carry  that  evi- 
dence which  is  its  peculiar  characteristic,  into  the  most  com- 
plicated analytical  operations;  while  on  the  other  hand  alge- 
braical analyses  would  give  to  geometry,  that  generality 
which  it  stands  in  need  of 

"  The  principle  upon  which  we  ground  the  theory  of  pro- 
jections is  convenient  for  describing  the  position  of  a  point  in 
space  or  that  of  an  indefinite  or  terminated  right  line,  and, 
consequently,  for  representing  the  form  and  position  of  a 
body  terminated  either  with  plain  faces,  rectilinear  arretes, 
or  the  apices  of  solid  angles;  for  when  once  we  are  acquainted 
with  the  position  of  all  its  arretes  and  of  the  apices  of  all  its 
angles,  the  body  itself  is  entirely  known.  But  were  all  bodies 
bounded,  either  by  an  unif  irmly  curved  surface,  all  whose 
points  were  governed  by  the  same  law,  as  in  spheres,  or  by 
an  unconnected  assemblage  of  several  parts  of  ditferently 
curved  surfaces,  as  in  a  body  turned  on  a  lathe  ;  this  prin- 
ciple would  not  only  be  inconvenient,  impracticable,  and 
destitute  of  the  advantage  of  forming  an  idea  of  the  shape, 
but  would  also  be  insufficient  through  want  of  variety. 

'•  For  instance  :  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  this  principle 
by  itself,  would  be  inconvenient  and  impracti&ible,  if  we 
wished  to  describe  all  the  points  of  a  curved  surface ;  because 
it  would  be  necessary  not  only  to  indicate  each  of  them,  as 
well  by  its  horizontal,  as  its  vertical  projection,  but  also  to 
have  the  two  projections  of  the  same  point  united  together,  in 


order  to  avoid  a  combination  of  the  horizontal  projection  of 
one  point  with  the  vertical  projection  <jf  another;  and  the  most 
ready  mode  of  thus  uniting  these  prtyections,  being  to  join 
them  by  one  perpendicular  right  line  to  the  line  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  two  planes  of  projection,  the  draught  would 
become  surcharged  with  a  prodigious  number  of  lines,  and 
cause  a  contusion,  which  would  increase  in  proportion  as  we 
would  aim  at  accuracy  and  precision. 

"  We  shall  now  prove  this  method  to  be  insufiieient,  and 
destitute  of  the  requisite  copiousness. 

"  Amongst  the  vast  variety  of  dillerently-curvcd  surfiices, 
there  are  some  which  e.xtend  only  through  a  finite  and  cir- 
cumscribed portion  of  space,  and  whose  projections  are 
limited,  as  to  extent,  in  every  direction  ;  as  in  the  case  of  a 
sphere,  the  extent  of  whose  projection  on  a  plane  is  reduced 
to  that  of  a  circle,  having  its  circumference  equal  to  that  of 
the  sphere ;  and  we  must  allow  the  plane,  on  which  the 
projection  falls,  to  be  of  dimensions  sufficient  to  receive  it. 
But  all  cylindric  surfaces  are  as  indefinite  in  a  certain  direc- 
tion, as  the  right  line  by  which  they  are  generated  ;  and  the 
plane  itself,  the  most  simple  of  all  surfaces,  is  indefinite  in 
two  ways.  There  are  likewise  a  great  number  of  surfaces, 
w'hose  protuberant  particles  {nappes)  shoot  at  once  into  all 
the  regions  of  space.  Now,  as  the  planes  on  which  projec- 
tions are  received,  are  unavoidably  of  a  limited  extent,  this 
mode  of  describing  the  nature  of  a  curved  surface,  had  we  no 
other  than  that  of  the  two  projections  of  each  of  the  points 
by  which  it  passes,  could  be  only  applicable  to  those  of  which 
the  points  of  the  sin-face  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  planes 
of  projection  ;  all  beyond  this,  coidd  neither  be  expressed 
nor  known  :  consequently,  this  mode  would  be  insufiieient. 
Lastly,  it  would  want  variety,  because  we  could  not  deduce 
from  it  anything  relative  either  to  tangent  planes  to  the  sur- 
face, nor  to  its  normals,  nor  to  its  two  curvatures  in  each 
point,  nor  to  its  lines  of  inflection,  nor  to  its  returning  arretes, 
nor  to  its  multiplied  lines  and  points,  nor,  in  a  word,  to  any 
of  the  affections  necessary  to  be  considered  in  operating  on 
a  curved  surface. 

"  It  is  therefore  necessarj',  that  we  should  have  recourse 
to  some  new  principle,  not  only  compatible  with  the  former, 
but  also  capable  of  supplying  its  place,  whenever  it  becomes 
in  itself  insufficient  for  our  purpose.  It  is  this  new  piinciple 
that  we  are  now  about  to  lay  down. 

"  Every  curved  surface  may  be  considered  as  generated  by 
the  movement  of  a  curved  line,  either  inflexible  in  form 
when  its  position  is  changed,  or  variable  both  in  form  and 
situation.  As  the  universality  of  this  proposition  may  render 
it  difficult  of  comprehension,  we  shall  explain  it  by  some 
familiar  examples. 

'■  Cylindric  surfiices  may  be  generated  in  two  principal 
ways,  viz.,  either  by  the  movement  of  a  right  line,  which 
keeps  constantly  parallel  to  a  given  line  whilst  in  motion,  yet 
inclining  always  towards  a  given  curve  ;  or  by  the  movement 
of  the  curve  itself,  taken  in  the  foregoing  instance  as  the  con- 
ductor, which  so  moves,  as  that  while  from  one  point  it 
inclines  towards  a  given  line,  all  its  other  points  may  describe 
parallels  to  this  line.  In  both  these  modes  of  origin,  the 
generating  line,  which  is  a  right  line  in  the  first  case,  and  a 
curve,  of  whatever  description,  in  the  second,  invariably 
retains  its  form  ;   only  changing  its  position  in  space. 

"Conical  surfaces  have,  in  like  manner,  two  principal 
modes  of  being  generated.  First,  they  may  bo  considered 
as  generated  by  an  indefinite  right  line,  which  being  forced  to 
pass  always  upon  a  given  point,  moves  so  as  to  lean  constantly 
towards  a  given  curve,  that  directs  its  movement.  The  only 
point  through  which  it  always  passes  the  right  line,  is  the 
centre  of  the  surface,  improperly  called  its  apex  or  head.    In 


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this   mode,  the   gencialing  line  still  preserves  its  identity, 
Hover  ceasing  to  he  a  right  line. 

"  Conic  surfaces  may  also  be  generated  in  another  way, 
wliich,  lor  greater  plainness,  we  shall  here  apply  only  to  those 
with  circular  bases.  The  suifaeos  may  be  considered  as 
bounded  by  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  movirig  with  its 
piano  always  parallel  to  itself,  and  its  centre  upon  a  right 
line  passing  through  the  apex  ;  its  radius  being,  in  every 
movement,  proportionate  -to  the  distance  of  the  centre  from 
the  apex.  Ilere  it  is  evident,  that  if  in  its  motion,  the  plane 
of  the  circle  tends  towards  the  apex  of  the  surface,  the  radius 
ot'  the  ciicle  will  decrease,  till,  in  passing  the  apex,  it  will  be 
an  absolute  nullity,  after  which  it  will  again  increase  indefi- 
nitely, iu  proportion  as  the  plane,  having  passed  the  apex,  is 
withdrawn  farther  and  fartiier  from  it.  In  this  second  mode 
of  generating,  the  circumference  of  the  circle,  which  is  the 
generating  curve,  not  only  changes  its  position,  but  its  form 
also,  at  every  motion  ;  lor,  changing  its  radius,  it  conse- 
(pienlly  varies  both  in  curvature  and  extent. 

'■  l^et  us  take  a  thiid  example. 

■■  A  circular  surtlic-e  may  be  generated  by  the  movement 
of  a  plane  curve,  turning  about  a  right  line  ;  drawn  in  any 
direction  upon  its  plane.  In  this  way,  we  find  the  generating 
curve  inflexible  in  form,  but  changeable  in  position.  Wc  may 
also  see  it  genejated  by  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  moving 
with  its  centre  always  on  the  axis,  and  its  plane  being  per- 
pendicular to  this  axis,  the  radius  will  be  uniformly  equal  to 
the  distance  of  the  j)oiul  in  wliich  the  plane  of  the  circle  cuts 
the  axis,  from  that  in  which  it  cuts  a  given  curve  in  space. 
Here  the  generating  curve  changes  both  in  form  and  position. 

■'  From  these  three  examples,  we  may  perceive  that  all 
curved  surfaces  may  be  generated  by  the  movement  of  cer- 
tain cur\ed  lines,  and  that  there  are  none  of  which  the  form 
and  position  may  not  be  accurately  described  from  an  exact 
and  complete  definition  of  its  generation.  This  new  prin- 
ciple forms  a  complement  to  the  method  of  projections ;  and 
ill  proceeding,  wc  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  be  con- 
vinced of  its  simplicity  and  copiousness. 

•'  It  is  not,  therefore,  by  merely  giving  the  projections  of 
individual  points,  through  which  a  curved  surface  passes, 
that  we  are  enabled  to  determine  its  form  and  position ;  but 
by  being  able  to  construct  for  any  point  the  generating 
curve,  according  to  the  form  and  position  it  would  have  iu 
passing  such  point.  And  here  we  may  remark,  1.  That  as 
every  curved  surface  may  be  generated  in  an  infinite  number 
of  dill'erent  ways,  it  must  depend  upon  the  dexterity  and 
knowleilge  of  the  operatnr,  to  make  choice,  among  all  the 
possible  generations,  of  such  as  will  rerjiiire  the  most  simple 
curve,  and  least  complex  considerations.  2.  That  long  expe- 
rience has  taught  us,  instead  of  considering  only  one  genera- 
ting jiriuciple  of  a  curved  surface,  as  prescribed  by-  the  laws 
of  motion  and  of  the  change  of  form  in  its  generation,  it  is 
frequently  more  simple  to  take  two  generating  principles, 
and  to  indicate  for  each  point  the  construction  of  the  two 
generating  curves. 

■'  Thus,  in  descriptive  geometry,  in  order  to  express  the 
form  and  position  of  a  curved  surface,  it  is  only  necessary, 
for  any  [)oiiit  of  such  surface,  of  which  the  projections  may- 
be taken  at  (deasure,  to  give  the  manner  of  constructing  the 
horrzciutal  and  vertical  projections  of  two  ditlerent  generators, 
which  pass  that  point. 

"  We  shall  now  proceed  to  apply  these  general  principles 
to  the  plane,  of  all  surfaces  the  most  simple,  and  the  most 
freijucntly  in  use. 

"A  plane  is  generated  from  the  motion  of  a  given  right 
line,  of  a  known  ijosition,  which  moves  so  that  all  its  points 
may  describe  lines  parallel  to  a  second  given  right  line.     If 


this  second  line  be  itself  in  the  plane  in  questron,  it  may  be 
also  said  that  the  plane  is  generated  by  such  second  right 
line  moving  so  that  all  its  points  may  describe  lines  parallel 
to  the  first. 

"  We  have  therefore  an  idea  of  the  position  of  a  plane, 
from  an  observation  of  the  two  right  lines,  each  of  which  may 
lie  coiisidereil  as  its  generator.  The  position  of  these  two 
right  lines  in  the  plane  which  they  generate,  is  altogether 
iudifiereiit ;  it  is  only  necessary,  therefore,  for  projections,  to 
make  choice  of  such  as  arc  of  the  most  simple  construction. 
Hence,  in  descriptive  geometry,  the  position  of  a  plane  is 
indicated  by  giving  the  two  right  lines  along  which  it  cuts 
the  planes  of  jirojection.  It  is  easy  t'l  recollect  that  these 
two  right  lines  must  meet  the  intersection  of  the  two  planes 
of  projection  in  one  and  the  same  point,  and  that,  consequently 
this  must  be  the  point,  in  which  they  meet  themselves. 

"  As  we  shall  have  fie(|uent  occasion  to  bring  planes  under 
our  consideration,  we  shall,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  adopt  the 
term  tracer  to  describe  those  I'ight  lines,  by  which  they  cut 
the  planes  of  projection,  and  by  which  their  position  is 
indicated. 

"  Having  settled  these  preliminaries,  we  now  proceed  to 
the  solution  of  various  questions,  which  will  at  once  serve  as 
exercises  on  the  method  of  projections,  and  facilitate  our 
fai'ther  progress  in  descriptive  geometry. 

"  First  Question. — Fif/vre  4.  A  point,  whose  projections 
are  d,  (/,  and  a  right  line,  whose  projections  are  a  b  and  a  b, 
being  given  ;  to  construct  the  projections  of  a  second  right 
line,  drawn  from  the  point  given,  parallel  to  the  first. 

''Solution. — The  two  horizontal  projections  of  the  given 
right  line,  and  of  the  line  sought,  must  be  parallel  to  each 
other;  being  the  intersections  of  two  vertical  planes,  parallel 
to  a  common  plane.  It  is  also  the  same  with  the  vertical 
projections  of  similar  right  lines.  Therefore,  as  the  right 
line  sought  for  must  necessarily  pass  through  the  given 
point,  its  projections  must  also  pass  through  those  of  the 
point  respectively.  If,  then,  from  the  point  d,  e  f  be  drawn 
parallel  to  a  B,'and  if  from  the  point  d,  e  f  be  drawn 
parallel  to  a  b,  the  lines  e  f  and  c  /' will  be  the  pVojections 
required. 

"  Seco7id  Question. — Fir/ure  5.  A  plane  whose  two  traces 
are  a  b,  b  c,  and  a  point,  whose  projections  are  g,  g,  being 
"iven:  to  construct  the  traces  of  a  second  plane,  drawn  from 
the  given  point,  parallel  to  the  first. 

'•Solution. — The  traces  of  the  plane  sought  for,  must  be 
parallel  to  the  respective  traces  of  the  given  plane,  because 
these  traces  taken  in  pairs,  are  the  intersections  of  two  planes 
parallel  to  a  common  plane.  We  have,  therefore,  only  to 
find,  for  each  of  them,  one  of  the  points  through  which  they 
respectively  pass.  To  obtain  this,  from  the  given  point, 
conceive  a  horizontal  right  line  in  the  plane  sought  for; 
this  line  will  be  parallel  to  the  trace  a  d.  cutting  the  vertical 
plane  in  a  point,  which  will  be  one  of  those  of  the  trace  of 
the  plane  sought  for  on  it ;  and  we  shall  have  its  two  pro 
jections,  by  drawing  the  indefinite  horizontal  <•/ F  from  the 
point  <7,  and  the  right  line  g  i  from  the  point  g,  parallel  to 
A  B.  If  G  I  be  produced  to  meet  the  intersection,  l  m,  of  the  two 
planes  of  projection  iu  the  point  i.  such  point  will  be  the  hori- 
zontal projection  of  the  intersection  of  the  horizontal  right  lino 
with  the  vertical  plane.  This  point  of  intersection,  there- 
fore, will  be  found  upon  the  vertical  line  i  f,  drawn  frotii  the 
point  I.  But  as  it  must  also  be  found  upon  r/  f,  it  will  be 
iliseovercd  at  the  point  f,  of  intersection  of  the  two  latter 
right  lines.  Lastly,  by  drawing  a  line  from  f  parallel  to  b  r, 
we  shall  have  upon  the  vertical  plane  the  trace  of  the  plane 
required  :  and  if  this  trace  be  produced  till  it  meet  i.  m 
in    the    point  e,  and    e  d    be   drawn    parallel    to   a   b,  we 


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shall  have  the  trace  of  the  same  plane  upon  the  horizontal 
plane. 

'■  If,  instead  of  a  hoiizontal  right  line  in  the  plane  sought 
for,  a  line  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  were  conceived,  the 
construction  following,  by  parity  of  reasoning,  would  be 
obtained  : 

"  Draw  from  the  point  o,  parallel  to  i-  m,  the  indefinite 
right  line  a  d  ;  from  the  point  ff,  draw  ff  ii  parallel  to  c  b, 
producing  it  till  it  cut  l  m  in  the  point  ii,  whence  draw  h  d 
perpendicular  to  l  m  :  this  latter  will  cut  g  d  in  d,  whence 
if  a  parallel  be  drawn  to  a  b,  one  of  the  traces  of  the  plane 
sought  for  will  be  obtained  ;  and  if,  having  produced  this 
trace  to  meet  l  m  in  e.  e  f  be  drawn  parallel  to  b  c,  we  shall 
have  the  trace  on  the  vertical  plane. 

"  7'Uird  Question. — Figure  6.  A  plane  whose  two  traces 
are  a  b  and  bc,  and  a  point  whose  two  projections  are  d,  d, 
being  given;  to  construct,  1,  the  projections  of  the  right 
line  falling  perpendicularly  from  the  point  upon  the  plane; 
2,  the  projection  of  the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  right  line 
with  the  plane. 

"  Solution.  The  pirpendiculars  d  o,  dg,  falling  from  the 
points  D  and  d  upon  the  respective  traces  of  the  plane,  will 
be  the  indefinite  projections  of  the  rid;lit  line  required:  for 
if,  along  the  perpendicular,  a  vertical  plane  be  conceived, 
such  plane  will  cut  both  the  horizontal  and  the  given  planes, 
in  two  right  lines,  both  of  them  perpendicular  to  the  common 
intersection,  a  b,  of  the  two  planes  ;  now,  the  first  of  these 
lines,  being  the  projection  of  the  vertical  plane,  is  also  that 
of  the  perpendicular  which  is  included  ;  therefore  the  pro- 
jection of  this  perpendicular  must  pass  through  the  point  d. 
and  the  perpendicular  to  a  b. 

"  The  same  demonstration  will  serve  for  the  vertical 
projection. 

"  As  to  the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  perpendicular  with 
the  plane,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  found  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  tliis  plane,  with  the  vertical  plane  drawn  along  the 
perpendicular  ;  such  intersection  being  projected  indefinitely 
upon  EF.  By  obtaining  the  vertical  projection,  fe,  of  this 
intersection,  we  shall  find  it  to  contain  that  of  the  point 
required  ;  and  as  this  point  must  be  projected  upon  the  right 
line  (/(/,  it  will  be  found  at  the  intersection,  ^r,  of  the  lines 
fe  and  dg.  It  remains,  therefore,  only  to  discover  the  right 
line/e:  now,  the  intersection  of  the  given  plane  with  the 
vertical  plane,  which  are  perpendicular  to  each  other,  will 
meet  the  horizontal  plane  in  the  point  e,  whose  vertical 
projection,  e,  will  be  found  b}'  dropping  ep  perpendicularly 
upon  L  M  ;  and  it  will  meet  the  vertical  plane  of  projection 
in  a  point,  whose  horizontal  projection  is  the  intersection  of 
the  line  lm  with  d  g,  produced,  if  necessary,  and  whose 
vertical  projection  must  be  at  once  upon  the  vertical  line  rf 
and  the  trace  c  b  ;  of  course,  it  will  be  at  the  point,/  of 
their  intersection. 

"  The  vertical  projection,  g,  of  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular 
being  found,  the  construction  of  its  horizontal  projection  will 
be  easy  ;  for  by  dropping  the  indefinite  perpendicular  g  g 
upon  L  M,  a  right  line  will  be  obtained,  which  will  contain 
the  point  required  :  ajid  as  the  line  d  f  must  also  contain  it, 
it  will  be  found  at  the  point,  g,  of  intersection  of  these  two 
right  lines. 

^'Fourth  Question. — Figure  7.  A  right  line  whose  two 
projections  are  ab,  a  b,  and  a  point  whose  two  projections 
■Are  B,  d,  being  given;  to  construct  the  traces  of  a  plane 
drawn  from  the  point,  perpendicularly  to  the  right  line. 

"  Solution.     We  have  seen  from  the  preceding  question, 

that  the  two  traces  must  be  perpendicular  to  the  respective 

projections  of  the  two  right  lines:  it  remains  to  be  discovered 

what  points  each  of  them  ought   to  pass  through.     For  this 

31 


purpose,  let  an  horizontal  line  fi-om  the  given  point  be  con- 
ceived in  the  plane  required,  produced  so  as  to  meet  the 
vertical  plane  of  piojection,  and  we  shall  find  its  vertical 
projection,  by  drawing  the  indefinite  horizontal  da  throi'gh 
the  point  d.  and  its  horizontal  projection  by  drawing  a  per- 
pendicular to  A  B,  through  the  point  d,  produced  till  it  cut 
LM  in  11,  which  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  point 
of  coincidence  of  the  horizontal  with  the  vcitical  plane  of 
projection.  This  point  of  coincidence,  which  must  be  foimd 
in  the  vertical  line  n  g.  and  the  horizontal  line  do,  and  con- 
sequently at  the  point,  g,  of  the  intersecti<in  of  these  two 
lines,  will  be  one  of  the  points  of  the  trace  on  the  vertical 
plane ;  we  shall  then  find  this  trace  by  drawing  the  line  f  c, 
from  the  point  g,  perpendicular  to  ab;  and  if  from  the 
point  c,  where  the  first  trace  meets  lm,  ce  be  drawn  per- 
pendicular to  AB,  we  shall  have  the  second  trace  required. 

"  The  same  process  would  discover  the  point  of  coincidence 
of  the  plane  with  the  right  line. 

"  Were  it  necessary  to  drop  a  perpendicular  from  the 
given  point  upon  the  right  line,  we  should  construct,  as  has 
just  been  described,  the  coincidence  of  the  right  line  with 
the  plane  drawn  by  the  given  point,  and  which  would  be 
perpendicular  to  it ;  and  we  should  obtain,  from  each  of  the 
two  projections  of  the  required  perpendicular,  two  points 
through  which  it  must  pass. 

"  Fifth  Question. — Figure  8.  Two  planes  being  given  in 
position,  by  means  of  their  traces  a  b  and  a  b  for  one,  and 
c  D  and  c  d  for  the  other  ;  to  construct  the  projections  of 
the  right  line  upon  which  they  intersect  each  other. 

"  Solution.  All  the  points  of  the  trace  A  B  being  found  in 
the  first  of  the  two  given  planes,  and  all  those  of  the  trace 
c  D  being  found  in  the  second,  the  point  E,  of  intersection 
of  these  two  traces  is  evidently  in  the  two  plan(?s.  and  is 
consequently  one  of  the  points  of  the  required  right  line.  In 
like  manner,  the  point,  f,  of  intersection  of  the  two  traces 
upon  the  vertical  plane,  is  also  another  point  of  this  right 
line.  The  intersection  of  the  two  planes  is  therefore  so 
placed  as  to  meet  the  horizontal  plane  in  e,  and  the  vertical 
plane  in  f. 

"  If,  therefore,  the  point  f  be  projected  on  the  horizontal 
plane,  which  may  be  performed  by  dropping  the  perpen- 
dicular r/on  L  M,  and  if  the  line /"e  be  drawn,  it  will  be  the 
horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection  of  the  two  planes. 
So,  if  the  point  e  be  projected  on  the  vertical  plane,  by 
dropping  the  perpendicular  e  e  on  l  m,  and  if  the  right  line 
e  F  be  drawn,  it  will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  the  same 
intersection. 

"  Si.vth  Question. — Figure  9.  Two  planes  being  given,  by 
means  of  the  traces  a  b  and  a  b  for  the  first,  and  c  d  and  c  d 
for  the  second;  to  construct  the  angles  formed  bj'  them. 

"  Solution.  Having  constructed,  as  in  the  preceding  ques- 
tion, the  horizontal  projection,  e  /j  of  the  intersection  of  the 
two  planes  ;  by  conceiving  a  third  plane  pei-pendicular  to 
them,  and  consequently  perpendicular  to  theircoramon  inter- 
section ;  this  third  plane  will  cut  the  two  given  planes  in 
two  right  lines,  containing  between  them  an  angle  equal 
to  the  one  required. 

"  The  horizontal  trace  of  this  third  plane  will  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  projection,  e/  of  the  intersection  of  the  two 
given  planes,  forming  with  the  other  right  lines  a  triangle, 
of  which  the  angle  opposed  to  the  horizontal  side  will  be  the 
one  required.  It  remains,  therefore,  only  to  construct 
this  triangle. 

"  It  is  quite  indifferent  through  what  point  of  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  first  planes  the  third  passes;  and  we  are 
at  liberty  to  mark  its  trace  upon  the  horizontal  plane,  at 
pleasure ;  provided  that  it  be  perpendicular  to  e/     Suppose 


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then,  the  line  g  n  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  e /  terminating, 
in  G  and  ii,  at  the  triices  of  the  two  given  pianos,  and  meet- 
ins  e/  in  the  point  i ;  this  line  will  be  the  base  of  the 
triangle  intended  to  be  constructed.  In  fiict,  let  us  suppose 
th.it  the  plane  of  this  triangle  turns  on  its  base,  o  n,  as  on 
a  hinge,  to  adapt  itself  to  the  horizontal  plane  ;  in  this 
motion,  its  apex,  which  was  in  the  first  instance  placed  on 
the  intcTsectiim  of  the  two  planes,  continues  in  the  vertical 
plane  drawn  through  such  intersection,  because  the  vertical 
plane  is  perprndicular  to  o  ii ;  and  when  the  plane  of  the 
triangle  is  laid  down,  this  ape.v  will  be  found  on  one  of 
the  points  of  the  line  e/  It  therefore  remains  only  to 
discover  the  heights  of  the  triangle,  or  the  extent  of  the 
perpendicular  dropped  from  the  point  i,  on  the  intersection 
of  the  two  planes. 

■'  But  this  perpendicular  is  comprised  in  the  vertical  plane 
drawn  from  e  to  /;  if,  therefore,  we  conceive  this  plane  to 
revohe  about  the  vertical  line  /f,  in  order  to  apply  itself 
to  the  vertical  plane  of  projection  ;  and  if  we  carry /e  from/ 
to  e,  /i  from  /'  to  i,  the  line  e  f  will  be  the  extent  of  the 
portion  of  the  intersection  comprised  between  the  two  planes 
of  projection  ;  and  if  from  the  point  i,  the  perpendicular  ;  k 
be  dropped  upon  this  line,  it  will  give  the  height  of  the 
required  triangle. 

"  Hence,  by  carrying  i  h  from  i  to  k,  and  completing 
the  triangle  o  k  h,  the  angle  in  k  will  be  equal  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  two  planes. 

"  Seventh  Question. — Figure  10.  Two  right  lines  inter- 
secting each  other  in  space,  being  given  by  their  horizontal 
projections  a  b,  a  c,  and  by  their  vertical  projections  ab,  a  c; 
to  construct  the  angle  formed  between  thera. 

"  Before  we  enter  on  the  solution  of  this  question,  we  may 
remark,  that  as  the  two  given  right  lines  are  supposed  to 
intersect  each  other,  the  point,  a,  of  the  coincidence  of  their 
horizontal  projections,  and  the  point,  a,  of  the  coincidence 
of  their  vertical  projections,  will  be  the  projections  of  the 
point  in  which  they  cross  each  other,  and  will,  consequently, 
be  in  the  same  right  line,  oca,  perpendicular  to  lm.  Were 
the  two  points  a  and  a  not  in  the  same  perpendicular  to  l  m, 
the  given  right  lines  would  not  intersect  each  other,  and  of 
course  would  not  be  in  the  same  plane. 

"  Solution.  Conceive  the  two  given  right  lines  to  be 
produced  so  as  to  meet  the  horizontal  plane,  each  in  a  point, 
and  then  construct  these  two  points  of  coincidence.  To 
perform  this,  produce  the  lines  a  b  and  ac,  till  they  cut  lm 
in  the  points  d  and  e,  which  will  be  the  vertical  projections 
of  these  two  points  of  coincidence.  From  the  points  d  and  e. 
draw  upon  the  horizontal  plane,  and  perpendicularly  to  l  m, 
two  indefinite  right  lines,  d  ■&  and  e  e,  which,  as  they 
must  pass  through  one  of  these  points,  will  determine 
their  positions  by  their  intersections,  d  and  e,  with  the 
respective  horizontal  projections  a  b  and  a  c,  produced 
if  necessary. 

"  This  done,  draw  the  right  line  d  e,  which,  with  the  two 
parts  of  the  given  lines  comprised  between  their  intersecting 
point  and  the  points  d  and  e,  will  form  a  triangle,  of  which 
the  angle  opposite  to  de  will  be  the  angle  required:  we 
have,  therefore,  only  to  construct  this  triangle.  To  do  so, 
having  dropped  from  the  point  a,  the  indefinite  perpendicular 
A  K.  u[K)n  D  E,  conceive  the  plane  of  the  triangle  to  turn  as 
upon  a  hinge  on  its  base  de,  till  it  lie  fl.it  on  the  horizontal 
plane ;  the  apex  of  this  triangle,  during  its  movement,  will 
not  depart  from  the  vertical  plane  described  by  a  k,  and 
will  at  length  apply  itself  in  some  degree  upon  the  prolonga- 
tion of  F  A  in  a  point,  ii,  of  which  it  remains  only  to  find  the 
distance  from  the  base  d  e. 

"  Now  the  horizontal  projection  of  this  distance  is  the  right 


line  A  F,  and  the  vertical  height  of  one  of  its  extremities 
above  that  of  the  other  is  equal  to  «  G  ;  hence,  according  to 
the  propertv  of  Fir/nre  3,  if  upon  L  M,  A  F  be  measured  from 
0  to  1\  and  if  the  hypothcnuse  a  f,  be  drawn,  such  hypi>thenu-se 
will  be  the  distance  required.  Finally,  \f  a  f  be  carried 
from  F  to  H,  and  if  from  the  point  h  the  two  lines  h  d  and 
H  E  be  drawn,  the  triangle  will  be  complete,  and  ehe  will 
be  the  angle  sought  for. 

'•  Eiijhtli  Question. — The  projections  of  a  right  line,  and 
the  truces  of  a  plane,  being  given;  to  construct  the  angle 
formed  by  such  line  and  plane. 

"  Solution.  Suppose  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  given 
plane  to  be  drawn  from  a  certain  point  in  the  given  right 
line,  the  angle  formed  t)y  such  perpendicular  with  the  given 
right  line,  would  be  the  complement  of  the  recpiired  angle, 
the  construction  of  which  will  resolve  the  question. 

"  Now,  if  upon  the  two  projections  of  the  right  line,  two 
points  be  taken,  in  the  same  perpendicular  with  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  two  planes  of  projection  ;  and  if  lines  be  drawn 
from  these  two  points,  perpendicular  to  the  respective  traces 
of  the  given  plane,  they  will  describe  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  projections  of  the  second  right  line.  The  question 
will  therefore  be  reduced  to  the  construction  of  the  angle 
formed  by  two  right  lines  which  cut  each  other,  and  will  be 
of  the  same  nature  with  the  former. 

"  It  is  usual,  in  projecting  a  chart  of  a  country,  to  imagine 
the  remarkable  points  to  be  connected  by  meansof  right  lines 
forming  triangles,  which  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  chart 
on  a  smaller  scale,  but  placed  in  the  same  relative  order  as 
those  they  lepresent.  The  operations  necessary  to  be  made 
on  the  earth  consist  chiefly  of  the  measurement  of  angles, 
and  of  these  triangles ;  and  in  order  to  the  angles  being 
described  correctly  on  the  chart,  they  ought  each  to  be  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  parallel  to  that  of  the  chart.  If  the  plane 
of  the  angle  be  oblique  to  the  horizon,  it  must  not  be  repre- 
sented, but  its  horizontal  projection  must  be  taken,  which 
may  always  be  found,  if  after  measuring  the  angle  itself, 
those  angles  which  its  two  sides  form  with  the  horizon  be 
also  measured.  Hence  we  derive  the  following  operation, 
known  under  the  appellation  of  the  reduction  of  an  angle  to 
the  horizon. 

"  Ninth  Question. — The  angle  formed  by  two  right  linos, 
and  the  angles  formed  by  such  lines  with  the  horizontal 
planes,  being  given;  to  construct  the  horizontal  projection 
of  the  first  of  these  angles. 

"  Solution. — Figure  11.  Let  A  be  the  horizontal  projection 
of  the  apex  of  the  angle  sought  for,  and  A  b  that  of  one  of 
its  sides,  so  that  the  other  side  m.ay  be  represented  by  A  e. 
Conceive  the  vertical  plane  of  projection  to  pass  along  a  b  ; 
and  having  drawn  the  vertical  indefinite  line  a  a,  through 
the  point  A,  any  point,  as  </,  may  be  taken  at  pleasure,  as 
the  vertical  projection  of  the  apex  of  the  angle  observed. 
If  from  the  point  (/,  the  right  line  d  b  be  drawn,  so  as  to 
make  with  the  horizontal  line,  an  angle  rfa  a,  equal  to  that 
made  by  the  first  side  with  the  horizon,  the  point  n  will  be 
the  coincidence  of  this  side  with  the  horizontal  plane.  Also, 
if  from  the  point  (/,  the  line  d  c  be  drawn,  so  as  to  make 
with  the  horizontal  line  an  angle,  rfc  a,  equal  to  that  made 
by  the  second  side  with  the  horizon  ;  and  if  fioni  the  point  a, 
as  from  a  centre,  with  the  radius  a  c,  the  indefinite  arc  of 
a  circle,  c  e  f,  be  described,  the  second  side  can  meet  the 
horizontal  plane  only  in  the  points  of  the  arc  c  e  f.  It 
remains,  therefore,  only  to  ascertain  the  distance  between 
this  point  and  some  other,  as  b. 

"  Now  this  latter  distance  is  in  the  plane  of  the  angle 
observed.  If,  therefore,  the  right  line  de  he  drawn,  so  as 
that  the  angle  d  d  o  may  be  equal  to  the  angle  observed,  and 


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if  rf  c  be  carried  from  d  to  d,  tiie  right  line  d  b  will  be  equal 
to  such  distance. 

"  Therefore,  taking  b  as  a  centre,  and,  at  an  interval 
equal  to  c  d.  des^eril)ing  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  point  e,  where 
it  will  cut  the  first,  will  be  the  point  of  coincidence  of  the 
second  side  with  the  horizontal  plane;  consequently,  the  right 
line  A  E  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  such  side,  and 
the  angle  b  a  k  that  o(  the  angle  observed. 

"The  nine  preceding  questions  barely  convey  an  idea  of 
the  method  of  projections  ;  they  are  inadequate  to  a  display 
of  all  the  resources:  but  in  proportion  as  we  rise  to  more 
general  considerations,  we  shall  take  care  to  introduce  such 
operations  as  will  be  most  conducive  to  this  object. 

"  Of  pliiues  tangent  to  curved  .siirfuces,  and  of  normals. 

"There  is  no  curved  surface  but  what  may  be  generated 
in  several  ways,  by  the  inovenieiit  of  curved  lines;  there- 
fore, if  from  any  point  of  a  surface,  two  generating  lines  be 
supposed  to  spring  in  the  po-^ition  they  would  naturally  have 
in  passing  each  other  through  such  point,  and  if  the  tangents 
be  supf.osed  in  this  point,  to  each  of  the  two  generators,  the 
plane  described  by  such  two  tangents  is  the  tawjent  plane. 
The  point  of  the  surface  in  which  the  two  generators  cut  each 
other,  and  is  at  the  same  time  common  to  the  two  tangents 
and  to  the  tangent  plane,  is  the  point  of  contact  between  the 
surface  and  the  plane. 

"The  right  line  drawn  through  the  point  of  contact,  per- 
pendicularly to  the  tangent  plane,  is  said  to  be  normal  to  the 
surface.  It  is  perpendicular  to  the  ground  of  the  surface, 
because  the  direction  of  such  ground  coincides,  in  every  part, 
with  that  of  the  tangent  plane,  which  may  be  considered  as 
its  prolongation. 

"  A  knowledge  of  tangents  and  of  normals  to  curved  sur- 
faces,  is  very  useful  in  a  great  number  of  arts  ;  in  many,  it 
is  indispensable.  We  shall  here  adduce  only  a  single  example 
of  each  case,  selected  in  architecture  and  painting. 

"  The  several  portions  which  com|)ose  vaults  of  hewn 
stone,  are  called  voii.ssoirs,  and  the  faces  on  which  two  con- 
tiguous voussoirs  touch  each  other,  are  denominated  joints, 
whether  the  voussoirs  form  but  a  single  course,  or  whether 
they  be  comprised  in  two  successive  courses. 

'The  position  of  the  joints  of  vaults  is  subject  to  several 
conditions,  which  must  necessarily  be  complied  with,  and 
which  we  shall  demonstrate  in  succession,  in  the  sequel  of 
this  discourse  ;  but  at  present  we  must  confine  our  attention 
to  the  object  more  immediately  before  us. 

"  One  of  the  conditions  required  in  the  position  of  joints, 
is,  that  they  be  all  perpendicular  to  each  other,  and  to  the 
surface  of  the  vault.  Any  material  deviation  from  this  rule, 
not  only  destroys  the  general  symmetry  of  the  structure,  but 
also  diminishes  the  firmness  and  durability  of  the  vault.  For 
instance,  if  one  of  the  joints  be  made  oblique  to  the  surface 
of  the  vault,  one  of  the  two  continuous  voussoirs  will  form 
an  obtuse  angle,  and  the  other,  an  acute  one;  and  in  the 
reaction  which  these  voussoirs  would  exert  against  each 
other,  the  two  angles  would  present  an  unequal  resistance, 
whence,  in  consequence  of  the  fragility  of  the  materials,  the 
acute  angle  would  bilge,  and  spoil  the  shape  of  the  vault,  as 
well  as  endanger  the  edifice.  The  reduction  of  vaults  into 
voussoirs,  therefore,  absolutely  requires  a  knowledge  of 
planes  tangent  and  normals  to  the  curved  surface  of  the  arch. 

"  Let  us  take  another  example,  from  an  ait,  which,  at 
first  view,  seems  to  require  a  much  less  rigid  attention 
to  this  rule. 

"  Painting  is  generally  considered  as  consisting  of  two 
parts.  The  one  is,  properly  speaking,  the  art;  its  oliject  is 
to  excite  in  the  spectator  a  determinate  emotion,  to  create 
in  him  a  given  idea,  or  to  place  him  in  a  situation  the  most 


favourable  for  receiving  a  certain  impression  ;  it  supposes 
in  the  artist  a  great  knowledge  of  philosophy  ;  exacts,  on 
his  part,  a  most  intimate  aeiiuaintanee  with  the  nature  of 
tilings,  the  mode  in  which  they  afl'ect  us,  and  the  move- 
ments, even  involuntary,  by  which  such  afl'eetion  manifests 
itself  This  can  only  be  the  result  of  a  very  refined  educa- 
tion, such  as  no  one  receives,  and  such  as  we  are  far  from 
giving  to  young  artists  :  it  is  governed  by  no  general  rule, 
but  is  subject  solely  to  genius. 

"  Tlie  other  part  of  painting  may  be  properly  called  tlte 
trade  :  its  object  is  a  correct  execution  of  the  conceptions  of 
the  former.  Here  nothing  is  arbitrary;  all  is  foreseen,  by 
the  help  of  sound  reasoning,  as  the  necessary  result  of  deter- 
minate subjects  and  given  circu instances.  When  the  form 
and  position  of  an  object  are  ascertained  ;  when  its  nature, 
and  the  number  and  positions  of  all  the  l)odies  by  which  it 
may  be  illumined,  wliether  by  direct  light  or  reflected  rays, 
are  under.stood  ;  when  the  position  of  the  eye  of  the  spectator 
is  determined  ;  and  when,  in  a  word,  every  circumstance 
that  can  influence  tiie  vision,  is  well  established  and  known, 
the  tint  of  each  ef  the  points  of  the  visible  surface  is  abso- 
lutely determined.  Whatever  relates  to  the  colour  of  this 
tint,  or  its  brightness,  depends  on  the  position  of  the  plane 
tangent  in  this  point,  with  respect  to  the  illuminating  bodies 
and  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  This  may  be  discovered 
by  mere  reasoning,  and  when  so  determined  should  be  applied 
with  accuracy.  Every  diminution,  or  exaggeration,  will 
change  the  appearances,  alter  the  forms,  and  produce  an 
eflect  quite  diiierent  from  that  intended  by  the  artist. 

"I  am  aware  that  the  rapidity  of  execution,  which  is  often 
necessary,  rarely  admits  of  the  use  of  a  method  which 
deprives  the  genius  of  all  corporeal  succours,  and  leaves  it 
to  the  exercise  of  its  faculties  alone,  as  well  as  that  it  is  much 
more  easy  for  the  painter  to  look  at  objects,  to  observe  their 
tints,  and  to  imitate  them  :  but  were  he  accustomed  to  con- 
sider the  positions  of  tangent  planes,  and  the  two  curvatures 
of  surfaces  in  each  of  their  points  (curvatures  which  will 
form  the  subject  of  subsequent  lessons)  he  would  not  fail 
to  derive  from  this  material  method,  a  more  advantageous 
result  :  it  would  enable  him  to  supply  efl'ects  which  the 
omission  of  some  circumstances  had  prevented  him  from 
producing,  and  to  suppress  others  which  had  arisen  from 
extraneous  incidents. 

"hi  conclusion,  we  may  remark,  that  the  vague  expres- 
sions, such  as  fiats,  which  painters  are  in  the  constant 
habit  of  using,  are  standing  evidences  of  the  need  in 
which  they  are  of  more  accurate  knowledge,  and  of  deeper 
reflection. 

"  Besides  its  utility  in  the  arts,  the  knowledge  of  planes 
tangent  and  normals  to  curved  surfaces,  is  one  of  the  most 
fertile  methods  employed  in  descrijjfive  geometry  for  the 
solution  of  questions,  which  it  would  be  very  diflicult  to 
resolve  by  any  other  process,  as  will  appeai-  from  the  follow- 
ing examples. 

"  The  general  mode  of  determining  the  plane  tangent  to 
a  curved  surface,  consists,  as  we  have  already  lemarkcd.  in 
conceiving  at  the  point  of  contact,  the  tangents  with  two 
diflferent  generating  curves,  which  would  pass  through  this 
point,  and"  in  constructing  the  plane  that  would  pass  through 
these  two  right  lines.  In  some  particular  cases,  in  order  to 
shorten  the  construction,  the  strict  letter  of  this  mode  is 
departed  from,  but  an  equivalent  is  always  adopted. 

"  As  to  the  construction  of  the  normal,  we  shall  not  dwell 
upon  it  particularly,  as  it  reduces  itself  merely  to  that  of  a 
right  line  perpendicular  to  the  tangent  plane,  which  is  sufti- 
eiently  understood. 

''First   Question. — From  a  supposed  point  on  a  cylindric 


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244 


1)  E  S 


surface,  of  wliich  the  horizontal  projection  is  given,  to  draw 
a  tangent  plane  to  that  surface. 

"  Sululion. — Figure  1'2.  Let  a  b,  a  b,  represent  the  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  projections  of  the  given  right  line,  to 
which  the  generator  of  the  cylindric  surface  must  be  parallel ; 
let  E  p  D  be  the  given  curve  in  the  horizontal  plane,  on  which 
the  generator  must  constantly  rest,  and  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  outline  of  the  cylindric  surface ;  lastly,  let  c 
be  the  given  horizontal  projection  of  the  point  supposed  on 
the  cylindric  surface,  from  which  the  tangent  plane  must 
bo  drawn. 

'•  Next,  from  the  supposed  point  on  the  surface,  whose 
horizontal  projection  is  in  c,  imagine  the  generating  right 
line  in  the  position  it  would  have,  if  it  passed  through  that 
point :  this  generator  being  a  straight  line,  will  be  its  own 
tangent,  and  consequently  one  of  the  two  right  lines  by  which 
the  position  of  the  tangent  plane  will  be  determined  ;  also, 
it  will  be  parallel  to  the  given  right  line:  its  two  projections, 
therefore,  will  be  respectively  parallel  to  a  b  and  a  b:  then, 
if  from  the  point  c,  an  indefinite  line  be  drawn,  parallel  to 
A  B,  as  E  F,  we  shall  have  the  horizontal  projection  of  the 
generator.  To  obtain  its  vertical  projection,  we  must  sup- 
pose the  generator  to  be  produced  upon  the  cylindric  surface, 
till  it  meet  the  horizontal  plane,  which  it  can  only  do  in  a 
point,  that  will  be  at  once  on  the  projection  e  f,  and  on  the 
curve  E  p  D,  and  consequently  the  intersection  of  these  two 
lines:  thus  the  point  will  be  determined  by  producing  ef 
till  it  cut  some  part  of  the  curve  e  p  d. 

"Two  cases  here  present  themselves:  either  the  line  e  f 
will  cut  the  outline  of  the  cylinder  in  a  single  point,  or  it  will 
cut  it  in  several  points.  In  examining  these  two  cases  sepa- 
rately, we  shall  suppose,  in  the  first  instance,  that  to  what- 
ever length  the  line  e  f  may  be  produced,  it  shall  cut  the 
curve  e  p  D  only  in  the  single  point  d. 

"  The  point  d  being  the  trace  of  the  generator,  if  it  be 
projected  on  the  vertical  plane,  by  means  of  the  perpendicular 
D  d,  and  if  from  the  point  </,  the  line  rf  /be  drawn  parallel 
to  a  b,  we  shall  obtain  the  vertical  projection  of  the  generator. 
We  are  thus  in  possession  of  the  two  projections  of  one  of 
the  right  lines,  through  which  the  required  tangent  plane 
must  pass.  The  vertical  projection  of  the  point  of  contact 
ought  to  be  on  the  line  c  c',  drawn  from  the  given  point  c, 
perpendicularly  to  L  M  ;  it  should  also  be  on  df;  consequently 
it  will  be  in  the  intersecting  point,  c,  of  those  two  lines. 

"  If  the  line  e  f  cut  the  trace,  e  p  d,  of  the  cylindric  sur- 
face in  several  points,  as  d  and  e,  we  must  proceed  for  each 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  just  directed  for  the  point  d, 
considered  by  itself,  and  we  shall  obtain  the  vertical  projec- 
tions, df,  ef,  of  as  many  generating  lines,  and  the  vertical 
projections,  c  c',  of  as  many  points  of  contact,  as  there 
are  points  of  intersection  between  the  line  e  f  and  the 
trace  e  p  d. 

'•  In  the  instance  of  Figure  12,  the  trace  of  the  cylindric 
surface  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  which  has  the  pro- 
perty of  being  cut  by  a  right  line  in  two  points ;  so  that  the 
vertical  line  elevated  from  the  given  point  c,  must  meet  the 
surfice  twice  ;  first,  in  a  point  whose  vertical  projection  is  c, 
through  w^hich  the  generator  passes  when  it  touches  upon 
the  point  D  ;  and,  secondly,  in  another  point,  whose  vertical 
projection  is  c',  through  w  hich  the  generator  passes  when  it 
rests  on  the  point  e  of  the  trace.  These  two  points,  although 
they  have  the  same  horizontal  projection,  are  nevertheless 
very  distinct,  and  should  each  have  a  particular  corres- 
pondent tangent  plane.  Indeed,  for  each  of  the  two  points 
of  contact,  we  must  find  the  second  right  line,  by  which 
the  position  of  the  tangent  plane  is  to  be  determined. 
Were  we  strictly  to  follow  the  general  method,  by  consider- 


ing the  trace  as  a  second  generating  line,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  conceive  it  as  passing  successively  through  each  of  the 
points  of  contact,  and  to  construct  a  tangent  for  each  of  such 
points;  but  in  the  present  case  of  cylindric  surfaces,  a  much 
more  simple  process  may  be  pursued.  For  e.xample :  the 
plane  tangent  to  the  point  c,  c,  touches  the  surface,  through- 
out its  extent,  of  the  generating  right  line  which  passes  fn)m 
this  point ;  it  touches  it,  then,  in  d,  which  is  a  point  of  such 
generating  line,  and  ought  therefore  to  pass  through  the 
tangent  to  the  trace  at  the  point  d.  By  parity  of  reasoning, 
we  shall  find  that  the  plane  tangent,  c,  c',  ought  to  pass  along 
the  tangent  to  the  trace  in  e.  Therefore,  if  from  the  two 
points  D,  E,  we  draw  the  trace  of  the  two  tangent  planes  d  k, 
e  g,  produced  till  they  cut  the  line  lm  in  two  points  k,  o.  we 
shall  have,  in  the  horizontal  plane,  the  traces  of  the  two  tangent 
planes. 

'■  It  only  remains  to  discover  the  traces  of  the  same  planes 
on  the  vertical  plane;  and  having  already  for  one  of  these 
traces  the  point  k,  and  for  the  other,  the  point  g,  we  have 
only  to  determine  a  single  point  for  each  of  them. 

'•  With  this  view,  operating  for  the  first  of  ihe  two  tangent 
planes,  imagine  the  point  to  be  constructed,  to  be  one  in 
which  a  horizontal  line  drawn  upon  the  plane  through  Ihe 
point  of  contact,  would  meet  the  vertical  plane;  we  shall 
have  the  horizontal  projection  of  such  line,  by  drawing  from 
the  point  c,  a  line  parallel  to  the  trace  d  k,  which  may  be 
produced  till  it  meet  the  line  l  m  in  the  point  i ;  and  we  may 
obtain  its  vertical  projection  by  drawing  from  the  point  c 
an  indefinite  horizontal  line.  The  point  of  coincidence  of  the 
vertical  plane  with  the  horizontal,  will  be  found  at  once  both 
upon  the  vertical  line  i  i  and  the  horizontal  line  c  ;',  and  will 
be  at  the  point,  i,  of  their  intersection  ;  therefore,  if  through 
the  points  i  and  k  a  line  be  drawn,  it  will  give  the  trace  of 
the  first  plane  tangent  to  the  vertical  plane.  By  a  similar 
process  for  the  second  tangent  plane,  we  shall  find  its  trace 
on  the  vertical  plane,  by  drawing  from  the  point  c  a  line,  c  n, 
parallel  to  the  horizontal  trace  e  g,  which  may  be  produced 
till  it  cut  L  M  in  the  point  h,  upon  which  the  vertical  line  h  h 
maybe  raised;  from  the  point  c' draW' a  horizontal  line  to 
cut  the  vertical  line  n  h,  in  the  point  A,  from  which,  and 
from  the  point  g,  by  drawing  the  line  g  h,  we  shall  obtaiii 
the  trace  required. 

'•Second  Queaiion. — From  an  imaginary  point  of  a  conic 
surface,  of  which  the  horizontal  projection  is  given,  to  draw 
a  tangent  plane  to  such  surface. 

'•  The  solution  of  this  question  ditlers  only  from  the  pre- 
ceding, in  having  the  generating  right  line,  instead  of  being 
always  parallel  to  itself,  passing  constantly  from  the  apex 
whose  two  projections  arc  given.  We  think  it  unnecessary 
to  enlarge  in  this  place,  and  leave  the  reader  to  examine  for 
himself,  with  the  assistance  of  Figure  13,  should  he  stand  in 
need  of  such  aid. 

"  Third  Question. — From  an  imaginary  point  of  a  surface 
revolving  upon  a  vertical  axis,  and  given  in  the  horizontal 
projection,  to  draw  a  plane  tangent  to  such  surface. 

'■'■Solution. — Figure  14.  Let  a  be  the  given  horizontal 
projection  of  the  axis,  a  a'  its  vertical  projection,  b  c  d  e  f 
the  given  generating  curve,  considered  in  a  plane  drawn 
from  the  axis,  and  o  the  given  horizontal  projection  of  the 
point  of  contact. 

"  If  from  the  point  of  contact,  and  from  the  axis,  a  vertical 
]>lane  be  conceived,  whose  projection  would  be  the  ind. ■finite 
horizontal  line  a  g,  such  plane  must  cut  the  revolving  surface 
in  a  curve,  which  will  become  the  generator,  passing  through 
the  point  of  contact:  if  from  the  point  o,  a  vertical  line  be 
conceived,  it  will  meet  the  generat'ug  curve,  and  consequently 
the  surface,  in  one  or  several   points,  which  will  become  so 


JlDiES  C1R.1FTIVE      ©EOMIKTIKY 


I'l.iii:  I 


DrtiHn  by  PNichoUott. 


En^-'by.P^  Uf-lr- 


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245 


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man\'  points  of  contact,  of  which  o  will  be  the  common 
horizontal  projection.  All  these  imaginary  points  of  contact 
will  be  found  in  the  plane  of  the  generator,  by  carrying  a  g 
upon  L  M,  from  a  to  e,  and  drawing  through  the  point  e  a 
line  parallel  to  a  o'  ;  all  the  points,  k,  c,  in  which  this  line 
cuts  the  curve  u  o  d  e  r,  will  be  the  intersections  of  the 
generating  curve  with  the  vertical  line  drawn  through  the 
point  o,  and  will  indicate  the  altitudes  of  as  many  points  of 
contact  above  the  horizontal  plane.  To  obtain  the  vertical 
projections  of  these  points  of  contact,  draw  through  all  the 
points,  E,  c,  indclinite  horizontal  lines,  which  will  contain 
such  ]irojections  ;  and  as  ihey  are  also  contained  in  the  line 
pc>rpeii<licular  to  l  m.  drawn  from  the  point  g,  the  intersec- 
tions, g  </',  of  this  line  with  the  horizontal  lines,  will  be  tlie 
projections  of  the  several  points  of  contact. 

"Now,  if  from  each  point  of  contact,  a  section  be  con- 
ceived, maile  by  a  horizontal  plane,  sueli  section,  which  may 
be  considered  as  a  second  generator,  will  be  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle,  whose  centre  will  be  in  the  a.xis,  and  of 
which  the  tangent,  which  must  be  perpendicular  to  the 
extremity  of  the  radius,  will  also  be  perpendicular  to 
the  vertical  plane  drawn  through  a  g,  in  which  the  radius  is 
found  :  therefore  the  tangent  plane  which  must  pass  through 
this  tangent,  will  be  also  perpendicular  to  the  same  vertical 
plane,  and  will  have,  upon  the  horizontal  plane,  ita  trace 
jierpeiiilieular  to  A  G.  We  only  want,  therefore,  the  trace 
of  each  of  the  tangent  planes,  to  enable  us  to  discover  its 
distance  from  the  point  a  :  now,  if  through  the  points  e,  c, 
we  draw  to  the  first  generator  the  tangents  K  i,  c  H,  produced 
till  they  meet  l  m  in  the  points  i,  h,  the  lines  a  i,  a  h,  will  be 
equal  to  those  distances  ;  therefore,  if  these  lines  be  trans- 
lerred  from  a  to  /,  and  from  a  to  A,  and  if  through  the  points 
i  and  h,  the  perpendiculars  i  Q,  h  p,  be  drawn  to  A  o,  and 
produced  till  they  meet  the  line  L  M,  we  shall  have,  on  the 
horizontal  plane,  the  traces  of  all  the  tangent  planes. 

'•  To  find  on  the  vertical  plane,  the  traces  of  the  same 
planes,  we  must  suppose  for  each  point  of  contact,  and  in  the 
correspondent  tangent  plane,  a  horizontal  line  produced  to 
the  vertical  plane  of  projection  ;  this  line,  which  is  the 
tangent  to  the  circle,  will  determine,  on  this  plane,  which 
belongs  to  the  trace.  Now,  for  all  the  points  of  contact, 
these  lines  have  the  same  horizontal  projection,  viz.  the  line 
G  K  drawn  from  the  point  g,  perpendicularly  to  a  g,  and 
terminating  in  the  right  line  l  m.  It',  therefore,  from  the 
point  K,  an  indefinite  perpendicular,  k  k  k',  be  drawn  upon 
L  M,  it  will  contain  all  the  points  of  coincidence  of  the 
horizontal  lines  with  the  vertical  plane  of  projection.  But 
as  these  points  of  coincidence  will  also  be  found  on  the 
respective  horizontal  lines  dj'awn  through  the  points  e,  c  ; 
the  intersections  k.  X-',  of  such  horizontal  lines  with  the  ver- 
tical line  K,k',  will  be  each  a  point  of  the  trace  of  one  of  the 
tangent  planes.  Thus  the  line  Q  k  will  be  on  the  vertical 
plane,  the  trace  of  one  of  the  tangent  planes  ;  the  line  p  k' 
will  be  that  of  another  ;  and  so  of  the  rest,  were  there  a 
greater  number. 

'■  We  shall  confine  ourselves  for  the  present,  to  the  three 
preceding  examples,  because  they  are  sufficient  for  all  the 
surfaces,  whose  generation  we  have  defined.  In  the  course 
of  this  work,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  investigate  the  gene- 
rations of  tribes  of  surfaces,  infinitely  more  numerous  :  and 
js  they  present  themselves,  we  shall  apply  the  same  method 
to  the  determination  of  their  tangent  planes,  and  of  their 
normals.  At  present  we  are  about  to  propound  a  question, 
to  the  solution  of  which  the  consideration  of  the  tancent 
plane  may  be  appropriately  and  usef  dly  applied. 

^- Fourth  Question. — Figure  15.  Two  right  lines  bein<; 
given,  by  their  horizontal  projections,  a  b,  c  d,  and  by  theiV 


vertical  projections,  a  4,  c  rf;  to  construct  the  projections, 
p  if,j)n,  of  their  shortest  distance;  that  is  to  say,  of  the  line 
that  is  at  one  and  the  same  time  perpendicular  to  both  ;  and 
to  find  the  quantity  of  this  distance. 

"  Solution. — From  the  first  of  the  two  given  right  lines, 
conceive  a  plane  parallel  to  the  second  ;  which  is  always 
possible,  because  if  from  any  point  whatever  of  the  first,  a 
line  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  seccjnd,  and  if  this  third  line  be 
conceived  to  move  parallel  to  itself  along  the  first,  it  will 
generate  the  plane  sjioken  of  Imagine,  also,  a  cylindric 
surface,  with  a  circular  base,  having  the  second  given  right 
line  for  its  axis,  and  the  distance  required  for  its  radius  ; 
this  surface  will  be  touched  by  the  plane  in  a  line  parallel  to 
the  axis,  and  will  cut  the  first  right  line  in  a  point.  If  from 
this  point,  a  perpendicular  to  the  plane  be  drawn,  it  will  be 
the  line  required  ;  for  it  will  pass,  in  fact,  through  a  point 
of  the  first  given  right  line,  and  will  be  perpendicular  to  it, 
as  it  would  to  a  jilane  passing  along  this  light  line  ;  it  will 
also  intersect  the  second  right  line  perpendicularly,  because 
it  will  be  a  radius  of  the  cylinder,  of  which  such  second  line 
is  the  axis. 

"It  remains,  then,  only  to  construct,  successively,  all  the 
parts  of  this  solution, 

'■(!,)  To  construct  the  traces  of  the  plane  drawn  through 
the  first  right  line  parallel  to  the  second,  we  must  first  find 
the  point,  a,  wherein  this  first  line  meets  the  horizontal 
plane,  and  which  will  be  a  point  of  the  horizontal  trace.  To 
effect  this,  produce  the  vertical  projection  h  a  till  it  cut  the 
line  L  M  in  the  point  a,  draw  a  a  perpendicular  to  l  m,  and 
its  intersection  with  the  horizontal  projection  a  b  will 
determine  the  point  a.  Through  the  point  in  which  the  first 
right  line  cuts  the  vertical  plane,  whose  projections  are  b  b, 
conceive  a  right  line  parallel  to  the  second  given  right  Ime, 
and  construct  its  projections  by  drawing,  indefinitely,  b  e 
parallel  to  c  d,  and  b  e  parallel  to  c  d.  In  like  manner,  con- 
struct the  point,  e,  of  coincidence  of  this  parallel  with  the 
horizontal  plane,  by  drawing  e  e  perpendicular  to  l  m  ;  and 
the  point  e  will  be  a  second  point  of  the  horizontal  trace  of 
the  plane.  Then,  if  the  right  line  a  e  be  drawn,  and  pro- 
duced till  it  cut,  in  the  point  f,  the  line  l  m,  it  will  give  the 
horizontal  trace ;  and  it  is  evident,  that  if  through  the  points 
F  and  b,  the  right  line  p  b  be  drawn,  we  shall  have  the  trace 
on  the  vertical  plane, 

"  ('2.)  To  construct  the  line  of  contact  of  the  plane  with 
the  cylindric  surface  ;  from  any  point  of  the  second  right 
line,  which  is  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  (as  from  the  point  c, 
for  example,  in  which  it  meets  the  horizontal  plane)  drop  a 
normal,  that  is,  a  perpendicular  upon  the  tangent  j)laMe  :  and 
the  foot  of  such  normal  will  be  a  point  of  a  line  of  contact, 

"To  find  this  foot,  according  the  method  already  laid 
down  in  Figure  G,  first  construct  the  indclinite  projections  of 
the  normal,  by  drawing  through  the  point  c,  the  line  h  g 
perpendicular  to  the  trace  a  e,  and  through  the  point  r, 
the  line  c  k,  perpendicular  to  the  trace  f  b  ;  then  having 
produced  h  g  till  it  meet  a  e  in  the  point  g,  and  l  m  in  n,  pro- 
ject the  point  a  m  g,  and  the  point  h  in  h,  on  the  trace  f  b  ; 
draw  the  line  a  h,  whose  intersection  with  c  k  will  determine 
the  vertical  projection,  i,  of  the  foot  of  the  normal  ;  and  we 
shall  have,  on  o  h,  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  same  point 
by  letting  i  i  fall  perpendicularly  on  L  M.  The  projections, 
j,'i,  of  the  foot  of  the  normal  being  found,  draw  i  N  through 
the  point  i,  parallel  to  c  d,  and  ;'  n,  parallel  to  c  d,  and  wf> 
shall  have  the  projections  of  the  line  of  contact  of  the  plane 
with  the  cylindric  surface.  Lastly,  the  points  n,  n,  in  which 
these  projections  meet  those  of  the  first  given  right  line,  will 
be  the  projections  of  the  point  of  such  line,  through  which  the 
common  perpendicular  required  will  pass. 


U  ES 


246 


DES 


"(3.)  Having  ascertained  the  projections,  n,  h,  of  one  of 
the  jioints  of  the  lequired  comnion  perpendicular,  it  will  be 
sullicient  to  obtain  the  projection  of  the  perpendicular  itself, 
to  draw  ihiough  the  points  n,  n,  the  light  lines  n  p,  n  p, 
perpendicular  to  the  respective  traces  a  e,  f  b  ;  and  the 
parts  N  p  and  7ip  of  these  perpendiculars,  comprised  between 
the  projections  of  the  two  given  right  lines,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  required  shortest  distance. 

"  (4.)  In  conclusion,  if  the  size  of  this  shortest  distance 
be  desired  to  be  known,  it  may  be  constructed  by  the  process 
of  Figure  3. 

'•  The  consideration  of  a  cylindric  surface  touched  by  a 
plane,  was  not  essential  to  the  solution  of  the  preceding 
question.  After  having  supposed  a  [ilane  parallel  to  the  two 
given  right  lines,  we  might  tlirough  each  of  these  lines  have 
drawn  to  such  plane,  a  jierpendieular  plane  ;  and  the  inter- 
section of  these  two  planes  would  have  been  the  direction  of 
the  reijuired  shortest  distance.  We  content  ourselves  with 
annomicing  this  second  method,  and  advise  the  reader  to  seek 
its  construction  by  way  of  e.\ercise. 

'•  In  the  several  questions  which  we  have  resolved  relative 
to  planes  tangent  to  curved  surfaces,  we  have  always  sup- 
posed the  ]ioiiit,  through  which  the  tangent  plane  should  be 
drawn,  to  be  taken  on  the  surface,  and  to  be  itself  the  point 
of  contact :  this  condition  alone  sufficed  to  determine  the 
position  of  the  plane.  But  it  is  different  when  the  point 
through  which  the  plane  should  pass  is  taken  out  of  the 
surface. 

"  In  order  to  determine  the  situation  of  a  plane,  it  must 
satisfy  three  several  conditions,  each  equivalent  to  that  of 
passing  tlirough  a  given  point.  Now,  in  general,  the  pro- 
peity  of  being  tangent  to  a  given  curved  surface,  when  the 
point  i)f  contact  is  not  indicated,  is  only  equivalent  to  one  of 
these  conditions  :  if,  therefore,  we  propose  to  determine  the 
position  of  a  plane  by  conditions  of  this  nature,  we  shall 
generally  have  occasion  for  three.  For  instance  :  suppose 
three  curved  surfaces  to  be  given,  and  that  a  plane  be  tan- 
gent to  one  of  them,  in  any  point  whatever;  we  can  conceive 
that  such  plane  would  move  around  the  surface,  without 
ceasing  to  touch  it :  it  would  do  so  in  every  direction  ;  only 
the  point  of  contact  would  shift  its  situation  on  the  surface, 
in  proportion  as  the  tangent  plane  changed  its  position ;  and 
the  direction  of  the  point  of  contact  would  be  similar  to  that 
of  the  motion  of  the  plane.  Suppose  this  movement  to  be 
made  in  a  certain  direction  till  the  plane  meet  the  second 
surface,  and  touch  it  in  a  given  point :  then  the  plane  would 
be  tangent  to  the  two  first  surfaces  at  once,  and  its  position 
would  not  yet  be  ti.xed.  Indeed,  tlie  plane  may  be  supposed 
to  turn  about  tlie  two  surfaces,  without  ceasing  to  touch 
them  both.  It  will  no  longer,  however,  be  free  to  move  in 
every  direction,  as  before,  but  will  be  confined  to  one  only. 
In  proportion  as  the  plane  changes  its  position,  the  two 
points  of  C'intact  will  move  each  upon  the  surface  to  which 
it  belongs  ;  so  that  if  a  right  line  be  conceived  as  passing 
through  tho>e  points,  their  movements  will  be  in  the  same 
direction  with  respect  to  such  line,  when  the  plane  touches 
the  two  surfaces  on  the  same  side,  and  they  will  be  in  a 
contrary  direction,  when  it  touches  one  surface  on  one  side, 
and  the  other  on  the  contrary  side.  Lastly,  imagine  this 
motion,  which  is  the  only  one  that  can  now  take  place,  to  be 
continued  till  the  plane  touch  the  third  surface  in  a  certain 
point ;  then  its  position  will  become  fixed,  and  it  can  no 
longer  move  without  ceasing  to  be  tangent  to  one  of  the 
Unee  surfaces. 

'•  Hence  we  may  perceive,  that  to  determine  the  position 
of  a  plane  by  means  of  indeterminate  contacts  with  given 
curved  surfaces,  we  shall  generally  require  three  such  sur- 


faces. Thus,  were  it  proposed  to  draw  a  tangent  line  to  a 
given  curved  surface,  this  condition  would  be  equivalent  to 
only  one  of  the  three  to  which  the  plane  is  cjipable  of 
answering  :  we  niight,  again,  take  two  others,  at  pUasui-e, 
and  for  example,  make  the  plane  pass  through  two  given 
points,  or,  «  hich  is  the  same  thing,  along  a  given  right  line. 
Were  it  essential  that  the  plane  should  be  tangent  to  two 
surfaces  at  once,  two  conditions  would  be  fulfilled  ;  there 
would  remain  but  one  to  be  disposed  of,  and  the  plane  could 
only  be  brought  to  pass  through  one  given  point. — Lastly, 
when  the  plane  touches  three  given  surfivces  at  once,  there 
remains  no  longer  any  condition  to  be  disposed  of;  its  posi- 
tion is  determined. 

"The  preceding  observations  relate  to  curved  surfaces 
generally  ;  yet  we  must  except  from  them,  whatever  regards 
cylindric,  conic,  and  developable  surfaces  ;  in  which  the 
contact  with  the  plane  is  not  reduced  to  a  single  point,  but 
extends  along  the  whole  length  of  an  indifinite  line,  which 
loses  itself  in  the  generator,  in  one  of  its  positions.  The 
property  of  a  plane  touching  one  only  of  these  surfaces, 
would  be  equivalent  to  two  conditions,  since  it  would  siiliject 
it  to  pass  along  a  right  line  ;  and  there  would  only  remain 
one  condition  to  be  disposed  of,  viz.,  to  make  it  pass  through 
a  given  point.  It  were  in  vain,  therefore,  to  propose  to 
draw  a  plane,  that  should  be  at  one  time  tangent  to  two 
of  these  surfaces,  much  less  to  three  of  them,  unless  there 
were  some  peculiar  circumstances  which  should  render  these 
conditions  compatible. 

"  It  may  not  be  altogether  useless,  before  we  proceed 
farther,  to  illustrate  by  a  few  examples,  the  necessity  there 
is  for  drawing  planes  tangent  to  curved  surtiices  through 
points  taken  from  the  outside  of  them.  The  first  of  these 
examples  is  selected  tVom  the  construction  of  f  irtilieations. 

"  In  treating  of  the  general  principles  C)f  fortification  it  is 
taken  fir  granted,  first,  that,  in  every  direction,  the  groiuul 
by  which  the  place  is  surrounded,  at  least  within  the  reach 
of  cannon-shot,  is  flat,  and  free  from  every  eminence  that 
might  be  converted  to  advantage  by  a  besieging  army.  This 
hypothesis  being  settled,  the  draught  of  the  place  is  next 
determined,  with  its  half  moons,  covered  ways,  and  advanced 
works  ;  the  bearings  of  the  varii>us  parts  of  the  f )itilications 
upon  each  otiier  are  then  marked  out,  so  that  they  may  all 
contribute,  in  the  most  efficacious  manner,  to  their  mutual 
and  reciprocal  defence.  But,  in  order  to  apply  these  prin- 
ciples to  cases  where  the  surrounding  country  presents  .some 
height,  of  which  besiegers  might  take  advantage,  and  fi-om 
which  it  is  requisite  that  the  fortification  should  be  made  to 
defile,  a  new  consideration  presents  itself  If  there  be  only 
a  single  eminence,  two  points  should  be  fixed  upon  in  the 
place,  through  which  might  be  conceived  a  plane  tangent  to 
the  height,  from  which  it  is  desii'able  to  defile  :  this  tans;en' 
plane  is  denominated  the  deji/int/  plane  ;  and  all  the  parts  of 
the  fortification  must  receive  the  same  relief  abcive  such  plane, 
as  they  w^ould  have  had  above  the  horizontal  plane,  had  the 
country  been  quite  level  :  by  this  me.'uis.  they  all  acquire, 
rclativelv  upon  each  other,  and  collectively  upon  the  neigh- 
bouring height,  a  command  equal  to  what  they  would  other 
wise  have  possessed  over  the  flat  country  :  and  the  fortifica- 
tion will  possess  the  same  advantages  as  in  the  first  case. 
As  to  the  choice  of  the  two  points,  thrcjugh  which  the 
defiling  plane  ought  to  pass,  it  must  be  conformable  to 
the  two  following  conditions:  1st,  That  the  angle  formed 
by  the  plane  with  the  horizon,  be  the  least  possible,  in 
order  that,  the  platforms  having  less  slope,  the  service  of 
defence  may  be  attended  with  fewer '  impediments  ;  2dly, 
That  the  relief  of  the  fortification  above  the  natural 
ground,  be  likewise  as  little  as  possible,  that  its  construe- 


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247 


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tion  may  require  less  labour,  and  be  attended  with 
less  expense. 

"  Slioiild  there  be  two  heights  in  the  environs  of  the 
pi;ice,  from  which  the  fortilioation  should  defile,  the  defiling 
plane  must  be  tangent  to  the  surfaces  of  both,  at  the  same 
lime:  and  to  determine  its  po?itiiin,  there  is  but  one 
disposable  condition  ;  and  it  is  to  be  disposed  of,  by  choosing 
in  tht  place,  a  point,  through  which  the  plane  may  pas-;,  as 
nearly  conformable  as  possible  to  the  conditions  prescribed 
in  the  first  case. 

'•The  second  example  wc  shall  take,  is  from  painting. 

"  The  surtaces  of  bodies,  especially  when  polished,  present 
brilliant  points,  whose  lustre  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the 
luminous  body  by  which  they  are  enlightened.  The  bright- 
ness of  these  points  is  greater,  and  their  extent  more  con- 
fined, in  proportion  as  the  surfaces  are  more  polished. 
When  the  surfaces  are  unpolished,  the  brilliant  points  have 
much  less  lustre,  and  occupy  a  greater  portion  of  the 
surface. 

"  In  every  surfiice,  the  position  of  the  bright  point  is 
determined  by  tlie  following  condition ;  that  the  incidental 
ray  of  light,  and  the  reflected  ray,  directed  to  the  eye  of  the 
spectator,  be  in  the  same  plane,  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
tangent  in  this  point,  and  make  equal  angles  with  it;  for 
the  shining  point  of  the  surface  acts  as  a  mirror,  and  reflects 
upon  the  eye  a  portion  of  the  image  of  the  luminous  object. 
The  determination  of  this  point  demands  the  utmost  pre- 
cision :  for  be  the  design  never  so  correct,  or  the  apparent 
contours  traced  with  mathematical  nicety,  the  least  mistake 
committed  in  fixing  the  position  of  the  brilliant  point  would 
be  priiductive  of  the  most  palpable  errors  in  the  appearance 
of  the  shapes.  We  will  give  a  single,  but  very  striking 
case  in  proof. 

"The  surt'ace  of  the  ball  of  the  eye  is  polished,  and 
covered  with  a  thin  moisture,  which  renders  the  gloss  more 
perfect.  When  we  look  upon  an  open  eye,  we  see  a  bright 
point  ujxju  its  surface,  of  great  lustre,  but  of  very  limited 
extent,  whose  position  depends  upon  the  situation  of  the 
observer  and  the  direction  of  the  illuminating  object.  Were 
the  surface  of  the  eye  perfectly  spherical,  it  might  turn  on 
its  vertical  axis  without  in  the  least  afl'ecting  the  position 
of  the  brilliant  point :  but  the  surfiice  being  lengthened  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis  of  vision,  the  position  of  the  point 
is  changed  every  time  that  the  eye  moves  upon  its  vertical 
axis.  Long  experience  having  made  us  familiar  with  this 
change,  our  judgment,  as  to  the  direction  of  the  eye,  is  con- 
siderably biassed  by  it.  By  the  ditference  of  position  in 
the  bri^'ht  points  upon  the  balls  of  the  two  eyes  of  a  person, 
we  chiefly  judge  whether  he  squint,  or  not ;  whether  he 
look  towards  us  ;  and  «  hen  he  does  not.  to  which  side  his 
attention  is  directed. 

"  We  do  not  pretend  to  infer  from  this  example,  that  it  is 
indispensable,  in  a  picture,  that  the  position  of  the  brilliant 
point  upon  the  ball  of  the  eye  be  geometrically  defined  ;  our 
intention  is  merely  to  demonstrate  how  trifling  errors  as  to 
this  position  may  produce  considerable  distortion  in  the 
apparent  form  of  the  object,  though  in  other  respects  the 
tracing  of  its  apparent  outline  may  remain  the  same. 

"We  now  proceed  to  the  determination  of  planes  tangent 
to  curved  surfaces,  drawn  through  points  taken  on  the  out- 
side of  them. 

"The  surface  of  the  sphere  is  one  of  the  most  simple  that 
can  f  dl  under  our  consideration ;  it  has  common  generations 
with  a  great  number  of  ditferent  surfaces ;  we  mav,  for 
exam[ile,  class  it  among  revolving  surfiiees,  and  say  nothing 
partieular  relative  to  it.  But  its  regularity  is  productive  of 
remarkable  results,  some  of  which  are  curious   from   their 


novelty,  and  with  them,  in  the  first  instance,  we  arc  now 
about  to  be  occupied,  not  so  much  on  their  own  account,  as  to 
acquire,  by  the  observation  of  the  three  dimensions,  a  habit, 
of  which  we  shall  stand  in  need,  for  more  general  and  useful 
subjects. 

"  Fimt  Question. — Through  a  given  right  line  to  draw  a 
tangent  plane  to  the  surf  ice  of  a  iriven  sphere. 

'■'■Solution. — First  method.  Firjure  16.  Let  A,  a,  be  the 
two  projections  of  the  centre  of  the  sphere;  n  c  n,  the  pro- 
jection of  the  great  horizontal  circle;  y.  Y,  e  f,  the  two 
indefinite  projections  of  the  given  right  line.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  s]ihcre,  imagine  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
right  line,  and  construct,  by  the  methods  given  under  Fi'jnre 
6,  the  projections  o,  r/,  of  the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  right 
line  with  the  plane. 

"From  this  position,  it  is  evident,  that  from  the  given 
right  line  two  tangent  planes  may  be  drawn  to  the  sphere, 
the  first  on  one  side,  the  second  on  the  other,  and,  conse- 
quently, that  the  sphere  will  be  placed  between  them  :  this 
indicates  two  difierent  points  of  contact,  whose  projections 
we  must  now  construct. 

"  If  from  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  a  perpendicular  be  con- 
ceived to  fall  upon  both  the  tangent  planes,  they  will  each  be 
bounded,  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  surface  of  the 
sphere,  bv  the  corres|)onding  planes  ;  and  will  both  be  in  the 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  given  right  line  :  therefore  the 
two  points  of  contact  will  be  in  the  section  of  the  sphere  by 
the  perpendicular  plane  ;  a  section  which  must  be  the  cir- 
cumference of  one  of  the  great  circles  of  the  sphere,  and  to 
which  the  two  sections  made  in  the  tangent  planes  by  the 
same  plane  will  be  tangent. 

"  If  in  the  perpendicular  plane,  and  through  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  an  horizontal  line  be  imagined,  whose  vertical 
projection  may  be  obtained  by  drawing  the  horizontal  line  a  h, 
and  its  other  projection  by  letting  the  perpendicular  a  n  fall 
upon  E  F ;  and  if  the  perpendicular  plane  be  conceived  to 
turn  upon  this  horizontal  line,  like  a  hinge,  till  it  become 
horizontal  itself;  it  is  evident  that  its  section  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  sphere  would  be  lost  in  the  circumference  b  c  d, 
that  the  two  points  of  contact  would  then  be  upon  this  cir- 
cumference, and  that  were  the  point  j  consti-ucted,  in  which, 
by  this  movement,  the  perpendicular  plane  would  meet  the 
given  right  line  ;  the  tangents  j  c,  j  d,  drawn  to  the  circle 
BCD,  would  determine  these  two  points  of  contact  to  the 
position  in  which  they  then  appear.  It  is  easy  to  construct 
the  point  J,  or,  which  is  tantamount,  to  find  itsdislance  from 
the  point  n;  for  the  horizontal  projection  of  this  distance  is 
G  H,  and  the  difference  of  the  vertical  heights  of  its  extremi- 
ties is  //  ri':  therefore  by  transferring  the  distance  g  h  upon 
the  horizontal  line  a  h,  from  g  to  /(,  thehypothenuse  /(  g  will 
be  the  amount  of  this  distance;  and  by  transferring.;/ A  upon 
E  F,  from  H  to  J,  and  drawing  the  two  tangents  j  c,  J  d,  the 
two  points  of  contact,  c,  d,  will  be  deteimined  to  the  position 
they  assumed,  whilst  the  perpendicular  plane  was  laid  upon 
the  horizontal  one. 

"  Now,  to  find  their  projections  in  the  position  which  they 
ought  naturally  to  have,  we  must  suppose  the  perpendicular 
plane  to  be  restored  to  its  original  position,  by  turning  it 
back  upon  the  horizontal  line,  or  hinge,  a  h,  and  it  will  carry 
with  it  the  point  j,  the  tw..  tangents  j  c,  j  d,  produced  till 
they  cut  A  H  in  the  points  k  k',  and  the  chord  c  d,  which  will 
likewise  cut  a  h,  in  the  point  n.  In  this  movement,  it  is 
evident,  that  the  points  k,  k',  n,  which  are  upon  the  hinge, 
will  be  fixed,  and  that  the  two  points  of  contact  c.  d,  will 
describe  arcs  of  circles,  which  will  be  in  planespi-rpendicular 
to  the  hinse,  and  whose  horizontal  projections  will  be  obtained 
by  dropping  from  the  points  CD,  the  indefinite  perpendiculars 


D£S 


248 


DES 


c  p,  D  Q,  upon  A  n.  The  horizontal  projections  of  the  two 
poi  J  Its  of  contact  will  therct'ore  be  fouml  upon  the  two  right 
linesi  c  p,  D  <j.  Bnt  in  the  retrograde  movement  of  the  per- 
pendicular plane,  the  two  tangents  j  c  k',  j  k  d  do  not  cease 
to  pass  through  the  respective  points  of  contact;  and  when 
this  plane  is  returned  to  its  primitive  position,  the  point  j  is 
jirojected  anew  in  o,  and  the  two  tangents  are  projected 
according  to  the  right  lines  o  k',  g  k.  The  two  latter,  there- 
fore, must  each  contain  one  of  the  points  of  contact ;  and,  in 
fine,  the  intersections  of  these  two  rigiit  lines  with  the 
respective  lines  c  p,  d  q,  will  determine  the  horizontal  pro- 
jections, R,  s,  of  the  two  points  of  contact,  which  are  found 
in  the  same  line  with  the  point  n. 

'•  To  obtain  the  vertical  projections  of  the  same  points,  first, 
draw  the  indefinite  perpendiculars  r  r,  s  s,  upon  l  m  ;  then  by 
projecting  the  points  k  k',  to  k,  k',  and  drawing  the  lines ^^  k, 
;/  k',  from  the  point  y,  we  shall  have  the  vertical  projections 
of  two  similar  tangents.  These  lines,  therefore,  will  contain 
the  projections  of  the  respective  points  of  contact;  and  the 
points,  r,  .v,  of  their  intersection  with  the  vertical  lines  k  r, 
s  s,  will  be  the  projections  required. 

"The  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the  two  points 
of  contact  being  tbuud,  to  construct,  upon  the  horizontal  plane 
the  traces  of  the  two  tangent  planes,  lines  parallel  to  the 
given  right  line  must  be  conceived  to  pass  through  each  of 
the  puints  of  contact.  These  lines  will  be  in  the  respective 
tangent  planes,  and  their  horizontal  and  vertical  projections 
will  be  obtained  by  drawing  r  u,  s  v,  parallel  to  e  f,  and  r  u, 
s  v.  parallel  to  e  f.  On  the  horizontal  plane,  construct  the 
trace,  t,  of  the  given  right  line,  and  the  traces,  u.  v,  of  the  two 
last  lines  ;  and  the  lines  t  u,  t  v,  will  be  the  traces  of  the  two 
tangent  planes. 

"  Instead  of  supposing  fresh  lines  to  pass  through 
the  points  of  contact,  we  may  find  the  traces  of  the  two 
tangents  a  r,  a  s,  which  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 
As  to  the  traces  of  two  similar  planes  with  the  vertical  plane, 
they  may  be  obtained  by  the  method  already  so  often 
alluded  to. 

'•  This  solution  may  be  rendered  much  more  elegant  by 
making  the  two  planes  of  projection  pass  through  the  centre 
of  the  sphere  itself.  By  this  mode  the  two  projections  of  the 
sphere  would  be  mingled  in  the  same  circle,  and  the  produc- 
tions of  the  right  lines  would  not  be  so  long.  We  have  only 
separated  the  two  projections  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity  in 
the  exposition  :  for  it  is  easy  to  give  to  the  construction  all 
the  conciseness  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 

"Second  Method. — Figure  17.  Let  a,  a, be  the  two  pro- 
jections of  the  centre  of  the  sphere;  a  b,  or  b,  its  radius; 
BCD.  the  projection  of  its  great  horizontal  circle ;  and  e  f, 
e  f,  the  projections  of  the  given  right  line.  Conceive  the 
plane  of  the  great  horizontal  circle  produced  till  it  cut  the 
given  right  line  in  a  certain  pt>int,  and  wo  shall  have  the 
vertical  projection  of  the  plane,  by  drawing  the  indefinite 
horizontal  line  //at;  through  the  point  a  ;  the  point  //.  where 
this  horizontal  line  cuts  ef.  will  be  the  vertical  projection  of 
the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  plane  with  the  given  right 
line;  and  we  shall  have  the  horizontal  projection,  o,  of  this 
point  by  projecting  r/  upon  e  f. 

"  This  done,  take  the  same  point  for  an  apex,  and  conceive 
a  conic  surface  covering  the  sphere,  all  whose  generating 
lines  touch  it  in  their  respective  points  ;  now,  we  shall  have 
the  projections  of  the  two  horizontal  cencrators  of  such  conic 
surface,  by  drawing  from  the  point  g,  the  two  lines  g  c,  o  d, 
tangent  to  the  circle  bod,  and  which  will  touch  it  in  the  two 
points  c,  D,  as  may  bo  easily  determined.  The  conic  surfxee 
will  touch  that  of  the  sphere,  whose  line  c  d  will  be  the 
diameter,  whose  plane  will  lie  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 


cone,  and  consequently  vertical,  and  whose  horizontal  pro- 
jection will  be  the  line  c  d. 

"  If  from  the  given  right  line  two  tangent  planes  to  the 
conic  surface  be  conceived,  each  of  them  will  touch  it, 
according  to  one  of  the  generating  lines,  which  will  be  at 
the  same  time  on  the  conic  surface  and  on  the  plane;  and 
since  such  generating  line  also  touches  the  suriacc  of  the 
sphere  in  one  of  its  points  on  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
piojected  in  c  d,  it  fullow-s,  that  this  point  is  at  once  on  the 
conic  surface,  on  the  plane  which  touches  it,  on  the  surface 
of  the  sphere,  and  on  the  circumference  of  the  circle  pro- 
jected in  c  D,  and  that  it  is  a  point  of  contact  common  to  all 
these  objects.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  1st.  That  the  two 
planes  tangent  to  the  conic  surfice,  are  also  tangent  to  the 
surface  of  the  sphere;  2dly,  That  their  points  of  contact 
with  the  sphere,  being  in  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
projected  in  c  D,  nuist  be  themselves  pnijected  on  some  part 
of  this  right  line;  '5dly,  That  the  right  line  passing  through 
the  two  points  of  contact,  l)eiiig  comprised  in  the  plane  of  the 
same  circle,  must  also  be  projected  indefinitely  upon  c  d. 

"  We  next  proceed  to  an  operation,  for  the  plane  of  a  large 
circle  parallel  to  that  of  the  vertical  projection,  similar  to 
that  which  we  have  just  finished  for  the  great  horizontal 
circle.  The  horizontal  projection  of  such  plane  will  be  the 
right  lincB  a  h.  indefinitely  parallel  to  i,  m  ;  the  point  wherein 
it  meets  the  given  right  line  will  be  horizontally  projected 
to  the  inteisection  n,  of  the  two  right  lines  e  f,  b  a  h  ;  and 
its  vertical  projection  will  be  obtained  by  projecting  the 
point  H  upon  e  f,  in  h.  Conceive  a  new  conic  surface, 
whose  apex  shall  be  in  this  point  of  coincidence,  and  which, 
like  the  former,  .shall  cover  the  sphere  ;  and  we  shall  have 
the  vertical  projections  of  the  two  extreme  generating  lines 
of  such  surfixce,  by  drawing  from  the  point  li,  to  the  circle 
i  K  I,  the  tangents  h  k,  /(  i,  which  shall  touch  it  in  such 
points,  K  I,  as  we  may  determine.  This  second  conic  surface 
will  touch  that  of  the  sphere,  in  the  circumference  of  a  new 
circle,  of  which  k  i  will  be  the  diameter,  and  of  which  the 
plane,  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  vertical  projection,  will, 
consequently,  be  projected  indefinitely  upon  k  i.  The  cir- 
cumference of  this  circle  will  likewise  pass  through  the  two 
points  of  contact  of  the  sphere  with  the  tangent  planes 
required  ;  whence  the  vertical  projections  of  those  two  points 
of  contact  will  bo  somewhere  upon  k  i;  and  the  right  line 
by  which  these  two  points  are  united,  will  also  be  projected 
upon  the  same  line  k  i. 

"  Thus  the  right  line  drawn  through  the  two  points  of 
contact,  is  projected  horizontally  upon  c  u.  and  vertically 
upon  K  I ;  it  meets  the  plane  of  the  great  horizontal  circle 
in  a  point,  whose  vertical  projection  is  at  the  intersection,  h, 
of  K  r  with  bag,  and  whose  horizontal  projection  may  be 
obtained  by  projecting  the  ]Mjint  n  upon  c  d. 

"This  done,  suppose  the  vertical  plane  of  the  circle,  pro- 
jected in  c  D,  to  turn  upon  its  horizontal  diameter,  as  upon 
a  swivel,  so  as  to  become  horizontal,  and  that  it  draw  with 
it,  in  its  movement,  the  two  points  of  contact,  through  which 
its  circumference  passes,  and  the  right  lino  by  which  those 
two  points  are  luiited.  Construct  this  circle,  in  its  new 
position,  by  describing  upon  c  D,  as  a  diameter,  the  circle 
c  p  D  q;  and  if  the  position  assumed  by  the  line  uniting  the 
two  points  of  contact  be  constructed,  it  will  cut  the  circum- 
ference c  p  D  Q  in  two  points,  which  will  determine  them 
upon  this  circumference  considered  in  its  horizontal 
position. 

"  The  point,  k,  of  the  line  of  the  two  contacts,  being  upon 
the  swivel  c  d,  docs  not  change  its  position  by  the  move- 
ment:  this  line  must,  therefore,  pass  througli  such  point 
when  it  has  become  horizontal.     Besides,  the  point  in  which 


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it  meets  the  plane  of  the  great  circle,  parallel  to  the  vertical 
projection  (a  point  whose  horizontal  projection  is  in  the 
coincidence,  o,  of  the  two  lines  c  d,  b  a  ii,  and  whose  ver- 
ticiil  projection  t,  is  found  by  projecting  the  point  o  upon  k  i) 
describes  in  its  movement  upon  the  swivel  c  d,  a  quarter  of 
a  circle  perpendicular  to  c  d,  whose  radius  is  the  vertical 
line  o  t ;  if,  then  :i  line  bo  drawn  through  the  point  o,  per- 
pendicular to  c  D,  and  if  upon  such  perpendicular  o  <  be 
trausfi-rred,  from  o  to  t,  the  point  t  will  be  one  of  those  of 
the  line  of  contact,  when  it  becomes  horizontal.  Therefore, 
if  a  line  be  drawn  through  the  points  N  and  T,  its  two  points 
of  coincidence,  p,  q,  with  the  circumference  c  p  d  q,  will  be 
the  tw^j  points  of  contact  considered  in  the  vertical  plane, 
when  laid  down. 

"To  obtain  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  same  two 
point.s  in  their  natural  positions,  imagine  the  circle  c  d  p  q 
to  be  returned  to  its  original  station,  by  turning  on  the  same 
swivel  c  D.  In  this  movement,  the  two  points  p,  q,  will 
describe  quarter-circles  in  the  vertical  planes  perpendicular 
to  c  D,  whose  horizontal  projections  will  be  the  perpen- 
diculars p  Q,  R  s,  dropping  upon  c  d.  The  horizontal  pro- 
jections of  the  two  points  of  contact  will  then  be  respectively 
upon  the  lines  p  q  and  r  s  ;  and  as  we  have  seen  that  they 
must  likewise  be  upon  c  d,  they  must,  consequently,  be  upon 
the  two  points  of  coincidence  r  and  s. 

'•  The  vertical  projections,  r,  s,  of  the  same  two  points 
may  be  obtained,  by  projecting  the  points  r  and  s  upon  e  i  ; 
or,  which  amounts  to  the  same,  by  tianbferrina  upon  the 
vertical  lines  r  r,  s  s,  beginning  from  the  horizontal  line 
bag,  r'  r,  equal  to  p  R,  and  s'  s,  equal  to  q  s. 

"  The  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the  two  points 
of  contact  being  constructed,  the  traces  of  the  two  tangent 
planes  may  be  determined  according  to  the  method  of  the 
first  solution. 

"  This  second  solution  may  be  rendered  much  more  con- 
cise, by  making  the  planes  of  projection  pass  through  the 
centre  of  the  sphere  ;  which  would  reduce  the  two  projec- 
tions to  one  figure. 

"These  latter  considerations  lead  us  to  the  discovery  of 
some  remarkable  properties  of  the  circle,  of  the  sphere, 
of  conic  sections,  and  of  curved  surfaces  of  the  second 
degree. 

"  It  has  been  seen,  that  the  two  conic  surfaces  bounded 
by  a  sphere,  would  each  touch  it  in  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  and  that  their  circumferences  would  both  pass  through 
the  two  points  of  contact  of  the  sphere  with  the  tangent 
planes.  This  property  is  not  peculiar  to  the  two  conic  sur- 
faces that  we  have  considered,  but  applies  to  all  such  as  have 
their  ape.x  in  the  given  right  line,  and  are  circumscribed  by 
the  sphere.  If,  therefore,  we  suppose  a  prime  conic  surface, 
which,  having  its  apex  upon  the  given  right  line,  is  bounded 
by  the  sphere  ;  and  if  this  surface  be  supposed  to  move  so 
as  that  its  ape.\  may  run  along  the  right  line  without  ceasing 
to  be  contained  within,  and  tangent  to  the  sphere  ;  it  will  in 
any  of  its  positions  touch  the  sphere  in  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  :  all  which  circumferences  will  pass  through  the 
same  two  points  in  which  the  sphere  comes  in  contact  with 
the  two  tangent  planes ;  and  the  planes  of  these  circles  will 
intersect  each  other  upon  one  right  line,  which  is  that  of 
the  two  contacts.  If  now  the  plane  be  conceived  as  drawn 
from  the  given  right  line,  and  from  the  centre  of  the  sphere, 
it  will  pass  through  the  a.xes  of  all  the  conic  surfaces,  will 
be  perpendicular  to  the  planes  of  all  the  circles  of  contact, 
consequently  to  the  right  line  that  is  their  common  intersec- 
tion, and  cut  all  these  planes  in  right  lines  that  will  pass 
through  one  point. 

"  By  reciprocity,  a  sphere  and  a  right  line  being  given, 


if  a  number  of  planes,  taken  at  pleasure,  be  conceived  as 
passing  along  the  right  line,  which  shall  cut  the  sphere,  each 
in  the  direction  of  a  circle  ;  and  if,  for  each  of  such  circles, 
a  right  conic  surface  be  conceived,  of  which  it  shall  be  the 
base,  and  which  shall  be  conlined  within  the  sphere,  the 
apices  of  all  such  conic  surfaces  will  be  another  identical 
right  line. 

"  By  merely  considering  what  happens  in  drawing  the 
plane  from  the  given  right  line,  and  from  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  we  are  led  to  the  tw'O  following  propositions, 
which  are  immediate  corollaries  of  what  has  preceded. 

'■'■Figures  18  and  19. — Given  in  a  plane,  a  circle,  whose 
centre  is  a,  and  any  right  line  whatever,  as  no;  if,  after 
having  drawn  from  a  point,  as  d,  of  the  right  line,  two 
tangents  to  the  circle,  and  the  lines  e  f  connecting  the  points 
of  contact,  the  point  d  be  supposed  to  move  along  the  right 
line  n  c,  drawing  with  it  the  two  tangents,  without  ceasing 
to  touch  the  circle  ;  the  two  points  will  shift  their  position, 
as  well  as  the  line  e  f,  by  which  they  are  united,  but  the 
latter  will  always  pass  through  the  same  point,  n,  upon 
the  perpendicular,  a  g,  dropped  from  the  centre  of  the  circle 
upon  the  right  line  b  c. 

"  And,  reciprocally,  if,  through  a  point,  as  n,  taken  in  the 
plane  of  a  circle,  a  number  of  lines,  as  e  r,  be  drawn  at 
pleasure,  each  cutting  the  circumference  o*"  ^hf  circle  .  two 
points ;  and  if  through  these  two  points  two  tangents  to  the 
circle,  e  d,  r  d,  be  drawn,  to  meet  in  a  point,  as  d,  all 
the  other  points  of  intersection,  found  in  the  same  manner, 
will  be  upon  the  same  right  line,  b  c,  perpendicular  to  a  n. 

"  It  is  not  because  all  the  points  of  the  circumference  are 
equally  distant  from  the  centre,  that  the  circle  possesses  the 
properly  just  described  ;  but  because  it  is  a  curve  of 
the  second  oider,  and  has  all  its  conic  sections  of  the  same 
quality. 

"  Figure  30. — For  example,  let  a  e  b  f  be  a  conic  section 
of  any  kind,  aivl  c  d  any  given  right  line  upon  its  plane  : 
suppose  the  curve  to  turn  upon  one  of  its  axes,  a  b,  to  gene- 
rate a  surface  of  revolution,  and  imagine  the  two  tangent 
planes  to  this  surface  drawn  from  the  right  line  c  d  ;  the  two 
planes  will  each  have  their  particular  point  of  contact.  Now 
take  for  an  apex,  any  point  whatever,  as  n,  of  the  right 
line  c  D,  and  conceive  the  conic  surface  contained  within,  and 
tangent  to  the  revolving  surface,  and  it  will  touch  the  latter 
in  a  curve  that  must  necessarily  pass  through  the  same  two 
points  of  contact  as  the  tangent  planes.  This  curve  will  be 
plain  ;  its  plane,  which  will  be  perpendicular  to  that  of  the 
given  conic  section,  will  be  projected  upon  the  latter,  accord- 
ing to  the  line  e  f  ;  and  this  line  will  pass  through  the  points 
of  contact  of  the  tangents  with  the  conic  section,  drawn 
from  the  point  h.  Now,  suppose  the  apex,  h.  of  the  conic 
surface  to  move  along  the  right  line  c  d,  without  ceasing  to 
be  contained  within,  and  tangent  to  the  revolving  surface  ; 
in  any  of  its  positions,  its  curve  of  contact  will  possess  the 
same  properties  of  passing  through  the  two  points  of  contact 
with  the  tangent  planes,  of  being  plain,  and  of  having  its 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  conic  section.  The  planes,  there- 
fore, of  all  the  curves  of  contact  w^ill  touch  the  ends  of  the 
line  that  unites  the  two  points  of  contact,  which  is  itself 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  conic  section,  and  hence 
the  projections  of  all  the  planes  will  be  right  lines  that  must 
all  touch  the  ends  of  the  projection,  n,  of  the  line,  by  which 
the  two  points  of  contact  are  joined. 

"  This  proposition  is  only  a  particular  case  of  another 
more  general  one,  that  takes  place  in  the  three  dimensions, 
and  which  we  shall  be  content  with  announcing  in  this 
place. 

"  Any  curved  surface  whatever,  of  the  second  degree,  and 


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a  conic  surface  contained  within,  and  touching  it,  whose 
apex  is  a  jmint  ciiosen  at  pleasure,  being  given  in  space;  if 
the  conic  surface  move  without  ceasing  to  be  contained 
within,  and  to  touch  the  curved  surface,  but  so  as  that  its 
apcx  be  kept  in  a  right  line,  tlie  plane  of  the  curve  of  con- 
tact of  tlie  two  surfaces  will  always  jiass  upon  one  right  line 
(which  will  be  determined  by  the  contacts  of  the  surface  uf 
the  second  degree  with  the  two  tangent  jilanes  that  pass 
along  the  line  of  the  a|iices)  ;  and  if  the  conic  surface  move 
so  as  that  its  apex  be  alw;iys  in  the  same  jilanc,  the  plane 
of  the  curve  of  contact  will  always  pass  upon  the  same 
point. 

"  Sicond  Question.— Yrom  a  given  point,  to  draw  a  plane 
tangent  to  the  surface  of  two  given  spheres. 

"  S'lliilion. — Fiyure  21. — Let  a,  n,  be  the  two  projections 
of  tlie  centre  of  the  first  sphere  ;  d,  b,  those  of  the  second  ; 
and  c,  f,  those  of  the  given  point.  After  having  drawn  the 
indefinite  lines  a  b,  a  i,  which  are  projections  of  the  line  that 
Would  pass  through  the  two  centres,  and  having  constructed 
till-  jirojections  o  E  F,  </  e  f,  ii  i  K,  A  (  k,  of  the  great  circles 
of  the  two  spheres  parallel  to  the  planes  of  projection,  con- 
ceive a  conic  surfice  containing  the  two  spheres  within  it, 
and  touciiing  them  both  at  tlie  same  time  ;  the  apex  of  this 
surface  will  be  in  the  line  which  passes  through  the  two  cen- 
tres. Then  draw  to  the  two  circles  o  K  f,  H  i  K,  the  two 
common  tangents  e  ii,  f  k,  meeting  in  the  point  d,  of  the 
right  line  a  «  ;  tins  jioint  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of 
the  apex  of  the  cone,  whose  vertical  projection,  also,  \\\\\  be 
obtained  by  projecting  the  point  D  to  d,  on  the  production 
of  a  b.  Lastly,  draw  the  projections  c  d,  c  rf  of  the  right  line 
passing  through  the  apex  of  the  cone  and  the  given  point. 
Now,  if  from  this  latter  line  two  tangent  planes  be  conceived 
to  the  conic  surface,  they  will  each  touch  it  in  one  of  its 
generating  lines,  and  consequently  will  both  be  tangent,  at 
the  same  time,  to  the  two  spheres.  The  question  is  therefore 
reduced  to  drawing  two  planes  tangent  to  the  surface  of  one 
of  the  spheres,  from  the  right  line  tliat  passes  through  the 
apex  of  tlie  cone  and  the  given  point ;  whieh  may  be  done  as 
in  the  preceding  question,  and  the  two  planes  will  also  be 
tangent  to  the  second  sphere. 

'•  It  must  here  be  reuiarUed,  that  the  same  two  spheres 
may  be  supposed  to  be  contained  within  two  conic  surfaces. 
The  first  conic  surface  will  envelope  them  both  on  the  out- 
side, and  will  have  its  apex  on  the  outside  of  one  of  the 
spheres,  with  respect  to  the  other,  and  the  tangent  planes  to 
it  will  touch  the  two  spheres  on  the  same  sides.  The  second 
conic  surface  will  also  envelope  both  spheres,  but  will  have 
its  apex  between  the  two  centres.  The  horizontal  projec- 
tion, d',  of  this  apex  will  be  found  by  drawing  to  the  circles 
B  F  G,  H  1  K,  the  two  interior  tangents,  which  intersect  each 
other  in  a  point  of  the  line  a  n  ;  and  its  vertical  projection 
by  projecting  the  points  d'  to  d',  upon  «  h.  The  two  tangent 
planes,  drawn  to  this  conic  surface  will  also  each  touch  the 
two  spheres ;  but  they  will  touch  the  first  on  one  side,  and 
the  second  on  the  otlu'r.  Thus  f  )ur  dillerent  planes  may 
answer  this  question  :  for  two  of  them,  the  two  spheres  are 
on  the  same  side  of  the  plane  ;  and  for  the  two  others,  they 
are  on  dillerent  sides. 

'■  Third  Question. — To  draw  a  ]ilaiie  tangent  at  the  same 
time  to  three  s])lieres  of  given  dimensions  and  positions. 

'■  Solution. — Imagine  the  ])lane  tangent  at  the  same  time 
to  the  three  sjihcrcs  ;  suppose,  also,  a  conic  surface  contain- 
ing the  two  first  of  those  spheres,  and  touching  tiiem  both  ; 
and  the  tangent  plane  will  touch  such  conic  surlace  in  the 
whole  length  of  one  of  its  generating  lines,  and  pass  through 
the  apex  of  the  cone.  If  a  second  conic  surface  be  supposed, 
containing  the  first  and  third  spheres,  the  same  tangent  plane 


will  also  touch  it  along  the  length  of  one  of  its  generating 
line<,  and  will  conse(|ueMtly  pass  through  its  apex.  Lasilv, 
if  a  third  conic  surface  be  conceived,  enclosing  and  toMching 
the  second  and  third  spheres,  the  tangent  [ilane  will  si  ill 
touch  it  along  one  of  its  generating  lines,  and  pass  through 
its  apex.  Thus  the  apices  of  the  three  conic  surfaces  will  l)e 
in  the  tangent  plane  ;  but  they  will  also  be  in  the  ]ilane 
which,  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  contains 
the  three  a.xes  :  they  will  ihcrefoie  be  in  two  dillerent  planes 
at  the  same  time  ;  consequently,  they  will  be  in  a  right  line. 
Hence  it  follow.s,  that  if  the  horizontal  and  vertical  projec- 
tions be  constructed,  as  laid  down  in  the  preceding  question, 
of  which  two  will  be  sufiicient,  the  projection  of  a  line  found 
upon  the  tangent  plane  may  be  made  to  pass  through  them. 
The  question  is  therefore  reduced  to  the  drawing  from  a  given 
right  line,  a  tangent  plane  to  that  of  the  three  spheres  .sought 
for,  which  may  be  done  by  the  ]ireceding  methods,  and  this 
plane  will  be  tangent  to  the  two  others. 

"  It  must  be  observed,  that,  as  we  mav  alwavs  imagine, 
for  any  two  spheres,  two  conic  surfaces  which  envcloj)e  and 
touch  them  both,  the  first  having  its  apex  on  the  outside  of 
one  of  the  centres,  with  respect  to  the  other,  and  tlie  second 
having  its  apex  between  the  two,  it  is  evident,  that  in  the 
preceding  question  there  will  be  six  conic  surfaces,  of  which 
three  will  be  on  the  outside  of  the  three  spheres,  taken  two 
by  two,  and  three  will  have  their  apices  between  the  spheres. 
The  apices  of  these  six  cones  will  be  distributed,  three  and 
three,  upon  four  right  lines,  along  each  of  which  may  be 
drawn  two  planes  tangent  at  the  same  time  to  the  three 
spheres.  Thus  eight  ditlerent  planes  are  sufficient  for  this 
question  :  two  of  which  touch  the  three  spheres  on  the  same 
side  relatively  ;  and  the  other  six  are  so  disposed  as  to  touch 
two  of  the  spheres  on  one  side,  and  the  third  cm  the  other. 
These  considerations  lead  to  the  following  proposition  : 

"  Fiffiire  22. — Three  circles  whatever  being  given  in  posi- 
tion and  magnitude  on  a  plane,  if,  considering  them  two  at  a 
time,  exterior  tangents  b(^  drawn  to  them,  produced  till  they 
intersect  each  other,  the  three  points  of  intersection,  d,  e,  f, 
so  obtained,  will  be  in  a  right  line. 

"  Here,  if  we  imagine  the  three  spheres,  of  which  these 
circles  are  the  great  circles,  and  a  plane  that  touches  them 
all  three  exteriorly,  such  plane  will  also  touch  the  three  conic 
surfaces  contained  within  the  spheres,  considered  two  by  two, 
and  pass  through  their  three  apices,  d,  e,  f  ;  but  these  three 
apices  are  likewise  upon  the  plane  of  the  three  centres  ; 
therefore  they  are  on  two  difiercnt  planes,  and  consequently 
in  a  right  line. 

"  If  to  the  same  circles,  considered  two  by  two,  interior 
tangents  be  drawn,  intersecting  each  other,  the  three  new 
points  of  inter.seetion,  o,  h,  i,  will  be,  two  by  two,  in  a  sight 
line  with  the  three  first  ;  so  that  the  six  points  d,  e,  f,  o,  ii,  i, 
will  be  the  intersections  of  the  four  right  lines. 

"This  question  is  only  a  particular  case  of  the  following, 
which  applies  to  all  the  three  dimensions. 

"  The  size  and  position  of  any  four  spheres  being  given  in 
space,  if  the  six  conic  surfaces  circumscribed  exteriorly  by 
them,  considered  two  by  two,  be  conceived,  the  ajiices  of  the 
six  cones  w  ill  be  in  the  same  plane,  and  at  the  intersections 
of  the  four  right  lines  ;  and  if  the  other  six  conic  sections, 
circumscribed  interiorly  by  them,  viz.,  that  have  their  apices 
between  the  centres  of  tlie  two  spheres,  be  conceived,  the 
apices  of  the  six  latter  cones  will  be,  taken  three  by  three, 
ill  the  same  [ilane  with  three  of  the  former. 

"  Fourth.  Question. — From  an  arbitrary  point,  to  draw  a 
tangent  plane  to  a  given  cylindric  surface. 

"  S(dulion. — Fii/ure  23. — Let  E  I  F  K  be  the  trace  of  the 
cylindric  surface  on  the  horizontal  plane;    a  trace  that  we 


BESCMIFTIVE  ©JEOMETlRYc 


PLATJi  a. 


\      Tig.ie 


Hffjg 


G  i3^  TJ 


Ft^  20 


Fig  22. 


Drxmrfh  'hu.  M.A.?Cu^oiSan.  . 


£n^  ^by.  R  Thm. 


\ 


DES 


251 


DES 


suppose  to  be  given.  Let  a  b,  o  4,  be  the  two  given  projec- 
tions of  the  right  line,  to  wliich  the  geneiMting  line  should 
always  be  parallel;  and  c,  c.  those  of  the  given  point.  Con- 
ceive from  this  point  a  parallel  to  the  generating  line,  it  will 
be  in  the  tangent  plane  required,  and  the  points  where  it  cuts 
the  planes  of  projection  will  be  upon  the  traces  of  the  tangent 
plane.  Then  if  from  the  ])oint  c,  c  d  be  drawn  parallel  to 
A  B,  and  from  the  point  c,  c  d  parallel  to  a  i,  we  shall  have 
the  two  projections  of  this  right  line;  then,  having  produced 
c  d  till  it  meet  l  m  in  the  point  d,  if  the  point  d  be  projected 
to  D,  upon  c  D,  the  point  d  will  be  the  coincidence  of  this 
right  line  with  the  hcjrizontal  i)lane,  and  consec|ucntly  a  point 
of  the  trace  of  the  tangent  plane.  Now,  the  horizontal  trace 
of  the  tangent  plane  ought  to  be  tangent  to  the  curve 
E  I  F  K,  thei'efnre,  if  from  the  point  d  we  draw  to  such  curve 
all  the  tangents  possible,  as  D  E,  D  F,  &c.  we  shall  have  the 
horizontal  traces  of  all  the  tangent  planes  that  can  possibly 
pass  through  the  given  point.  By  drawing  from  the  points 
of  contact  e,  f,  &c.  to  a  b,  the  indefinite  parallels  e  g,  f  h, 
&c.  we  shall  obtain  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  generat- 
ing lines,  wherein  the  dillerent  planes  touch  the  cylindric 
surface.  Lastly,  we  shall  have  the  vertical  projections  e  g, 
I'll,  &c.  of  the.-^e  generating  lines,  or  lines  of  contact,  by 
projecting  the  points  e,  f,  &c.  upon  the  vertical  plane,  to 
},/,  &c.  and  by  drawing  from  these  latter  points  indefinite 
lines  parallel  to  a  b.  As  to  the  traces  of  the  tangent  plane 
apon  the  vertical  plane,  they  will  be  found  in  the  working 
of  Fif/iire  I'i. 

"  Fifth  Question. — From  an  arbitrary  point,  to  draw  a 
plane  tangent  to  a  given  conic  surface. 

"The  solution  of  this  question  differing  but  little  from 
that  of  the  preceding  one,  we  shall  only  refer  to  the  Figure 
24,  wheie  the  curve  e  g  f  h,  is  the  given  trace  of  the  conic 
surface;  A,  a,  are  the  given  projections  of  the  apex;  and 
c,  c,  those  of  the  given  point,  through  which  the  tangent 
plane  must  pass. 

"  Sij:th  Question. — Fiom  a  given  line,  to  draw  a  tangent 
plane  to  a  given  revolving  suiface. 

'■•  Sulutiuu. — Figure  2b.  Suppose  the  axis  of  the  revolv- 
ing surface  to  be  perpendicular  to  one  of  the  two  planes  of 
projection  (which  will  not  weaken  the  general  application  of 
the  solution,  because  we  always  retain  the  power  of  disposing 
of  the  position  of  these  planes  so  as  to  make  them  conform  to 
this  rule);  let  a  be  the  given  horizontal  projection  of  the 
a.xis  of  the  surface  ;  a  «',  its  vertical  projection ;  a  p  i  a',  the 
generating  curve  of  the  surface ;  and  b  c,  i  c,  the  two  given 
projections  of  the  line  along  which  the  tangent  plane  should 
pass.  From  the  point  a  drop  the  perpendicular  a  d  upon 
B  c,  and  it  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  shortest 
distiwce  between  the  axis  and  the  given  right  line ;  and  pro- 
ject the  point  d  to  d,  upon  b  c. 

'•  Now,  suppose  the  tangent  plane  to  be  drawn,  and  the 
given  right  line  to  turn  about  the  axis  of  revolution,  without 
shifting  its  distance  from  it,  or  its  inclination  upon  the 
horizontal  plane,  drawing  with  it  the  tangent  plane,  so  that 
the  latter  may  still  touch  the  surface  ;  in  consequence  of  such 
movement,  it  is  evident,  that  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
surface  with  the  plane  will  change  its  position  ;  but  since  the 
tangent  plane  uniformly  preserves  the  same  inclination,  the 
point  of  contact  will  not  change  its  altitude  above  the  surface, 
and  it  will  move  in  the  circumference  of  a  horizontal  circle, 
whose  centre  will  be  in  the  axis.  The  given  right  line,  also, 
will  generate  by  its  movement  a  second  revolving  surface 
around  the  same  axis,  to  which  the  tangent  plane  will  itself 
be  tangent  in  every  position. 

"  If  we  suppose  a  plane  through  the  axis,  and  through  the 
point  of  contact  of  the  tangent  plane  with  the  first  surlace,  it 


will  cut  the  generating  line  in  a  point  wherein  the  same 
tiuigcnt  plane  will  come  in  contact  with  the  second  ;  for 
besides  the  generating  line,  along  which  it  passes  in  this 
point,  it  also  passes  along  the  tangent  of  the  horizontal  circle 
to  the  same  point,  since  it  likewise  passes  along  the  tangent 
of  the  horizontal  circle  to  the  point  of  contact  with  the  first 
surface,  and  therefore,  from  the  known  property  of  revolving 
surfaces,  these  two  tangents  are  parallel. 

"As  we  wish  to  resolve  the  question  by  means  of  the 
second  revolving  surface,  it  becomes  necessary  to  construct 
the  curve  according  to  which  it  would  be  cut  by  a  plane 
drawn  from  the  axis :  here  we  will  suppose  such  j)lane  to  be 
parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  of  projecticin,  and  consequently 
projected  on  the  horizontal  plane  in  a  right  line,  a  f,  parallel 
to  L  M. 

''Take  upon  the  given  right  line,  any  point  whatever, 
whose  projections  are  e.  e,  and  seek  for  the  point  wherein  it 
would  meet  the  plane  of  the  section  in  its  movement.  Here 
the  point  will  describe  aiound  the  axis  of  revolution,  the  arc 
of  a  horizontal  circle,  whose  horizontal  projection  will  be 
obtained,  by  describing  from  the  point  a,  as  a  centre,  and  at 
the  interval  a  e,  the  arc  e  f,  till  it  meet  the  right  line  a  f, 
somewhere  in  a  point,  as  f  ;  the  vertical  projection  of  the  same 
arc  may  be  had  by  drawing  from  the  ]ioint  e,  the  indefinite 
horizontal  line  e  f.  The  point  f,  then  will  be  the  horizontal 
projection  of  the  coincidence  of  the  describing  point  with  the 
plane  of  the  section  ;  therefore,  by  projecting  the  point  f  to 
f.  upon  e  f,  the  point /'will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  this 
coincidence,  and  consequently  a  point  of  the  section.  By 
repeating  the  same  operation  for  as  many  other  points  as  may 
be  wanted,  taken  on  the  given  right  line,  we  shall  have  so 
roany  points,  ^, /J  r,  «,  through  which  the  curve  required 
must  pass. 

"  Next  imagine  the  given  right  line,  and  the  tangent  plane, 
bv  their  simultaneous  rotation  about  the  axis,  to  have  arrived 
at  a  position  wherein  the  tarrgent  plane  would  be  perpendi- 
cular to  the  vertical  plane  of  projection.  Her-e  the  projec- 
tion on  this  plane  would  be  a  right  line,  tangent  at  the  same 
time  to  both  the  curves  a'  i  p  a,  g  r  nf;  and  if  all  the  com- 
mon tangents,  as  g  i,  n  p^  be  drawn  to  these  two  curves,  we 
shall  obtain  the  projections  of  all  the  tangent  planes  required 
by  the  question,  consider-ed  in  the  position  they  have 
assumed,  when  in  the  coui-se  of  the  rotation  they  have  suc- 
cessively become  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane.  The 
points  of  contact,  /, /),  of  these  tangents  with  the  generating 
line  of  the  first  surface  will  detcrniiire  the  height  of  those  of 
each  surface  with  all  the  tangent  planes:  theretbre,  if  fr-om 
these  points  the  indefinite  horizontal  liires  / 1,  p  s.  be  drawn, 
they  will  contain  the  vertical  projections  of  the  points  of  con- 
tact of  the  surface  with  the  planes:  and  if  from  the  point  a, 
as  a  centre,  and  with  the  radii  respeeti\ely  equal  to  i  I,  p  s, 
the  arcs  of  a  circle,  i  K,  p  Q,  be  drawn,  such  arcs  will  contain 
the  horizontal  projections  of  the  same  points.  To  complete 
the  discovery,  it  only  remains  to  determine  upon  what 
meridians  of  the  revolving  -surfoce  they  orrght  to  be  found,  to 
which  end  the  points  of  cotrtact,  g,  n,  will  be  subservient. 

"  For  this  purpose,  project  the  points  g,  n,  uj)on  a  g,  to 
G,  X  ;  from  the  point  a,  as  a  centre,  with  the  intervals  suc- 
cessively equal  to  a  g  and  a  n,  describe  the  arcs  g  h.  n  o,  till 
thev  intei-sect  the  right  line  b  c  in  the  points  h,  o  ;  these  arcs 
will  express  the  quantity  of  the  rotation,  which  for  each 
tangent  plane,  the  right  line  passing  through  its  contacts  with 
the  two  surfaces  has  been  obliged  to  make,  in  oi'der-  to  trans- 
port itself  into  the  vertical  plane  parallel  to  that  of  pr  ojection. 
We  have,  thei'efore,  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  sanre 
right  lines,  considered  in  their  natural  positions,  by  dr-awing 
from  the  point  a  the  lines  a  h,  a  o ;  and  the  points,  k.  q,  where 


DES 


^52 


i)ES 


the  latter  lines  intersect  the  correspondent  arcs  i  k,  p  q.  will 
be  tlie  horizontal  projections  of  the  points  of  contact  of  the 
first  surface  with  liie  tangent  planes  drawn  along  the  given 
right  line. 

"  The  vertical  projections  of  the  same  points  will  be 
obtained  by  projecting  the  points  k,  q,  to  /•,  q,  on  the 
respective  horizontal  lines  i  t,  p  s. 

'•  The  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the  points  of 
contact  being  determined,  the  traces  of  all  the  tangent  planes 
may  be  constructed  by  methods  similar  to  those  already 
described. 

"This  mode  may  be  easily  generalized  and  applied  to  any 
surfaces  generated  by  curves  of  determinate  form^,  and 
mutable  as  to  their  situation  in  space." 

Of  the  Intfrsect'ions  of  curved  surface.'!. 

"  When  the  generations  of  two  curved  surfaces  are  posi- 
tively determined  and  undeistood  ;  when  the  course  of  all 
the  points  of  space  through  which  they  pass  is  no  longer 
arbilraiy  for  either;  when  for  each  of  these  points,  one  of 
its  two  projections  being  taken  at  pleasure,  the  other  may  be 
always  constructed  ;  if  these  two  surfaces  have  any  points  in 
space  common  to  them  both,  the  positions  of  all  such  common 
points  is  absolutely  determined  ;  it  depends  on  the  form  of 
the  two  curved  surluces  and  their  respective  positions  ;  and 
is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  always  capable  of  being  deduced 
from  the  definition  of  the  generations  of  the  surfaces,  of 
which  it  is  a  necessary  consequence. 

"  The  course  of  all  the  points  common  to  two  determinate 
curved  surfiices,  forms  in  general  a  certain  curved  line  in 
space,  which,  in  very  particular  cases,  may  be  found  upon 
a  certain  plane,  having  but  a  single  curvature ;  which,  in 
instances  infinitely  more  peculiar,  may  become  a  right  line, 
without  any  curve  ;  and  lastly,  in  cases  still  more  I'are,  may- 
resolve  itself  into  a  mere  point ;  but  which,  in  the  general, 
is  what  is  denominated  a  curve  of  double  curvature,  because 
it  ordinarily  partakes  of  the  curvatures  of  two  curved  sur- 
tiices,  upon  each  of  which  it  is  (bund  at  the  same  time,  and 
tbrms  their  common  intersection. 

"  There  exists  between  the  operations  of  analyses  and  the 
methods  of  descriptive  geometry,  a  correspondence,  of  which 
it  is  here  necessary-  to  give  an  idea. 

"  In  algebra,  when  a  problem  is  put  into  equations,  and 
we  have  as  many  equations  as  unknown  quantities,  we  can 
always  obtain  the  same  number  of  equations,  in  each  of 
which  there  enters  but  one  of  the  unknown  quantities ; 
whence  we  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  value  of  each  of  them. 
The  operation  by  which  this  is  performed,  is  called  elimina- 
tion, and  consists  in  expelling,  by  means  of  one  of  the  equa- 
tions, one  of  the  unknown  numbers  from  all  the  other 
equations;  so  that  by  thus  successively  expelling  all  the 
ditferent  unknown  numbers,  a  final  equation  is  obtained, 
containing  only  one,  whose  value  it  ought  to  produce. 

"  The  object  of  elimination  in  algebra  bears  a  close  analogy 
to  those  operations  in  descriptive  geometry,  by  which  the 
intersections  of  carved  surfaces  are  determined. 

"  For  example  :  suppose  that  in  considering  a  point  in 
space,  and  repiesenting,  by  x,  y,  z,  the  distances  from  this 
jioint  to  three  rectangular  planes  between  them,  a  relation 
be  established  between  these  three  distunees,  and  that  it  be 
expressed  by  an  equation,  wherein  the  tliree  quantities  .r.  y,  z, 
and  fixed  quantities  enter.  By  virtue  of  this  relation,  the 
position  of  the  point  would  not  be  determined  ;  for  the  quan- 
tities X,  y,  z,  may  change  their  value,  and  consequently  the 
point  may  vary  in  its  position,  without  destroying  the  relation 
expressed  by  the  equation  ;  and  the  curved  surface  which 
passes  through  all    the  positions  that    the  point  may    thus 


occupy,  without  abating  the  relation  established  t)etween 
the  three  co-ordinates,  is  that  to  which  the  equation 
belong.s. 

'■Thus,  suppose  a  sphere,  whose  radius  is  expressed  by  a, 
have  its  centre  in  the  point  of  intersection  common  to  the 
three  rectangular  planes  ;  and  that  in  considering  a  certain 
point  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  perpendiculars  be  sup- 
posed to  fall  fi'om  such  point  upon  the  three  planes,  and  to 
be  represented  by  the  letters  x,  y,  z ;  it  is  evident  that  llie 
radius  of  the  sphere,  directed  to  the  point  under  considera- 
tion, will  be  the  diagonal  of  a  rectangular  parallelepiped, 
whose  three  aretes  will  be  x,  y,  z ;  that  its  square  will  be 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  four  squares  of  the  four  aretes  ;  and 
that  we  shall  thus  have  the  equation  x'^  -\-  y'  +  2°  =  a°. 
Now,  should  the  point  change  its  position  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere,  its  distances,  .r,  y,  z,  as  to  the  three  rectangnl.ir 
pianos,  would  vary  also;  l)ut  its  distances  as  to  the  centre 
would  remain  unaltered,  and  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  its 
three  co-ordinates,  which  is  always  equal  to  the  square  of  the 
radius,  would  still  retain  its  first  value  :  we  should  therefore 
have  the  relation  between  the  co-ordinates  of  this  point 
expressed  by  the  equation  .r"  -f  y"^  +  g--^  a°.  This  equa- 
tion, which  answers  for  all  the  points  of  the  surface  of  the 
sphere,  and  for  them  only,  is  that  of  the  surface  itself.  All 
curved  suifaces  have,  thus,  each  its  equation  ;•  and  though 
it  be  not  always  easy  to  express  it  in  such  simple  quantities 
as  the  distances  x,  y,  x,  it  is  always  possible  to  obtain  it  in 
more  complex  quantities,  such  as  the  inclinations  of  tangent 
planes,  or  the  radii  of  curvatures :  but  it  is  sufficient  for  our 
present  purpose  to  have  conveyed  our  meaning  by  one 
example. 

"If  now,  having,  in  x,  y,  r,  the  equations  of  two  different 
curved  surfiices,  and  supposing  that  for  the  points  of  the 
two  surfiices  the  distances  bo  taken  to  the  same  rectangular 
planes,  we  eliminate  one  of  the  three  quantities  x,y,  z,  the 
latter,  for  example,  fi'om  the  two  equations;  we  establish 
first,  by  the  similarity  of  these  two  equations,  that  which 
does  not  belong  indiscriminately  to  all  the  points  of  the  first 
surface,  nor  to  all  those  of  the  second,  with  which  we  are 
occupied,  but  only  to  those  of  their  intersection,  for  which 
each  of  the  two  equations  ought  to  serve,  because,  they  are 
upon  the  two  surfaces  at  the  same  time.  Secondly,  the 
equation  in  x,  y,  which  results  from  the  elimination  of  z, 
expresses  the  existing  relation  between  the  two  distances 
for  all  the  points  of  intersection,  whatever  may  be  the  dis- 
tance z,  which  has  disappeared,  and  about  which  thei'e  is  no 
longer  any  question  in  the  equation ;  it  is  therefore  the 
equation  of  the  projection  of  the  intersection  of  the  two 
surfaces  upon  the  plane  perpendicular  to  z. 

"  Hence  we  discover  that  in  algebra,  the  design  of  elimi- 
nation among  many  equations  with  three  unknown  qualifiers, 
is  to  determine,  upon  the  three  planes  to  which  all  space  is 
referred,  the  projections  of  the  intersections  of  surfaces  to 
which  the  equations  appertain. 

"The  similitude  between  the  operations  of  analysis  and 
the  methods  of  di'scriptive  geometry,  are  not  confined  to  the 
instance  just  given,  but  prevails  in  every  situation.  In 
working  generating  lines  of  any  description  in  space,  what- 
ever movements  be  given  to  points,  curved  lines,  or  suifiices, 
they  may  always  be  governed  by  analytical  operations  ;  and 
the  new  objects  which  they  originate,  are  expressed  by  the 
very  results  of  such  operations:  on  the  other  hand,  there  is 
no  operation  of  analysis  in  three  dimensions,  but  what  is  the 
ex[)ression  of  a  movement  operated  in  space,  and  ruled  by  it. 
To  obtain  the  most  advantageous  acquaintance  with  the 
mathematics,  the  student  should  early  accustom  himself  to 
perceive  the  existing    analogy  between    the    operations  of 


DES 


253 


DES 


analysis  and  those  of  geometry  :  on  the  one  hand,  he  should 
be  able  to  write  down  all  the  movements  that  he  can  con- 
ceive in  space,  in  one  analytical  method;  and  on  the  other, 
to  perpetuate  upon  his  memory,  the  object  moving  in  space, 
ot"  which  each  of  the  analytical  operations  is  the  expression. 

■•  We  now  return  to  our  subject,  viz.,  the  mode  of  deter- 
mining the  p''ojections  of  the  intersections  of  curved 
surfaces. 

"  To  present  the  exposition  of  this  method  in  a  clearer 
liglit,  we  shall  not  at  first  disclose  it  with  all  the  elegance 
of  which  it  is  susceptible,  but  proceed  towards  it  by  degrees. 
And  here  it  may  be  premised,  that  the  exposition  will  be 
general,  and  applicable  to  any  two  surfici's  whatever  ;  and 
tiiat  though  the  letters  used  refer  to  the  F'vjnre  26,  which 
shows  the  particular  aise  of  two  conic  surfaces,  with  circular 
bases  and  vertical  axes,  the  reader  should  keep  in  mind,  that 
the  surficcs  under  consideration  may  be,  each  one  in  par- 
ticular, any  other  than  conic  surfaces. 

••  F'lrat  (jenertd  problem. — -The  generating  lines  of  two 
curved  surfaces  being  known,  and  all  the  given  lines  which 
fix  such  generators  being  determined  on  the  plane  of  projec- 
tions; to  Construct  the  projections  of  the  curve  of  double 
curvature,  according  to  which  the  two  surfiices  intersect 
each  other. 

'■  Sjlitlioit. — Fiijiire  26.  Conceive  a  series  of  indefinite 
])lanes,  conveniently  disposed  in  space;  such  planes,  for 
ixample,  uiay  be  all  horizontal,  as  in  fact  we  shall  suppose 
tlicm  in  the  first  instance.  Here  the  vertical  projection  of 
each  of  them  will  be  an  indefinite  hoiizontal  light  line;  and 
as  we  are  not  restrained  from  drawing  them  at  arbitrary 
distances,  we  shall  suppose  in  the  vertical  projection  as  many 
horizontal  lines,  e  e',e  e' ,  e  e',  &c.  as  we  please,  and  that  the 
series  of  these  lines  is  the  verticiil  projection  of  the  series  of 
planes  at  first  conceived.  This  done,  work  successively, 
for  each  of  such  phmes,  and  relatively  to  the  line  e  e' ,  which 
is  its  projection,  the  operation  we  are  about  to  lay  down  for 
the  one  among  them,  that  is  projected  in  e  e'. 

"  The  plane  e  e'  will  intersect  the  first  surface  in  a  certain 
curve,  which  will  be  easily  constructed,  when  we  are 
acquainted  with  the  generation  of  the  surface  ;  it  being  the 
course  of  the  points  in  wliieh  the  plane  e  e'  is  intersected  by 
the  generating  line  in  all  its  positions.  This  curve  being 
plain  and  horizontal,  will  have  its  horizontal  projection  equal, 
similar  to  itself,  and  placed  in  the  same  manner;  it  is  there- 
fore possible  to  construct  such  projection,  and  here  we  shall 
suppose  it  to  be  the  curve  f  o  h  i  k. 

"The  same  plane,  e  e',  will  likewise  cut  the  second  sur- 
face in  another  plain  horizontal  curve,  whose  horizontal 
projection  may  also  be  constructed,  as  by  the  curve  p  o  a. 

'■  It  may  happen,  that  the  two  curves,  wherein  the  same 
plane,  e  e',  intersects  the  two  surfaces,  may  intersect  each 
othLM',  or  they  may  not :  if  they  do  not  intersect  each  other, 
however  much  produce  1.  it  proves  that,  at  the  height  of  the 
plane  E  e',  the  two  surfices  have  no  common  point;  but  if 
these  curves  do  intersect  each  other,  they  will  do  so  in  a 
certain  number  of  points  common  to  the  two  surfaces,  which 
are  consequently  so  many  of  the  points  of  intersection 
required :  and  according  as  the  intersecting  points  of  the 
two  curves  are  upon  the  first  or  second  of  them,  so  are  they 
upon  the  first  or  second  of  the  surfaces  proposed  ;  therefore, 
if  they  be  upon  the  two  curves  at  once,  they  are  also  upon 
tlie  two  surfaces. 

"  As  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  points  wherein  the 
two  curves  iuterse-t  each  other,  should  be  fiund  both  on  the 
projection  of  the  fir-t,  and  on  that  of  the  second  ;  the  points 
F,  G  ....  of  the  coincidence  of  the  two  curves  f  o  h  i  k, 
and  F  o  o.  will  be  horizontal  projections  of  as  many  points 


of  the  required  intersection  of  the  two  curved  surfaces. 
To  obtain  the  vertical  projections  of  the  same  points,  observe 
that  they  are  all  comprised  in  the  horizontal  plane  e  e',  and 
that  their  projections  must  fall  upon  the  line  e  e'.  There- 
fore, by  projecting  the  points,  p,  a  .  .  .  .  upon  e  e',  to  f.  (j.  .  . 
we  shall  have  their  vertical  projections. 

"  Bv  pursuing  the  same  operation  for  all  the  other  hori- 
zontal lines  e  e',  e  e',  we  shall  obtain  for  each  of  them,  in  the 

horizontal  projection,  a  series  of  new  points,  f,  o ,  &c., 

and  in  the  vertical  projection,  another  new  series  /(/.... 
&c.     Then  if  the  branch  of  a  curve  be  passed   through   all 

the  points  p  .  .  .,  another  branch  through  all  the  points  g , 

and  so  of  the  rest,  the  concourse  of  all  these  branches  which 
may  possiblv  meet  one  in  another,  will  be  the  horizontal 
projection  of  the  two  surfaces  ;  in  like  manner,  if  throu<;h 
all  the  points  /"....  a  branch  of  a  curve  be  passed,  throM;rh 
all  the  points  //....  another  branch,  ami  so  of  the  otln^rs, 
the  concourse  of  all  these  branches,  which  may  likewise 
possibly  meet  one  in  another,  will  be  the  vertical  projection 
of  the  intersection  required. 

"  This  method  is  general,  even  supposing  a  system  of  planes 
to  be  chosen  which  intersect  a  series  of  horizontal  planes. 
But  we  shall  see,  presently,  that  in  certain  cases,  the  choice 
of  the  system  of  intersecting  planes  is  not  indifferent,  that 
it  may  sometimes  be  so  made  as  to  be  productive  of  systems 
more  easy  and  more  elegant ;  and  that  it  may  even  be  more 
advantageous,  instead  of  a  system  of  planes,  to  adopt  a  series 
of  curved  surfaces,  which  vary  from  each  other  only  in  one  of 
their  dimensions. 

"To  construct  the  intersection  of  two  revolving  surfaces, 
whose  axes  are  vertical,  the  most  advantageous  system  of 
planes,  is  a  series  of  horizontal  plane; ;  for  each  of  such  jdanes 
intersects  the  two  surfaces  in  the  circumferences  of  circles 
whose  centres  are  upon  the  respective  axes,  whose  radii  are 
equal  to  the  ordinates  of  the  generating  curves,  taken  at  the 
height  of  the  intersecting  plane,  and  whose  horizontal  projec- 
tions are  ciieles  of  known  size  and  position.  Here  all  the 
points  of  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  two  surfaces  .are 
found  by  the  intersections  of  the  arcs  of  a  circle  ;  and  we 
are  aware,  that  if  all  the  revolving  surfiices  had  their  axes 
relatively  parallel,  but  not  vertical,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
change  the  planes  of  projection,  and  so  to  choose  them  as  that 
one  of  them  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  axes. 

"  Were  it  required  to  construct  the  intersection  of  two 
conic  surfaces,  with  whatever  bases,  whose  traces  on  the 
horizontal  plane  were  given  or  constructed,  the  system  of 
horizontal  planes  would  demand  operations  too  tedious  for  the 
example  :  for  each  of  the  horizontal  planes  would  intersect 
the  two  surfaces  in  curves,  which,  though  very  nearly  resem- 
bling the  traces  of  the  respective  surfaces,  would  not  be  equal 
to  them  ;  they  must  be  constructed  by  points,  oarh  by  itself; 
whereas,  if  after  having  drawn  a  right  line  through  the  given 
apices  of  the  two  cones,  the  system  of  planes  passing  along 
such  right  line  be  adopted,  each  of  the  planes  will  cut  the 
two  conic  surfaces  in  four  right  lines  ;  and  these  right  lines, 
which  will  be  in  the  same  plane,  will  cut  each  other,  inde- 
pendently of  the  apices,  in  four  points  upon  the  intersection 
of  the  two  surfaces.  In  this  case,  each  of  the  points  of  the 
horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection  will  be  constructed 
by  the  intersection  of  two  right  lines. 

"For  two  eylindric  surfaces,  of  whatever  bases,  whose 
generating  lines  are  diversely  inclined,  the  system  of  hori- 
zontal planes  would  not  be  the  most  eligible  that  might  be 
adopted.  They  would,  indeed,  each  cut  the  two  surfaces  in 
curves  similar  and  equal  to  their  respective  traces  ;  but  the 
curves  that  did  not  correspond  vertically  to  the  traces  would 
have  for  their  projections,  curves,  that  would  be  distant  from 


DES 


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the  traces  themselves,  and  which  it  would  be  necessary  to 
constriitt  tVoiii  points.  But  were  ciioice  to  be  made  of  the 
system  of  planes  parallel  at  the  same  time  to  the  generating 
lines  of  the  two  suitiices,  each  of  such  planes  woiilJ  cut  the 
two  surfaces  in  right  Hues,  and  these  lines  would  cut  each 
other  in  points  appertaining  to  the  intersection  of  the  two 
surfaces.  By  this  means,  the  points  of  the  horizontal  projec- 
tion would  be  constructed  by  the  intersections  of  right  lines. 
Indeed,  this  is  but  a  necessary  consequence  of  what  lias  been 
said  relative  to  the  case  of  two  conic  surfaces. 

"  For  two  revolving  surfaces,  having  their  axes  in  the 
same  plane,  but  not  parallel  to  each  other,  the  system  of 
s|iherical  surfaces  having  their  common  centre  in  the  point 
of  coincidence  of  the  two  axes,  would  he  preferable  to  that  of 
planes  ;  for  each  of  the  spherical  surfaces  would  cut  the  two 
revolving  surfaces  in  the  circumferences  of  two  circles,  hav- 
ing their  centres  upon  the  respective  axes,  and  their  planes 
perpendicular  to  the  ])lane  drawn  along  the  two  axes  :  the 
intersecting  points  of  these  two  cireunift-rences,  which  would 
be  at  the  same  time  on  the  spherical  surface  and  upon  the 
two  revolving  surfaces,  would  belong  to  the  intersection 
required.  Thus  the  points  of  the  projection  of  the  intersec- 
tion would  he  constructed  by  the  ccjincidence  of  the  circles 
with  the  right  lines;  in  which  case  the  most  advanta- 
geous position  for  the  two  planes  of  pi-ojection  is  to  have 
one  perpendicular  to  one  of  the  axes,  and  the  other 
parallel  to  both. 

'■  These  few  observations,  with  respect  to  such  curved  sur- 
faces as  most  frequently  meet  together,  will  suffice  to  show 
how  the  general  method  should  be  employed,  and  how,  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  generation  of  curved  snrfaces,  that  species 
of  sections  may  he  adopted  which  will  yield  the  most  ready 
constructions. 

'•  When  the  respective  form  and  positions  of  two  curved 
surfaces  are  defined,  not  only  is  the  curve  of  their  intersec- 
tion in  space  determined,  but  also  all  the  affections  of  these 
curves  immediately  follow.  Thus,  for  example,  in  each  of 
their  points  the  direction  of  their  tangent  is  determined  : 
it  is  the  same  as  to  theirnormal  ])lane,  viz.,  of  the  plane  that 
cuts  the  curve  in  a  right  angle,  and  which  is,  consequently, 
perpendicular  to  the  t;uigent  at  the  point  of  intersection.  As 
we  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  consider  planes  normal 
to  curves  of  double  curvature,  we  shall  not  here  enter  into 
any  detail  as  to  their  determination  ;  for  as  they  are  always 
p<-rpendicular  to  tangents,  it  is  enough  to  have  given  the 
mode  of  constructing  projections  of  tangents  to  the  intersec- 
tions of  curved  snrl'aces. 

'•  Second  (jeitend  Problem. — From  a  point  taken  at  plea- 
sure upon  the  intersection  of  two  curved  surfaces,  to  draw 
a  tani;ent  to  such  intersection. 

'■^Solution.  The  point  chosen  upon  the  intersection  of  two 
curved  surfaces,  is  at  the  same  time  upon  both  such  surf-ices, 
f  then,  from  this  point,  as  considered   on  the  first  surface,  a 
tangent  plane  be  drawn  to  such  surface,  it  will  touch  the 
intersection  in  the  point  in  question.     So,  likewise,  if  fiom 
the  same  point,  as  considered  on  the  second  surface,  a  tangent 
olane  be  drawn  to  such  surface,  the  plane  will  touch  the  inter- 
section in  the  point  under  consideration.     The  two  planes, 
tien,  will  touch  the  intersection  in  the  same  point,  which 
vill  also  be  one  of  their  common  points,  and  consequently  one 
.f  those  of  the  right  line  in  which  they  intersect  each  other  : 
therefore,  the  intersection  of  the  two  tangent  planes  will  be 
ne  tangent  required. 

'•  From  this  problem  arises  the  following  observation,  which 
-s  of  great  utility  in  descriptive  geometry. 

"The  projection  of  the  tar  gent  of  a  curve  of  double  cur- 
vature is  itself  tangent  to  the  projection  of  a  curve  ;  and  its 


point   of  contact   is  the  projection   of  that  of  the  curve  of 
double  curvature. 

"Thus,  if  from  all  the  points  of  the  curve  of  double  cur- 
vature, perpendiculars  be  supposed  to  fall  upon  one  of  the 
planes  of  projection,  as  upon  the  hnrizontal  plane,  for  exam- 
ple, all  such  perpendiculars  will  be  upon  a  vertical  cylindric 
surfiice,  which  will  be  cut  by  the  horizontal  plane  in  the  very 
projection  of  the  curve.  In  like  manner,  if,  from  all  the 
points  of  the  tangent  to  the  curve  of  double  curvature,  ver- 
tical lines  be  supposed  to  drop,  they  will  be  in  a  vertical 
plane,  intersected  by  the  horizontal  plane  in  the  projection  of 
the  tangent.  Now,  the  cylindric  surface  and  the  vertical  plane 
evidently  touch  each  other  in  the  whole  extent  of  the  ver-  . 
tical  line  dropfied  from  the  point  of  eonfaet.  and  which  is 
common  to  them  both:  the  intersections,  therefore,  of  the 
cylindiic  surface,  and  of  the  plane  along  the  hc^rizontal  plane, 
touch  each  othiir  in  a  point  that  will  be  the  intersection  of  the 
line  of  contact  of  the  cylindric  surface  and  the  vertical  plane. 
Consequently,  the  pnijeetinns  of  a  curve  of  double  curv.a- 
ture  and  of  one  of  its  tailgents  will  touch  each  other  in  a 
point  that  is  the  projection  of  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
curve. 

"We  shall  now  proceed  to  apply  what  has  been  said  to 
some  particular  cases;  and  to  begin  with  simple  considera- 
tions, we  shall  first  suppose  one  of  two  surfaces  to  be  a  plane, 
whose  intersection  we  would  determine. 

'■First  Question. — To  construct  the  intersection  of  agiven 
cylindric  surfiice  with  a  plane  of  a  given  position. 

"The  position  of  planes  of  projections  being  arbitrary,  we 
will  first  suppose,  what  is  always  possible,  that  these  two 
planes  have  been  so  chosen  as  to  have  one  perpendicidar  to 
the  generating  line  of  the  snrfjice,  and  the  other  perpendicular 
to  the  cutting  plane;  f)r  in  this  supposition  the  construction 
is  much  more  easy  ;  and  then  to  give  to  students  a  habit  of 
making  projections,  wi?  will  siipjiose  the  two  planes  of  pro- 
jection in  any  other  manner, 

"  Solution.  First  case,  in  which  the  generating  line  of  the 
surface  is  supposed  to  be  perpendicular  to  one  of  the  planes  of 
projection,  as  to  the  horizontal  plane,  for  example,  and  the 
cutting  plane  perpendicular  to  the  other. 

'■^  Fir/itre  '■n. — T/Ct  a  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the 
right  line,  to  which  the  generating  line  of  the  cylindric  sur- 
face should  always  be  parallel ;  a  a"  its  vertical  projection  ; 
B  c  D  E.  the  given  trace  of  the  cylindric  surface,  which  being 
the  horizontal  projection  of  the  indefinite  surface,  is  conse- 
quently that  of  the  curve  of  intersection  ;  let  /■// be  the  given 
vertical  projection  of  the  cutting  plane,  which  will  also  be 
that  i>f  the  intersection  required  ;  and  f  g  the  horizontal 
trace  of  the  same  plane.  It  is  evident,  that  if  we  draw  to 
the  curve  b  c  d  e.  and  perp<'ndicMlar  to  l  m,  the  indefinite 
tangents  e  e",  C  c",  the  right  lines  e  e".  r  c" .  will  be  the 
vertical  projections  of  the  generating  line,  in  its  extreme  posi- 
tions ;  and  that  the  points  e'.  c'.  in  which  they  intersect  the 
projection,/'//,  of  the  cutting  plane,  will  terminate  upon  /'/7, 
the  vertical  projection  of  the  required  intersection. 

"  Now.  if  from  a  point  taken  arbitrarilv  upon  the  intersec- 
tion (a  point  wht)se  horizontal  projection  will  be  a  point,  n, 
taken  at  [deasure  on  the  curve  n  c  n  e.  and  whose  veitical 
projection  may  be  had  by  projecting  the  point  n  in  /',  upon 
f  g)  we  would  draw  to  this  inteisection.  it  is  also  evident  that 
such  tangent  should  be  comprised  in  the  cutting  plane,  and 
that  its  vertical  projection  v;ould  be  the  risht  lino  f  rj  ;  also. 
that  it  would  be  comprised  in  the  vertiod  tangent  plane  to 
the  cylindric  suiface.  and  that  its  horizontal  projection,  which 
will  be  the  same  with  that  of  the  tangent  plane,  would  be  the 
right  line  f  h  n,  tangent  in  h  to  the  given  curve  b  c  d  e. 
Thus  all  is  determined  as  to  the  intersection  required. 


DES 


255 


DES 


"  Now,  should  it  be  required  to  construct  this  intersection 
such  as  it  exists  in  its  piano,  and  from  one  of  its  points,  tai«en 
at  pleasure,  to  draw  a  taugcut  to  it :  if  the  vertical  plane  of 
projection  be  at  too  srieat  a  d.stance  from  the  curve  b  c  d  e, 
we  may  suppose  another  \ertical  plane,  parallel  to  it,  passing 
through  the  interior  of  the  curve  b  c  d  e,  and  whose  hori- 
zontal projection  should  be  the  right  line  e  c,  parallel  to  l  m. 
This  vertical  plane  will  intersect  the  cutting  |ilaiie  in  a  right 
line  parallel  to  its  projection  Z"//,  and  upon  which,  as  upon  a 
hinge,  we  will  suppose  the  cutting  plane  to  turn,  to  become 
vertical,  and  to  present  in  full  front  the  curve  rei[uired.  Then, 
from  as  manv  points,  n,  as  may  be  thought  convenient,  taken 
arbitrarily  upon  b  c  d  b,  suppose  vertical  planes  perpendicular 
to  the  vertical  plane  of  projection,  whose  horizontal  and 
vertical  projections  will  both  appear  at  the  same  time,  in 
drawing  through  all  the  points  h,  the  right  lines  h  j  k  j  ;'  per- 
pendicular to  L  M.  Each  of  these  planes  will  intersect  the 
cutting  plane  in  a  horizontal  line,  perpendicular  to  the  hinge, 
whose  vertical  projection  will  be  the  point  of  coincidence,  i\ 
of  two  right  lines/i/, ;'  i'.  In  each  plane  this  horizontal  line 
will  meet  the  hinge  in  a  point,  whose  horizontal  projection 
will  be  the  intersection,  j,  of  the  two  right  lines  e  c,  lu  k,  i  i' ; 
and  will  also  meet  the  curve  required  in  points,  whose  hori- 
zontal projections  will  be  the  intersections  H.  K,  of  the  right 
line  H  J  (  «'  with  the  curve  bode.  In  a  word,  this  right  line 
and  all  its  parts  will  be  equal  to  their  horizontal  projections. 
Now,  when  th.e  cutting  [>lane  turns  upon  the  hinge,  to  become 
vertical,  all  these  right  lines,  which  were  at  first  horizontal, 
remain  perpendieidar  to  the  liinge,  and  do  not  vary  in  size. 
Therefore,  if  through  all  the  points  ('.  we  draw  indefinite  per- 
pendiculars, k  X-,  U>  fff.  and  if  upon  these  perpendiculars  j  h 
be  transferred  from  i'  to  /<,  and  j  k  from  i'  to  /(,  we  shall  have  as 
many  points,  h,  k,  as  we  wish  for,  through  which  the  required 
cui've,  e'  k  c'  k,  may  be  drawn. 

"  The  curve  being  constructed  in  its  plane,  if  it  be 
required,  from  one  of  its  points,  h,  taken  arbitrarily,  to  draw 
a  tangent  to  it,  we  may  obtain  the  veitical  projection  of  such 
point,  by  dropping  from  the  point  k,  iipon/^,  the  perpendi- 
cular /*  (' ;  and  its  horizontal  projection,  by  projecting  i'  in 
II  upon  the  curve  b  c  n  e  ;  we  shall  have  the  horizontal  pro- 
jection of  the  tangent  required,  by  drawing  the  right  line  f  n 
tangent  in  h  to  the  curve  b  c  d  e  ;  and  it  will  t)e  sufficient  to 
bring  into  the  plane  of  the  curve  any  point  whatever  of  the 
tangent ;  as  that,  for  example,  which  is  projected  on  the 
point  N  taken  arbitrarily,  and  whose  vertical  projection  is 
upon  fff  in  a'.  Now,  in  making  our  deductions  upon  this 
point,  as  upon  every  other  of  the  cutting  plane,  it  cannot  but 
be  obvious,  that  if  through  the  point  a',  we  draw  to  f  ff  the 
perpendicular  a'  n  and  that  if  upon  this  right  line  we  transfer 
from  a'  to  n  the  distance  n  a  from  the  point  n  to  the  right 
line  E  c,  the  point  n  will  be  the  second  of  the  tangent. 
Therefoie  by  drawing  the  line  h  n  we  shall  have  the  tangent 
required. 

"  Whatever  curve  be  given  to  b  c  d  e,  we  see  that  the 
intersection  e'  k  c'  h  possesses  the  property  of  having  for  either 
of  its  points  the  sub-tangent  a'  ii  equal  to  the  sub-tangent  a  n 
of  the  first.  This  property,  which  is  very  well  known  in  the 
circle  and  ellipsis,  when  those  two  curves  have  a  common 
axis,  arises,  with  respect  to  them  only,  from  their  being 
the  intersections  of  one  cylindric  surface  through  two  dif- 
ferent planes. 

"  Lastly,  it  may  occur,  that  we  shall  want  to  trace  upon 
the  development  of  the  cylindric  surfice,  the  eflect  of  the 
section  made  by  the  cutting  plane.  For  this  purpose,  after 
having  developed  the  curve  B  c  D  e,  with  all  its  divisions, 
upon  a  right  line  r  q  ;  if  indefinite  perpendiculars  be  drawn 
through  ail   the   divisions  of  r  q,  we  shall   have,  upon   the 


development  of  the  surface,  the  traces  of  the  different  posi- 
tions  of  the  generating  line,  and  we  shall  then  only  have 
to  transfer  upon  these  perpendiculars  the  parts  of  the  corres- 
ponding generating  lines,  comprised  between  the  perpen- 
dicular section  b  c  d  e,  and  the  section  made  by  the  cutting 
plane.  Now,  these  parts  of  generating  lines  are  e(|nal  to  their 
vertical  projections,  and  these  projections  are  all  terminated, 
on  one  hand,  by  the  right  line  l  m,  and  on  the  other  by/;/. 
If  then  the  point  ii,  for  example,  fall  in  s,  upon  the  line  r  q, 
by  transferring  i  i'  upon  the  perpendicular  passing  through 
the  point  s,  from  s  to  t,  the  point  t  will  be.  upon  the 
developed  surface,  that  where  the  generating  line,  which 
passes  through  the  point  h,  is  intersected  by  the  cutting 
plane.  The  curve  x  t  y  z,  which  passes  through  all  the 
determinate  points  in  the  same  manner,  will  be  the  curve 
required.  . 

"  It  is  olivious,  that  were  the  tangent  produced  from  the 
point  H  till  it  meet  the  horizontal  trace,  g  f,  of  the  cutting 
plane,  somewhere  in  a  point,  f  ;  and  that  if  h  p  were  trans- 
ferred upon  R  Q.  from  s  to  u,  the  right  line  t  u  would  be  tan- 
gent to  the  curve ;  for  when  the  cylindric  surface  is  developed, 
its  elements  do  not  alter  their  inclination  with  respect  to  the 
horizontal  plane. 

"  Second  Case,  wherein  the  cylindric  surface  and  the  cut- 
ting plane  are  supposed  to  be  in  any  numner  whatever  with 
respect  to  the  two  planes  of  projections. 

"  Solution. — Fir/iii-e  28.  Let  A  a'  and  a  a'  be  the  two  pro- 
jections of  the  right  line,  to  which  the  generating  line  should 
he  parallel  ;  c  e  d  f,  the  given  trace  of  the  cylindric  surface; 
and  H  G,  h  h,  the  traces  of  the  cutting  ]danc. 

"  Conceive  a  series  of  planes  parallel  to  the  generating 
line  of  the  cylindric  surface,  and  also  perpendicular  to  one  of 
the  planes  of  projection,  as  the  horizontal  plane,  for  example  : 
each  of  such  planes  would  be  projected  upon  a  right  line, 
o  K  E,  parallel  to  A  a',  cutting  the  surface  in  right  lines  that 
would  be  so  many  positions  of  the  generating  line,  and  would 
meet  the  horizontal  plane  in  the  points  of  intei-section,  e,  f, 
of  the  line  o  k  e  with  the  curve  c  e  d  f.  By  projecting, 
therefore,  the  points  e,  f,  upon  l  m,  in  c,  /,  and  drawing 
through  these  latter,  to  the  right  line  a  a',  the  parallels 
e  e',  ff,  the  vertical  projections  of  the  intersections  of  the 
surfiice  with  each  of  the  planes  parallel  to  the  generating 
line  will  be  obtained. 

"  The  same  planes  will  likewise  intersect  the  cutting  plane 
in  right  lines,  parallel  to  each  other,  all  whose  horizontal 
traces  will  be  upon  the  different  points,  o,  of  the  line  g  h, 
and  whose  vertical  projections  will  be  also  parallel  to  each 
other.  To  obtain  these  projections,  we  must  first  find  the 
direction  of  one  of  them,  of  that,  for  example,  which  corres- 
ponds to  the  vertical  plane  drawn  from  a  a'.  With  this  view, 
produce  a  a'  till  it  meet,  on  one  hand,  the  trace  of  the  cut- 
ting plane  in  a  point  n,  and  on  the  other,  the  right  line  l  m, 
in  a  point  b,  and  by  projecting  the  point  b  in  h  on  h  b,  the 
two  points  N  and  b  will  be,  upon  the  two  planes  of  projection, 
the  traces  of  the  intersection  of  the  cutting  plane  with  the 
vertical  one.  By  projecting  the  point  n  in  n  upon  l  m,  and 
draw  ing  the  line  n  b,  it  will  give  the  vertical  projection  of- 
this  intersection.  By  projecting  on  l  m  all  the  points,  o,  in 
which  the  trace  g  h  is  cut  by  the  projections  of  the  vertical 
planes,  which  will  give  a  series  of  points  o,  and  dra\ving 
from  the  latter  the  parallels  o  ;  k,  to  n  h,  the  vertical  projec- 
tions of  the  intersections  of  the  cutting  plane,  through  the 
whole  serie-'  of  the  vertical  planes,  will  lie  obtained.  Lastly, 
the  points  of  eoincidcncre,  /,  k,  of  each  right  line  o  i  k  with  the 
projections  e  e',  ff,  of  the  sections  made  in  the  cylindric  sur- 
face by  the  corresponding  vertical  plane,  will  be  the  vertical 
projection   of  the  intersection  required  ;  and  the  ciu-ve  that 


DES 


256 


DES 


would  pass  through  all  the  points,  i,  k,  thus  dpterniiiied,  would 
he;  that  projection.  By  projecting  the  points  i,  i;  in  j,  k,  on 
tile  projection,  o  k  e,  on  the  corresponding  vertical  ]>lane,  we 
sliivli  have  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  same  points,  and 
the  cinve,  k  j  p,  that  would  pass  through  all  the  points 
so  determined,  woidd  be  the  horizontal  projection  of"  the 
intersection. 

"  In  seeking  the  tangents  of  these  two  projections  to  the 
points  J,  i,  it  must  be  recollected  that  such  tangents  arc 
pi-ojections  of  the  tangent  to  the  intersection.  Now,  the 
hitter  tangent  i)eing  at  the  same  time  in  the  cutting  plane 
and  in  the  tangent  plane  to  the  cylindric  suifacc,  it  must 
have  its  horizontal  trace  in  the  intersection  of  the  horizontal 
traces  of  the  two  planes  :  the  trace  of  the  tangent  plane  is 
al-o  the  tangent  in  v  to  the  curve  c  e  d  f.  Therefore,  by 
drawing  this  tangent,  and  having  produced  it  till  it  meet  the 
trace  of  the  cutting  plane  in  a  point  g,  drawing  the  right 
line  o  J,  we  shall  have  the  latter  line  touching,  at  the  point  j, 
the  horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection.  And  by  pro- 
jecting the  point  o  upon  l  m  in  //,  and  drawing  the  right 
line  ff  i,  wc  shall  obtain  the  tangent,  in  /,  of  the  vertical 
projection  of  the  same  curve. 

"  Should  it  be  required  to  construct  the  curve  of  the 
intersection  as  it  is  iii  the  plane,  suppose  the  cutting  plane 
to  turn  upon  its  horizontal  trace  ii  o,  as  upon  a  hinge,  and 
appl\  ing  itself  to  th'j  horizontal  plane.  In  this  movement, 
each  of  the  ]ioints  of  the  section,  that,  b}'  way  of  example, 
which  is  projected  in  j,  will  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle,  whose 
plane  will  be  vertical,  perpendicular  to  ii  g,  and  whose 
indefinite  projection  will  be  obtained  by  drawing  through 
the  point  j  a  right  line,  u  j  s,  perpendicular  to  h  g  ;  conse- 
quently, when  the  plane  is  laid  down,  the  point  of  the  section 
will  fall  somewhere  upon  a  point  of  this  right  line.  To 
discover  the  distance  of  such  point  from  the  hinge  :  as  the 
horizontal  projection  of  this  distance  is  j  r,  and  the  diiTerence 
of  the  heights  of  its  extremities  is  the  vertical  line  is;  if  jr 
lie  measured  \ipon  l  m,  from  s  to  r,  the  hypothenuse  r  i  will 
bo  such  distance.  Then  by  measuring  r  i  upon  r  j,  from 
R  to  8,  the  point  s  will  be  one  of  the  points  of  the  intersection 
considered,  with  its  plane  laid  down  upon  the  horizontal 
plane,  and  the  curve  s  t  u  v,  drawn  through  all  the  points  s 
constructed  alike,  will  be  the  intersection  itself. 

"  To  obtain  the  tangent  of  this  curve  to  the  point  s,  it  is 
sufficient  to  observe,  that  in  the  movement  of  the  cutting 
plane,  the  tangent  does  not  cease  to  pass  through  the  point  g 
of  the  hinge  ;  therefore,  by  drawing  the  right  line  s  o,  we 
shall  have  the  tangent  required. 

"  Second  Question. — To  construct  the  intersection  of  a 
conic  surface,  of  any  given  base,  by  a  i)lane  given  in 
position. 

"  Solution. — Here  we  may  suppose,  what  is  always 
possible,  the  vertical  plane  of  projection  to  be  placed  perpen- 
dicular to  the  cutting  plane. 

"  Figure  29. — Let  a,  a',  be  the  projections  of  the  apex  of 
the  cone,  or  of  the  centre  of  the  conic  surface  ;  n  c  d  e  the 
trace  of  such  surface  on  the  horizontal  plane;  f  p  the  vertical 
jirojection  of  the  cutting  plane;  and  o/its  horizontal  trace. 
Suppose  from  the  apex  of  tlie  cone  a  series  of  planes,  per- 
]>endicular  to  the  vertical  j)lane  of  projection  ;  the  vertical 
projections  of  such  planes  will  be  the  right  lines  a'  c,  drawn 
from  the  projection  of  the  apex  :  and  their  horizontal  traces 
will  be  the  right  lines  c  c,  perpendicular  to  l  m,  which  will 
cut  the  trace  of  the  conic  surface  somewhere  in  the  points 
c,  c' .  .  .  .  These  planes  will  cut  the  surface  in  right  lines, 
whose  vertical  projections  will  be  the  lines  a'  c  .  .  .  .,  and 
wiiose  horizontal  projections  will  be  obtained  by  drawing 
from  th<!  point  A,  the  lines  c  a,  c'  a  .  .  .  . ;  the  same  planes  will 


likewise  intersect  the  cutting  ]ilanc  in  lines  perpendicular  to 
the  vertical  plane.  The  projections  of  such  lines  will  be  the 
points,  h  .  .  .,  of  coincidence  of  ///,  with  the  lines  n'  c  .  .  .  ; 
and  their  horizontal  projections  will  be  obtained  by  dropping, 
from  the  points  h  . .  . .,  upon  l  m,  the  indefinite  |)erpeiidicnlars 
An....  This  done,  the  lines  h  n  .  .  .  .  will  cut  tlic  correspond- 
ing lines  c  A,  c'  A  .  .  .,  in  points,  ii,  ii'  .  .  .  .,  which  will  be  the 
horizontal  projections  of  so  many  of  the  points  of  intersection 
required  ;  and  the  curve,  p  n  Q  ii',  that  would  pass  through 
all  the  points  thus  constructed,  will  be  the  projection  of  the 
intersection. 

"  To  diaw  a  tangent  to  this  curve,  fi-om  a  point  h,  fixed 
upon  at  pleausre,  it  is  only  requisite  to  find  upon  the  hori- 
zontal  plane  the  trace  of  the  tangent  of  the  intersection  in 
a  point  corresponding  to  h.  This  trace  must  be  upon  that 
of  the  cutting  plane,  and  consequently  on  af;  it  must  also 
be  upon  that  of  the  plane  touching  the  conic  surface  in  the 
right  line,  whose  projection  is  a  h  :  and  if  a  ii  be  produced 
till  it  meet  the  curve  b  c  d  e  scmiewhere  in  a  point  c,  the 
tangent,  c  f,  of  this  curve,  in  the  point  c,  will  be  the  hori- 
zontal trace  of  the  tangent  plane.  The  point,  k,  of  coinci- 
dence of  the  two  traces/ G,  c  f,  will  therefore  be  upon-  the 
tangent  in  the  point,  n,  of  the  curve  p  n  q  ii'.  • 

"Should  it  be  required  to  construct  the  intersection  con- 
sidered in  its  plane,  we  may  indefinitely  suppose  either  that 
the  cutting  plane  turns  upon  o  f,  as  upon  a  hinge,  in  order 
to  apply  itself  to  the  horizontal  plane,  and  so  x-onstruct  the 
curve  in  the  position  it  will  thus  assume  ;  or  that  it  turns 
upon  its  vertical  projection///,  to  apply  itself  to  the  vertical 
plane  ;  the  latter  is  the  hypothesis  we  shall  heic  adopt. 

"All  the  horizontal  lines  in  which  the  series  of  planes 
drawn  from  the  apex  has  inter.sected  the  cutting  plane,  and 
which  are  perpendicular  to  /;;,  do  not  change  their  size  in 
the  movement  of  the  cutting  plane,  nor  do  they  cease  to  be 
perpendicular  to  f  (/ :  if  then  indefinite  perpendiculars  be 
drawn  through  all  the  points  /?,  to  f  g  ;  and  if  upon  them  the 
corresponding  horizontal  lines  k  h,  k  ii',  be  measured  and 
applied  from  A,  to  n  and  x',  the  points  n,  n',  will  be  those  of 
the  section  ;  and  the  curve  r  n  s  n',  drawn  through  all  the 
points  thus  constructed,  will  be  the  intersection  considered 
in  its  plane. 

"  From  all  that  has  been  said,  it  appears  evident,  that,  to 
draw  to  this  curve  a  tangent  in  a  point,  n,  taken  arbitrarily 
upon  it,  the  perpendicular  n  h  must  be  dropped  from  the 
point  N  upon/' (J" ;  that  the  right  line  a'  h  must  be  produced 
till  it  meet  l  m  in  the  point  c ;  that  this  point  must  be  pro- 
jected in  c,  or  the  curve  bode;  that  the  tangent  must  be 
drawn  to  such  curve  in  c,  cutting  the  trace  g/ somewhere 
in  a  point  f;  and  that  r/must  be  carried  perpendicularly 
tofg.  from/in  o.  The  right  line  o  ?i  will  be  the  tangent 
required. 

"  As  to  the  mode  of  constructing  the  development  of  the 
conic  surface,  of  whatever  base,  and  of  tracing  thereon 
the  effect  of  the  intersection  with  the  cutting  plane,  we  shall 
proceed  to  describe  it,  after  having  spoken  of  the  intersection 
of  the  conic  surface  with  that  of  a  sphere  having  its  centre 
in  the  apex. 

"  To  construct  the  intersection  of  two  conic  surfivces  with 
circular  bases,  whose  axes  are  parallel  to  each  other. 

"  Solution. — Figure  2().  As  it  would  be  superfluous  here 
to  repeat  what  has  already  been  said  in  Heating  of  the  general 
method,  of  which  this  figure  was  a  type;  we  shall  only 
observe,  that  in  the  c.ise  now  before  us,  as  well  as  in  that  of 
two  revolving  sm-faces,  of  whatever  description,  the  sections 
made  in  the  twci  surfaces  by  the  horizontal  planes,  are  circles; 
but  we  shall  enter  upon  some  details  relative  to  tangents,  of 
which  we  have  not  yet  imd  occasion  to  speak. 


"To  (lisi'ovcv  the  tangent  to  the  point  D  {^Figure  26)  of 
the  horizontal  projection  of  the  intei  section,  we  must  recollect 
that  it  is  the  projection  the  tangent  of  the  intersection  of 
the  two  svn-faces,  in  the  point  of  corresponding  to  n,  and  that 
to  determine  it,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  point  s,  which 
is,  upon  the  horizontal  plane,  tiie  trace  of  the  tangent  of  the 
intersection.  Tiiis  latter  tangent  is  in  the  two  planes  which 
touch  the  conic  surfaces  in  the  point  of  intersection  ;  there- 
fore, by  finding  the  horizontal  traces  r  r,  q  g,  of  these  two 
fcmgent  planes,  they  will  by  their  coincidence,  determine  the 
point  s.  But  the  plane  tangent  to  the  first  surface  touches 
it  in  a  line  that  passes  through  its  apex,  whose  horizontal 
projection  may  be  obtained  by  drawing  the  indefinite  right 
line  A  D.  And  if  a  d  be  producsd  till  it  meet  the  horizontal 
circular  trace  of  the  surface,  t  q  uv,  in  a  point,  q,  such  point 
will  be  a  point  of  the  line  of  contact  between  the  sur- 
face and  the  plane  ;  consequently,  the  horizontal  trace  of  the 
plane  will  be  tangent  in  q  to  the  circle  t  q  u  v:  let  this  tan- 
gent therefore  be  drawn,  as  Q  q.  In  like  manner,  bv  produ- 
cing the  radius  B  D  till  it  meet  in  r  the  circular  horizontal 
trace,  r  x  y  z,  of  the  second  surfiice,  and  drawing  to  this 
circle  the  tangent  in  r,  the  line  r  r  will  be  the  horizontal 
trace  of  the  plane  tangent  to  the  second  surface.  And  if 
from  the  point  s,  of  the  intersection  of  the  two  tangents  q  7, 
R  r,  the  right  line  s  d  be  drawn,  it  will  give  the  tangent,  in 
the  point  D,  of  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection. 

"  With  respect  to  the  tangent  to  the  corresponding 
point  d,  of  the  vertical  projection,  it  is  obvious  that  it  may 
be  obtained  by  projecting  the  point  s  in  s,  and  by  drawing 
the  line  s  d,  which  will  be  the  tangent  required. 

"  It  may  happen  to  be  necessary  to  construct  upon  the 
development  of  one  of  the  conic  surfaces,  perhaps,  even 
upon  that  of  each  of  them,  the  effect  of  their  mutual  inter- 
section ;  as,  for  example,  if  we  were  obliged  to  fabricate  the 
cones  of  flexible  substances,  such  as  metal  plates :  in  this  case 
we  must  operate  for  such  cone  in  the  manner  we  are  going 
to  prescribe  for  the  first. 

"  Before  we  proceed,  let  it  be  observed,  that  when  a  conic 
surface  is  developed  so  as  to  become  a  plane,  the  right  lines 
that  are  upon  it,  change  neither  their  form  nor  size,  because 
each  of  them   is   successively  the    hinge    upon     which  the 
development  acts;    so   that  all  the   points    of  the   surf  ice 
remain  always  at  the  same  distance  from   the   aj)ex.     And 
when,  as  in  this  ca>e,  the  conic  suifuce  is  direct  and  circular, 
all  the  points  of  the  circular   horizontal  trace  are  at  equal 
distances  from  the  apex;  they  must,  therefore,  be  also  at  an 
equal  distance   from    the  apex  upon   the   development,  and 
consequently  upon  the  arc  of  a  circle,  whose  radius  is  equal 
to  the  unitonn   distance  of  the  apex  from  the  circular  trace. 
And  if,  after  having  taken   an   arbitrary    point   to   represent 
the  apex  on  the  development,  the  arc  of  an   indefinite  circle, 
whose  railiusis  equal  to  n  c,  be  described,  having  such  point 
for  its  centre,  it  will  also  be  indeliuitely  the  development  of 
the  horizontal  trace  of  the  surface.     Then,  by  measuring  the 
arc  of  the  circle  t  q  on   the   arc   just  described,   begimiing 
from  the  point  t  of  the  trace  from   which  it  is  designed  to 
begin  the  development,  the  position  of  the  point  q  upon   the 
development  will  be  determined  ;  and   the   indefinite   right 
line  dr.-iwu  from  this  point  to  the  centre  of  the  development, 
will  be  the  position  occupied  by  the  right  line  of  the  surface 
projected    ill   A   Q,   and   upon    which  the   point  d   d,  of  the 
section   referred  to,  will  be  found.     To  construct  this  point, 
it  only  remains  to  discover  its  distance  from  the  apex,  and 
to  measure  it  upon  the  indefinite  right  line,  beginning  from 
the  centre  of  the  development.     In  order  to  this,  draw  the 
horizontal  line  d  k,  from  the  point  d  in  the  vertical  projec- 
tion, till  it  cut  the  side  a  0  of  the  cone,  in  a  point  k,  and  the 
33 


line  a  k  will  be  the  distance  sought  for.  By  constructing, 
in  like  manner,  all  the  other  parts  of  the  intersection,  suc- 
cessively, and  passing  a  curve  through  them,  the  intersection 
of  the  two  surfaces  described  upon  the  development  of  the 
first  surface  will  bo  found.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner 
for  tlie  second  surfiice. 

"  Fourth    Question. — To  construct  the  intersection  of  two 
conic  surfaces,  of  whatever  basis. 

"  Solution. — Figure  30.  Let  a,  a,  be  the  projections  of 
the  apex  of  the  first  surface;  c  g  d  g',  its  given  trace  upon 
the  horizontal  plane;  b  b,  the  projections  of  the  apex  of  the 
second  surface  ;  and  e  11  p  h',  its  trace  on  the  horizontal 
plane.  Suppose  a  right  line  passing  through  the  two  apices, 
whose  projections  are  the  indefinite  lines  a  b,  a  A,  and  whose 
trace,  i,  may  be  easily  constructed  upon  the  horizontal  plane. 
Along  this  line  conceive  a  series  of  planes,  each  cutting  the 
two  conic  surfiices  in  the  system  of  several  right  lines  ;  and 
such  of  these  right  lines  as  shall  be  in  the  same  plane  will 
determine,  by  their  intersections,  so  many  points  of  the 
intersection  of  the  two  surfaces.  The  horizontal  traces  of 
all  the  planes  of  this  series  will  necessarily  pass  from  the 
point  I ;  and  since  the  ]u>sition  of  these  planes  is  l)esides 
arbitrary,  their  traces  may  likewise  be  taken  arbitrarily,,  by 
drawing  from  the  point  i,  a  number  of  lines,  i  k,  at  pleasure, 
by  each  of  which  the  following  operation  may  be  worked 
for  either  of  them. 

"  The  trace,  k  i,  of  each  of  the  planes  of  the  scries  will 
cut  the  horizontal  trace  of  the  first  conic  surface  in  points, 
G  g',  which  will  also  be  the  horizontal  traces  of  the  right 
lines,  according  to  which  the  plane  cuts  the  conic  surface : 
thus  A  G,  A  g',  will  be  the  indefinite  horizontal  projections  of 
these  lines,  and  their  ve*tical  projections  will  be  obtained 
by  projecting  g,  g',  in  g,  (/',  and  drawing  the  indefinite  lines 
o  g,  a  g'.  So  likewise,  the  trace,  k  i,  of  the  saine  plane  of 
the  series  will  cut  the  horizontal  trace  of  the  second  conic 
surface  in  points,  n,  n',  from  which  if  b  h,  b  n',  be  drawn 
indefinitely,  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  lines  will  be 
obtained,  according  to  which  the  same  plane  of  the  series 
will  cut  the  second  surfiice;  and  their  vertical  projections 
may  be  had,  by  projecting  h,  n',  in  /;,  /(',  and  drawing  the  in- 
definite lines  b  h,  b  h'. 

"This  done,  fir  the  same  plane,  whose  trace  is  k  i,  we 
shall  have  on  the  horizontal  projection  a  certain  number  of 
lines,  a  g,  a  g,'  b  h,  b  h' ;  and  the  points,  p,  q,  r,  s,  in  which 
those  belonging  to  one  of  the  surfices,  meet  those  belonging 
to  the  other,  will  be  the  horizi'Ulal  projections  of  so  many 
points  of  the  intersections  of  both  surfaces.  Thus,  by  work- 
ing successively,  in  the  same  manner,  upon  the  other  lines 
K  I,  we  shall  find  new  series  of  points,  p,  q,r.  s  ;  and  Ity  after- 
wards passing  throuiih  all  the  points  p,  a  fir-t  branch  of  a 
curve,  through  all  the  points  q,  a  second,  through  all  the 
points  r.  a  third,  &e.,  we  shall  have  the  horizontal  projection 
of  the  intersection  required. 

"  In  like  manner,  for  the  same  plane,  whose  trace  is  k  i, 
we  shall  have  upon  the  vertical  projection  a  certain  number 
of  lines  a  g.  a  g',  b  h,  h  h\  whose  points  of  intersection  will 
be  the  vertical  [)rojections  of  as  many  points  of  the  inter- 
section. 

"  Here  let  it  be  remarked,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  con- 
struct the  two  projections  independently  of  each  other,  and 
that  having  constructed  a  single  point  of  one  of  them,  it  may 
be  projected  in  the  other  upon  one  of  the  lines  that  ought 
to  contain  it:  hence  we  acquire  means  of  verifying  the 
operation,  and  of  avoiding,  in  certain  cases,  the  intersections 
of  lines  which  cut  each  other  in  angles  too  oblique. 

"To  find  the  tangents  to  the  horizontal  projection,  that, 
for  example,   which   touches  it    in  the   point  p,  we  must 


DES 


258 


DES 


construct  the  horizontal  trace,  t,  of  the  tangent  of  the 
inteisi'c-tion  in  the  point  corresponding  to  p.  This  tangent 
is  liie  intersection  of  the  two  planes  which  touch  the  conic 
surfaces  in  that  ]K)int;  its  trace,  therefore,  will  be  in  the 
coincidence  of  the  horizontal  traces  with  such  two  tangent 
planes.  And  as  a  o'  p  is  the  projection  of  the  line  of  contact 
of  the  plane  which  touches  the  first  surface,  the  trace  of  such 
first  plane  will  be  the  tangent  to  the  curve  c  o  d  g',  in  the 
P'int  g'  :  let  then  g'  t  v  be  that  tangent.  So  likewise  n  h'  p 
i--  tlie  horizontal  projection  of  the  line  of  contact  of  the  plane 
thai  touches  the  second  surface  ;  and  as  the  horizontal  trace 
of  the  second  tangent  plane  will  be  the  tangent,  in  the 
point  h',  of  the  curve  k  ii  f  h',  Jet  ii'  t  u  he  such  tangent. 
1'he  two  tangents  g'  v,  h'  u,  will  intersect  each  other  in 
a  point,  T,  from  which  if  the  line  t  p  be  drawn,  we  shall 
have  the  tangent  in  the  point  p,  as  required. 

"  By  proceeding  in  like  manner  with  the  other  points  q,  r,  s, 
wc  shall  find,  first,  that  the  tangent  in  q  must  pass  through 
the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  tangents  in  g'  and  h  ;  secondly, 
that  the  tangent  in  R  must  pass  through  the  coincidence  of 
those  in  h  and  g;  and,  thirdly,  that  the  tangent  in  s  must 
pass  through  the  coincidence  of  tho-e  in  g  and  h'. 

'Tangents  of  the  vertical  projection  are  attended  with  no 
difficulty,  when  those  of  the  horizontal  projection  are  once 
determined  ;  for  by  projecting  the  horizontal  traces  of  the 
tangents  t)f  the  intersection,  we  have  the  points  through 
which  they  must  pass. 

"  Fi///i  Question. — ^To  construct  the  intersection  of  a  conic 
surf  ice  of  any  l)ase,  with  that  of  a  sphere. 

"  We  shall  here  suppose  the  two  surfaces  to  be  concentric, 
that  is  to  say,  the  apex  of  the  cone  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  sphere,  because  we  shall  have  occasion  for  such  a  dispo- 
sition in  the  following  question. 

"  Suliition. — Fu/iire  31.  Let  A,  a,  be  the  projections  of  the 
common  centre  of  the  two  surfaces ;  b  c  d  e,  the  given  hori- 
zontal trace  of  the  conic  surface;  am,  the  radius  of  the 
s|)here  ;  and  the  circle,  I  f  g'  m,  the  vertical  projection  of 
the  sphere.  Suppose  from  the  centre  common  to  the  two 
sui  faces,  a  series  of  planes,  which  may  likewise  be  conceived 
to  be  all  perpendicular  to  one  of  the  two  planes  of  projection  : 
in  the  Fii/tire  31,  we  have  supposed  them  to  be  vertical. 
Each  of  such  planes  will  cut  the  conic  surface  in  a  system 
of  right  lines,  and  the  surface  of  the  sphere  in  the  circumfer- 
ence of  one  of  its  great  circles;  and  for  each  plane,  the 
coincidence  of  these  lines  with  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
will  determine  the  points  of  the  intersection  required:  draw, 
therefore,  from  the  point  A  as  many  indefinite  right  lines, 
c  A  E,  as  you  please,  and  they  will  be  the  horizontal  projec- 
tions of  so  many  vertical  planes  in  the  series,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  tlu)se  of  the  lines  according  to  which  these  planes 
cut  the  two  surfaces.  Each  right  line  c  a  e,  will  intersect 
the  horizontal  trace  d  c  d  e  of  the  conic  surface  in  points,  c,  e, 
that  will  be  the  horizontal  traces  of  the  sections  made  in  this 
surface  by  the  corresponding  plane;  and  if,  after  having 
jirojected  the  points  c,  e,  upon  l  m,  in  c,  e,  the  lines  a  c,  a  e, 
be  drawn,  they  will  give  the  vertical  projections  of  the  same 
sections. 

"It  now  remains  to  discover  the  points  of  intersection  of 
these  sections  with  those  of  the  sphere,  upon  the  same  plane. 

"  For  this  purpose,  having  drawn  through  the  point  a,  the 
right  line  g  a  f,  parallel  to  i.  m,  suppose  the  vertical  plane 
drawn  through  c  e,  to  turn  about  the  vertical  line  raised  from 
the  jioint  a,  and  projected  in  a'  a,  as  u|)on  a  hinge,  till  it 
become  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  of  projection,  and  that  it 
also  draw  wiih  it  the  sections  it  has  tnade  in  the  two  surfaces, 
hi  this  movement,  the  points  c,  e,  will  describe  around  the 
point  A,  as  a  centre,  the  arcs  of  circles  c  g,  E  f,  and  will  fall 


in,  in  o,  f  ;  by  projecting  the  latter  points  upon  l  m,  in  jr,  f, 
the  right  lines  a  g,  a  f,  will  be  the  vertical  projections  of  the 
sections  made  in  the  conic  surface,  considered  in  the  new 
position  they  have  assumed  in  consequence  of  the  movement 
of  the  plane.  The  section  made  in  the  surface  of  the  sjihere, 
considered  also  in  its  new  position,  will  have  the  circumfer- 
ence //'  g'  m  as  a  vertical  projection.  The  points,  therefore, 
of  coincidence,  5^' /,  of  this  circumference  with  the  lines  a  ^, 
af,  will  be  the  projections  of  the  poiiits  of  intersection 
required,  considered  also  in  the  new  position  of  the  plane. 

"  Now,  to  obtain  the  projections  of  the  same  points,  in  their 
natural  position,  the  vertical  plane  must  be  supposed  to  be 
returned  to  its  original  situation.  In  this  movement,  all  its 
points,  and  consequently  those  of  the  intersection  contained 
in  it,  will  describe  the  arcs  of  horizontal  circles  around  the 
vertical  line  raised  from  the  point  a  as  an  a.xis,  whose  ver- 
tical projections  will  be  horizontal  lines.  Then  by  drawing 
through  the  points/'  g\  the  horizontal  lines  f  h,  g'  i,  they 
will  contain  the  vertical  projections  of  the  points  of  intersec- 
tion :  but  these  projections  must  also  be  upon  the  respective 
right  lines  a  c,  a  e,  and  will  be  found  in  the  points  of  coinci- 
dence, i  h.  of  the  latter,  with  the  hoiizoutal  lines  g'  i,  f  h. 
Thus  the  curve  k  h  n  i,  drawn  through  all  the  points  con- 
structed in  the  same  manner  for  any  other  line,  besides  c  E, 
will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  the  intersection  required. 

"  By  projecting  the  points,  i,  h.  upon  c  E,  in  j,  h,  we  shall 
have  the  horizontal  projections  of  the  same  points  of  the 
intersection;  and  the  curvcKHNJ  drawn  through  all  the 
points,  J  H,  constructed  in  the  same  manner  for  any  line 
besides  c  e,  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the 
intersection. 

"  To  find  the  tangent  to  the  point  j  of  the  horizontal  pro- 
jection, the  horisontal  trace,  p  of  the  tangent  to  the  corres- 
ponding point  of  the  intersection  must  be  constructed.  This 
trace  must  be  in  the  coincidence  of  the  traces  of  the  planes 
tangent  to  the  two  surfaces,  in  the  point  of  the  intersection 
corresponding  to  the  point  j.  Here  it  is  obvious,  that  by 
drawing  c  p  through  the  point  c,  tangent  to  the  curve  b  c  e  d, 
we  shall  have  the  trace  of  the  plane  tangent  to  the  conic 
surface.  And  for  that  of  the  plane  tangent  to  the  s\irface 
of  the  sphere,  the  operation  is  similar  to  what  has  been 
described  in  the  cases  of  revolving  surfaces,  viz.  by  drawing 
g'  0  through  the  point  g',  tangent  to  the  circle  //'  g'  J/i,  pro- 
duced to  the  right  line  l  m,  in  o,  afterwards  measuring  a'  o 
upon  c  E,  from  a  to  o,  and  drawing  the  line  o  p,  thiough  the 
point  o,  perpendicular  to  c  e.  The  two  traces  c  p.  o  p,  then 
will  cross  each  other  in  a  point,  p,  through  which,  if  j  p  be 
drawn,  it  will  be  the  tangent  to  the  point  j. 

"  Hence  we  see  that  the  tangent  to  the  point  i  of  the  ver- 
tical projections  of  the  intersection  will  be  obtained  by  pro- 
jecting the  point  p  upon  l  m  in  p,  and  afterwards  drawing  the 
right  line  ('  /),  which  is  the  tangent  required. 

"If  the  sphere  and  the  conic  surface  were  not  concentric, 
it  would  1)6  necessary  to  conceive  a  right  line  passing 
through  their  two  centres,  and  to  choose  a  series  of  cutting 
planes  that  should  pass  through  such  line.  Each  of  these 
planes  would  cut  the  conic  surface  in  right  lines,  and  that  of 
the  sphere  in  one  of  its  great  circles,  as  in  the  preceding 
instance;  which  would  give  an  equally  simple  construction: 
but  then  it  Would  be  advantageous  to  place  the  vertical  plane 
of  projection  parallel  to  the  right  line  drawn  through  the  two 
centres,  in  order  that,  in  the  movement  given  to  each  cutting 
plane  to  render  it  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  of  projection, 
the  two  centres  may  remain  motionless,  so  as  not  to  change 
their  projections ;  by  this  means  the  constructions  are 
simplified. 

"  Sij:tlt,    Question. — To   construct  the    development  of  a 


conic  surfiicc,  of  any  base,  and  to  represent  upon  the  surface 
so  developed,  a  section,  wluise  two  projections  arc  given. 

"  Suliilion. — Suppose  the  surface  of  a  sphere,  whose  radius 
is  taken  at  pleasure,  whose  centre  is  placed  in  the  apex  of  the 
coue,  and  construct,  as  in  the  preceding  question,  the  projec- 
tions of  the  intersections  of  the  two  surtiices.  This  done,  it 
will  appear  evident,  that  all  the  points  of  the  spherical  intersec- 
tion being  at  the  same  distance  from  the  apex,  they  must  like- 
wise, upon  the  surface  developid,  be  al  an  eipial  distance  from 
the  ai)ex,  and  consequently  upon  an  itrc  of  a  circle  described  from 
the  a|V'x  as  a  centre,  with  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the  sphere. 

"Thus,  supposing  the  point  k  (^Figitre  33)  to  be  the  apex  of 
the  surfai'c  developed,  if  fmin  this  point,  as  a  centre,  with  a 
radius  equal  to  a  m  (Fiijiire  31)  the  arc,  s  T  u,of  an  iudelinite 
circle  be  described,  it  is  upon  this  arc  that  all  the  points  of 
the  spherical  intersection  will  fall,  so  that  the  points  of  such 
an;  will  be  respectively  equal  to  the  corresponding  points  of 
the  spherical  intersection.  It  therefore  now  remains,  (after 
having  taken  at  pleasure  a  point  by  way  of  origin,  a.s.  for 
example,  the  one  projected  in  n,  n  {Fi(/iire  31),  and  a  point  s 
{Fti/iire  33)  to  corresfiond  with  it  on  the  surface  developed) 
to  develop  the  different  arcs  of  the  spherical  intersection, 
and  to  measure  them  successively  upon  the  arc  of  the  circle 
8  T  u,  from  s,  in  certain  points  t.  To  do  which,  the  spherical 
surface  being  of  double  curvature,  it  must  be  successively 
deprived  of  its  two  curvatures,  without,  however,  altering  its 
size,  in  the  following  manner. 

"  The  spherical  intersection  being  projected  on  the  hori- 
zontal plane  in  N  j  K  H,  [Fif/iire  31)  it  may  be  considered  as 
traced  ni)on  the  surface  of  a  vertical  cylinder,  whose  base 
would  be  N  J  K  II :  this  surface  may  then  be  developed  as 
directed  in  Fifinre  27,  and  the  spherical  intersection  may  be 
described  upon  it  by  develojiing  the  arc  n"  j  [Fiffiire  31 )  in  n'  j' 
(Fii/itre  Hi),  and  carrying  the  vertical  line  t'  i  [Fif/iire  31) 
pi'rpendicularly  to  n'  n'  (Fiffurc  32)  from  j'  j".  The  curve 
n"  j"  k"  n",  passing  through  all  the  points,  j",  thus  determined, 
will  be  the  spherical  intersection,  freed  frum  its  horizontal 
curvature,  without  having  changed  its  length.  The  tangent 
to  the  point  j"  of  this  curve  will  be  obtained  by  carrying  j  p 
{Fiijure  31)  measuring  it  upon  n'  n'  (^Figure  32)  from  j  to 
p',  and  drawing  the  right  line  j"  p'. 

"  Now,  we  shall  develop  the  curve  n"  j"  k"  h"  n",  in 
order  to  fold  it  on  the  arc  s  t  u  (Figure  33) :  for  example, 
measure  the  arc  n"  j"  from  s  to  t,  and  the  point  t  will  be  on 
the  conic  surface  developed,  the  point  in  which  that  of  the 
spherical  intersection  will  apply,  whose  projections  are  j,  i 
(Figure  31.)  Therefore  by  drawing  the  rii;ht  line  r  t  we 
shall  have  upon  the  development  of  the  surface,  the  gene- 
rating line,  wliose  horizjutal  projection  is  a  c  (Figure  31). 
Lastly,  should  any  point  be  fuuiid  u[)on  this  generating  line, 
that  should  be  brought  upon  the  surface  developed,  it  will  be 
only  requisite  to  take  the  distance  (Figure  31)  of  such  point 
from  the  apex  of  the  conic  surt'acc,  and  to  carrv  it  (Figure  33) 
upon  R  T,  from  r  to  v  ;  and  the  point  v  will  be  upon  the 
suifaee  developed,  the  one  required. 

.  "  Svventh.  Question. — -To  construct  the  intersection  of  two 
cylindrie  surfaces,  of  any  bases. 

"  Solulioa. — In  making  the  research  in  which  this  question 
originates,  if  we  hive  no  other  intersections  to  consider  than 
that  of  the  two  cylindrie  surflices,  (and  especially  when  these 
surfaces  have  circular  bases)  it  will  be  found  expedient  so  to 
choose  the  planes  of  projection,  as  that  one  among  them  may 
be  parallel  to  the  generating  lines  of  the  two  cylinders  :  by 
which  means  the  intersection  will  be  constructed  without  the 
aid  of  any  other  curves' than  those  given.  But  when  we  are 
obliged  also  to  keep  in  view  the  intersections  of  these  surfaces 
with  others,  there  is  no  longer  any  advantage  to  be  derived 


from  a  change  of  the  planes  of  projection  ;  it  will  even  prove 
more  easy  to  represent  the  objects  by  referring  them  all  to 
the  same  planes.  We  shall  therefore  suppose  the  generating 
lines  of  the  two  surfaces  to  be  placed  iudifllireutly  as  to  the 
planes  of  projection. 

"  Under  this  idea,  let  t  f  u  f',  x  o  v  g'  (Figure  34)  be  the 
given  horizontal  traces  of  the  two  cylindrie  surfaces  ;  a  b, 
a  b  the  given  projections  of  the  right  line,  to  which  the 
generating  line  of  the  first  is  parallel  ;  o  d,  c  rf,  those  of  the 
line  to  which  the  generating  line  of  the  second  is  parallel. 
Suppose  a  series  of  planes  parallel  to  the  two  generating 
lilies  :  such  planes  will  intersect  the  two  surfaces  in  right 
lines  ;  and  the  coincidences  of  the  sections  made  in  the  first 
surface  with  those  made  in  the  second,  will  determine  the 
points  of  the  intersection  required. 

"  Thus,  after  having  constructed,  as  in  Figure  15,  the  hori- 
zontal trace,  a  e,  of  a  pl.ine  drawn  along  the  first  given  right 
line,  parallel  to  the  second,  draw  as  many  parallel  right  lines, 
F  g',  to  this  trace  as  you  please,  and  consider  such  parallels  as 
traces  of  the  planes  of  the  series.  Each  line,  f  g',  will  cut  the 
trace  of  the  first  surface  in  such  points  as  f,  f',  and  that  of 
the  second  in  such  as  g,  g',  through  which  draw  to  the 
respective  projections  of  the  generating  lines,  the  parallels 

F  H,  f'  h' .'G  J,  g'  j'  ;  and  the  intersecting  points,  p,  q,  r,  e, 

of  these  lines,  will  be  the  horizontal  projections  of  so  many 
points  of  the  intersection  of  the  two  surfaces.  By  working 
in  a  similar  manner  on  the  renuiinder  of  the  lines  f  g',  we 
shall  obtain  a  succession  of  systems  i)f  points  p,  q,  r.  s,  and 
the  curve  that  will  pass  throni;h  all  the  points  so  found,  will 
be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection. 

"  To  obtain  the  vertical    projection,  project  upon  l  m  the 

points  F,  r' g,  g' i"// !/^  9' "'id  draw 

through  these  latter  points,  to  the  projections  of  the  respective 
generating  lines,  the  parallels/'  //,/'  h  ....  g  i,g'  i'  ...  .  and 
their  coincidence  will  determine  the  vertical  projections, 
p,  q,  r,  s,  of  the  points  of  intersection.  And  by  thus  pro- 
ceeding with  all  the  other  lines  f  o',  we  shall  obtain  new 
points/),  q,  r,  s,  and  the  curve  that  would  pass  through  such 
points  will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  the  intersection. 

"  In  order  to  obtain  the  tangents  of  these  curves  to  the 
points  p,  p,  construct  the  horizontal  trace,  f'  y,  of  the  plane 
tangent  in  this  point  to  the  first  cylindrie  surface  ;  then  the 
trace,  g'  r,  of  the  plane  tangent  in  the  saine  point  to  the 
second  surface ;  and  the  right  line  drawn  from  the  point  p  to 
the  point  v  of  the  coincidence  of  these  traces,  will  be  the 
tangent  in  p.  Lastly,  project  r  upon  l  m  in  y,  and  draw  the 
right  line p  y,  and  it  will  give  the  tangent  to  the  pointy  of 
the  vertical  projection. 

"  Eighth  Qiiestioji. — To  construct  the  intersection  of  two 
revolving  surfaces,  whose  axes  are  in  the  same  plane. 

"  Solution. — Dispose  the  planes  of  projection  in  such  a 
manner,  that  one  among  them  shall  be  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  one  of  the  surfaces,  and  the  other  parallel  to  the  two 
axes.  Then  let  a.  Figure  35,  be  the  horizontal  projection  of 
the  axis  of  the  first  surface  ;  a  a'  its  vertical  projection  ;  and 
c  d  e  the  given  generating  line  of  such  surfico.  Let  a  n, 
parallel  to  h  m,  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  axis  of  the 
second  surface  ;  a'  b  its  vertical  projection,  so  as  that  a,  a' 
be  the  projections  of  the  point  of  coincidence  of  the  two  axes; 
fg  h  the  given  generator  of  the  second  surface.  Conceive  a 
series  of  spherical  surfaces,  whose  common  centre  would  be 
in  the  point  of  concourse  of  the  two  axes  ;  and  for  each  of 
such  surfaces  construct  the  projection  ikno p  q  u{ the  great 
circle  parallel  to  the  vertical  i)lane  of  paojection  ;  which  pro- 
jections, being  arcs  of  circles  described  from  the  central  point 
a',  with  r.idii  taken  arbitrarily,'  will  cut  the  two  generating 
lines  in  the  points  k  p. 


"  We  shall  now  find  each  spherical  surface  cutting  the  first 
siirfiice  ill  the  eircumferonce  of  a  circle  whose  plane  is  per- 
piiidioular  to  the  axis  a  a',  and  whose  vertical  projection  may- 
be obtained  by  drawing  the  horizontal  line  k  o,  and  its  hori- 
zontal projection,  by  describing  from  the  central  point  a,  with 
a  diameter  equal  to  k  o,  the  circumference  of  a  circle  k  it  o  r'. 
In  like  manner,  every  spherical  surface  of  the  series  will  cut 
the  second  revolving  surtiice  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
whose  plane  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  of 
projeolion.  and  whose  vertical  ])rojection  may  be  obtained  by 
drawing  through  the  point  p  a  line,  ju  n,  perpendicular  to  a'  b. 
'■  Should  the  points  r,  in  which  the  two  right  lines  k  o,p  n, 
intersect  each  other,  be  nearer  to  the  two  respective  axes 
than  are  the  points  k  p,  it  is  evident  that  the  two  circumfer- 
ences of  circles  would  intersect  each  other  in  two  points,  of 
which  r  would  be  the  common  vertical  projection  ;  and  a 
curve  drawn  through  all  the  points  r,  constructed  in  a  similar 
way,  would  be  the  vertical  projeetiou  of  the  intersection  of 
the  two  surfaces.  By  projecting  the  point  r  upon  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle  N  R  o  r',  in  R,  r',  we  shall  have  the  hori- 
zontal projection  of  the  two  points  of  the  coincidence  of  the 
circumferences  of  circles  found  upon  the  same  sphere  ;  and 
the  curve  drawn  throuu'h  all  the  points  it,  r',  constructed  in 
like  manner,  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  intersec- 
tion required.  < 

"  These  examples  may  suffice  for  conveying  an  idea  of  the 
method  to  be  ado|ited  in  constructing  the  intersections  of  sur- 
faces, and  drawing  tangents  to  them  ;  more  especially  if  the 
student  be  careful  to  make  his  constructions  with  scrupulous 
exactness,  if  he  employ  large  dimensions,  and,  as  much  as 
f  os-ible,  trace  the  curves  in  all  their  extent. 

'•  In  the  foregoing  pages,  we  have  supposed  the  curves  of 
double  curvature  as  being  each  determined  by  two  curved 
surfaces,  of  which  it  is  the  intersection  ;  and,  indeed,  such  is 
the  point  of  view  wherein  they  most  commonly  present  them- 
selves in  descriptive  geometry  ;  and,  under  this  consideration 
we  have  shown  that  it  is  always  possible  to  draw  tangents  to 
them.  But,  although  a  curved  surface  may  be  defined  by 
means  of  the  form  and  movement  of  its  generator  ;  it  may 
nevertheless  happen,  that  a  curve  may  be  given,  by  the  law 
of  molion,  from  a  generating  pointj  in  which  case,  if  the 
practitioner  do  not  choose  to  have  recourse  to  analysis,  he  may 
adopt  the  method  of  Roberval.  This  method,  invented  by 
him  before  Descartes  had  applied  geometry  to  algebra,  is 
implicitlv  comprised  in  the  processes  of  diflerential  calculi, 
and  is  therefore  not  noticed  in  the  elements  of  the  mathe- 
matics ;  a  summary  exposition  of  it  in  this  place,  will  be 
sufficient ;  those  who  are  curious  to  see  numerous  applications 
of  this  method  may  consult  the  Memoirs  of  the  AcaJemij  of 
5c(>Hces  (French)  anterior  to  the  year  1G99,  wherein  the 
works  of  lloberval  have  been  collected. 

"  When,  pursuant  to  the  law  of  its  motion,  a  generating 
point  is  constantly  impelled  towards  one  particular  point  in 
space,  the  line  it  describes  by  virtue  of  such  law  is  aright 
line  ;  but  if,  in  the  whole  course  of  its  movement,  it  be  at 
the  same  time  impelled  towards  two  points,  it  will  in  general 
describe  a  curve,  though  in  particular  cases  it  may  describe  a 
rii'lit  )ine.  The  tangent  to  such  curve  may  be  obtained  by 
drawing  through  the  point  of  the  curve  two  right  lines, 
following  the  two  different  directions  of  the  motion  of  the 
generating  ])oint ;  t)y  measuring  upon  these  directions,  in  an 
appropriate  manner,  parts  proportional  to  the  swiftness  of  two 
respective  motions  of  the  point ;  by  completing  the  parallelo- 
gram, and  drawing  the  diagonal,  which  will  be  the  tangent 
required  :  for  this  diagonal  will  be  in  the  direction  of  the 
movement  of  the  describiug  point  to  the  point  of  the  curve 
under  consideration. 


"  The  following  is  an  exatnple. 

"  Figure  36. — A  thread,  a  m  b,  being  fiistened  ly  its 
extremities  to  two  fixed  points,  a,  b  ;  if,  by  means  of  a  point, 
M.  this  thread  be  stretched  out,  and  the  point  moved,  so  as 
still  to  keep  the  thread  in  a  state  of  tension,  it  will  de-cribe 
the  curve  d  c  m,  being  an  ellipsis,  whose  foci  are  the  fixed 
points  A,  B.  From  the  generation  of  this  curve,  it  is  easy  to 
draw  a  t.angent  to  it,  by  lioberval's  method.  For  instance ; 
as  the  length  of  the  thread  is  not  altered,  the  radius  a  m,  in 
every  instant  of  its  motion,  is  lengthened  in  the  same  jiropor- 
tion  that  the  radius  b  m  is  shortened.  The  swiftness,  there- 
fore, of  the  describing  point  in  the  direction  a  m,  is  equal  to 
its  motion  in  the  direction  m  q.  Therefore,  by  measuring  on 
M  B,  and  on  the  prolongation  of  a  m-,  the  equal  right  lines  m  q, 
M  p,  and  by  completing  the  parallelogram  m  p  r  q,  the  diagonal, 
M  R,  of  this  parallelogram  will  be  the  direction  of  the  gene- 
rating point  in  m,  and  consequently  the  tangent  to  the  same 
point  of  the  curve.  Hence  we  may  clearly  perceive,  that  in 
the  ellipsis,  the  tangent  divides  the  angle  b  m  p,  formed  by 
one  of  the  vector  radii,  and  by  the  prolongation  of  the  other,  in 
two  equal  parts;  that,  the  angles  a  m  s,  b  m  r  are  equal  to  each 
other ;  and  that  the  curve  possesses  the  property  of  reflecting 
upon  one  of  its  foci  the  rays  of  light  emanating  from  the  other. 

"  The  method  of  Roberval  in  the  case  of  three  dimensions, 
may  be  readily  understood,  and  applied  to  the  construction  of 
tangents  to  curves  of  double  curvature.  Thus,  if  a  gene- 
rating  point  move  in  space,  so  as  to  be  constantly  impelled 
towards  three  different  points,  the  line  it  will  traverse, 
though  in  some  particular  cases  it  may  be  a  right  line,  will 
in  general  describe  a  curve  of  double  curvature.  The  tangent 
to  such  curve  may  be  obtained  in  any  point  whatever,  by 
drawing  right  lines  from  the  given  point,  in  the  three  direc- 
tions of  the  movement  of  the  generating  point;  by  measuring 
upon  such  lines,  in  an  appropriate  direction,  parts  propor- 
tional to  the  swiftness  of  the  three  respective  motions  of  this 
point ;  by  completing  the  parallelopiped,  and  drawing  the 
diagonal  of  the  parallelopiped,  which  will  be  the  tangent  to 
the  curve  in  the  point  taken. 

"  We  shall  now  apply  this  method  to  a  case  analogous  to 
that  of  the  ellipsis.  The  Figure  37,  to  which  we  refer, 
represents  the  oliject  in  perspective  and  not  in  projection. 

"  Three  fixed  points,  a,  b,  c,  being  given  in  space,  let  a 
thread,  a  m  b,  be  fastened  by  its  two  extremities  to  the 
points  A,  B  ;  let  a  second  thread,  a  m  c,  independent  in  its 
size  of  that  of  the  other,  be  attached  by  its  extremities  to  the 
points  A,  c  ;  let  a  generating  point,  holding  both  threads,  be 
moved  so  as  to  keep  them  in  a  state  of  tension,  and  it  will 
describe  a  curve  of  double  curvature.  In  order  to  draw  a 
tangent  to  this  curve  in  the  point  m,  we  must  observe  that 
the  length  of  the  first  thread,  a  m  b,  being  uniform  through- 
out its  "movement,  the  jiart  a  m  is  lengthened  out  jirecisely 
in  proportion  as  the  part  m  b  is  shortened,  and  that  the  swift- 
ness of  the  generating  point  in  the  direction  a  m  is  equal  to 
that  of  its  movement  in  the  direction  .m  b.  So,  likewise,  the 
length  of  the  second  thread,  a  m  c,  being  unaltered,  the  swift 
ness  of  the  generating  point  in  the  direction  m  c  is  equal  to 
that  of  its  motion  in  the  direction  a  m.  Therefore,  by 
measuring  upon  the  prolongation  of  a  m,  and  on  the  right 
lines  M  B,  M  c,  the  equal  parts  m  p,  m  cj,  m  r,  and  completing 
the  parallelopiped  m  p  u  s  v  q  r  t,  we  shall  obtain  in  the 
diagonal,  m  s,  of  this  pahdlelopijied,  the  tangent  required. 

"  The  method  of  Roberval  being  founded  on  the  principle 
of  compound  motion,  we  may  readily  conceive  that  in  caes 
more  complex  th:m  these,  which  we  have  chosen  as  examples, 
we  may  avail  ourselves  of  the  known  methods  to  find  the 
resultanee  of  forces  impelled  towards  a  point,  whose  size  and 
directions  are  ascertained. 


"  AppUcalioii  of  the  method  of  eonsiructing  the  intersections 
of  curved  surfaces  to  the  solution  of  various  questions. 

"  In  Figure  20,  we  have  defined  the  mode  of  constructing 
the  projecliuns  of  the  intersiction  of  two  curved  surfaces, 
defiiiile  in  iheir  form  and  position  ;  which  we  have  done  in 
the  alistract,  that  is,  witiiout  altemling  to  the  nature  of  the 
qiiestimis  whose  soUilioiis  would  requiie  such  operations. 
The  exposition  of  this  method,  even  in  this  al)stiaet  manner, 
will  lie  found  sufiieient  for  most  of  the  arts  ;  for  instnnce,  in 
niasoniy  and  carpentry,  the  curved  surfaces  there  considered, 
and  the  construction  of  whose  intersections  may  be  required, 
generally  form  the  pjineipal  ol)ject  of  attention,  and  present 
tliemselves  naturally.  But  as  descriptive  geometry  will  one 
day  become  a  principal  part  of  the  national  education,  its 
methods  being  no  less  necessary  to  artists  than  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic;  we  conceive  it  must  prove  useful 
to  point  out,  i)y  a  few  examples,  how  it  may  furnish  the 
analysis  for  the  solution  of  a  great  number  of  questions, 
whiili,  at  first  sight,  seem  not  to  admit  of  being  treated  in 
this  manner.  We  shall  begin  with  such  examples  as  require 
only  the  intersections  of  planes,  and  then  proceed  to  those  in 
which  the  intersections  of  curved  surfaces  are  necessary. 

"The  first  question  that  forcibly  occurs  to  those  who  are 
learning  the  elements  of  ordinary  geometry,  is  the  finding  of 
the  centre  of  a  ciicle  whose  circumference  passes  through 
three  arbitrary  points  on  the  plane.  The  determination  of 
this  centre  by  the  intersection  of  two  right  lines,  upon  each 
of  which  it  is  necessarily  found,  surprises  the  pupil  as  well 
by  its  generality,  as  because  it  yields  a  mode  of  execution. 
Were  all  geoinetry  treated  in  the  same  manner,  which  it  may 
be,  it  would  suit  a  much  greater  number  of  geniuses,  w'oukl 
be  cultivated  and  practised  by  a  far  more  numerous  class  of 
men,  the  ordinary  instruction  of  the  nation  would  be  more 
advanced,  and  the  science  itself  carried  to  a  greater  extent. 

"  In  the  "three  dimensions,  there  exists  a  question  analogous 
to  the  one  just  quoted,  with  which  we  shall  begin. 

^^  First  Question. — ^To  find  the  centre  and  radius  of  a 
sphere,  whose  surface  passes  through  four  points,  given 
arbitrarily  in  space, 

"  Solution. — The  four  points  being  given  by  their  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  projections,  conceive  right  lines  drawn 
from  one  of  them  to  each  of  the  others  ;  and  trace  the  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  projections  of  such  lines.  Then,  in  con- 
sidering the  first  of  these  right  lines,  it  will  appear  evident, 
that  as  the  required  centre  must  be  at  equal  distances  from 
the  two  extremities,  it  will  be  on  the  plane  perpendicular  to 
such  right  line,  and  drawn  through  its  middle.  Therefore 
by  dividing  the  projections  of  the  line  into  equal  parts,  which 
will  give  the  projections  of  its  middle,  and  by  constructing 
the  traces  of  the  plane  drawn  through  the  point  perpendicular 
to  the  line,  as  has  been  before  described,  we  shall  obtain  the 
traces  of  a  plane  upon  which  the  centre  required  will  be  found. 
Next,  in  considering  the  two  other  right  lines,  and  working 
successively  for  each  of  them,  a  like  operation,  we  shall 
obtain  the  traces  of  three  several  planes,  upon  each  of  which 
the  centre  sought  tor  will  be  found.  Now,  as  the  centre 
must  be  upon  both  the  first  and  second  of  these  planes,  it 
can  be  nowhere  but  in  the  line  of  their  intersection,  therefore, 
by  constructing  ihe  proji-ctions  of  this  intersection,  we  shall 
have  upon  ea<h  plane  of  projection,  a  line  containing  that  of 
the  centre.  For  the  same  reason,  if  the  projections  of  the 
intersection  of  the  first  and  third  planes  be  constructed,  we 
shall  have  on  each  plane  of  projection  another  line  contain- 
ing the  projection  of  the  centre.  Hence  we  have  upon  each 
plane  of  proji'clion  two  right  lines,  whose  intersection  will 
determine  the  projection  of  the  required  centre  of  the 
sphere. 


"By  using  the  intersection  of  the  second  and  third  planes, 
we  shall  obtain  a  third  right  line,  that  (>!isscs  thi<uigh  ihe 
cent  re,  and  whose  projections  also  pass  through  those  required, 
which  furnishes  a  means  of  verification. 

"As  to  the  radius,  it  is  evident,  that  a  right  line  drawn 
through  the  projection  of  the  centre  and  that  of  one  of  the 
given  points,  will  be  its  projection;  whence  we  may  obtain 
both  the  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the  radius, 
and  consequently  its  size. 

"  When  the  position  of  the  planes  of  projection  can  be 
chosen  atpleasure, the  preceiling  method  may  be  considerably 
simplified.  Thus,  suppose  the  plane  that  we  have  considen  d 
as  horizontal  (Figure  38)  to  pass  through  three  given  points, 
so  as  that  of  the  given  projections  a,  n,  c,  d,  of  the  four 
points,  the  three  first  may  be  blended  with  their  respective 
.points;  then,  having  drawn  the  three  rifiht  lines,  a  b,  a  c, 
A  D,  suppose  the  vertical  plane  to  be  parallel  to  a  d,  that  is 
to  say,  that  the  right  lines  l  m  and  a  d  are  paiallel  to  each 
other;  the  vertical  projections  of  the  three  first  points  will 
be  upon  L  M,  in  such  points  as  a,  h,c,  and  that  of  the  fi)urth 
will  be  given  somewhere  in  a  point,  d,  of  the  right  line  d  d, 
perpendicular  to  L  M.  This  done,  the  line  drawn  from  the 
point  a  to  B,  being  horizontal,  any  plane  perpendicular  to  it 
will  be  vertical,  having  for  its  horizontal  projection  a  line 
perpendicular  to  a  b.  It  is  the  same  with  respect  to  the 
riiiht  line  drawn  from  a  to  c.  Therefore,  by  drawing 
through  the  middle  of  a  b,  the  indefinite  perpendicular  e  e, 
we  shall  have  the  horizontal  projection  of  a  vertical  plane, 
that  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  sphere;  consequently, 
the  horizontal  projection  of  the  centre  will  be  somewhere  on 
the  line  e  e.  So,  likewise,  by  drawing  through  the  middle 
of  A  c,  the  indefinite  perpendicular  f/  we  shall  have  the 
projection  of  a  second  vertical  plane,  that  passes  throufrh 
the  centre  of  the  sphere,  and  the  horizontal  projection  of  this 
centre  will  be  in  some  point  of  the  right  line  f/.-  therefire, 
the  point  g,  of  the  intersection  of  the  two  lines  e  e,  Tf  will 
be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  and 
its  vertical  projection  will  consequently  be  upon  the  indefinite 
right  line  of  projection  g  g  g'. 

"  The  line  drawn  from  the  point  A  to  the  fourth  point  being 
parallel  to  its  vertical  projection  a  d.  any  plane  perpendicidar 
to  it,  will  also  be  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  plane  of  pro- 
jection, and  will  have  its  vertical  projection  in  a  right  line 
perpendicular  to  a  d.  Hence  by  drawing  through  the 
middle  of  a  d,  the  indefinite  perpendicular  n  h,  svc  shall 
obtain  the  projection  of  a  third  plane,  that  passes  through 
the  centre  of  the  sphere;  therefore  the  vertical  projection 
of  the  centre  being  at  the  same  time  upon  g  g'  and  nh,  must 
l)e  in  the  point  k,  of  the  intersection  of  these  two  lines. 

"  Lastly,  by  drawing  the  two  right  lines  a  6,  o  k,  we  shill 
evidently  have  the  two  projections  of  the  same  radius  of  the 
sphere;  therefore,  by  measuring  a  g  upon  l  m,  from  g  to  j, 
we  shall  have,  in  the  right  line  j  k,  the  size  of  the  radius 
required. 

"  Second  Question. — To  inscribe  a  sphere  in  a  given 
triangular  pyramid;  that  is  to  say,  to  find  the  position  of  the 
centre  of  the  sphere  and  the  size  of  its  radius. 

"  Solution. — As  the  surface  of  the  inscribed  sphere  must 
touch  the  four  faces  of  the  pyraniid.it  is  evident  that  a  plane 
passing  through  the  centre  of  the  sphere  and  through  each 
of  six  aretes,  would  divide  the  angle  firmed  liy  the  two  faces 
that  pass  through  the  same  arete,  into  two  equal  parts.  Jf, 
then,  three  of  the  six  aretes  be  chosen,  which  <lo  not  all  pass 
through  the  same  apex  of  a  solid  angle,  and  if  through  each 
of  these  aretes  a  plane  be  made  to  pass.  dividin<r  in  two 
equal  parts  the  angle  formed  liy  the  two  corresiionding  f  ices, 
we  shall  obtain  three  planes,  upon  each  of  which  the  centre 


DES 


202 


DES 


of  the  sphere  required  will  be  fminJ,  whose  position  ■will  be 
cloteiii)iiied  by  their  common  intersection. 

"  III  order  to  simplify  the  construction,  we  shall  suppose 
the  jilancs  of  projections  to  be  so  chosen  as  that  the  one  wiiich 
we  consider  as  hoiizontal  may  be  the  same  with  one  of  the 
faces  of  the  pyramid. 

"  Fifjurc  30. — Pkile  4.  AVith  this  view,  let  a,  b,  c,  d,  be 
the  given  horizontal  projections  of  the  apices  of  four  .solid 
anj^les  of  the  pyramid,  and  a,  b,  c,  d',  their  vertical  pmjeo- 
tions;  conceive  through  the  apex  of  the  pyramid,  planes 
perpendicular  to  the  three  sides  of  the  base  ;  such  planes 
will  lie  vertical,  and  their  horizontal  projectii>ns  will  be  the 
right  lines  d  e,  d  k,  d  g,  falling  perpendicularly  t'rom  the  point 
D  on  the  sides  a  c,  c  b,  b  a,  of  the  base.  Each  of  these  pianos 
will  cut  the  base  of  the  pyramid  and  the  face  that  passes 
through  the  arete  in  two  right  lines,  com|'rrhending  between 
them  an  angle  equal  to  that  which  the  face  forms  with  the 
base.  Then,  by  measuiing  on  L  M  the  right  lines  D  K,  D  F,  D  G, 
beginning  from  the  vertical  line  u  d  </',  from  d  to  e,  f,  g,  and 
drawing  from  the  ape.x  rf',  the  right  lines  d'  e,  d,  /,  d'  </,  the 
latter  will  form  with  i,  m  angles  eijual  to  those  formed  by  the 
corresponding  f ices  of  the  pyramid  with  the  base  ;  and  if  each 
of  these  three  angles  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  the 
right  lines  e  e',ff',  g  g',  the  angles  formed  by  these  last  lines 
with  L  M,  will  bo  equal  to  those  formed  by  the  b.asc  with  the 
faces  of  a  second  ])yramid,  having  the  same  base  with  the 
given  pyramid,  and  whose  ape.\  will  be  in  the  centre  of  the 
sphere  required. 

"  To  find  the  apex  of  this  second  pyramid,  let  it  be  cut  by 
a  horizontal  plane,  drawn  at  an  arbitrary  height,  whose 
vertical  projection  may  be  obtained  by  drawing  any  horizontal 
line  whatever,  as/j  n.  This  line  will  cut  e  e',ff,g  <7', in  the 
points  h',  i',  k',  fiom  which  lot  the  vertical  lines  h'  h,  i'  i  ,  k'  k, 
fall  upon  L  M  ;  and  by  measuring  the  three  distances  h  e,  i  f, 
k  //,  on  the  respective  perpendiculars,  from  e  to  n,  from  f  to 
J.  and  from  g  to  k,  we  shall  have  in  h,  j,  k,  the  horizontal 
projections  of  points  taken  in  the  three  faces  of  the  second 
pvramid,  and  which  will  he  found  tipon  the  arbitrary  hori- 
zontal plane.  Then  by  drawing  through  the  points  ii,  j,  k, 
to  the  respective  sides  of  the  base,  parallel  lines,  as 
p  N,  N  o,  o  p,  they  will  be  the  projections  of  the  sections  of 
the  three  faces  of  the  second  pyramid,  upon  the  same  hori- 
zontal p!ane;  they  will  also  intersect  each  other  in  points,  as 
N,  o,  p,  which  will  be  projections  of  as  many  points  of  the 
tliree  aretes  of  the  second  pyramid;  and  by  drawing  from 
these  points  to  the  apices  of  the  respective  angles  of  the  base, 
indefinite  right  lines,  as  a  p,  b  o,  c  n,  such  line  will  be  the 
projections  of  the  aretes  ;  lastly,  the  single  point  q,  wherein 
they  all  three  meet,  will  be  the  horizontal  projection  of  the 
apex  of  the  second  pyramid,  and  consequently  of  the  centre' 
of  the  sphere'  required. 

"  To  obtain  the  vertical  projection  of  this  centre,  draw,  first, 
the  indefinite  right  line  of  projection  q  q  q',  on  which  it  will 
be  foimd ;  then  project  the  three  points,  n,  o,  p,  on  the  hori- 
zon t;il  line  II,  p,  in  n,  o,  J) ;  draw  through  the  projections, 
a.  A,  r,  of  the  apices  of  the  respective  angles  of  the  liase,  the 
right  lines  a  p,  b  o,  c  n,  and  they  will  be  the  vertical  |irojcc- 
tions  of  the  three  aretes;  and  the  single  point,  q',  wherein 
the  three  last  lines  cut  each  other,  and  which  will  be  at  the 
same  time  on  the  right  line  q  99',  which  will  be  vertical  pro- 
jection of  the  centre  of  the  s[ihere. 

"  Lastly,  the  vertical  line  q  </'  will  be  evidently  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  inscribed  sphere,  and  the  points  q,  q,  will  be  the 
projections  of  the  point  of  contact  of  the  surface  of  the  sphere 
with  the  plane  of  the  base. 

"  \Vc  have  shown  by  what  consiilerations  we  are  enabled 
to  determine  the  position  of  a  point,  after  having  ascertiiined 


its  distances  from  three  points  of  known  position  ;  we  shall 
now  proceed  to  the  actual  construction  of  this  question. 

"  Third  Question. — To  construct  the  projection  of  a  point, 
whose  distances  fiom  three  other  points  given  in  space  is 
known. 

"  Solution. — Figure  40.  Let  the  planes  of  projection  be 
so  chosen  as  that  the  one  considered  as  horizontal  may  pass 
along  the  three  given  points,  and  let  the  other  be  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  right  line  by  which  two  of  the  points  are  jnined. 
Then  let  a,  b,  c,  represent  the  three  given  points;  and 
a',  b',  c',  their  given  distances  from  the  point  required.  Join 
two  of  the  points  by  the  right  line  a  b,  perpendicularly  to 
which  draw  l  m,  and  it  will  determine  the  position  of  the 
vortical  plane  of  the  projection.  Take  the  points  a,  b,  c,  as 
centres,  and  describe  with  radii  equal  to  the  respective  dis- 
tances a',  b',  c',  three  arcs  of  circles,  which  may  cut  each 
other  by  two's,  in  the  points  d,  e,  f,  j,  p,  q;  through  the 
intersecting  points  of  those  arcs  taken  by  two's,  draw  the 
lines  D  E,  F  J,  p  Q,  and  they  will  be  the  horizontal  projections 
of  the  circumferences  of  circles  wherein  the  three  spheres 
inter.sect  each  other;  and  the  single  point  n,  wherein  these 
three  lines  meet,  will  evidently  be  the  horizontal  projection  of 
the  point  required. 

"  Jn  order  to  obtain  the  vertical  projection  of  the  saine 
point,  draw  the  indefinite  line  of  projection  n  nil'  ;  then, 
observing  that  the  circle  projected  in  d  e  is  parallel  to  the 
vertical  plane,  and  that  its  projection  on  this  plane  must  be 
a  circle  of  eqiuxl  radius,  project  the  line  a  b  upon  i,  m,  in  the 
point  r,  from  which,  as  a  centre,  and  with  an  interval  equal 
to  n  Ii,  or  the  hal f  of  n  e,  describe  the  circle  dne  n',  and  the 
circumference  will  cut  the  right  line  n  n  «',  in  two  points,  n  n', 
which  will  be  inditrerently  the  vertical  projection  of  the  point 
required. 

"  According  to  the  other  circumstances  of  the  question,  we 
may  determine  whether  the  two  points  n,  «',  ought  to  be 
both  used  ;  and  in  case  of  one  only  being  necessary,  which 
of  them  to  prefer,  and  which  to  reject. 

"  The  reader  mag  propose  to  himself  the  construction  of  the 
projections  of  a  point  whose  distances  from  three  lines  given  in 
space  are  knoicn. 

"  Fourth  Question. — An  engineer,  when  surveying  a  moun- 
tainous country,  whether  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the 
form  of  the  earth,  or  for  making  a  draught  for  public  works 
de[)endent  on  such  form,  is  furnished  with  a  topographical 
chart,  whereon  not  only  the  projections  of  the  different  points 
of  the  earth  are  exactly  laid  down,  but  also  the  altitudes  of 
all  these  points  above  a  level  surface,  are  indicated  by  figures 
placed  on  their  sides  respectively,  commonly  called  quotas: 
he  meets  with  a  remarkable  point,  not  placed  on  the  chart, 
either  in  consequence  of  an  omission,  or  becau-;e  it  has  beci  mie 
remarkable  since  the  chart  was  drawn.  The  engineer  has 
no  instrument  of  observation  about  him,  except  a  graphometer, 
used  for  measuring  angles,  furnished  with  a  plumli-line. 

"  Placed  in  such  circumstances,  he  is  required,  without 
quitting  the  station,  to  construct  on  the  chart  the  position  of 
the  point  in  (juestion,  and  to  find  the  suitable  quota,  viz.  its 
height  above  the  level  surface. 

"  Mode  of  Solution. — Among  the  points  correctly  described 
on  the  chart,  nearest  to  the  one  under  consideration,  let  the 
engineer  select  three,  of  which  two  at  least  are  not  of  the 
same  altitude  with  that  on  which  he  stands;  then  let  him 
observe  the  angles  formed  by  the  zenith  with  the  visual  rays 
directed  to  these  three  points,  and  by  this  single  observation 
he  may  resolve  the  ([uestion. 

"  For  instance  :  Let  a,  n,  c,  represent  the  three  points 
observed,  whose  horizontal  projections  are  on  the  chart,  and 
whose  vertical  projections  he  may  construct,  by  means  of 


jIDIR SCmi]PT][VIE  (KJEtDMllK TRYo 


nrif:  in 


DroMn.  by.  MjI  A^ulholton, 


Knnnirfd  hi)  R  Tlim 


(heir  quotas.  Knowing  the  angle  formed  by  the  zenith  with 
the  visual  ray  direoted  to  the  point  a,  he  is  also  acquainted 
witli  tiie  angle  formed  by  the  same  lay  with  the  verlieal  line 
raised  above  the  point  a:  for,  disregarding  the  convexity  of 
the  earth,  which  is  here  admissible,  these  two  angles  will  be 
Ibund  to  bo  alternate-internal,  and  consequently  equal.  Then 
by  conceiving  a  conic  surtiice,  of  a  circular  base,  with  its  ajiex 
in  the  point  a,  its  a.\is  vertical,  and  forming  with  its  axis  and 
generating  line  an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  observed,  which 
completely  determines  such  surface,  it  will  pass  along  the 
vi.-.ual  ray  directed  to  the  point  a,  and  consequently  along 
the  point  of  the  station:  thus  he  will  have  a  first  curved 
surface  determined,  on  which  he  may  find  the  point  required. 
By  proceeding  in  a  similar  manner  tor  the  points  b,  c,  as  for 
the  first,  the  point  required  will  farther  appear  on  two  other 
conic  surfaces,  with  circular  bases,  having  their  axes  vertical, 
their  apices  in  the  points  b,  o,  and  each  forming  an  angle  with 
its  axis  and  generating  line  equal  to  the  angle  formed  by  the 
Zenith  and  the  corresponding  visual  ray.  The  point  sought 
for,  therefore,  will  lie  at  the  same  time  upon  three  conic  sur- 
faces, of  determinate  forms  and  positions,  and  consequently 
in  their  common  intersection.  It  remains  then  only  to  con- 
struct, according  to  the  data  of  the  question,  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  projections  of  the  intersections  of  these  three 
surfaces,  taken  by  two's  ;  the  intersections  of  these  projec- 
tions will  give  the  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of  the 
point  required,  and  consequently  its  position  on  the  chart, 
with  its  lieight  above  or  below  the  points  of  observation, 
which  will  determine  the  quota. 

'■  This  Solution  will  generally  produce  eight  points  in 
answer  to  the  question  ;  but  the  observer  may  readily  dis- 
tinguish among  them  that  which  coincides  with  the  point  of 
the  station.  He  may  at  first  sight  ascertain  whether  the 
point  of  the  station  be  above  or  below  the  plane  that  passes 
along  the  three  points  of  observation.  Sujipose  this  point  to 
be  above  the  plane  of  the  apices  of  the  cones ;  he  may  then 
neglect  such  branches  of  the  intersectionsof  the  conic  surfaces 
as  are  below  the  plane,  which  will  reduce  the  number  of 
possible  points  to  four.  So,  on  the  contrary,  were  the  point 
of  the  station  placed  below  the  plane,  the  number  of  points 
would  be  equally  reduced  by  omitting  such  branches  as  were 
above  it.  Then  among  these  four  points,  if  indeed  so  many 
exist,  he  will  easily  recognize  that  whose  position,  relatively 
to  the  three  apices,  is  the  sameVith  that  of  the  point  of  the 
station,  relatively  to  the  points  of  observation. 

'■  Construction. — Figure  41.  Let  a,  b,  c,  represent  the 
horizontal  projections  of  three  points  of  observation  taken  on 
the  chart;  a, 6,  c,  the  vertical  projections  of  such  points,  con- 
structed by  measuring  on  the  vertical  lines  b  6,  c  c,  beginning 
from  the  horizontal  line  l  m,  passing  through  the  point  a,  the 
ditference  of  the  quotas  of  the  two  other  points  ;  and  let 
a'  b'  c',  represent  the  angles  which  the  visual  rays,  directed 
to  the  respective  points  a,  b,  c,  form  w'ith  the  zenith. 

"  i>raw  the  indefinite  vertical  lines  a  a',  b  b',  c  c',  and  they 
will  be  the  vertical  projections  of  the  axes  of  the  three  cones ; 
through  the  three  points  a,  i,  c,  draw  the  right  lines 
a  l,b  m,  c  n,  and  they  will  form  with  the  vertical  lines,  angles 
respectively  equal  to  the  given  angles  a',  b',  c';  which  right 
lines  will  be  each  the  vertical  projection  of  one  of  the  two 
extreme  sides  of  the  corresponding  conic  surface. 

"This  done,  draw  in  the  vertical  projection  horizontal 
lines,  e  e'  at  pleasure,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  projec- 
tions of  as  many  horizontal  planes,  and  for  each  of  them  work 
the  operation  we  are  about  to  describe  for  the  one  indicated 
by  E  e'. 

'■  This  line  will  cut  the  projections  of  the  axes  of  the  three 
cones  in  points/  g,  h,  that  arc  the  vertical  projections  of  the 


centres  of  the  circles,  according  to  which  the  corresponding 
horizontal  plane  cuts  the  three  conic  surfaces;  it  will  also 
cut  the  extreme  sides  of  the  cones  a  I,  b  in,  c  n,  in  such  points 
f'l  v'  1  '*'>  that  the  distances/' /y  (7'  h  h',  will  be  the  radii  of 
these  circles.  From  the  points  a.  b,  c,  taken  successively  as 
centres,  and  with  the  radii  respectively  equal  to  fj]  'J g\  h  h', 
describe  circles,  whose  circumferences  will  be  the  horizontal 
projections  of  the  sections  made  in  the  three  conic  surfaces  by 
the  same  plane  e  e';  these  circumferences  will  intersect  each 
other,  two  by  two,  in  points  d  d',  k,  k',  j,  j',  that  are  the  pro- 
jections of  as  many  pnints  of  the  three  intersections  of  the 
conic  surfaces,  considered  by  two's;  and  l)y  projecting  these 
points  upon  e  e',  d  d',  k  k\  i  i',  we  shall  obtain  the  vertical 
projections  of  the  same  points  of  the  three  intersections. 

"  By  afterwards  working  in  the  same  manner  upon  the 
other  right  lines  e  e'  we  shall  obtain  from  each  of  them 
new  points,  d,  d',  k,  k',  j,  j',  in  the  horizontal  projection,  and 
likewise  d,  d',  k-,k',  j,  i',  in  the  vertical  one;  then  pass  a  curve, 
D  p  d',  through  all  the  points  d,  d' .  . . .  and  it  will  bo  the 
horizontal  projection  of  the  intersection  of  the  first  conic  sur- 
f;tce  with  the  second  ;  pass  another  curve,  k  p  k',  through  all 
the  points  k,  k'  .  .  .  .  and  it  will  be  the  projection  of  the  inter- 
section of  the  second  surface  with  the  third:  and  by  passing  a 
third  curve,  j  p  j',  through  all  the  points  j,  j' .  . .  .,  we  shall 
have  the  projection  of  the  intersection  of  the  third  surface 
with  the  first.  All  the  points  p  .  . . .  wherein  these  three 
curves  intersect  each  other,  are  the  horizontal  projections  of 
as  many  points  answering  to  the  question. 

"So,  in  the  vertical  projection,  by  passing  a  first  curve 
through  all  the  points  rf,  rf' . . . .  a  second  through  all  the  points 
k,  k' . . .  .  and  a  third  through  all  the  points  i,  i' . . . .  we  shall 
have  in  such  curves  the  vertical  projections  of  the  intersec 
tions  of  the  three  surfaces,  taken  in  pairs;  and  all  the  points, 
p  . . ..  wherein  such  curves  intersect  each  other,  will  be  the 
vertical  projections  of  all  the  points  necessary'  to  the  solution 
of  the  question. 

"  The  projections  p,  p,  of  an  identical  point  will  be  in  the 
same  perpendicular  to  l  m. 

"  Having  discovered  among  the  points  p  the  one  indicative 
of  the  point  of  the  station,  the  observer  will  be  in  possession  of 
the  horizontal  projection  of  such  station,  and,  conseqnenlly, 
of  its  position  on  the  chart;  then  by  means  of  the  altitude  of 
the  corresponding  point/)  above  the  right  line  l  m.  he  may 
obtain  the  elevation  of  the  point  of  the  station  above  that 
of  the  point  of  observation  a.,  and  that  will  give  him  the 
appropriate  quota. 

"  In  this  solution  we  have  constructed  the  projections  of 
the  three  intersections  of  the  surfaces  ;  but  two  would  have 
been  sufficient.  Yet  we  would  ahvays  advise  the  adoption 
of  this  practice,  because  the  projections  of  the  two  curves  of 
double  curvature  may  intersect  each  other  in  points  not  cor- 
respondent to  those  of  intersection ;  and  also,  because  in 
order  to  recognize  the  projections  of  the  points  of  intersection, 
it  is  necessary  to  follow  the  branches  of  the  two  curves  that 
are  upon  the  same  face  of  one  of  the  surfaces ;  which  requires 
a  laborious  degree  of  attention,  seldom,  if  ever,  necessary  in 
constructing  the  three  curves  :  the  points  wherein  they  all 
three  cut  each  other,  are  true  points  of  intersection. 

"  Fifth  Question. — Under  circumstances  similar  to  the 
preceding,  except  that  the  instrument  is  not  furnished  with  a 
plumb-line,  so  that  the  angles  formed  with  the  zenith  cannot 
be  ineasured,  the  engineer  is  required,  without  quitting  the 
station,  to  determine  on  the  chart  the  situation  of  the  point 
where  he  is,  and  to  find  the  quota  belonging  to  it,  viz.  its 
elevation  above  the  level  surface  to  which  all  the  points  of 
the  chart  refer. 

"  Mode  of  Solution. — Having  made  choice  of  three  points 


DES 


2G4 


DES 


of  land,  whose  situations  are  accurately  marked  on  the  chart, 
and  of  such  kind  as  not  to  be  in  the  same  plane  witli  the  point 
of  the  station,  let  the  engineer  measure  the  three  angles  which 
he  visual  rays  directed  towards  those  three  points  form 
with  each  other;  and  by  means  of  this  simple  observation  he 
will  be  able  to  resolve  the  question. 

"  Tlius,  by  letting  a,  b,  c,  represent  the  three  points  of 
observation,  and  supposing  them  to  be  joined  by  the  right 
lines  A  B,  B  c,  c  A,  the  engineer  will  be  in  possession  of  the 
horizontal  projections  of  such  lines,  traced  on  the  chart ;  and 
by  means  of  the  quotas  of  the  three  points,  he  may  obtain 
the  ditlercnces  of  the  altitudes  of  the  extremities  of  the  lines; 
he  may,  therefore,  ascertain  the  size  of  each  of  them. 

"This  done,  if  any  phxne  whatever,  drawn  through  a  b, 
a  rectangular  tiiangle,  bad  {Figure  42)  be  conceived  as 
Constructed,  with  a  b  for  its  base,  whose  angle  in  b  is  the 
complement  of  the  angle  under  which  the  side  A  B  has  been 
observed,  the  angler  in  d  will  be  equal  to  the  angle  of  obser 
vation,  and  the  circumference  of  a  circle  described  through 
the  points  a,  b,  d,  will  possess  the  property  that  if' from  anj' 
point  whatever,  e,  of  the  arc  a  d  b,  two  riglit  lines  bo  drawn 
to  the  points  a,  b,  the  angle,  in  e,  which  they  include,  will 
be  equal  to  the  angle  of  observation.  If,  then,  the  plane  of 
the  circle  be  conceived  to  turn  upon  a  b,  as  on  a  hinge,  the 
arc  A  D  B  will  generate  a  revolving  surface,  all  whose  points 
will  be  endowed  with  the  same  property,  viz.  that  if  from  any 
point  of  the  sujface  two  right  lines  be  drawn  to  the  points 
A,  B,  they  will  incluile  an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  of  observa- 
tion. Now,  it  is  evident  that  the  points  of  such  revolving 
surface  alone  possess  this  property  ;  therefore  the  surface 
passes  through  the  point  of  the  station. 

"  By  operating  in  a  similar  manner  upon  the  two  other 
lines  B  c,  c  A,  two  other  revolving  surfaces  will  be  obtained, 
on  each  of  which  the  point  of  the  station  will  be  found  ;  this 
point  will  therefore  be  at  the  same  time  upon  three  ditlerent 
revolving  surfaces,  determined  as  to  their  form  and  position; 
'  cijusequently  it  must  be  a  point  of  their  common  intersection. 
Thus,  in  the  construction  of  the  horizontal  and  vertical  pro- 
jections of  the  intersections  of  these  three  surfaces,  taken  in 
pairs,  the  points  in  which  the  three  projections  cut  each  other 
will  be  the  projections  of  the  point  answering  the  question. 
The  horizontal  projection  will  be  its  position  on  the  chart, 
and  the  vertical  projection  its  elevation  above  or  below  the 
points  of  observation. 

"  Were  this  question  to  be  treated  by  analysis,  it  would 
generally  lead  to  an  equation  of  the  sixty-fourth  degree;  for 
each  of  the  revolving  surfices  has  four  distinct  faces,  two  of 
which  are  generated  by  the  arc  a  d  b,  and  the  other  two  by 
the  arc  a  f  b.  As  each  of  the  faces  of  the  first  surface  may 
be  cut  by  all  those  of  the  second,  sixteen  branches  may  be  the 
result  in  the  curve  of  intersection  ;  and  as  these  may  be 
again  cut  by  the  four  faces  of  the  third  surface,  they  may 
produce  sixti.  -four  points  of  intersection  in  the  throe  surfaces ; 
th  lugli  they  would  not  all  apply  to  the  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion. Tlius,  if  from  any  point,  as  f,  of  the  arc  a  f  b,  lines 
be  drawn  to  the  extremities  of  a  b,  the  angle  a  f  b,  included 
by  them,  would  not  be  equal  to  the  angle  of  observation,  but 
would  be  its  supplement.  The  faces  geiierat«d  by  the  arc 
A  F  b,  and  the  analogous  faces  in  the  other  revolving  surfaces, 
camiot  therefore  serve  towards  the  solution  of  the  que>tIou  ; 
and  all  the  intersecting  points  belonging  to  any  of  these  faces 
are  foieign  to  the  problem. 

"  In  descriptive  geometry,  we  may,  and  indeed  should 
exclude  the  arc  a  f  n,  and  tliose  analogous  to  it,  in  the  two 
oiIkt  surfaces  ;  each  of  which  will  then  have  but  two  fac  s, 
and  the  number  of  thfir  possible  points  of  intersection  will  be 
reduced  to  eight.     Of  these,  four  will  be  on  one  side  of  the 


plane  passing  through  the  three  revolving  axes,  and  four  on 
the  other.  The  observer,  being  always  aware  of  the  side  on 
which  he  is  placed  relatively  to  this  plane,  will,  of  course,  not 
construct  the  intersections  of  the  opposite  side,  so  that  the 
number  of  points  will  in  fact  be  reduced  to  four.  Now, 
among  these  four  points,  if  they  all  exist,  he  will  readily 
know  which  is  placed  in  respect  to  the  points  a,  b,  c,  in  a. 
manner  similar  to  that  of  the  station  relatively  to  the  three 
points  of  the  country  that  he  has  observed. 

"  Construction. — .Select  the  position  of  the  two  planes  of 
projection  so  as  that  the  one  taken  as  horizontal  mav  pass 
through  the  three  points  observed,  and  that  the  other  may 
be  perpendicular  to  the  right  line  drawn  through  two  of  those 
points.  Let  then  a  b  c  {Figure  42)  represent  the  triangle 
formed  by  the  points  observed,  considered  in  its  plane,  and 
a',  b',  c',  the  three  angles  given  by  the  observation.  Draw 
perpendicidarly  to  the  sides  a  b,  the  right  line  l  m,  which 
will  indicate  the  position  of  the  vertical  fdane  of  projection  ; 
and  ctmstruct,  according  to  the  directions  already  given, 
the  generating  arcs  a  e  d  b,  b  g  c,  c  f  a,  of  three  revolving 
surfaces,  whose  sides,  a  b,  b  c,  A  o,  are  the  a.xes.  Then, 
taking  the  point  a  as  a  centre,  describe  arcs  of  circles, 
as  E  o  F,  at  pleasure,  and  they  will  cut  the  generators, 
whose  axes  meet  in  a,  in  such  points  as  e,  f,  from  which, 
drop  upon  tlie  respective  axes,  the  indefinite  perpendiculars 
e  e',  f  f' ;  these  perpendiculars  will  intersect  each  other 
somewhere  in  a  point,  as  n,  which  will  be  the  horizontal 
projection  of  a  point  of  intersection  of  the  two  surfices, 
whose  axes  are  a  b,  a  c  ;  and  the  curve,  a  h  p,  drawn 
through  all  the  points  n  . .  .  .  thus  found,  will  be  the  hori- 
zontal projection  of  this  intersection.  Next,  after  pro- 
jecting the  axis  a  b  in  a,  take  the  point  o  as  a  centre,  and 
describe  from  it,  with  radii  successively  equal  to  the  per- 
pendiculars E  e',  arcs  of  circles,  as  e  e'  l>,  on  each  of  wliich, 
by  projecting  the  point  H.  to  its  corresponding  point  in  A,  we 
shall  have  the  vertical  projection  of  a  point  of  the  intersection 
of  the  two  same  revolving  surfaces  ;  and  the  curve,  a  h  p, 
drawn  through  all  the  points,  /(,....  so  constructed,  will  be 
the  vorticjil  projection  of  this  intersection. 

"The  same  method  may  be  pursued  for  the  two  surfaces 
revolving  aboiit  the  axes  a  b,  b  c ;  viz.  taking  the  point  of 
coincidence,  b,  of  the  two  axes  as  a  centre,  describe  arcs  of 
circles,  as  d  k  o,  at  pleasure ;  which  arcs  will  cut  the  two 
generators  in  points,  as  d,  o,'from  which  drop  on  the  respec- 
tive axes  the  mdefinite  perpendiculars  d,  d',  g  g'  ;  these  per- 
pendiculars will  cut  each  other  in  a  point,  as  j ;  and  the  curve, 
B  J  p,  drawn  through  all  the  points  j  .  . .  will  be  the  hori- 
zontal i>rojection  of  the  intersection  of  the  first  and  third 
revolving  surfaces.  Taking  the  point  a  as  a  centre,  with 
radii  successively  equal  to  the  perpendiculars  d  d',  describe 
arcs  of  circles,  as  d  d'  i,  on  which  project  in  i  the  correspond- 
ing points  j;  and  the  curve,  a  i  p,  drawn  through  all  the 
points  i,  will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  the  same  iniersection. 

"  Here  we  shall  find  that  all  the  points,  p , .  .  .  in  which  the 
two  curves  a  h  p,  b  j  p,  cut  each  other,  are  horizontal  pro- 
jections of  so  many  points  applicable  to  the  question  ;  and 
that  all  the  points,  />....  in  which  the  curves  a  It  p,  a  i  p, 
intersect  each  other,  are  the  vertical  projections  of  the  same 
points. 

"The  projections,  thus  found,  will  not  give  immediately 
the  position  of  the  point  of  station  on  the  chart ;  nor  its 
height,  because  the  horizontal  plane  is  not  that  of  the  chart; 
but  it  will  be  easy  to  find  them  on  the  true  planes  of  pro- 
jection. 

■'  Sixth  Question. — The  general  of  an  army  meets  that  of 
an  enemy,  but  not  having  a  chart  >>f  the  country,  is  at  a  loss 
how  to  form  lus  plan  of  attack.     But  being  in  poss'ession  of 


DESCJRILP TJrVJfi  iilK.OM  K' i 


I'l.jih:  i\. 


F^g-  J.9- 


V  ; 
; — i_i 


rev.  N 

i/.b\  .a     r-s.  e^T^  h. 


P^C' 


-M: 


'^ 


/J iviwn    //••  PN^if Jir-h'on.  q 


DES 


265 


DES 


a  Ijiillooii,  lie  dismisses  an  engineer  in  it,  to  make  the  neces- 
siirv  anaiiiienients  for  const  ructini;  a  chart,  and  to  give  as 
near  an  idea  of  the  level  of  the  country  as  possible.  Fearing, 
however,  that,  should  the  balk>on  be  sufi'ered  to  change  its 
station  over  the  earth,  the  enemy  might  anticipate  his  design 
and  frustrate  it,  he  permits  the  engineer  to  raise  hiiTiself  to 
dilliieiit  altitudes  in  the  atmosphere,  if  necessary,  but  not  to 
alter  his  perpendicular  stiition.  The  engineer  is  provided 
with  an  instrument  for  the  measurement  of  angles,  which  is 
also  furnished  with  a  plumb-line  :  it  is  asked,  how  can  the 
engineer  fulfil  the  object  (jf  his  general  1 

"  Soliidon. — The  engineer  must  take  two  stations  in  the 
same  vertical  line,  whose  ditfcrence  he  may  ascertain  by  mea- 
suring the  cord  let  out,  to  raise  the  balloon  from  one  station 
to  the  other.  In  one  of  these,  the  lowest,  for  e.\ample,  let 
kim  measure  the  angles  made  by  the  zenith  with  the  visual 
rays  directed  towards  the  points  whose  position  he  wishes  to 
determine  on  the  chart ;  then,  among  these  points,  let  him 
select  one,  which  he  will  consider  as  the  first,  and  which  we 
shall  denominate  a  ;  let  him  also  measure  successively  the 
angles  formed  by  the  visual  ray  directed  to  the  point  a,  and 
those  directed  towards  all  the  other  points.  In  the  second 
station,  let  him  measure  the  angles  formed  by  the  zenith  with 
the  visual  rays  directed  to  all  the  points  of  the  country  :  and 
from  these  observations,  he  may  construct  the  chart  required. 
"  When  we  are  acquainted  with  the  angles  formed  by  the 
zenith  with  the  two  visual  rays  directed  from  the  two  stations 
towards  the  same  point,  we  know  that  such  point  is  at  once 
upon  two  determinate  and  known  conic  surfaces,  with 
circular  bases,  having  their  axes  in  the  same  zenith,  the  dis- 
tance of  their  apices  equal  to  the  ditlerence  of  the  altitudes  of 
the  two  stations,  and  the  angles  formed  by  their  generators 
with  the  common  axis  equal  to  the  angles  observed.  Also, 
when  we  are  acquainted  w ith  the  angle  formed  by  the  visual 
ray  directed  from  the  first  station  to  this  point,  and  by  that 
directed  tow-ards  the  point  a,  we  know  that  the  point  con- 
sidered must  likewise  be  on  a  third  conic  surfece,  with  a  cir- 
cular base,  whose  inclined  axis  is  the  visual  ray  directed  from 
the  first  station  towards  the  point  a,  having  its  apex  in  the 
first  station,  and  forming  an  angle  between  its  axis  and 
generator  equal  to  the  angle  observed.  The  point  consi- 
dered, therefore,  will  be  found  at  the  same  time  oii  conic  sur- 
faces with  circular  bases,  of  known  form  and  position  ;  con- 
sequently it  must  be  the  point  of  their  common  intersection  ; 
and  by  constructing  the  horizontal  and  vertical  projections  of 
the  intersection,  we  shall  obtain  the  position  of  the  point  on 
the  chart,  with  its  elevation  above  or  below  others. 

"  Without  varying  from  these  considerations,  the  construc- 
tion may  be  rendered  more  simple,  by  some  of  the  methods 
already  prescribed  :  for  with  a  knowledge  of  the  angles 
formed  at  the  first  station  by  the  visual  ray  directed  towards 
the  point  A,  and  by  the  rays  directed  towards  all  the  other 
points;  and  knowing  the  angles  formed  by  the  sides  of  these 
angles  with  the  zeniih,  it  is  easy  to  reduce  them  to  the  horizon, 
viz.  by  con-.tructing  their  horizontal  projections.  By  select- 
ing, therefore,  on  the  chart,  an  arbitrary  point,  to  represent 
the  projection  of  the  zenith  of  the  balloon,  and  drawing  an 
arbitrary  right  line  through  it,  to  represent  the  projection  of 
the  visual  ray  directed  towards  a  ;  drawing  also,  through 
the  same  point,  right  lines,  making  with  such  projection  of 
the  ray,  angles  equal  to  those  reduced  to  the  horizon  ;  it  is 
evident  that  each  of  these  lines  must  contain  the  horizontal 
projection  of  its  correspondent  point  of  country.  It  only 
remains,  then,  to  find  the  distance  of  this  point  of  the  country 
from  the  zenith.  For  this  purpose,  take,  in  the  vertical  pro- 
jection, and  upon  the  projectiou  of  the  zenith  of  the  balloon, 
two  points,  which  in  parts  of  the  scale  are  distiint  from  each 


other  equal  to  the  measured  distance  of  the  two  stations,  and 
through  these  points  draw  right  lines  making  with  the  zenith 
angles  equal  to  those  observed  for  an  identical  point  of 
country  ;  which  lines  will  cross  each  other  in  a  point  whose 
distance  from  the  zenith  will  be  the  distance  rei|uired  ;  and 
by  measuring  it  on  the  corresponding  ray,  beginning  from  the 
projection  of  the  balloon,  we  shall  have  on  the  chart,  the 
position  of  the  point  of  country.  The  same  two  right  lines, 
in  the  .vertical  projection,  will,  by  their  intersection,  determine 
the  height  of  such  point;  therefore,  by  taking  on  the  vertical 
projection,  the  heights  of  all  the  points  of  country  above  a 
common  horizontal  plane,  we  shall  be  able  to  determine  the 
quotas  suitable  fi>r  all  the  points  of  the  chart,  and  likewise 
the  level  of  the  country. 

"  This  construction  is  so  easy,  that  it  does  not  require  a 
figure. 

'•The  right  line  drawn  from  the  projection  of  the  zenith 
of  the  balloon  to  that  of  the  first  point,  a,  observed,  having 
been  in  the  first  instance  traced  upon  the  chart  arbitrarily, 
it  follows  that  the  chart  is  not  adjusted  to  the  cardinal  points, 
and,  indeed,  in  the  observations  laid  down,  we  find  nothing 
by  which  to  determine  the  objects  observed  towards  them. 
But  if  an  engineer  observe  on  the  earth,  the  angle  made  by 
the  meridian  with  a  visual  ray  directed  from  the  foot  of  the 
zenith  towards  one  of  the  points  placed  on  the  chart,  and  if 
he  describe  this  angle  upon  its  projection,  he  will  have  the 
direction  of  the  meridian,  and  the  chart  will  be  adjusted  to 
the  cardinal  points." 

The  great  length  to  which  our  extracts  from  Monge's 
work  have  extended,  will  be,  we  trust,  pardoned,  in  consi- 
deration of  the  value  of  those  extracts  ;  and  of  our  desire  to 
do  the  most  ample  justice  to  the  learned  and  ingenious  author. 
Though  many  works  of  a  similar  kind  by  eminent  writers 
have  since  issued  from  the  press,  the  Geometrie  Descriptive 
of  ^longe  still  holds  a  most  distinguished  place  ;  and  will  con- 
tinue to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  elementary  books  of 
modern  times. 

DESICCATION,  (Latin,  rfesiVco,  to  dry),  the  act  of 
making  dry  ;  it  is  the  chemical  operation  of  drying  bodies, 
and  is  efliected  in  different  modes,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  substance.  The  term.  Desiccating  Process,  has  been 
applied  to  a  patented  invention,  (Davison  and  Symington's 
Patent),  for  seasoning  or  drying  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
stances. It  is  said  to  have  been  used  with  success  in  season- 
ing wood. 

"design,  {denifino,  Latin  ;  dessein,  French),  an  original 
drawing  of  a  building  to  be  executed,  comprehending  the 
invention,  composition,  and  arrangement  of  the  whole.  A 
design  includes  plans,  elevations,  and  sections  of  the  building 
intended  to  be  carried  into  execution,  besides  other  drawings 
of  details,  or  parts  at  large.  The  number  of  these  will,  of 
course,  depend  either  upon  the  nature  of  the  building,  that  is, 
on  its  being  more  or  less  complex,  or  as  it  is  intended  to  show 
it  more  orless  fully.  A  small  simple  house  will  only  require 
one  plan  and  an  elevation.  A  large  edifice,  with  great  variety 
of  parts,  will  require  plans  of  each  story,  elevations  of  the 
different  fronts,  a  longitudinal  and  transverse  section,  and,  in 
general,  as  many  drawings  as  will  be  sufficient  to  explain  all 
the  parts  All  the  minute  parts,  as  bases,  capitals,  architraves, 
friezes,  cornices,  and  other  mouldings,  are  to  be  exhibited  in 
their  true  geometrical  proportion,  at  full  size. 

There  is,  perhaps,  a  certain  prejudice  against  drawings  of 
this  kind,  from  an  impression  too  generally  entertained,  that 
they  are  unintelligible  except  to  the  initiated.  This  feeling 
would  be  easily  removed,  were  unprofessional  persons  to  take 
the  pains  to  examine  a  complete  set  of  well-prepared  architec- 
tural drawings.    A  very  little  explanation  renders  these  draw- 


DES 


26& 


DET 


ins.^  Iicifortly  clear  to  any  person  of  common  capacity,  how- 
ever i<;nnrant  he  may  be  of  arcliitecture. 

To  l)egin  with  the  plni. — This  may  be  described  as  the 
miip  of  the  building.  By  its  means  we  distingnish  most 
cleaily  the  exact  shape  and  extent  of  the  structure  as  regards 
the  space  on  which  it  stands  ;  the  tiiickness  of  the  walls,  the 
internal  arrangement  of  all  the  rooms  and  passasies ;  and  the 
situation  ami  width  of  doors,  windows,  fireplaces,  stair- 
cases, &e.  The  raised  and  solid  parts,  such  as  walls,  colunms, 
piers,  &c.,  are  shaded  ;  the  voids  and  apertures,  such  as  doors, 
winilows.  &c.,  are  left  white.  For  every  story  of  a  building 
there  slioid<l  be  a  separate  plan,  althnngh  it  is  not  usual,  in 
books  of  designs,  to  give  more  than  those  of  the  ground-door, 
and  the  principal  one  above  it. 

Next  to  the  plan  wo  may  describe  the  Elevation.  This  may 
be  defined  as  a  vertical  plan  ;  it  shows  the  front,  or  one 
external  face  of  the  building,  and  gives  the  precise  forms 
and  measurements  of  every  part,  drawn  to  scale.  It  must  be 
observed,  that  the  particular  in  which  an  elevation  differs  from 
other  drawings,  and  from  the  appearance  of  the  olijects  them- 
selves, is,  that  no  distinction  is  made  between  curved  hori- 
zontal lines  and  straight  ones  ;  so  that,  whether  the  part  be 
a  pl.inc  or  a  curved  surface,  can  bo  understood  only  from  the 
shadowing,  unless  there  happens  to  be  something  that  assists 
in  denoting  curvature  of  plan.  Thus,  the  mouldings  of  the 
base  of  a  column  are  all  straight  lines;  consequently,  with- 
out shadow  to  express  rotundity,  we  could  not  determine 
whether  they  belonged  to  a  flat  or  a  round  surface,  unless  the 
shaft  be  fluted,  in  which  case  the  flutes  will  diminish  in  width, 
according  to  their  distance  from  the  centre. 

l'jle\ations  have  sometimes  given  to  them  something  of  a 
pictorial  character,  by  colouring  as  well  as  by  shadowing, 
and  not  unfre(iuently  by  the  addition  of  ^.ky  and  background, 
't  would  bo  better,  perhaps,  were  such  accompaniment  re- 
stricted to  what  may  be  just  suflicient  to  relieve  the  building, 
instead  of  being  extended  o\'er  the  whole  picture,  and  care- 
fully worked  up  ;  because  such  additions  to  the  usual  plain 
architectural  drawing  are  calculated  to  give  a  formal  and 
stiff"  appearance  to  the  drawing,  offensive  to  good  taste  and 
siir.[)licity.  In  modern  architectural  publications,  especially 
foreign  ones,  outline  elevations  are  now  generally  given ;  these 
are  preferable  to  those  which  are  shadowed,  as  they  exhibit 
all  the  forms  more  distinctly,  and  admit  of  being  measured 
w'ilh  much  greater  exactness. 

Wc'  next  proceed  to  describe  the  Section.  A  section  is  the 
projection  or  geometrical  representation  of  a  building  sup- 
posed to  be  cut  by  a  vertical  jilane,  for  the  purpose  of  exhi- 
biting the  interior,  and  describing  the  height,  breadth,  thick- 
ness, and  manner  of  construction  of  the  walls,  &c.  By  the 
section  we  are  made  acquainted  with  a  variety  of  particulars, 
in  i-egard  to  which  a  plan  cannot  be  made  to  afford  any  infor- 
mation. It  shows  us  the  thickness  of  the  walls  and  floors,  the 
heights  of  the  rooms,  the  forms  and  prolilcs  of  ceilings,  whe- 
ther flat,  coved,  or  arched,  also  the  exact  forms  of  domes  and 
skylights.  It  shows  the  heights  of  the  doors,  how  they  are 
panelled  and  decorated,  the  form  of  the  chimney-pieces,  ifec, 
and,  in  some  instances,  furniture  and  fittings-up  are  advan- 
tageously iutioduced,  with  a  view  to  judge  of  effect.  For 
deiailed  and  Idled  up  sections,  it  is  usual  to  employ  outline 
with  the  walls  and  floors  shaded,  the  former  as  more  solid, 
being  made  darker  than  the  latter.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  elevations  of  the  rooms  themselves  are  shadowed, 
the  thickness  of  the  intersected  walls,  &c.,  are  left  white,  in 
order  to  prevent  confusion,  and  exhibit  the  profiles  better. 

Indi>pensablo  and  interesting,  however,  as  they  are,  sec- 
tions are  a  fur  more  conventional  mode  of  drawing  than  ele- 
vations, because  they  represent  a  building  as  it  never  can  be 


seen,  except  wdiere  the  front  of  a  house  has  been  taken  down 
for  the  purpose  of  rebuilding  it,  while  the  floors  and  partition- 
walls  are  left  standing  ;  in  which  case  any  <ine  may  obtain  a 
good  idea  of  the  nature  of  a  section,  but  of  one  seen  in  per- 
spective. 

Besides  general  sections  showing  the  whole  of  a  building 
from  top  to  bottom,  there  are  frequently  partial  ones,  show- 
ing only  the  rooms  on  one  floor,  or  even  a  single  room,  when 
it  is  desired  to  show  any  particular  apartment  on  a  laiger 
scale  than  could  conveniently  be  done  any  other  way.  Some- 
times recourse  is  had  to  a  plan  of  the  room  with  each  of  its 
sides  drawn  around  it.  as  if  laid  flat  on  the  ground,  by  which 
means  the  whole  of  the  apartment  is  described.  Horizontal 
sections  also  are  given,  to  show  more  accurately  than  can  be 
done  on  a  plan,  the  soffits  of  entablatures,  the  ceiling  and  its 
ornaments,  the  window  recesses,  and  door-cases,  and  the  capi- 
tals of  columns  and  projection. 

Besides  the  usual  plans,  elevations,  and  sections,  there 
should  also  be  detailed  drawings,  answering,  in  some  r«spect, 
to  what  are  termed  working  drawings  ;  these  give  a  more  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  minutia;  and  finishing  of  the  subject  than  can 
be  obtained  fjom  the  general  design  only. 

In  a  complete  design,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  have  per- 
spective views  both  of  the  exterior  and  principal  parts  of  the 
interior.  These  enable  a  person  to  comprehend  the  character 
and  effect  of  the  design  as  a  whole,  which,  without  such  draw- 
ings, can  be  judged  of  only  piecemeal.  The  perspective 
drawing  of  the  extci'ior  ought  to  exhibit  the  edifice  from  one 
of  the  most  frequented  points  of  view,  and  ought  also  to  be 
so  contrived  as  to  make  it  impressive  from  every  point  whence 
it  can  be  seen,  and  particularly  from  those  positions  in  which 
the  greatest  part  of  the  design  is  comprehended  at  one 
view. 

In  very  large  work.s,  a  model  will  be  useful  for  preventing 
many  mistakes  that  might  otherwise  arise,  as  all  the  parts 
can  be  easily  seen  by  inspection  ;  but  when  drawings  only 
are  used,  from  the  number  that  are  necessary  to  the  perform- 
ance of  the  work,  a  long  examination  and  consideration  are 
requisite  ;  and  after  all,  some  of  the  most  essential  parts  of 
the  construction  may  be,  and  frequently  are,  overlooked. 

For  other  particulars  respecting  designs,  we  refer  to  the 
articles  Apartment,  Bueak,  Building,  Hodse. 

DESIGNING,  the  art  of  delineating  or  drawing  the 
appearance  of  natural  objects  by  lines  on  a  plane. 

DESK,  a  part  of  a  pulpit;  as  the  clerk's  or  precentor's 
deak ;  also  a  kind  of  rostrum  where  the  clergyman  reads 
the  printed  .service  of  tlie  English  Church. 

DESTINA,  Latin,  a  pillar  or  other  support  of  a  building, 
in  which  sense  the  term  is  used  by  Vitruvius  ;  but  when 
employed  by  ecclesiastical  writers,  it  is  usually  applied  by 
them  to  the  aisle  of  a  church,  or  to  a  small  cell. 

DETACHED  COLUMN,  the  same  as  Insulated 
Column,  which  see. 

DETAIL,  (from  the  French,  delailhr)  the  delineation  of 
all  the  parts  of  an  edifice,  so  as  to  be  sufficiently  intelligible 
for  the  execution  of  the  work.  The  detail  is  otherwise 
denominated  the  working  draioings. 

The  expression  detail  is  also  used  in  other  ways,  as,  when 
a  nidulding  is  exhibited  in  profile  by  abutting  on  a  plane,  it 
is  said  to  detail  on  the  plane.  Details  in  the  fine  arts  are 
minute  and  particular  parts  of  a  picture,  statue,  or  building, 
as  distinguished  from  the  general  conception,  or  larger  parts 
of  a  composition. 

DLTERIOIIATION,  (from  the  Latin,  deterior)  the  act 
whereby  a  thing  is  rendered  worse.  'Jliis  was  the  fate  of 
architecture  in  passing  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire. 


DETERMINATE,  a  word  applied  in  mathenialics  to 
thiise  problems  whiih  have  one  answer  only,  or  at  least 
a  certain  and  linile  number  uf  answers. 

DETERMINING  LINE,  in  conic  sections,  the  intersec- 
tion of  a  plane  parallel  to  the  cntting  plane  with  the  plane 
of  the  base  of  the  cone.  In  the  sections  of  a  cone  which 
produce  the  hyperbola,  the  determining  line  falls  within  the 
base  of  the  cone  ;  in  parabolic  sections,  it  forms  a  tangent 
to  the  base.  In  the  elliptic  section,  it  falls  without;  and 
when  the  section  is  a  circle,  the  determining  line  will,  in  one 
ca-;e,  never  meet  the  plane  of  the  base,  as  in  this  instance 
the  cutting  plane  is  p;irallel  to  the  plane  of  the  base. 

DIACONICO.N,  (from  diaKoveio,  I  serve,  I  minister)  a 
place  adjoining  to  the  ancient  churches,  where  the  sacred 
vestments,  vessels,  relics,  and  ornaments  of  the  altar,  were 
preserved.  This  apartment  was  otherwise  called  sacristy. 
It  was  also  denominated  aarc  ^ikov,  and  in  Latin,  salulatorium  ; 
because  it  was  here  that  the  bishop  received  and  saluted 
strangers.  Sometimes  it  was  called  nrjra-cjviov,  or  fiLraru)- 
piov,  meiiso,  on  account  of  the  tables  kept  there. 

DIAGONAL,  (from  the  Greek,  Siaybiviog)  in  geometry, 
a  line  drawn  through  any  figure,  from  the  vertex  of  one 
angle  to  that  of  another. 

Every  rectilinear  figure  may  be  divided  into  as  many 
triangles,  wanting  two,  as  the  figure  has  sides. 

Every  diagonal  divides  a  parallelogram  into  two  equal 
parts. 

A  most  excellent  theorem  in  elementary  geometry,  first 
demonstrated  by  Mr.  Lagny,  in  the  Meinoires  de  I'Academie 
Roijale  des  Sciences,  an.  1706,  is,  that  the  sum  of  the  squares 
of  the  two  diagonals  of  every  parallelogram  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  four  sides  ;  and  it  is  evident  that 
the  47th  proposition  of  Euclid  may  be  derived  as  a  mere 
corollary  from  this  theorem.  The  demonstration  is  as 
follows  :  Let  a  b  c  d  be  an  oblique  parallelogram,  of  which 
B  D  is  the  greater  diagonal,  and  a  c  the  lesser.  From  the 
vertex,  a,  of  the  obtuse  angle  d  a  b,  drop  the  perpendiculars 
A  E  and  B  F  to  c  D  ;  then  the  triangles  a  d  e,  b  c  f,  are  equal 
and  similar;  for  a  d  is  equal  to  b  c,  and  the  angles  a  d  e 
and  b  c  F  are  equal  to  each  other ;  also  the  angles  a  e  d,  and 
B  F  c,  are  equal  to  each  other  ;  consequently  d  e  is  equal 
to  c  F.  Now,  by  proposition  xii.  lib.  ii.  of  Euclid,  in  the 
obtuse-angled  triangle  b  d  c,  the  square  of  the  side  b  d  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  b  c,  c  d,  together  with  double 
the  rectangle  c  f  by  c  d  ;  and  by  the  I3th  proposition  of  the 
same  book,  in  the  triangle  d  a  c,  the  square  of  a  c  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  a  d  and  c  d,  abating  double  the 
rectangle  of  c  D  by  D  E  equal  to  c  f;  for  c  f  is  equal  to  d  e  : 
now,  since 

bd'=bc'-(-cd'-|-2(cfXcd) 
and  ac'=ad'+ab^— 2(cfXcd) 


Therefore   bd' + ac' = bc' + cd' -f-  ad^ + ab' 

Then,  if  the  parallelogratn  be  right-angled,  the  diagonals  are 
equal,  and  consequently  each  equal  to  the  squares  of  the  two 
sides  containing  other  right  angles  opposite  that  di.'igonal. 

Hence,  if  one  of  the  diagonals  and  a  side  be  known,  the 
other  diagonal  will  likewise  be  known. 

Another  pi-oposition,  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  above,  was 
discovered  by  Ptolemy,  viz.,  that  the  rectangles  of  any  two 
diagonals  of  a  quadrilateral  figure  inscribed  in  a  circle,  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  two  "rectangles  contained  by  the 
opposite  sides. 

hi  taking  the  dimensions  of  a  building,  in  order  to  make 
a  [ilan,  it  is  liy  far  the  most  accurate  and  cxpediti<Mis  method, 
to  take  the  diagonals.     In  carpentry  and  joinery,  no  polygonal 


frame  whatever  can  be  rendered  stationary  or  immovable 
about  the  angles,  without  diagonal  pieces,  as  the  strength 
consists  in  dividing  the  work  into  triangles.  In  geometry, 
a  polygon  cannot  be  constructed  by  the  linear  dimensions  of 
its  sides  only,  without  the  diagonals,  as  the  area  of  the  figure 
may  be  variable  under  the  same  number  of  sides,  ad  iiifiiiitum, 
from  a  certain  position  of  the  sides,  in  which  they  will  con- 
tain the  greatest  possible  area  to  any  less  area  whatever. 

The  impidse  given  to  a  body,  at  the  same  instant,  by  two 
forces,  in  different  directions,  causes  that  body  to  move  in 
the  diagonal  of  a  parallelogram,  of  which,  each  of  the  forces 
acting  separately,  would  cause  the  body  to  describe  a  side, 
in  the  same  time  as  the  body  moved  conjointly  by  the 
two  forces. 

Diagonal  Buttress,  a  buttress  placed  at  the  angle  of 
a  building,  chiefly  used  in  churches  of  mediieval  date,  and 
employed  to  resist  the  thrusts  of  the  ribs  of  the  last  severy  of 
the  vaulting.  It  answers  the  same  purpose  as  two  distinct 
buttresses  set  square  with  the  two  walls  at  their  intersection, 
but  with  less  material.  Diagonal  buttresses  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  employed  to  any  extent  previous  to  the  fourteenth 
century,  but  are  common  in  buildings  of  the  Decorated  style. 
Previously,  two  buttresses  at  right  angles  were  employed. 

Diagonal  Moulding,  the  same  as  Zig-zag  or  Dancette. 

Diagonal  Paving.     See  Pavement. 

Diagonal  Rib,  a  rib  or  groin  passing  diagonally  across 
a  bay  of  vaulting  from  one  angle  to  the  opposite. 

Diagonal  Scale,  a  compound  scale,  by  which  a  subdivision 
may  be  made  of  any  part  of  the  smallest  unit  upon  a  straight 
line,  by  means  of  equidistant  parallels  crossing  others  of  the 
same  kind. 

DIAGRAM,  (from  diayga<f>G),  I  describe)  in  geometry,  a 
scheme  for  the  explanation  or  demonstration  of  a  figure. 

DIAL,  (from  the  Latin,  dies,  day)  an  instrument  serving 
to  measure  time  by  the  shadow  of  the  sun.  Or  more  par- 
ticularly, the  surfiice  of  a  body  so  graduated  that  a  certain 
line  parallel  to  the  earth's  axis  will  show  the  hour  of  the 
day,  when  the  sun  shines  upon  the  surface  of  such  body. 

DIAMETER,  (from  6ca,  through,  and  fierpeiv,  to  measure) 
a  straight  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  a  circle,  and 
terminated  at  each  end  by  the  circumference ;  the  diameter 
is  therefore  a  chord  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  circle, 
and  is  consequently  greater  than  any  other  chord  in  the 
same  circle. 

The  diameter  of  a  circle  divides  the  circumference  into 
two  equal  parts. 

For  other  particulars,  see  the  article  Circle. 

Diameter  of  a  Column,  the  thickness  of  the  lowest  part 
of  the  shaft  at  the  bottom.  In  a  colonnade,  or  range  of 
columns,  the  intercolumns  should  always  be  proportioned 
to  the  diameter  of  the  column. 

Diameter  of  a  Conic  Section.     See  Coxio  Section. 

Diameter,  Conjugate.     See  Conic  Section. 

Diameter  of  Diminution,  the  diameter  at  the  top  of  the 
shaft. 

Diameter  of  a  Sphere.     See  Sphere. 

Diameter,  Transverse,  the  longest  axis  of  an  ellipsis. 

Diameters,  Conjugate,  of  a  circle,  two  diameters  at  right 
angles. 

DIAMOND,  an  instrument  for  cutting  glass. 

Diamond,  the  small  instrument  used  by  glaziers  for  cutting 
glass,  and  f  >rmed  by  the  setting  of  a  fractured  piece  of 
diamond  in  a  woodeii  handle.  There  are  now  in  use  two 
descriptions  of  peilcil  diamonds,  the  old  one,  and  the  new  or 
patent  pencil.  The  defect  of  the  former  is  the  difiieulty 
experienced  in  placing  it  on  the  gl.iss  in,  at  once,  the  proper 
an"le    so  as  to  make  it  cut  and  not    scratch.     The  patent 


DIG 


268 


DIL 


pencil  overcomes  this  difficiilty,  the  diamond  being  fixed  by 
the  peculiar  mode  of  its  setting  at  the  correct  angle  at  which 
it  will  cut  the  glass.  The  diamond  in  these  pencils  is  about 
the  size  of  an  ordinary  pin's  head,  and  is  set  in  a  nipple  of 
brass  or  copper.  They  are  dillcrently  fitted  up,  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  material  which  they  are  to  work  upon. 

Diamond  1''ret,  a  species  of  moulding  consisting  of  iillrts 
intersecting  each  other,  so  as  to  form  diamonds  or  rhombuses. 

Di.vMOND,  Glass.     See  Glass. 

Diamond,  Pavement.     See  Pavement. 

DIANA,  Temple  of.     &e  Temple. 

DIAPER,  a  panel  or  recessed  surface  enriched  with 
carving  in  low  relief,  and  frequently  gilded  and  coloured ; 
or  a  plain  surface  enriched  with  polychrome.  Also  a  kind 
of  linen-cloth  wrought  with  figures  in  weaving. 

DIAPEliING,  the  decoration  employed  in  the  relief  of 
any  plain  surface  by  the  interweaving  of  fret-work,  or 
covering  the  field  with  ornamental  patterns.  In  some  cases, 
it  consists  in  the  application  of  colour  only,  but  in  others  of 
embossed  or  carved  w^ork,  delicately  chiselled,  and  also 
enriched  with  gilding  and  colour.  Diaper-work  is  usually 
composed  of  small  square  panels,  containing  flowers  in  low 
relief,  as  in  the  spandrels  of  the  choir  arches,  and  in  other 
parts  of  Westminster  Abbey.  There  is  a  beautiful  specimen 
of  later  date  on  a  monument  in  the  choir  of  Canterbury 
cathedral  ;  the  design  is  composed  of  a  flower  of  six  leaves 
in  low  relief,  within  a  sexagonal  compartment,  the  sides  of 
which  are  formed  by  the  sides  of  six  spherical  triangles, 
and  are  foliated  within,  and  coloured  azure  and  gules. 
Another  specimen  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Lady  Chapel, 
Ely,  at  the  back  of  the  canopies  of  the  ornamental 
arcade  \vhich  surrounds  the  walls  ;  others  at  Waltham 
Cross,  and  in  many  buildings  erected  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.  Diaperings  of  a  rich  and  taste- 
ful design  were  also  employed  in  ecclesiastical  hangings, 
vestments,  &c.  Some  very  beautiful  designs  may  bo  seen 
in  Put/ill's  Glossary. 

DI.\STYLE,  (from  dia,  and  ^Xo^,  a  pillar)  in  classical 
architecture,  that  distance  between  columns  equal  to  three 
diameters  of  the  colunm  ;  or  the  word  is  ajiplied  to  the  edifice 
itself,  in  which  columns  are  applied  at  this  interval. 

DI.\TIIVR.\,  the  vestibide  in  fjont  of  the  doors  of  a 
Greek  hi)U;;c,  answering  to  the  prothyra  of  the  Romans. 

DIATONI,  quoins  or  corner-stones  bonding  two  walls 
together. 

DIDORON,  (from  the  Greek)  a  kind  of  brick  used  by  the 
Greeks,  being  one  foot  long  and  half  a  foot  broad. 

])\K,  of  a  pedestal,  that  part  contained  between  the  base 
and  the  cornice.     See  Dye. 

DIFFERENTIAL,  a  term  used  to  denote  an  infinitely 
small  quantity.  The  difi'erential  method  is  a|)plied  to  the 
doctrine  of  infinitesimals  ;  it  consists  in  descending  from 
whole  quantities  to  their  infiniudy  small  difterences,  and 
comparing  them.  Ilencc  it  is  called  the  dillerential  calculus 
or  analysis  of  infinitesimals. 

DUiGLNG  is  performed  bv  the  solid  yard  of  27  cubic 
feet. 

in  soft  ground,  where  only  cutting  with  the  spade  is 
necessary,  a  man  will  throw  up  a  cubic  yard  in  an  hour,  or 
10  cubic  yards  in  a  day.  Hut  if  hacking  be  necessary, 
an  additional  man  will  be  required  ;  and  very  strong  gravel 
will  require  two.  The  rates  of  a  cubic  yard  depending  thus 
upon  each  circumstance,  they  will  be  in  the  ratio  of  the 
arithmetical  numbers  1,  2,  3.  If,  therefore,  the  wages  of  a 
labourer  bo  2s.  Gd.  per  day,  the  price  of  a  yard  will  be  3d.  for 
suiting  only  ;  6d.  for  cutting  and  hacking;  and  9d.  when  two 
hackers  are  necessary. 


In  sandy  ground,  when  wheeling  is  requisite,  three  men 
will  be  required  to  remove  30  cubic  yards  a  day,  to  the 
distance  of  20  yards,  two  filling  and  one  wheeling  ;  but  to 
remove  the  same  quantity  in  a  day,  to  any  greater  distance, 
an  additional  man  will  be  required   for  every  twenty  yards. 

To  find  the  price  of  removing  any  number  of  cubic  yards 
to  any  given  distance: 

Divide  the  distance  in  yards  by  20,  which  gives  the  number 
of  wheelers  ;  add  the  two  cutters  to  the  quotient,  and  you  will 
have  the  whole  mimber  emplo3ed  ;  multiply  the  sum  by  the 
daily  wages  of  a  labourer,  and  the  produce  will  be  the  price 
of  30  cubic  yards. — Then, 

As  30  cubic  yards  is  to  the  whole  inimber,  so  is  the  price 
of  30  cubic  yards  to  the  cost  of  the  whole. 

Example. — What  will  it  cost  to  remove  2,750  cubic  yards, 
to  the  distance  of  120  yards,  a  man's  wages  being  three 
shillings  per  day  1 

2,0)12,0 


6  number  of  wheelers. 
2  fillers. 


8  men  employed. 
3  shillings  per  day. 


24  price  of  30  cubic  yards. 


2750    X    24 


30  :  2750  :  :  24  : 


=  £110. 


30 


See  farther  under  Excavation. 

DIGLYPH,  (from  the  Greek,  dtyAv^of),  a  tablet  with  two 
engravings  or  channels. 

DIKE,  or  DYKE,  (from  the  Saxon,  die,  a  bank  or  mound), 
a  work  of  stone,  timber,  or  earth,  supported  by  fascines, 
raised'to  oppose  the  entrance  or  passage  of  waters  of  the  sea, 
a  river,  lake,  or  the  like.  These  dykes  usually  consist  of  ele- 
vations of  earth,  strengthened  with  hurdles  or  stakes,  stones, 
and  other  matters. 

DILAPIDATION,  (from  the  Latin),  the  state  of  a  build- 
ing suflered  to  fall  into  a  ruinous  condition  by  neglect.  The 
term  is  usually  restricted,  in  its  legal  sense,  to  the  pulling 
down  or  destroying  the  houses  or  buildings  belonging  to  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice,  or  suffering  them  by  neglect  to  foil 
into  ruin  or  decay.  In  the  experience  of  every-day  life,  there 
are  few  families  who  have  not  had  occasion  to  fi'el  how  much 
of  annoyance,  inconvenience,  and  loss  may  be  hidden  under 
the  word  dihipidations. 

In  the  "Builder"  of  January,  1849,  there  appeared  an 
excellent  letter  on  this  subject,  and  as  it  is  evidently  written 
by  one  well  acquainted  w  ith  it,  we  consider  its  insertion  here 
will  be  both  interesting  and  useful  : — 

"  This  subject,"  says  the  writer,  "  is  one  that  has  never 
received  proper  consideration  from  the  hands  of  a  large  class 
who  are  interested  and  aflectcd  by  it — 'tenants.'  Men  who 
are  daily  imposing  upon  themselves  heavy  responsibilities,  the 
extent,  or  the  peculiar  obligations,  and  the  ultimate  result  of 
which  they  are  totally  unacquainted  with. 

"  Few  persons  on  taking  a  lease  think  of  raising  objections 
to  covenants  which  are,  they  are  informed,  of  the  usual 
character;  or,  if  prudent  enough  to  pledge  themselves  to  an 
agreement  of  but  three  years,  they  fearlessly,  and  without 
hesitation,  affix  their  signatures  to  a  clause  promising  to 
'uphold,  maintain,  and  ".sustain,'  &c.,  or  that  which  really 
may  turn  out  an  impossibility  ;  for  some  houses,  so  to  speak, 
have  the  elements  of  destruction  and  disease  upon  them  from 


DIL 


269 


DIL 


their  infancy.  Bad  brickworit,  causing  by  its  humidity  damp 
walls,  rots  cverylhing  ;  unseasoned  timber,  tliat  slirinks  and 
twists  in  all  directions,  throwing  floors  out  of  their  level,  and 
making  settlements  from  top  to  bottom,  through  which  the 
doors  and  windows  have  to  be  constantly  eased  and  rehung; 
faulty  and  imperfect  drainage,  which  becomes  constantly 
choked  ;  the,  roof  acting  like  a  sieve  ;  and  this  list  of  ills  that 
modern  houses  are  heir  to,  is  no  exaggeration ;  yet  many  a 
man,  and  he,  too,  who  may  be  esteemed  in  his  own  business 
a  prudent  man,  is  induced,  from  a  want  of  consideration, 
readily  to  promise  to  do  and  perform  all  needful  and  neces- 
sary repairs,  or  at  least  to  leave  the  house  in  tenantable 
repair,  k  is  not  a  little  amusing  to  observe  the  tenant's  sur- 
prise at  the  end  of  his  tenancy,  on  receiving  a'notice  of  dila- 
pidations. AVhat!  he  exclaims,  and  leave  the  house  100  per 
cent,  better  than  when  I  took  it  ?  This,  and  the  various  sums 
of  money  paid  to  jobbing  tradesmen,  all  the  accounts  of  whom 
he  can  enumerate  by  heart,  constitute  the  anchor  of  hope  to 
the  poor  tenant,  when  informed,  in  spite  of  all  the  benefits 
the  house  has  derived  from  him  during  his  tenancy,  that  still 
such  and  such  are  dilapidations,  and  as  such  he  is  answerable 
for  their  being  reinstated.  In  the  present  age,  remarkable 
for  the  number  of  scantily-constructed  houses,  with  so  nice 
and  clean,  yet  deceitful,  an  exterior,  invitingly  waiting  for 
tenants  on  lease  or  agreement,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  useful  to 
consider  the  nature  of  the  obligation  that  exists  between  land- 
lord and  tenar.t  upon  the  hire  of  house-property;  for  as  mis- 
takes will  happen  in  the  best  regulated  families,  so  do  the 
friendship  and  good  understanding  that  may  have  existed 
bitween  landlord  and  tenant  suddenly  cease  with  the  termi- 
nation of  the  lease.  Covenants  to  repair,  when  once  entered 
into,  are  irrevocal)le;  it  is,  therefore,  most  important  that  each 
party  should  clearly  understand  what  constitutes  repairs  or 
dilapidations  ;  and  as  to  all  defects,  whether  they  arise  from 
accident,  neglect,  or  decay,  and  by  which  party  they  are  to 
be  made  good. 

"  A  landlord,  on  making  a  claim  from  his  tenant  for  dila- 
pidations, must  show  that  they  are  such  as  were  stipulated 
iijr  in  the  lease,  as  the  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  tenant  to 
make  good,  varies,  in  nearly  every  case,  according  to  the 
ditlerent  covenants  of  the  lease,  by  which  the  tenants  are 
bound  by  more  or  less  stringent  clauses,  involving  greater 
or  less  responsibilities. 

"Mr.  Gil>hons,  in  an  excellent  treatise  on  this  subject, 
defines  dilapidations  as  the  act  or  default  of  a  person  having 
to  use  a  tenement  to  the  injury  of  another  having  a  rirrht  to 
the  saine  tenement,  or  a  tenant's  obligation  may  be  considered 
as  depending  on  the  old  maxim — 'You  must  not  injure  an- 
other's property,  but  use  it  as  your  own.' 

"  It  is  an  imperative  act  of  justice  to  himself  for  the  future 
tenant  to  make  astipulation  that,  previous  to  the  commi'nce- 
ment  of  his  tenancy,  the  premises  shall  be  surveyed  ;  so  that, 
if  then  thwre  can  lie  considered  anything  imsound  or  defec- 
tive on  the  premises,  it  may  be  made  good  before  the  agree- 
ment is  concluded,  otherwise  the  tenant  will  find  that  he  must 
make  good  all,  whatever  was  the  state  of  repair  when  he 
took  possession  of  the  premises. 

"  Houses  held  on  leoxe. — In  the  case  of  premises  being  let 
on  lease,  as  tenant  should  not  be  compelled  to  supply  and  make 
good  defects  that  may  arise  from  time  and  use,  because,  as 
the  tenant  bargained  for  use,  and  gives  to  the  owner  an  equi- 
valent rent,  the  landlord  has  a  claim  only  for  a  restoration  of 
the  tenement  as  injured  by  the  tenant,  but  has  no  right  to 
make  a  claim  for  the  wear  to  be  made  goo<] ;  but  then,  as  the 
tenant  agrees  to  keep  the  house  in  tenantable  repair,  he  is 
bound  to  supply  all  occasional  and  accidental  defects  which 
may  expose  the  premises  to  premature  decay.     Accidents 


happening  during  his  tenancy,  if  not  inevitable,  must  be 
made  good  by  the  tenant,  for  it  is  fiiir  to  pre~nnie,  that  had 
he  adopted  proper  precautions,  the  accident  might  have  been 
prevented  ;  therefore,  there  exists  an  obligation  no^  to  suffer 
dilapidations,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  tenant  is  equally 
bound  not  to  do  any  act  that  will  cause  an  injury  to  the 
tenement. 

"  Voluntary  wdstc  means  an  alteration  in  the  tenement,  it 
being  held  in  law  that  a  lessee  c<annot  change  the  nature  of 
the  thing  demised  ;  the  act  of  alteration  exceeds  the  right  to 
use,  and  infringes  on  the  condition  that  the  landlord  shall 
receive  back  the  premises  in  the  same  state  and  condition  as 
when  the  lease  was  granted.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  that  a 
tenant  contemplating  an  alteration  or  improvement  should 
receive  proper  permission  and  authority  from  the  landUud." 
"  Permissive  waste  consists  of  a  neglect  on  the  part  of  a 
tenant  to  supply  the  repairs  required  by  time  and  use,  and 
also  a  neglect  to  make  good  occasional  and  accidental  dilapida- 
tions. Houses  and  outbuildings  are  the  principal  subject  of 
dilapidations,  but  the  law  extends  to  trees,  land,  changing 
the  course  of  industry,  &c.,  but  the  chief  subject  is  bnililings. 
These,  though  subject  to  decay  in  the  progress  of  time,  are 
eapalile  of  having  the  defective  or  decayed  parts  inade  good, and 
are  therefore  subject  to  both  permissive  and  voluntary  waste. 
"A  tenant  hiring  premises  on  lease  is  bound  to  perform 
tenantable  repairs,  which  may  be  divided  into  three  heads, — 
the  ornamental,  which  includes  the  trades  of  painter  and 
paper-hanger;  the  substantial,  which  includes  the  trades  of 
bricklayer  and  carpenter;  the  third  includes  all  works  which 
tend  to  preserve  the  fabric  from  decay — as,  stopping  out  wind 
and  weather,  which  includes  the  trades  of  the  joiner,  plas- 
terer, and  glazier. 

"  Dilapidations  caused  by  accident  are  very  serious  upon  a 
tenant,  as  not  only  is  the  accident  considered  as  a  dilapida- 
tion, but  injuries  arising  therefrom,  of  which  the  following  is 
an  illustration  from  Mr.  Gibbons  : — 'If  a  building  be  covered 
with  weather-boarding,  and  such  boarding  decay  from  age,  so 
long  as  it  form  an  entire  and  complete  covering,  it  is  no 
dilapidation  ;  but  if,  owing  to  any  neglect,  any  of  the  internal 
woodwork  become  injured,  that  is  a  dilapidation.  If  the  main 
timbers  decay,  they  arc  not  chargeable  as  a  dilapidation,  so 
long  as  they  are  an  efficient  support;  but  if  .they  give  way, 
the  tenant  is  bound  not  only  to  replace  the  timbers,  but  all 
damage  done  by  their  fall.  Accident,  shown  to  be  inevitable, 
such  as  resulting  from  tempests,  does  not  fill  upon  the 
tenant,  as  in  the  case  of  a  house  being  prostr.-ited,  the  tenant 
need  not  rebuild,  but  if  the  roof  be  blowMi  ofl'  the  tenant  must 
replace  it.  A  ten.ant,  generally  speaking,  is  not  answerable 
for  dilapidations  resulting  from  natural  decay,  or  the  result 
of  time,  or  fair  ordinary  wear  and  tear,  but  /.?  answerable  for 
all  extraordinary  decay.  For  instance,  as  to  decay,  caused  by 
the  premises  being  exposed  to  the  weather,  as  if  the  roof  be 
suffered. to  go  in  bad  repair,  the  tenant  must  make  good  the 
rafters  and  other  timbers,  if  they  are  injured.'  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Tindal  defined  a  tenant's  obligation  to  repair  thus  : — 
'Where  an  old  building  is  let,  and  the  tenant  enters  into  a 
covenant  to  repair,  it  is  not  meant  that  the  old  building  is  to 
be  re-tored  in  a  renewed  form  at  the  expiration  of  his  tenancy, 
or  that  the  premises  shall  be  of  greater  value  than  it  was  at 
the  commencement.  What  the  natural  operation  of  time 
flowing  on  effects,  and  all  that  the  elements  bring  about  in 
diminishing  the  value,  which,  so  far  as  it  results  from  time 
and  nature,  constitute  a  loss,  falls  tipon  the  landlord.  But 
then  the  tenant  must  be  careful  that  the  tenement  do  not 
suffl-r  more  than  time  and  nature  would  eflect.  lie  is  b^mnd 
to  keep  the  premises  in  nearly  the  same  state  of  repair  as 
when  demised.' 


DIM 


270 


DIM 


"  J/(  annual  tenant''s  ohVigalion  has  been  thus  laid  down 
by  Lord  Kenyon  : — 'A  teiKMit  from  year  to  year  is  boinij  to 
commit  no  waste,  and  to  make  from  time  to  time  fair  and 
tonantable  repairs,  such  as  windows  and  doors  that  be 
injured  during  the  tenancy.'  Lord  Tenterdcn  decided  that 
'  an  annual  tenant  was  bound  to  keep  the  premises  wind  and 
water  tight.' 

'■  It  seems  but  ju'^tice,  that  under  any  mode  of  letting  or 
hiring  of  house  property,  a  tenant  should  be  bound  to  use 
all  ordinary  precautions  to  preserve  the  building  from  decay ; 
therofoie  there  exists  an  obligation  to  keep  the  outside  and 
the  roof  sound,  perfect,  and  water-tight;  and  if  the  internal 
woodwork  decay  sooner  than  it  otherwise  would  do  for 
want  of  paint,  &c.,  the  tenant  is  btauid  to  restore  it.  Glass, 
if  cracked  or  broken,  becomes  dilapidation,  it  being  an 
outside  covering. 

"A  tenant  with  no  agreement  as  to  duration  of  his  tenancy, 
cannot  be  bound  to  perform  any  repairs,  the  nature  of  his 
tenancy  being  so  weak  that  he  cannot  be  expected  to  do  any 
repairs,  as  his  landlord  might  immediately  determine  his 
tenancy,  and  reap  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  out- 
lay :  besides,  if  the  house  require  any  repairs  being  done,  the 
landlord  can  enter,  and  take  any  necessary  steps  for  its  pre- 
-servation  ;  but  not  so  with  premises  let  for  a  definite  time, — 
then,  the  landlord  having  granted  the  use  for  a  certain  period, 
has  not  a  right  to  enter  upon  the  premises  until  the  expiration 
of  the  tenancy.  A  tenant  under  this  mode  of  letting,  is  how- 
ever bound  neither  to  commit  nor  permit  waste.  This  kind 
of  tenancy  may  be  considered  rather  as  a  '  deposit  than  as  a 
letting  on  hire,'  and  the  tenant's  obligation  may  be  defined  as 
'  to  use  the  house  with  care.'  " 

The  above  extract  gives  a  very  clear  and  concise  descrip- 
tion of  the  responsibilities  undertaken  by  tenants  under 
varied  forms  of  tenancy.  It  is  well  worthy  the  attentive 
perusal  of  the  young  professional  man,  and  indeed  the  whole 
subject  of  dilapidations  is  an  important  one,  requiringhis  care- 
ful study.  It  is  one  on  which  he  is  very  frequently  called 
upon  to  advise;  and  he  will  scarcely  be  competent  to  do  so 
unless  well  acquainted  with  the  just  claims  of  the  landlord, 
and  the  fair  obligations  of  the  tenant.  To  give  in  a  list  of 
repairs  required  to  be  done,  is  simple  enough  in  acting  for 
the  landlord,  but  the  surveyor  should  be  well  as-iured,  from  a 
practical  acipiaintance  with  what  really  are  dilapidations,  to 
what  extent  he  is  justified  in  calling  on  the  tenant  to  do  them. 

DIMENSION  (from  the  Latin)  a  principal  distance  mea- 
sured in  a  straight  line  on  the  surfiice  of  a  body,  in  some 
particular  direction,  or  through  some  certain  point,  by  the 
help  of  which  tiie  body  may  be  constructed  or  measured  as  to 
its  superficial  or  solid  contents. 

The  dimensions  of  rectangular  figures  and  solids  are  taken 
along,  or  parallel  to  the  straight  lines  which  bound  their  sur- 
fiices  ;  and  consequently  rectangles  have  two  dimmisions,  viz. 
length  and  breadth,  and  rectangular  prisms  three  dimensions, 
viz.  length,  breadth,  and  thickness.  The  dimension  of  a  paral- 
lelogram are  the  length  of  one  side,  and  the  distance  from 
that  >ide  to  the  op|)osite  side  of  the  same,  so  that  the  two 
dimensions  of  a  parallelogram  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  The  dimensions  of  any  plane  figure  are  the  lengths  of 
the  sides  and  diagonals.  The  dimensions  of  a  circle  are  its 
ladiiis,  diameter,  or  circumference,  or  all.  The  dimensions 
of  a  regular  polygon  are  the  length  of  one  of  its  sides,  and 
their  number.  The  dimensions  of  any  prism  are  the  dimen- 
si'ius  of  one  of  its  ends  or  bases,  and  the  perpendicular  or 
distance  between  the  said  ends  or  bases.  The  dimensions  of 
a  pyramid  are  tlie  dimensions  of  its  base,  and  the  distance  or 
perpendicular  form  the  apex  to  the  plane  of  the  base.  The 
dimensions  of  a  sphere  are  its  diameter  or  circumference. 


The  dimensions  of  a  spheroid  are  the  fixed  and  revolving 
axes.  The  dimensions  of  an  irregular  surface  or  body  are  in 
a  great  measure  arbitrary.  The  dimensions  of  an  irregular 
surface  are  thus  taken  :  Fix  upon  some  principal  line  passing 
through  the  middle  of  the  body  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest 
extension,  as  nearly  as  can  be  judged  ;  then  divide  the  length 
of  this  line  into  equal  parts ;  through  the  points  of  division, 
draw  perpendiculars, terminated  by  the  boundary;  then  the 
length  of  the  first  line  and  of  the  perpendiculars  are  the 
dimcn.sions.  The  dimensions  of  a  definite  body  may  be 
limited  as  to  number,  and  the  body  may  be  accurately  ascer- 
tained, either  with  regard  to  its  construction  or  solidity;  but 
an  indefinite  bi>dy  can  never  be  ascertained  for  either,  what- 
ever may  be  the  nuiober  of  its  dimensions :  greater  accuracy, 
however,  will  be  obtained,  the  greater  the  number  of  dimen- 
sions taken.  The  dimensions  of  an  irregular  plane  figure  or 
solid,  ought  to  be  taken  in  equidistant  lines  or  planes. 

The  subjects  to  which  dimensions  arc  applied  belong 
to  geometry,  mensuration,  and  the  construction  of  solids. 
The  method  of  squaring  dimensions  will  be  found  under 
the  articles  Cross  MuLTiPLic.vnoN,  Decimals,  and  Duo- 
decimals. 

In  writing  the  dimensions  of  a  body,  consisting  of  many 
different  parts,  in  order  to  avoid  mistakes,  an  eye-draught,  or 
sketch  of  the  body,  should  be  made,  and  two  angles,  each 
with  its  apex  fixed  in  the  opposite  extremities  of  the  exten- 
sion, with   a    number  placed   between  them  to  denote  the 

length  of  the  line :  thus,  { 36  ft. )■  denotes  36 

feet  between  the  point  of  one  angle  and  that  of  the  other: 
the  opening  of  each  angle  is  always  turned  towards  the  centre 
of  the  line.  By  this  method  no  mistake  can  occur,  even 
though  ever  so  many  other  dimensions  cross  one  another, 
unless  they  come  so  close  as  to  confuse.  Simple  rectangles, 
or  rectangular  prisms,  are  most  frequently  written  down 
without  any  eye-draught,  and  the  dimensions  entered  in  the 
book  with  a  cross  between  each,  or  the  word  by;  thus,  for  a 
rectangle,  3  . .  9'x4  . .  8',  or  3  .  .  9'  by  4 . .  8' ;  that  is,  3  feet 
9  inches  by  4  feet  8  inches;  the  mark  thus',  signifying  that 
the  figures  below  are  inches,  and  consequently  that  the  first 
is  the  place  of  feet.  A  solid  is  thus  denoted,  5  .  .  3'  X  4  . .  8'  X 
12 .  .  6',  or  5  .  .  3'  by  4  . .  8'  by  12  . .  6' ;  that  is,  the  end.  or 
base,  is  5  feet  3  inches  by  4  feet  8  inches,  and  12  feet 
6  inches  from  end  to  end  ;  or  the  solid  is  12  feet  6  inches 
long,  5  feet  3  inches  broad,  and  4  feet  8  inches  thick. 

In  finding  the  contents  of  artificers'  works  in  buildings, 
the  dimensions  are  placed  one  under  the  other,  according  to 
their  denominations,  and  thesurfoce  or  solid  is  known  by  the 
number  of  its  dimensions;  in  order  therefore  to  distinguish 
any  set  of  dimensions  from  the  next,  whether  above  or  below, 
a  horizontal  line  must  be  drawn  between  them.  See  the 
article  Bkickwouk. 

Dimension  Book,  a  book  in  which  the  measurement  of 
the  builder's  work  is  entered,  specimens  of  which  are  given 
under  the  head  Brickwokk. 

DIMINISIIKD  BAR,  of  a  sash,  one  that  is  thinner  on 
the  inner  edge,  or  the  edge  next  to  the  apartment,  than  where 
it  recedes  close  to  the  glass,  in  order  to  give  it  a  lighter 
appearance. 

DiMiN'isnED  Column-,  one  whose  upper  diameter  is  less 
tlian  the  lower  ;  as  is  to  be  seen  in  all  the  regular  orders  of 
architecture. 

DiMiNMSHiNO  TvDLE,  a  board  cut  with  a  concave  edge,  so 
as  to  ascertain  the  swell  of  a  column,  and  try  its  curvature. 
For  the  method  of  forming  a  diminishing  rule,  see  Column. 
Diminishing  Scale,  a  scale  of  gradalinn,  used  in  finding 
the  diHerent  points  fi)r  drawing  the  spiral  curve  of  the  Ionic 
volute,  by  describing  the  arc  of  a  circle  through  every  three 


DIN 


271 


DIO 


succeeding  points,  the  extreme  point  of  the  last  arc  being  one 
of  the  next  three;  each  point  through  which  the  curve 
passes  being  so  regulated  as  to  be  in  a  line  drawn  to  the 
centre  of  the  volute,  and  the  lines  at  equal  angles  with  each 
other.     See  Spiral  and  Volute. 

DIMINUTION  OF  COLUMNS,  the  continued  contrac- 
tion of  the  diameter  from  the  base  to  the  top  of  the  shaft. 

Some  modern  authors  make  the  diminution  to  commence 
from  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  column  ;  but  if  ancient 
methods  are  to  have  a  prefeieuce,  we  shall  find  few  examples 
to  authorize  this  practice.  In  all  the  Grecian  antiquities  of 
Athens,  or  Ionia,  the  dijninution  commences  invariably  from 
tlie  bottom  of  the  shaft,  immediately  above  the  apophyge  : 
and,  according  to  the  engravings  from  Stewart's  drawings, 
the  diminution  is  continued  in  a  straight  line,  excepting  in  the 
Temple  of  Corinth,  where  the  swell  is  shown.  The  diminu- 
tion is  rarely  less  than  one-eighth,  or  greater  than  one-sLxth, 
of  the  inferior  diameter. 

In  Gothic  architecture,  neither  swell  nor  diminution  is 
used;  all  the  horizontal  sections  being  similar  and  equal. 

In  ancient  examples,  even  of  the  same  order,  the  diminu- 
tion is  very  variable. 

Other  particular  remarks  will  be  found  under  Column. 

DlNlNG-liOOM,  an  apartment  in  a  house,  appropriated 
to  the  eating  of  dinners.  The  dining-room  and  drawing-room 
ought  to  have  some  relation  to  each  other  in  point  of  size,  as 
the  company  move  from  one  to  the  other.  In  the  smallest 
houses,  the  dining-room  ought  to  be  the  largest,  and  nearly 
square  upon  a  plan.  In  houses  of  a  middle  size,  they  are 
very  frequently  of  the  same  m.agnitude,  which  may  be  18 
feet  in  breadth,  24  feet  in  length,  and  13^  feet  in  height, 
or  3-4ths  of  the  breadth.  In  larger  houses,  the  length  may 
be  extended  to  40  feet ;  and  in  very  considerable  edifices 
even  to  50  feet :  iu  the  latter  case  the  length  may  be  double 
the  breadth. 

Dining-rooms  are  sometimes  fitted  up  with  a  recess  at  one 
end  for  receiving  the  side-board  ;  but  if  the  apartment  be 
very  large,  a  recess  at  each  end  is  necessary  :  these  recesses 
may  be  either  square,  or  in  the  form  of  a  niche.  See  House, 
and  Room. 

DINOCRATES,  an  eminent  architect,  patronized  by 
Alexander  the  Great ;  whose  history  is  thus  related  by  Vitru- 
vius : — "  At  the  time  that  Alexander  was  conquering  the 
world,  Dinocrates,  the  architect,  confiding  in  his  knowledge 
aijd  genius,  and  being  desirous  of  obtaining  the  royal  com- 
mendation, left  Macedon,  and  repaired  t(j  th«!  army.  He 
carried  with  him  letters  from  his  relations  and  friends  in  his 
own  country,  to  the  nobles  of  the  first  rank,  ;hat  he  might 
thereby  more  easily  gain  access.  Being  favourably  received, 
he  requested  to  be  immediately  presented  to  Alexander ; 
they  gave  him  many  promises,  but  made  delays,  pretending 
to  wait  till  a  proper  opportunity  should  offer.  Dinocrates, 
therefore,  suspecting  that  he  was  derided,  sought  the  remedy 
fi'om  himself  He  was  very  large  of  stature,  had  an  agree- 
able countenance,  and  a  dignity  in  his  form  and  deportment. 
Trusting  to  these  gifts  of  nature,  he  clothed  himself  in  the 
haliit  of  a  host,  anointed  his  body  with  oil,  crowned  his 
head  with  boughs  of  poplar,  put  a  lion's  skin  over  his  left 
shoulder,  and  holding  one  of  the  claws  in  his  light  hand, 
approached  the  tribunal  where  the  king  was  administering 
justice.  The  novelty  of  the  appearance  attracting  the  notice 
of  the  people,  occasioned  Alexander  also  to  see  him,  who, 
wondering  at  the  sight,  commanded  way  to  be  given,  that 
he  might  approach.  Alexander  then  demanded  who  he  was. 
Dinocrates  replied, '  I  am  a  Macedonian  architect,  who  come 
to  thee  with  ideas  and  designs,  worthy  of  the  greatness  of 
thy  fame  ;  I  have  formed  a  design  to  out  Mount  Athos  into 


the  statue  of  a  man,  in  whose  left  hand  shall  be  a  large  city, 
and  in  his  right  a  bason,  which  shall  receive  all  the  rivers 
of  the  mountain,  and  again  discharge  them  to  the  sea.' 
Alexander,  delighted  with  the  idea,  immediately  inquired, 
if  the  country  adjacent  would  produce  sufficient  food  for  the 
sustenance  of  the  iidialiitants.  When  he  understood  that 
provision  must  be  conveyed  thither  by  sea,  he  replied  : 
'Dinocrates,  I  discern  the  excellence  of  thy  design,  and  am 
pleased  with  it ;  but  I  consider,  that  whoever  should  establish 
a  colony  in  such  a  place,  w^ould  hereafter  be  justly  blamed  ; 
for,  as  a  new-born  iiifuit  cannot  be  nourished,  or  gradually 
reared  to  the  different  stages  of  life,  without  the  milk  of  the 
nurse;  so  neither  can  a  city  be  peopled,  nor  can  it  thrive, 
without  fertile  land  and  plenty  of  provision  ;  however,  as  I 
approve  the  design,  though  1  disapprove  the  place,  I  will 
have  thee  attend  me,  that  elsewhere  I  may  employ  thee.' 
From  that  time,  Dinocrates  remained  with  the  king,  and 
attended  him  into  Egypt.  Tliere  Alexander,  observing  a 
spot  which  had  a  haven  formed,  secure  by  nature,  an  excellent 
place  for  an  emporium,  the  adjacent  country  through  all 
Egypt  being  fruitful,  and  having  the  accommodation  of  the 
river  Nile,  ordered  him  to  build  the  city  now  called,  from 
his  name,  Alexandria.  Thus,  by  the  means  of  a  graceful 
countenance  and  dignity  of  person,  Dinocrates  became 
eminent." 

Dinocrates  was  also  employed  to  superintend  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  when  burnt  by 
Erostratus,  which  he  did  with  more  magnificence  than  before. 
The  last  design  which  history  ascribes  to  him,  was  that  of 
erecting  a  temple  to  Arsinoe,  queen  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
at  Alexandria,  with  a  dome  above  it,  whirh  was  to  enclose 
a  magnet,  in  order  to  keep  suspended  in  the  air  an  iron  statue 
of  that  queen.  Ptolemy  approved  the  design,  and  gave  orders 
for  its  execution ;  but  both  the  king  and  the  architect  died 
before  the  project  could  be  accomplished. 

DIOPHANTINE  PROBLEMS,  in  mathematics,  certain 
questions  relating  to  square  and  cube  numbers,  and  right- 
angled  triangles,  &c.,  the  nature  of  which  was  determined 
by  Diophantus. 

'  DIOPHANTUS,  a  celebrated  mathematician  of  Alexan- 
dria, reputed  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  algebra.  The 
exact  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown  ;  some  authors  asserting 
that  he  lived  before  Christ,  and  others  after,  in  the  reigns  of 
Nero  and  the  Antonines.  His  reputation  was  very  high 
among  the  ancients,  since  they  ranked  him  with  Pythagoras 
and  Euclid  in  mathematical  learning. 

Diophantus  left  behind  him  thirteen  books  of  arithmetical 
questioLS,  of  which,  however,  only  six  are  extant. 

D10RAM.\,  a  mode  of  painting  and  scenic  exhibition 
invented  a  few  years  ago  by  two  French  artists,  Daguerre 
and  Bouton.  The  peculiar,  and  almost  magical  effect  of  the 
diorama  arises,  in  a  great  degree,  from  the  contrivance  em- 
ployed in  exhibiting  the  painting,  which  is  viewed  throui:h 
a  large  opening  or  proscenium.  Within  this  pi-osceninm  the 
picture  is  placed  at  such  a  distance,  that  the  light  is  thrown 
upon  it,  at  a  proper  angle  from  the  roof,  which  is  glazed  with 
ground  glass,  and  cannot  be  seen  by  the  spectators.  While 
the  light  is  thus  concentrated  on  the  picture,  the  spectators 
are  left  in  comparative  darkness,  by  which  the  effect  is 
materially  increased  :  and  theillusir.n  is  rendered  still  more 
complete,  by  the  skilful  manner  in  which  the  transitions  of 
licht  are  managed.  The  light  may  be  diminished  or  increased 
at  pleasure,  and  thit  either  graduallv  or  suddenly,  so  as  to 
represent  the  change  from  ordinary  daylight  to  sunshine,  from 
sun-hine  to  cloudy  weather,  or  to  the  obscurity  of  twilight, 
and  also  the  difference  of  atmospheric  tone  attending  them. 
By  means  of  diiTerent  folds  or  shutters  attached  to  the  glazed 


DIP 


272 


DIS 


ceiling,  transitions  arc  produced  in  regard  to  liglit  and  alinos- 
plieric  olleets  of  ihe  most  pleasing  el):iracter.  'Ihc  dinrania 
is  iniieed  a  most  p-.-rfect  scenic  representation  of  nature ;  by 
varied  and  ingenious  contrivances,  it  is  capable  of  displaying 
tlie  greatest  ililference  in  its  pictures.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted 
for  moonlight  sulyeets,  and  for  exhibiting  such  "  accidents" 
in  landscapes  as  sudden  gleams  of  sunshine  and  their  dis- 
appearance. For  shnwing  architecture,  particularly  interiors, 
it  is  uniivalled,  as  powerful  relief  may  be  olitained  without 
that  exaggeration  in  the  shadows  which  is  almost  inevitable 
in  every  other  nmde  of  painting.  Although  as  yet  onlv 
employed  for  purposes  of  public  exhibition,  the  diorama  might 
undoubtedly  be  made  use  of  for  the  embellishment  of  such 
parts  of  a  building  as  corridors  and  the  like,  where  light  can 
only  be  obtained  from  one  extremity. 

The  Dioraina  in  the  llrgcnl's  Park,  was  erected  for  the 
exhibition  ofpictures  with  the  effects  we  have  been  describing; 
and  a-  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  remarkable  of  the 
"sights  in  London,"  deserves  a  passing  notice. 

'I'he  pictures  exhibited  are  each  aliout  72  feet  long,  and 
42  f-'Ct  wide,  and  are  eipable  of  being  shifted  and  exchanged 
fir  others  when  re(|uired.  They  are  placed  at  distances  from 
the  spectator  pniporlioned  to  the  angle  at  which  ho  would 
vi(!W  the  object  in  nature  ;  and  by  the  united  talents  of  the 
artist  and  the  machinist,  the  illusion  is  rendered  so  perfect, 
and  so  true  to  nature,  that  the  beholder  is  almost  led  to  doubt 
that  they  are  really  the  effect  of  art.  Thus,  in  architectural 
subjects,  as  the  interior  ofthe  cathedral,  the  whole  is  at  one 
moiin^nt  subdued  by  gloojn,  as  by  the  overshadowing  of  some 
passing  cloud.  The  "  long  drawn  aisle  "  and  deep  recesses 
are  obscured,  all  .seems  about  to  be  buried  in  darkness,  when, 
in  an  instant,  as  though  the  interruption  had  passed  away, 
and  the  bright  light  of  day  was  permitted  to  shine  through 
the  windows  in  its  full  lustre,  the  Gothic  architecture  is 
illumined  in  the  most  beatitifnl  manner,  the  shadows  pro- 
jected with  force  and  truth, and  the  secondary  lights  produced 
beneath  the  groinings  of  the  roof  in  all  the  delicate  grada- 
tions of  natural  reflections.  Landscape  scenes  tindergo 
similar  changes,  and  admirable  effects  are  produced  in  the 
transitions  from  shade  and  darkness,  to  the  brightness  of 
light  and  sunshine. 

The  elevation  of  the  building  was  designed  by  Mr.  Nash  ; 
it  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  the  baseinent  embellished  with 
colmnns  and  pilasters,  &c.,  the  centre  of  which  is  the 
approach  to  the  theatre.  The  building  consists  of  a  vesti- 
bule and  two  lateral  houses,  facing  a  circular  part  of  the 
edifice,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  audience-room  of 
the  theatre,  and  is  occupied  by  boxes,  and  an  open  area  for 
spectators.  The  sides  of  this  circular  part  are  painted  and 
adorned  with  festooned  draperies,  and  the  top  is  covered  with 
a  transparent  painting,  divided  into  many  compartments,  and 
charged  with  medallion  likenesses  of  several  eminent  artists. 
Over  this  semi-transparent  ceiling,  or  inner  i-oof,  risesa  coni- 
cal roof,  nearly  half  of  which  is  glazed.  The  circular  part 
consists  of  a  wall,  two-thirds  of  a  circle,  with  two  small 
doorways,  and  two  large  openings  to  the  compartments  of 
the  scenic  theatre.  Immediately  within  this  wall,  but 
detached  from  it,  is  another  wall,  rising  from  the  floor  to 
the  inner  ceiling,  and  which,  with  the  floor,  revolves  on  a 
pivot  beneath.  A  large  square  opening,  like  the  proscenium 
of  a  theatre,  allows  the  audience  to  view  the  pictures. 

The  Diorama  was  opened  to  the  public  in  October,  1823, 
and  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  visited  as  one  of  the  most 
popidar  exhibitions  in  the  metropolis. 

DIPTEliON,  or  DiprKRos,  (from  the  Greek),  or  Dip- 
TERK,  (from  the  French),  in  ancient  architecture,  a  temple 
surrounded  with  a  double  row  of  columns,  forming  a  sort  of 


porticos,  called  wings,  or  aisles.  Vitrnvius  informs  us,  that 
dipteral  temples  were  octostyle  ;  but  this  he  must  mean  only 
in  general ;  for  they  may  be  also  deea.style.  Indeed,  they 
could  not  have  been  less  than  octostyle,  as  no  room  would 
have  been  left  for  the  cell.  The  same  author  also  observes, 
that  Hermoginns  made  a  very  great  improvement  in  the  con- 
struction of  dipteral  temples,  by  taking  away  the  interior 
range  of  colnnins,  which  occasioned  confusion  in  the  perspec- 
tive appearance. 

DIRF2CT  RADIAL,  a  right  line  from  the  eye,  perpendi- 
cular to  the  picture. 

DIRECTING  LINE,  the  line  in  which  an  original  plane 
would  cut  the  directing  plane. 

Directing  Plane,  a  plane  passing  through  the  point  of 
sight,  or  the  eye.  parallel  to  the  picture. 

Directing  Point,  that  in  which  any  original  line  pro- 
duced cuts  the  directing  plane. 

D1I!E(T()R  OF  AN  original  Line,  the  straight  line 
passing  through  the  directing  point  and  the  eye  of  the 
spectator. 

Director  of  the  Eve.  the  intersection  of  the  plane  with 
th  ■  directing  plane,  perpendicular  to  the  original  plane  and 
that  ofthe  picture,  and  hence  also  perpendicular  to  the  direct- 
ing and  vanishing  planes;  since  each  of  the  two  latter  is 
parallel  to  each  of  the  two  former.  The  director  ofthe  eye 
is  also  sometimes  called  (lie  ci/e  director. 

DIRECTRIX,  or  Dirigent,  in  geometry,  a  term  express- 
ing the  line  of  motion  along  which  a  de^cribent  line,  or  sur- 
face,  is  earned  in  the  genesis  of  any  plane  or  solid. 

Thus,  if  the  line  a  b  move  parallel  to  itself,  and  along  the 
line  a  c,  so  that  the  point  a  always  keeps  upon  the  line  a  c, 
it  will  form  a  parallelogram,  a  b  c  d,  of  which  the  side  a  b  is 
the  describcnt,  and  a  c  the  dirigent.  So,  also,  if  the  surface 
a  B  c  D  be  supposed  to  be  carried  along  the  line  c  e  in  a  posi- 
tion always  parallel  to  itself,  in  its  first  situation,  the  solid 
A  D  E  H  will  be  formed,  when  the  surface  A  D  is  the  descri- 
bcnt. and  the  line  c  E  is  the  dirigent. 

DIRETTA.  the  same  as  Gola,  or  Sima-TJecta,  which  see. 

DISCHARGE,  (from  the  French),  a  term  applied  to  a 
brick  wall,  or  post,  when  trimmed  up  to  a  piece  of  timber 
overchaiged  in  its  bearing;  in  which  case  the  wall  or  post  is 
a  discharge  to  that  bearing. 

Discharging  Arches,  rough  brick  or  stone  arches,  hnilt 
over  the  wooden  lintels  of  apertures.  These  are  scheme 
arches,  being  the  segments  of  very  largo  circles.  Dis- 
charging arches  are  employed  in  the  inside  of  external  walls 
or  in  partition  walls.  The  length  of  the  chord  of  a  dis- 
charging arch  should  exceed  that  of  the  wooden  lintels 
beneath,  so  that  when  the  wood  begins  to  decay,  the  lintels 
may  be  taken  out,  and  the  arch  will  be  suflicient  to  sustain 
the  superincumbent  part  of  the  wall,  as  well  as  that  the  arch 
may  be  sustained  by  the  walls,  and  not  have  any  dependence 
upon  the  lintels.  To  make  the  arches  resist  witli  greater 
force,  the  lintels  should  not  have  more  wall-hold  than  what 
may  be  fiiiuid  sufficient  to  sustain  the  superincumbent  part 
while  building:  indi'ed,  if  walls  be  well  built,  upon  lirm 
grotind,  wooden  lintels  may  be  dispensed  with. 

Discharging  Struts,  the  same  a'ionxiliarij  rafter,  or  prin- 
cipal braces:  the  term  is  used  by  Batty  Langley. 

DISH-OUT,  to  form  coves  by  any  kind  by  means  of  ribs, 
or  to  form  wooden  vaults  for  plastering  upon. 

DiSHiNGOtiT.  any  kind  of  coved  work  formed  by  wooden 
ribs,  for  plastering  upon.  The  term  is  of  the  same  import 
as  cradlinrj. 

DlsPTlUVIN.ATED  CA VADIUM.     See  Cav.ctium. 

DISPOSITION,  (from  dixpnno,  to  place),  in  architecture, 
tin:  just  placing  ofthe  several  parts  of  a  building,  according 


DIS 


273 


DOD 


to  their  use ;  as,  disposition  of  apartments,  disposition  of 
coliinuis.  as  eustyle,  diastyle.  piclinostyle,  &c. 

DIS  i'ANCE  OF  THE  Eye;  in  perspective  : — If  a  straight  line 
be  drawn  from  the  eye,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
picture,  the  intercepted  part  of  such  line  is  termed  the  dis- 
tance of  the  eye. 

Distance,  Point  of.     See  Point  of  Distance. 

Distance  of  a  vanishing  Line,  the  length  of  a  perpendic- 
ular, falling  from  the  eye  perpendicular  to  the  vanishing 
line. 

Distance,  Inaccessible.     See  Tkigonometrt. 

DISTE.MPER,  (from  the  Fren^-li,  c/etremper,  to  temper  or 
dilute.)  in  painting,  the  working  up  of  colours  with  some- 
thing Ijesides  mere  water  or  oil.  If  colours  be  prepared  w  ith 
water,  the  i>ainting  is  called  liming  ;  and  if  with  oil,  it  is 
called  paiiifing  in  oil,  or  simply  painting. 

If  the  colours  be  mixed  witli  size,  whites  of  eggs,  or  any 
such  priJper  glutinous  or  unctuous  substance,  and  not  with 
oil,  they  then  say  it  is  done  in  distemper ;  as  those  of  the 
admirable  cartoons,  formerly  at  Hampton  Court,  and  as 
all  ancient  pictures  are  said  to  have  been  before  the  year 
1410. 

In  distemper,  the  white  colour  or  base  generally  used  is 
the  finest  whiting,  which  is  prepared  in  large  qu.aiitities  by 
various  manufacturers.  The  colours  most  commonly  mixed 
with  it  for  producing  the  various  tints  are  as  follows: — Straw 
colour  may  be  made  with  white  and  masticot,  or  Dutch 
pink;  fine  grays,  with  white  and  refiner's  verditer;  an  infe- 
rior gray  may  be  compounded  with  blue  black  or  bone 
black,  and  damp  blue  or  indigo  ;  pea-greens,  with  French 
green,  Olympian  green  ;  and  fawn  colour,  with  burnt  sienna 
or  burnt  umber  and  white,  and  so  of  any  intermediate  tint. 
All  the  colours  used  in  distemper,  should  either  be  ground 
very  fine,  or  wa-hed  over  so  as  to  ensure  the  most  minute 
division  of  their  particles.  In  general,  the  size  made  of 
common  glue  is  used  with  a  proper  quantity  of  water  to 
render  the  colour  liquid,  but  where  the  work  will  afford  it, 
parchment-size  will  be  found  gre.atly  superior. 

It  will  not  require  less  than  two  coats  of  any  of  the  fore- 
going colours,  in  order  toco\cr  the  plaster,,  and  bear  out 
with  an  uniform  appearance.  When  old  plastering  has  be- 
come discoloured  with  stains,  and  it  be  desired  to  have  it 
painted  in  distemper,  it  is  advisable  to  give  the  old  plaster, 
when  properly  cleaned  off  and  prepared,  one  coat  at  least  of 
while-lead  ground  in  oil,  and  used  with  spirits  of  turpentine, 
which  will  generally  cover  all  old  stains,  and,  when  quite 
dry,  will  take  the  water-colours  very  kindly. 

The  best  methods  of  compounding  the  colours  with  thS' 
vehicles,  is  to  mi.x  the  size  in  water,  then  to  levigate  the  col- 
ours in  part  of  it,  and  afterwards  to  put  each  kind  into  a  proper 
pot,  adding  as  much  more  of  the  melted  size  as  will  bring  it 
to  a  due  consistence,  and  mixing  the  whole  well  together 
in  a  pot  with  a  brush  or  wooden  spatula.  Warm  water 
may  be  afterwards  added,  if  necessary,  for  grinding  the  col- 
ours, or  for  working.  The  pots  must  be  covered  with  blad- 
ders, and  tied.  This  method  of  painting  is  chiefly  confined 
to  scenes  and  grosser  works,  where  the  effect  depends  more 
upon  the  perspective  and  opposition  of  the  colours,  thau 
upon  their  brightness. 

DISTRlBUnON,  the  dividing  and  disposing  of  the  seve- 
ral parts  of  a  building  according  to  some  plan,  or  to  the 
.  rules  of  architecture.  The  proper  distribution  or  arrange- 
ment of  the  various  apartments  in  a  large  building  is  of 
great  importance,  and  may  be  either  good  or  bad,  as  they 
may  be  best  su'ted  to  answer  their  use.  That  arrangement 
•Mily  can  deserve  tl^e  former  appellation,  in  which  every 
apartment  seems  placed  ui  its  very  best  position,  with  re- 

35 


gard  to  architectural  symmetry,  elegance  of  appearance,  and 
domestic  convenience. 

DISTYLE,  (Greek,  dvto-ffrvAof),  a  portico  of  two  col- 
umns. It  applies  ralhcr  to  a  portico  with  two  columns  in 
antis,  than  to  the  mere  two-columned  porch. 

DITRIGLYPH,  aii  interval  admitting  two  triglyphsover 
the  intercolurnn  ;  that  is,  if  in  two  adjoining  columns  a  tri- 
glyph  be  placed  with  its  middle  over  each,  the  ditriglyph 
will  contain  three  metopes,  or  spaces,  two  half  triglyphs, 
and  two  whole  triglyphs. 

DIVAN,  among  the  Orientals,  a  council-chamber,  or  the 
saloon  or  hall  in  which  a  council  is  held  :  it  is  applied  gene- 
rally to  denote  a  state  apartment,  or  room  in  which  company 
is  received. 

DIVERGING  LINES,  such  as  are  continually  increasing  in 
their  distance  from  each  other. 

DIVIDERS.     See  Mathematical  Instruments. 

DIVISION,  Harmonical.     See  IIarmosi^al  Division. 

Division  of  an  Order.     See  Order. 

DOCK,  an  artificial  receptacle  for  shipping,  generally 
formed  by  excavation,  and  enclosed  by  gates,  which  open 
for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  vessels  ;  the  sides  are  usually 
constructed  of  masonry. 

Dock,  a  place  artificially  formed  on  the  side  of  a  harbour 
or  bank  of  a  river,  for  the  reception  of  ships.  Docks  are  of 
two  kinds,  wet-docks  and  dry-docks.  A  wet-dock  is  an  ex- 
cavation or  basin,  of  considerable  extent,  which  vessels  can 
enter  to  discharge  or  take  in  their  cargoes,  and  in  which  they 
are  always  afloat ;  of  this  kind  are  the  immense  docks  of 
London,  Liverpool,  and  othej-  places  of  great  commerce.  A 
dry-dock  is  used  for  inspecting  and  repairing  ships,  and  is 
so  contrived,  that  the  water  can  be  admitted  or  excluded  at 
pleasure,  so  that  a  vessel  can  be  floated  in  when  the  tide  is 
up,  and  the  water  may  run  out  with  the  fall  of  the  tide;  or, 
the  gates  of  the  dock  being  closed  to  prevent  the  egress  of 
the  water,  it  is  pumped  out  by  steam-power.  Dockyards 
belonging  to  the  government  usually  consist  of  dry-docks 
for  repairing  ships,  and  of  slips  on  which  new  vessels  are 
built ;  besides  which  they  comprise  storehouses,  in  which 
various  kinds  of  naval  stores  are  kept,  and  workshops  in 
which  different  processes  subsidiary  to  ship-building,  are  car- 
ried on. 

DODECAGON,  (dwde/ca,  twelve  and  yuvia,  angle),  a  regu- 
lar polygon  or  figure,  with  twelve  equal  sides  and  angles. 

If  the  radius  of  a  circle  o  a  d  f,  be  so  divided  into  two 
parts,  that  the  rectangle  under  the  whole  and  the  one  part 
shall  be  equal  to  the  square  of  the  other  part ;  then  this  last 
part  will  be  equal  to  the  side  c  d  of  a  regular  decagon  a  b  c 
DBF,  &c.,  inscribed  in  the  circle  ;  and  that  line  whose 
square  is  equal  to  the  two  squares  of  the  whole,  and  of  the 
same  part,  will  be  equal  to  the  side,  a  c,  of  a  regular  pen- 
tagon inscribed  in  the  same  circle.  For,  draw  the  radii  o  a, 
o  c,  o  D,  o  F  ;  also  draw  a  d,  cutting  o  c  in  o,  and  let  a  h  be 
perpendicular  to  o  g.  The  triangle>o  d  g,  having  the  angle 
cod(=4dof  =  oad)=:oda.  is  isosceles  :  the  trian- 
gle a  o  G,  having  ago(=gdo-1-dog  =  2doc)  =  a 
o  c,  is  likewise  isosceles ;  as  is  also  the  triangle  c  d  g  ;  be- 
cause, COD  being  =  a  g  o,  and  c  d  g  (c  d  a)  =  f  a  d,  the 
triangles  a  o  g  and  c  d  G  are  equiangular  ;  consequently, 
c  d,  a  o;  c  G,  6  o,  being  corresponding  sides,  we  have  c  o 
XAo(cGXco)  =  CDXGO  =  GO^  because  g  o  =  g  d 
=  D  c,  the  side  of  the  decagon,  &c.  Moreover,  because  a  o 
=  A  o,  H  G  will  be  =  H  o  ;  and  o  c  being  the  difference  of 
the  segments  h  o  and  h  c,  we  have  ac'  —  ao*=coXgc 
=  o  g';  and  consequently  a  c*  (?.  e.  the  square  of  the  side  of 
the  pentagon)  =  a  o'  +  o  g'. 

Let  c  o  —a,Q  o  —'X,  then  will  c  g  =  a  —  x  ;  and  by 


DOD 


274 


DOG 


this  proposition,  a  —  x  X  "  =  •«'  ;"iJ  .r^  +  a  x  =  «' ;  ami 
resolving  tills  iiuaclrutic  equation,  we  shall  have  x''  -\-  a  jc  -\- 
Jrt'  =  a''  +  1"*—  f  «';  whence  x  +  ^-  a  =:  ^-J  «',  and  x  = 
v/^u" — jfl.  Let  the  radius  a  be  ^  1,  and  o  o,  or  the  side 
of  a  ivgidar  docagon  inscribed  in  the  circle,  is  =  y'  -J  —  ^. 
Ilcnce  it  appears  that  the  sine  of  18"  (f)r  half  the  side  of  a  dec- 
agon inscribed  in  the  circle)  is  =  |  y'^— J  =;?f  y'  1  .•2.")  —  )-  = 
1. 11803398 
,&5C.  — i=.55901G99,  &c.— .25=.30901C99,  «kc. 


If  the  side  of  a  dodecagon  l>e  1,  its  area  will  be  equal  to 
three  times  the  tangent  of  75"  =  3  X  '^  +  ^3=1 1.19(Jlo:»t 
nearly;  and,  the  areas  of  plane  llgures  luiug  as  the  squares 
of  their  sides,  11.19U15~4  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the 
side  of  any  dodecagon,  will  give  its  area.  Ilutton's  Me/isiir 
ration,  p.  114. 

To  inscribe  a  ^odecar/on  in  a  given  circle. — Carry  the  rO/- 
dius  six  times  round  the  circumference,  which  will  divide  it 
into  six  equal  parts,  or  form  a  hexagon,  (See  Hexagon)  ;  then 
bisect  each  of  those  parts,  which  will  divide  the  whole  into 
12  parts,  tor  the  dodecagon. 

DODECAllEDUON,  (from  SioSsKa,  twelve,  and  e6pa, 
seat.)  one  of  the  regular  l)odies  comprehended  under  twelve 
ecjual  sides,  caeh  of  which  is  a  pentagon  ;  or,  a  dodecahedron 
may  be  conceived  to  consist  of  twelve  quin(|uangular  pyra- 
mids, whose  vertices,  or  tops,  meet  in  the  centre  of  a  s|ihere 
conceived  to  cii'cuniscribe  the  solid  ;  consei|uently  they  have 
their  bases  and  altit\ides  equal. 

To  find  the  Koliditij  of  lite  dodecahedron. — Find  that  of  one 
of  the  pyramids,  and  multiply  it  by  the  n\unber  of  bases, 
viz.,  12;  the  product  is  the  solidity  of  the  whole  body.  Or 
its  solidity  is  found  by  multiplying  the  base  into  one-third 
of  its  distance  from  the  centre,  twelve  times  ;  and  to  find 
this  distance,  take  the  distance  of  two  parallel  faces;  the 
half  is  the  height. 

The  diameter  of  the  sphere  being  given,  the  side  of  the 
dodecahedron  is  found  by  this  theorem ;  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  sphere  is  equal  to  the  rectangle  under  the 
aggregate  of  the  sides  of  a  dodecahedron  and  hexahedron  in- 
scribed in  the  same,  and  triple  the  side  of  the  dodecahedron. 

Thus,  if  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  be  1,  the  side  of  the 
dodecahedron,  inscribed,  will  be  (y'| —  ■\/ \)  -r- 2  ;  conse- 
quently, that  is  to  this  as  2  to  {-^  ^ —  Vi)  '^""^  '"'"'  square 
of  tliat,  to  tlie  square  of  this,  as  six  :  3  —  y/  b.  Therefore 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere  is  incommensurable  to  the  side 
of  an  inscribed  dodecakedron,  both  in  itself  and  in  its  power. 

If  the  side,  or  linear  edge,  of  a  dodecahedron  be  a-,  its  sur- 
face will  be 


15  s»  -/  1  -f  f  \/  5  =  20.6457788  s' :  and  its  solidity 

5  s  ■/47  +  21  v/y 

=  7.6G31 189G  s». 


40 

If  the  radius  of  the  sphere  that  circumscribes  a  dodecahe- 
dron be  r,  then  is 

v/15-i/T 
its  side   or    linear   edge  ^ r. 


3 


its  superficies 
its  solidity 


=   10rV2  —  f  yS,  and 
20  r»  Vu+^T 


8 


30 


Tlie  sides  of  a  dodecahedron  inscribed  in  a  sphere  is  equal 
to  the  greater  part  of  the  side  of  a  cube  inscribed  in  the 
same  sphere,  and  cut  according'to  extreme  and  mean  pro- 
portion. If  a  line  be  so  cut,  and  the  lesser  segment  be  taken 
for  the  side  of  a  dodecahedron,  the  greater  segment  will  be 
the  side  of  a  cube  inscribed  in  the  same  sphere.  The  side  of 
the  cube  is  equal  to  the  right  line  which  subtends  the  angle 
of  a  pentagon,  of  the  dodecahedron  inscribed  in  the  same 
sphere. 

DODECASTYLE,  an  edifice  having  twelve  cobunns  in 
front. 

DOG-LEGGED  STAIRS,  such  as  are  solid  between  the 
upjier  flights  ;  (jr  those  which  have  no  well-hole ;  and  the 
rail  and  balusters  of  both  the  j)rogressive  and  retrogressive 
flight,  fall  in  the  same  vertical  plane.  The  steps  are  fixed 
to  strings,  newels,  and  cariiages;  and  the  ends  of  the  steps 
of  the  inferior  kind  terminate  only  on  the  side  of  the  string, 
without  any  housing. 
No.  1.  The  plan. — a  the  scat  of  the  newel ;  g  the  seat  of  the 

upper  newel. 
The  dotted  lines  represent  the  faces  of  the  risers,  and  the  con. 

tinued  lines  the  nosings  of  the  steps. 
No.  2.  The  elevation. — a  b  the  lower  newel,  the  part  b  o 

being  turned  ;  g  h  the  upper  newel ;  »  e,  f  g,  the  lower  and 

upper    string-boards,    framed     into    the    newel ;    k  L   a 

joist  framed   into  the   trimmer  i ;  k  I,  n  o,  q  r,  drc,  the 

faces  of  the  risers ;  in  n,  p  q,  s  t,  the  heads,  or  cover-lioards ; 

m,  p,  s,  d-c:,  nosings  of  the  steps  ;  m  o,  f  q,  the  upper  and 

lower  ramps. 

To  describe  the  ramps. — Suppose  the  upper  one  to  be 
drawn  ;  produce  the  horizontal  part,  u  m,  of  the  rail  to  p  : 
draw  M  N  perpendicular  to  p  ii,  and  produce  the  straight 
part,  B  o,  to  N  :  make  n  o  equal  to  n  m  :  draw  o  p  at  ligiit 
angles  to  b  n  :  from  p,  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  m  o  :  and 
describe  another  concentric  circle  to  meet  the  under  side  of 
the  rail,  and  the  sloping  part  b  o;  and  the  ramp  will  be 
completed. 

R  s,  the  story -rod  ;  this  is  a  necessary  article  in  fixing  the 
steps  ;  for  if  a  common  measuring  rule  be  used  for  this  \i\ir- 
pose,  the  workman  will  be  very  liable  to  err  either  in  excess 
or  defect,  and  thus  render  the  stairs  extremely  faulty  ; 
which  cannot  be  the  case  if  the  story-rod  be  applied  to  every 
riser,  and  if  the  successive  risers  be  regulated  thereby. 
When  steps  are  put  up  without  the  use  of  the  story-rod,  the 
smallest  error  is  liable  to  multiply. 

In  the  construction  of  dog-lcggcd  staircases,  the  first  thing 
is  to  take  the  dimensions  of  the  stair  and  the  height  of  the 
Slory,  and  lay  down  a  plan  and  section  upon  a  floor  to  the 
full  size,  representing  all  the  newels  and  steps ;  then  the 
situation  of  the  carriages,  pitching-picces,  long  bearers, 
and  cross  bearers,  will  be  ascertained,  as  also  of  the  string- 
boards. 

The  quantity  of  room  allowed  for  the  stairs,  and  the  situa- 
tion of  the  apertures  and  passages,  will  determine  whether 
there  are  to  be  quarter-paces,  half-paces,  one-ipiarter  winders, 
or  two-quarter  winders.  In  order  to  give  all  the  variety 
possible,  we  shall  suppose  the  flight  to  consist  of  two-quarter 
winders. 

The  strings,  rails,  and  newels,  being  framed  together,  they 
nnist  be  fi.xed  with  temporary  supports  ;  the  string-board 
will  show  the  situation  of  the  pitching-pieces,  which  must  be 
put  up  next  in  order,  wedging  one  cud  firmly  into  the  wall, 
and  fixing  the  other  to  the  string-board  ;  this  being  done, 
pitch  up  the  rough  strings,  and  thus  finish  tlie  carriage  part 
of  the  flyers.  In  dog-legged  staircases,  the  steps  and  risers 
are  seldom  glued  up,  except  in  cases  of  rcturiH'd  nosings; 
suppose  them,  therefore,  to  bo  of  sejiaiate  pieces  ;  proceed  to 


P  M 


/'/..rr±  /. 


TiDi  y'°: 


\n 

1      i 

1 

: 

^^^-, 

X 

A-f- 

li      i;      1 

1 

1 

i 

i'w  z 


iirenttdbif  F^ 


A'tj7  "iy  R  7\ 


DOG 


275 


DOG 


put  ii|>  tlie  steps:  place  the  first  riser  in  its  situation,  having 
lilted  it  down  close  to  iho  floor;  the  top  being  Uroiight  to  a 
level  at  its  proper  height,  and  the  face  in  its  right  pcisition, 
tix  it  willi  flat  headed  nails,  driving  them  oblitpiely  through 
the  bottom  part  of'  the  riser  into  the  floor,  and  tiicn  nailing 
the  end  to  the  string-board  ;  proceed  then  to  cover  the  riser 
with  the  first  tread,  observing  to  notch  out  the  farther 
Dottoni  angle  opposite  the  rough  strings,  so  as  to  make  it  fit 
closely  dovvn  to  a  level  on  the  top  side,  while  the  under  side 
beds  firmly  upon  the  rough  strings  at  the  back  edge,  and  to 
the  riser  towards  the  front  edge  :  nail  down  the  tread  to  the 
rough  strings,  driving  the  nails  from  the  seat,  or  place  on 
which  the  next  riser  stands,  through  that  edge  of  the  riser 
into  the  rough  strings,  and  then  nailing  the  end  to  the  string- 
board  ;  begin  with  the  second  riser,  having  brought  it  to  a 
breadth,  and  fitted  it  close  to  the  top  of  the  tread,  so  that 
the  back  edge  of  the  tread  below  it  may  entirely  lap  over  the 
back  of  the  riser,  while  the  front  side  is  in  its  regular  ver- 
tical |)osition  :  nail  the  head  of  the  riser,  from  the  uniler  side, 
taking  care  that  the  nails  do  not  go  through  its  face,  and 
theicby  spoil  the  beauty  of  the  work. 

Proceed  in  this  manner,  with  tread  and  riser  nltemately, 
until  the  last  parallel  riser.  The  face  of  this  riser  must  stand 
the  wIkjIc  projection  of  the  nosing  back  from  the  face  of  the 
newel.  Then  fix  the  top  of  the  first  bearer,  for  the  first 
winding  tread,  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  last  parallel 
riser,  so  that  the  fiither  edge  of  this  beai'er  may  stand  about 
an  inch  forward  from  the  back  of  the  next  succeeding  riser, 
for  the  purpose  of  nailing  the  treads  to  the  risers  upwards, 
as  was  done  in  the  treads  and  risers  iif  the  flyers  ;  and  hav- 
ing fitted  the  end  of  this  bearer  against  the  back  of  the  riser, 
and  nailed  or  screwed  them  fast  together,  fix  a  cross-bearer, 
by  letting  it  half  its  thickness  into  the  adjacent  sides  of  the 
top  of  the  riser,  and  into  the  top  of  the  long  bearer,  so  as 
not  to  cut  through  the  horizontal  breadth  of  the  hnig  bearer, 
nor  through  the  thickness  of  the  riser,  as  this  would  weaken 
the  one,  and  spoil  the  look  of  the  other.  Then  fix  the  riser 
to  the  newel,  driving  a  nail  obliquely  from  the  top  edge  of 
the  former  into  the  latter  :  then  proceed  to  put  down  the  first 
winding  tread,  fitting  it  close  to  the  newel,  in  the  bird's- 
mouth  form.  Proceed  in  this  manner  with  all  the  succeed- 
ing risers  and  treads,  always  fixing  in  the  bearers,  previously 
to  laying  each  successive  tread,  until  the  steps  round  the 
winding  part  are  entirely  completed.  Then  proceed  with 
the  upper  retrogressive  range  of  flyers  as  with  those  below. 
Fit  the  brackets  into  the  backs  of  the  risers  and  treads,  so 
that  their  edges  may  join  each  other  on  the  sides  of  the  rough 
strings,  to  which  they  are  li.xed  by  nails,  and  thus  the  work 
is  completed.  Some  workmen  do  not  mind  the  close  fitting  of 
the  riser ;  but  it  certainly  makes  the  firmest  work. 

In  the  best  kind  of  dog-legged  stairs,  the  nosings  are 
returned  ;  sometimes  the  rise''s  are  mitred  to  the  brackets, 
and  sometimes  mitred  with  quaker-strings  :  in  the  latter  case, 
a  hollow  is  mitred  round  the  internal  angle  of  the  under  side 
of  the  tread,  and  the  face  of  the  riser.  Sometimes  the  string 
is  framed  into  the  newel,  and  notched  to  receive  the  ends  of 
the  steps ;  the  other  end  having  a  corresponding  notch- 
board,  and  the  whole  flight  is  put  up  like  a  step-ladder. 
In  order  to  get  the  lower  part  for  the  turning,  set  the  thick- 
ness of  the  capping  on  the  return  string-board,  and  where 
that  falls  on  the  newel  below,  is  the  place  of  the  lower  limit 
for  the  turning. 

To  Jind  the  section  of  the  caj>  of  the  neioel  for  the  turner. — 
Draw  a  circle  to  its  intended  diameter  :  draw  a  straight  line 
from  the  centre  to  any  point  without  the  circumference,  and 
Set  half  the  breadth  of  the  rail  on  each  side  of  that  line  ; 
tlirough  the  point  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  middle  straight 


line,  and  the  extreme  lines  will  contain  the  breadth  of  the 
rail  :'draw  any  radius  of  the  circle,  and  set  half  the  breadth 
of  the  rail  from  the  centre  towards  the  circumference; 
through  the  point  where  this  breadth  falls,  draw  a  concen- 
tric circle;  from  the  point  where  this  circle  cuts  the  middle 
line  of  the  rail,  draw  two*  lines  to  the  points  where  the 
breadth  of  the  rail  intersects  the  outer  circle,  and  these 
lines  will  show  the  mitre.  See  Hand-Rau-ing  and  Stair- 
casing. 

DOGS,  otherwise  termed  andirons  or  endirons,  creepers,  &c. 
iron  standards  used  in  the  olden  times  to  support  the  logs  of 
wood  when  consumed  for  fuel.  The  distinction  between  the 
andirons  and  creepers  consists  in  the  former  being  of  a  larger 
size  than  the  latter  ;  the  use.  of  the  andirons  was  to  support 
the  logs,  and  of  the  creepers  to  keep  the  brands  off  the 
hearth.     Endirons. 

Doo-TOOTH,  an  ornament  very  prevalent  in  edifices  of  the 
Early  English  style,  in  which  it  forms  a  very  marked  featurd? 
It  consists  of  a  pyratnidal  flower  of  four  leaves,  so  disposed 
as  to  have  the  space  between  the  two  adjacent  leaves  in  the 
centre  of  the  sides  of  the  pyramid  ;  a  series  of  such  orna- 
ments is  very  frequently  seen  inserted  in  a  hollow  moulding. 

DOME,  a  term  applied  to  a  covering  of  the  whole  or  part 
of  a  building.  The  Germans  call  it  Dom,  and  the  Italians 
Dfiomo,  and" apply  the  word  to  the  principal  church  of  a  city, 
although  the  building  may  not  have  any  spherical  or  poly- 
gonal dome.  From  this  and  other  circumstances  we  may 
infer  the  term  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  Domus,  house. 

A  dome  is  an  arched  or  vaulted  roof,  springing  from  a 
polygonal,  circular,  or  elliptic  plan  ;  presenting  a  convex  sur- 
firce  on  the  outside,  or  a  concavity  within,  so  as  that  every 
horizonal  section  m.ay  be  of  a  similar  figure,  and  have  a 
common  vertical  axis.  According  to  the  plan  from  which 
they  spring,  domes  are  either  circular,  elliptical,  or  polygonal ; 
of  these,  the  circular  may  be  spherical  spheroidal,  ellipsoidal, 
hyperboloidal,  paraboloidal,  &c.  The  word  dome  is  applied 
to  the  external  part  of  the  spherical  or  polygonal  roof,  and 
cupola  to  the  internal  part.  Cupola  is  derived  from  the 
Italian  cupo,  deep,  whence  also  our  word  cup.  But  cupola 
and  dome  are  often  used  synonymou-^ly,  although  perhaps 
incorrectly.  Such  as  rise  higher  than  the  radius  of  the 
base,  are  denominated  snrmovnted  domes  ;.  those  that  are  of 
a  less  height  than  the  radius,  are  called  diminished  or  snrbased; 
and  such  as  have  circular  bases,  are  termed  cvpolas. 

The  remains  of  ancient  domes  are  generally  spherical  in 
their  fi)rm,_  or  built  of  stone  or  ti(fo.  Euins  of  numerous  ones 
still  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  liomeand  Naples.  They 
were  frequently  used  among  the  Romans,  after  the  accession 
of  Augustus,  in  whose  reign,  the  use  of  the  arch,  and  conse- 
quently of  domes,  first  l)ecame  common.  The  arch,  indeed, 
is  of  Grecian  origin,  though  in  all  the  ancient  edifices  of  that 
country,  we  do  not  meet  with  a  single  instance  of  a  built 
dome  :"  that  which  covers  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  being 
only  a  single  stone,  can  only  be  looked  upon  as  a  lintel  :  and 
the  invention  of  this  species  of  vault  seems  justly  attributed 
to  the  Romans,  or  Etrurians. 

Of  the  ruins  ofdom.es  in  and  near  Rome,  the  principal  arc 
the  Pantheon,  and  the  temples  of  Bacchus,  Vesta,  Romulus, 
Hercules,  Cybele,  Neptune,  and  Venus,  and  also  some  of  the 
chambers  of  the  Thermae.  The  most  magnificent  dome  of 
antiquity  is  that  of  the  Pantheon,  at  Rome,  built  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  and  supposed  to  be  a  chamber  of  the  great 
baths  of  Agrippa.  It  is  still  entire,  and  consists  of  a  hemi- 
spherical concavity,  enriched  with  coffers,  and  termiMating 
upwards  in  .an  ap'erture,  called  the  eije.  The  exterior  rises 
from  several  degrees,  in  a  sloping  direction,  nearly  tangent 
to  the  several  internal  quoins,  and  presenting  to  the  spectator 


DOM 


276 


DOM 


the  truncated  segment  of  a  sphere,  considerably  less  than  a 
hemisphere.  The  diameter  of  the  dome  internally  is  143 
feet  8i  inches  ;  the  circular  opening  at  the  top  in  the  centre 
28  feet  0  inches  in  diameter  ;  the  height  from  tlie  top  of  the 
atlic  70  feet  8  inches.  The  interior  of  the  dome  is  orna- 
ineiited  with  five  rows  of  squar»  compartments,  and  as  these 
converge  towards  the  top,  each  row  is  considerably  larger  than 
that  immediately  above  it.  Each  of  the  large  sq\iares  con- 
tains four  smaller  ones  snnk  one  within  the  other.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  these  were  decorated  with  plates  of  silver.  The 
base  of  the  dome  externally  consists  of  a  large  plinth  with 
six  smaller  plinths  or  steps  above  it;  and  in  the  curve  of  the 
dome  a  flight  of  steps  is  formed  which  leads  to  the  opening 
at  the  top  of  the  dome.  From  the  drawings  of  Serlio,  it 
appears  that  similar  flights  of  steps  were  formed  at  intervals 
ail  round  the  dome,  but  these  are  now  covered  with  lead. 
The  dome  is  constructed  of  bricks  and  rubble.  The  thick- 
tiess  at  the  base  is  about  17  feet ;  at  the  top  of  the  highest 
step,  5  feet  1  J-  inches;  and  at  the  top  of  the  dome,  4  feet  7 
inches.  The  circular  wall  which  supports  the  dome  is  20 
feet  thick,  but  is  divided  by  several  large  openings,  and  has 
discharging  arches  of  biick.  The  dome  of  the  Pantheon  is 
incombustible,  and  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the 
most  duialile  and  unconsumable  roof  which  could  have  been 
erected  over  so  large  a  building. 

The  dome  of  the  temple  of  Bacchus  is  also  internally 
hemispherical,  though  without  coffers.  Externally  it  is  now 
covered  with  a  common  roof,  which  may  have  been  the 
original  form  ;  such  a  roof  is  also  to  be  seen  over  the  dome 
of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian,  at 
Spaiatro. 

The  dome  of  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  Thernife  of  Catania 
was  111  feet  in  diameter.  In  the  Thermte  of  Titus  there 
are  two  domes,  each  84  feet  in  diameter  ;  and  in  the  baths 
of  Constautine  there  was  one  of  7C  feet.  There  were  three 
domes  in  the  baths  of  Diocletian,  of  which  two  still  remain  ; 
one  is  73  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  other  ()'2  feet 
3  inches.  Juciging  from  those  that  remain,  it  would  seem 
that  in  the  Therma;  they  were  lighted  from  the  top,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  dome  of  the  Pantheon.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Puzzuoli  there  is  a  circular  edifice  which  has  a 
dome  built  of  pumice-stone  and  volcanic  tufa  :  its  diameter  is 
about  90  feet.  The  temple  of  Minerva  Medica  at  Home, 
was  on  the  plan,  a  pol\  gonal  dome  of  ten  sides,  without  any 
opening  at  the  top.  Domes  were  sometimes  constructed  on 
Corbels  by  the  ancients.  In  one  of  the  octagonal  rooms  of 
the  enclosure  round  the  baths  of  Caraealla  the  corbels  which 
supported  the  dome  still  remain,  and  at  Catania  there  is  a 
spherical  dome  covering  a  scpiare  vestibule. 

The  dome  of  Santa  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  built  in  the 
reign  of  .ln>tiniau,  ranks  next  to  the  Pantheon  in  point  of 
antiijuity,  and  is  the  most  remarkable  and  the  earliest  con- 
structed after  those  of  the  Romans.  Anthomius  of  Tralles, 
and  Isidorus  of  Miletus,  were  the  architects.  Anihemius  had 
promi>ed  to  raise  a  dome  over  this  edifice,  of  such  magnitude 
as  to  eclipse  the  magnificence  of  the  lioman  Pantheon.  With 
this  view,  he  erected  fo\ir  pillars  at  the  angles  of  a  square,  at 
about  the  distance  of  115  feet  from  each  other,  and  nearly  of 
the  same  altitude.  The  church  was  to  be  of  the  form  of  a 
cross,  and  vaulted  with  stone  ;  ho  therefore  threw  arches 
over  the  pillars,  ami  filled  up  the  angular  spaces  between  the 
archivaults,  till  he  had  gradually  shaped  them  into  a  complete 
circle,  at  the  level  of  the  extradoses  of  the  arclies.  On  the 
ring  thus  formed,  the  dome  was  raised,  being  the  first  ever 
built  on  pendentives.  The  pressure  of  the  eastern  and 
western  arches  was  resisted  by  four  walls  almost  solid,  form- 
'ng  transepts,  and  running  longitudinally,  two  from  the  north, 


and  two  from  the  south  sides  of  the  pillars,  to  the  distance 
of  about  90  feet.  The  east  and  west  arches  were  abutted 
upon  by  half  domes,  resting  on  cylindrical  walls,  which,  it  was 
supposed,  would  have  been  sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure  of 
the  arches  on  the  north  and  south  ;  but  in  this  the  architect 
was  mistaken  ;  for  the  superstructure  gave  way  towards  the 
east,  and,  at  the  end  of  a  few  months,  fell,  taking  with  it  the 
half-dome  on  that  side.  After  the  death  of  Anthemius,  the 
superintendence  of  the  building  devolved  on  Isidorus,  who 
strengthened  the  eastern  pillars,  by  filling  up  certain  voids 
left  by  his  predece^or ;  but  when  the  dome  was  turned 
upon  them,  the  east  end  proved  still  too  weak  for  the  support 
of  so  great  a  load,  and  again  gave  way,  before  the  work  was 
completed.  In  order  to  counteract  this  thrust  on  the  east, 
Isidorus  now  b\nlt  strong  pillared  buttresses  against  the 
eastern  wall  of  a  square  cloister  that  ran  round  the  building  ; 
from  which  he  threw  flying  buttresses  over  the  void,  and 
then  raised  the  dome  a  third  time,  but  with  very  little  success  ; 
for  though  every  precaution  was  taken  to  lessen  its  weight, 
by  using  pumice-stone  and  other  light  materials,  and  by 
reducing  its  thickness,  the  arches  were  so  much  fractin-ed,  that 
he  was  under  the  necessity  of  filling  up  the  large  arcades  on 
the  nortli  and  south  sides,  with  arches  of  less  dimensions,  in 
three  stories. 

We  have  mentioned  these  circumstances,  to  show  that  the 
architects  of  the  age  to  which  this  l>uilding  is  referred,  were 
not  so  well  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  dome-vaulting, 
as  those  of  more  modern  date :  for  the  latter  would  probably 
have  hooped  or  chained  such  a  dome  immediately  over  the 
arches  and  pendentives,  so  as  to  confine  its  pressure  to  a  per- 
pendicular thrust,  or  nearly  so.  Such  was  the  case,  in  the 
far  more  ponderous  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  erected  by 
Michael  Angelo  ;  and  such,  more  recently,  was  the  practice 
of  our  countryman.  Sir  Christoph'T  Wren,  in  the  cupola  of 
St.  Paul's,  at  Londi>n.  The  present  dome,  however,  of  Santa 
Sophia,  was  reconstructed  by  the  nephew  of  Isidorus.  It  rests 
on  the  square  formed  at  the  intersection  of  the  arms  of  the 
Greek  cross  ;  the  diameter  being  about  111  feet,  and  the 
dome  40  feet  high,  and  is  supported  by  corbellings  placed  in 
the  angles  of  the  square.  These  corbels  are  surmounted  by 
a  kind  of  cornice  on  which  rests  a  circular  gallery.  The 
lower  part  of  the  dome  has  a  row  of  windows  adorned  with 
columns  on  the  exterior,  and  the  top  is  surmounted  by  a 
lantern  on  which  is  a  cross.  .The  dome  of  Anth.unius  and 
Isidorus,  was  not  so  high  ;  and  was  partly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  a  few  years  after  its  construction.  In  rebuilding 
it,  the  nephew  of  Isidorus  used  a  very  light  white  brick,  made 
at  Rhodes,  and  much  lighter  than  the  common  brick. 

The  dome  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  erected  about  the  year 
973,  and  that  of  the  cathedral  at  Pisa,  built  e:irly  in  the 
eleventh  century,  are  both  upon  the  same  plan  with  the  pre- 
ceding. The  church  of  Saint  Mark,  built  in  the  tenth 
century,  has  five  domes;  the  central  dome  being  much  larger 
than  the  others.  Each  dome  is  enehised  within  four  pieces  of 
semi-cyliudrieal  vaulting  together  forming  a  square  ;  in  the 
angles  of  this  sqinire  are  four  corliels,  which  gather  in  the 
circular  base  of  each  dome.  In  1523.  Sansovinus,  the  archi- 
tect, repaired  the  great  dome,  and  placed  a  circle  of  iron 
round  it  to  prevent  its  falling.  A  similar  precaution  was 
taken  with  one  of  the  smaller  domes  by  Andrew  Tirali,  in 
1735,  with  the  same  successful  result. 

The  dome  of  San  Vitaleat  Ravenna,  is  of  very  curious  con- 
struction. The  plan  of  the  lower  part  is  that  of  a  regular 
octagon,  supported  by  eight  piers  at  the  angles  of  the  dome. 
Between  these  angles  are  seven  tall  niches  divided  into  two 
stories.  The  lower  part  of  these  niches  is  open,  and  adorned 
with  columns.     The  remaining  side  of  the  dome  is  an  aich  of 


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the  same  diameter  and  elevation  as  the  niches ;  this  arch  form- 
ing an  entrance.  Above  these  the  wall  sustains  a  hemi- 
spherical dome,  the  plan  being  a  circle  within  an  octagon. 
Corbels  are  not'  employed  at  Santa  Sophia,  but  the  arches 
support  the  g.ithcring  over,  whirh  forms  the  circular  base  of 
the  dome.  In  tlie  base  are  eight  windows,  each  window  lieiug 
divided  in  the  centre  by  a  colunm  supporting  two  small  arches. 
The  dome  itself  is  built  with  a  double  row  of  pipes,  hollow  at 
one  end  and  pointed  at  the  other,  so  that  the  point  of  one  is 
received  in  the  hollow  of  the  preceding  one,  continuing  thus 
in  a  spiral  line  unfil  they  finish  at  the  top.  Both  the  e.xterior 
and  the  interior  of  the  dome  are  covered  with  mortar. 

In  1298,  the  cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  was  begini 
at  Pisa,  by  the  celel)ratod  Arnolfo  Lusii ;  but  he  died  two 
years  afler,  and  no  architect  could  be  found  who  would  under- 
take to  execute  the  dome  upon  the  vast  plan  that  its  pro- 
jector had  designed :  it  consequently  remained  unfinished  lor 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years  ;  when,  in  a  professional  con- 
vocation, Philip  Brunelleschi  was  permitted  to  attempt  its 
completion.  (See  Brunelleschi.)  Notwithstanding  the 
opposition  he  met  with,  and  the  vapouring  sarcasms  with 
wliich  he  was  treated  by  his  contemporaries,  who  held  his 
schecne  to  be  impracticable,  he  carrie(i  on  the  building,  and 
completed  the  cupola,  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  great  repu- 
tation. This  dome,  which  is  octangular,  and  of  great  elevation, 
is  formed  of  two  vaults,  with  a  vacancy  between  them;  and 
is  supported  merely  by  the  springing  wall,  without  the  aid  of 
buttresses,  though  its  dimensions  exceed  those  of  all  the 
ancient  Roman  domes,  with  the  sole  exception  of  that  of 
St.  Peter's. 

The  church  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  is  the  largest  temple 
ever  built:  it  was  begun  by  Braniaute,  in  1513,  and  carried 
on  successively  by  Ra|)hael,  San  Gallo,  and  Michael  Angelo, 
the  latter  of  whom  designed  the  dome  as  it  now  appears. 
The  following  description,  extracted  from  the  '■  Eneylopodie 
Methodique,"  and  the  "  Penny  Cyclopajdia,'.'  will  enable  the 
readei-  to  form  some  idea  of  this  superb  work. 

"The  dome,  wiiich  is  double,  is  circular  on  the  plan.  The 
internal  dome  is  constructed  on  double  consoles,  instead  of 
corbellings.  The  double  consoles  are  crowned  with  a  small 
cornice,  forming  an  impost  for  eight  arches,  from  the  upper 
part  of  which  springs  the  dome ;  on  the  top  is  a  lantern- 
light,  which  is  not  apparent  externally.  Up  to  this  time 
domes  had  been  constructed  on  walls  and  corbellings.  but  in 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome  a  new  plan  was  adopted.  The  dome  of 
St.  Peter's  stands  upon  four  piers,  61  feet  11  inches  high, 
and  30  feet  10  inches  thick,  measured  in  a  straight  line  with 
the  arches.  From  the  arches  spring  the  corbellings,  which  are 
finished  by  an  entablature.  Upon  this  entablature  is  a 
plinth.  The  plinth  is  externally  an  octagon,  and  ititernally  a 
circle.  The  external  diameter  of  the  octagon  is  192  feet  9 
inches,  and  the  internal  circle  134  feet  S^  inches;  the 
thinnest  part  of  the  wall,  between  the  octagon  and  the  circle, 
is  29  feet  3  inches.  On  the  plinth  is  a  circular  stylobate, 
28  feet  6^  inches  thick.  This  thickness  is  divided  into  three 
parts  by  a  circular  passage  5  feet  10  inches  wide;  the  two 
walls  on  each  side  of  this  passage  are,  respectively,  the  internal 
wall  14  feet  74  inches  thick,  and  the  external  8  feet.  In  the 
internal  wall  are  other  smaller  passages,  2  feet  10  inches  wide, 
forming  flights  of  steps  communicaring  with  the  four  spiral 
staircases  formed  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  drum 
of  the  dome.  Above  the  circular  stylobate,  which  is  12  feet 
4^  inches  high,  is  placed  the  drum  of  the  dome,  which  is  10 
feet  H  inch  thick,  measured  to  the  inside  line  of  the  pilasters, 
which  decorate  the  interior  of  the  dome.  The  pilasters  them- 
selves are  1.78  feet  thick  in  addition.  The  construction  is 
formed  of  rubble  and  fragments  of  brick.     The  interior   is 


formed  with  bricks  stuccoed.  Externally  the  woik  is  faced 
with  thin  slabs  of  travertine  stone.  The  drum  is  pierced  with 
K!  windows,  .9  feet  -i^  inches  wide,  and  17  feet  high.  The 
walls  are  strengthened  on  the  outside,  betwi^en  the  windows, 
with  10  buttresses,  constru<ted  with  solid  masonry.  These 
buttresses  are  13  feet  3  niches  wide,  and  51  feet  6  inches  in 
height  frmn  the  base  to  the  top  of  the  entablature.  Each 
buttress  is  decorated  and  strengthened  with  half-pilasters, 
and  terminates  with- two  coupled  columns  engaged,  the 
diameter  of  which  is  4  feet ;  the  order  is  Corinthian.  When 
the  liase  of  the  dome  had  been  built  to  the  height  of  the 
entablature  of  the  drum,  Michael  Angelo  died  ;  but  some 
time  before  his  death  he  had  caused  a  model  to  be  made,  with 
ample  details,  to  which  he  ad<]ed  drawings  ;ind  instructions. 
After  his  death  Pirro  Ligorio  and  Vignola  were  appointed  the 
architects.  Giacoiiu)  della  Porta,  the  pupil  of  Vignola,  fol- 
lowed his  master  as  architect  to  the  cathedral  ;  but  although 
the  designs  of  ilichael  Angelo  were  strictly  followed,  the 
dome  itself  was  constructed  under  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V. 
Sixtus  gave  Giacomo  della  Porta  as  a  colleague,  Domenico 
Fontana,  by  whom  the  dome  w'as  constructed. 

"On  the  constructions  of  Michael  Angelo  a  circular  attic 
was  first  formed,  19  feet  2:^  inches  high,  and  9  feet  7  inches 
thick.  This  attic  is  strengthened  externally  by  16  projections, 
2  feet  11  inches  deep,  and  6  feet  44- inches  wide,  placed  over 
the  buttresses  of  the  dome;  on  the  attic  rises  the  double 
dome,  the  internal  diameter  of  which  at  the  base,  is  138  feet 
5  inches.  The  curve  externally  is  an  are  of  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  84  feet  1 .62  inches.  To  the  height  of  27  feet  8  inches 
from  the  attic  the  dome  is  solid.  At  the  base  the  thickness  is 
9  feet  7  inches ;  and  as  the  external  dome  is  raised  higher 
than  the  internal  dome,  the  thickness  is  increased  as  the  curve 
ascends,  so  that  wh<'re  the  dome  is  divided  the  thickness  is 
11  feet  4  inches.  The  circular  space  which  divides  the  two' 
domes  is  3  feet  2^  inches  wide;  the  internal  dome  is  0  feet 
4  inches  thick;  and  the  height  from  the  attic  to  the'  opening 
of  the  lantern  is  83  feet  10  inches.  The  di;imeter  of  the 
lantern  is  24  feet  10  inches.  The  external  dome  is  2  feet 
10^  inches  thick,  where  it  separates  itself  from  the  intenial 
dome  ;  and  it  is  strengthened  externally  by  16  projecting 
bands  of  the  same  thickness.  The  dotne  is  pierced  with  three 
rows  of  small  windows,  as  the  curves  of  the  dome  are  not 
concentric,  the  space  between  them  becomes  wider  as  it  rises ; 
so  that  at  the  opening  of  the  lantern  the  .space  is  10  feet 
wide.  These  domes  are  joined  together  by  16  walls  or  spurs, 
diminishing  in  thickness  as  they  ascend  to  the  lantern  ;  at 
the  base  they  are  8  feet  thick,  and  at  the  summit  3  feet. 
The  base  of  the  lantern  is  arched,  and  pierced  with  small 
windows.  Above  the  two  domes  is  a  circular  platform,  sur- 
rounded with  an  iron  gallery.  In  the  centre  rises  the  lantern 
on  a  stylobate  broken  into  10  parts,  forming  projecting 
pedestals,  above  which  are  buttresses  similar  to  the  buttresses 
of  the  druin,  decorated  externally  with  coupled  Ionic 
columns,  17^  inches  in  diameter.  The  space  between  the 
buttresses  is  filled  with  arched  openings,  which  give  light  to 
the  lantern.  The  external  diameter  of  the  lantern  is  39  feet ; 
the  internal  diameter  25  feet  6f  inches;  and  the  height  fron\ 
the  platform  to  the  top  of  the  cross  is  89  feet  7k  inches. 
The  whole  height,  from  the  external  plinth  of  the  do!ne  to 
the  cross,  is  263  feet.  The  total  height  internally,  to  the  top 
of  the  dome  of  the  lantern,  is  387  feet. 

"Sixtus  V.  covered  the  external  dome  with  lead,  and  the 
bands  with  bronze  gilt.  During  the  construction  of  the  dome 
it  is  believed  that  only  two  circles  of  iron  were  placed  round 
the  masonry,  one  of  which  was  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
internal  dome,  at  about  36  feet  t'roni  its  springing,  and  one 
foot  above  the  division  of  the  domes.     The  bands  of  iron  of 


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DOM 


which  this  circle  is  composed  are  3  inches  wide  by  1|  inches 
thici\.  A  similar  circle  is  placed  about  the  middle  of  the 
solid  part  of  the  dome  at  about  17  feet  6  inches  above  the 
springing  of  the  internal  dome.  Near  the  top  of  the  internal 
dome  there  are  several  holes,  at  the  bottom  of  which  upright 
iron  bars  appear.  These  bars  are  said  to  be  the  connecting 
rods  which  keep  together  other  circles  of  iron  placed  at 
diUcront  heights  within  the  masonry,  which  are  linally  ter- 
minated by  a  circle  round  the  eye  of  the  dome. 

"  The  domes  were  constructed  with  such  haste,  that  suffi- 
cient time  was  not  allowed  to  the  work  to  form  solid  beds  as 
it  was  carried  up,  in  consequence  of  which  a  great  number 
of  vertical  settlements  took  place,  and  the  circle  of  iron 
round  the  internal  dome  was  fractured.  To  obviate  the  danger 
arising  from  these  settlements,  six  circles  of  iron  were  placed 
round  the  e.xternal  dome  at  ditferent  heights,  and  the  broken 
circle  of  the  internal  dome  was  repaired.  The  first  circle 
was  placed  above  the  cornice  of  the  external  stylobate,  or 
continuous  plinth,  on  which  the  buttresses  stand ;  the  second 
circle  was  placed  above  the  cornice  of  the  buttresses;  the 
ihiid,  above  the  attic,  at  the  springing  ot  the  external  dome  ; 
the  fourth,  half  way  up  the  external  dome;  and  the  fifth 
under  the  base  of  the  lantern.  A  sixth  was  shortly  after 
placed  at  one  foot  below  where  the  dome  divides  itself  The 
inin  bands  are  flat,  from  10  to  17  feet  long,  3^  inches  wide, 
and  2j^  inches  thick.  At  one  end  of  the  pieces  of  iron  a 
hole  is  made;  the  other  end  is  turned  up,  and  passed  through 
the  eje  of  the  next  band.  The  whole  of  these  bands  are 
fixed  with  iron  wedges,  driven  into  the  rubble  with  mallets. 
Sheets  of  lead  are  placed  under  the  iron  circles."  [Coupole, 
Encyclopedie  Metliodiqiie ;  'Architecture.'') 

St.  Paul's  cathedral,  London,  the  workmanship  of  the 
great  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  was  begun  in  IGSo,  and  finished 
in  1710.  "The  dome  is  ptlaced  over  the  intersection  of  the 
four  naves.  The  ground  plan  is  a  regular  octagon,  each  face 
of  which  is  44  feet  8f  inches  wide:  four  of  these  sides  are 
formed  by  the  four  great  arches  of  the  naves;  the  other  four 
sides  are  formed  by  liilse  arches  of  tiie  same  size ;  in  each  of 
these  arches  there  is  a  great  niche,  the  base  of  which  is  pierced 
with  two  arches.  By  this  means  eight  supports  are  obtained 
instead  of  four,  and  the  corbellings  do  not  project  too  much, 
as  in  other  similar  constructions.  The  corbellings  gather  in  a 
circle,  the  diameter  of  which  is  104  feet  4  inches,  the  octagon 
base  being  107  feet.  The  corbellings  are  surmounted  by  a 
complete  eiitalilature,  8  feel  three  inches  high,  decorated  with 
coiisules.  The  drum  is  set  back  3  feet  2^^  inches  from  the 
f.ice  of  the  frieze,  and  this  intermediate  space  is  occupied  by 
two  steps  and  a  seat.  The  cornice  is  08  feet  9|  inches  from 
the  pavement.  The  height  of  the  drum  from  the  top  of  the 
scat  is  ti2  feet  (5^  inches  to  the  springing  of  the  internal 
dome.  The  wall  forming  the  drum  is  inclined  internally 
4  feet  1 1  .V  inches,  or  about  the  12tli  part  of  its  height.  This 
was  designed  by  the  architect  to  increase  the  resistance  of 
the  walls  to  the  united  pressure  of  the  large  internal  vault, 
and  the  conical  dome  which  carries  the  lantern. 

"  The  interior  of  the  drum  is  decorated  with  a  continuous 
stylobate,  on  which  is  an  order  of  Corinlhian  pilasters.  The 
32  spaces  between  the  pilasters  are  filled  with  24  windows 
and  eight  large  niches.  Externally  the  drum  is  decorated 
with  an  order  of  32  Gtrinthian  columns  engaged,  which  are 
united  to  the  wall  of  the  drum  by  eight  solid  constructions  in 
masonry.  In  each  space  betAveen  the  constructions  there  are 
three  intercoluinniations,  the  ct>lumns  being  joined  at  their 
bases  by  wall  pierced  with  arches.  The  external  colonnade 
is  surmounted  by  an  entablature  ;  behind  this  is  a  terrace, 
formed  by  the  recessing  back.  The  attic  is  22  feet  4^  inches 
high  from  the  top  of  the  balustrade  to  the  under  side  of  the 


cornice  of  the  attic.  Above  the  internal  order  of  the  drum 
rises  the  interior  dome,  the  diameter  of  which  at  the  spring- 
ing is  102  feet  2|^  inches  by  51  feet  in  height.  The  top  of 
the  dome  has  a  circular  opening  14  feel  lOy  inches  in 
diameter. 

"  Above  the  attic  are  two  steps,  from  which  the  external 
dome  springs.  The  external  dome  is  constructed  of  wood, 
covered  with  lead,  and  decorated  with  projecting  ribs  forming 
panels,  curved  at  the  ends.  This  dome  terminates  with  a 
finishing  which  joins  the  base  of  the  lantern  :  the  circular 
gallery  formed  on  the  finishing  is  274  feet  9  inches  above  the 
pavement  of  the  nave.  The  lantern  is  supported  on  a  conical 
tower,  terminated  by  a  spherical  dome.  This  tower,  which 
is  joined  to  the  internal  dome  at  its  base,  disengages  itself 
from  it  at  the  height  of  8  feet  6  inches  above  the  springing 
of  the  same.  The  perpendicular  height  of  this  tower  is  8(5 
feet  9  inches,  and  the  walls  are  inclined  24  degrees  from  the 
perpendicular,  the  diameter  of  the  base  is  100  feet  1  inch 
measured  externally,  and  34  feet  1  inch  at  the  springing  of 
the  spherical  dome  which  finishes  it.  The  wall  of  this  tower 
is  built  of  brick,  and  is  1  foot  7  inches  thick,  with  circular 
rings  of  masonry,  fastened  with  iron  bands.  The  spherical 
dome  at  the  top  of^the  tower  has  an  opening  8  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  summit.  Between  the  attic  and  the  wall  of 
the  tower  are  32  walls  or  buttresses,  which  also  serve  to 
bear  the  ribs  of  the  wooden  external  dome." — Penny 
Cyclopmdia. 

About  the  same  time  that  Wren  built  the  dome  of  St. 
Paul's,  Hardouin  Mansard,  a  French  architect,  constructed 
the  dome  of  the  Invalides  at  Paris.  The  plan  of  this  dome 
is  a  square,  in  which  is  inscribed  a  Greek  cross ;  in  the  angles 
of  the  square  there  are  four  chapels.  The  dome  is  raised  in 
the  centre  of  the  Greek  cross ;  the  base  supporting  it  is  an 
octagonal  figure,  with  four  large  and  four  small  sides.  The 
dome,  which  is  double,  rises  from  a  springing  which  is 
common  to  both.  The  lower  or  internal  dome  constructed 
with  masonry  is  spherical.  The  outer  dome  is  of  a  spheroidal 
form,  constructed  of  stone  at  the  base,  and  of  brick  abo\e. 
It  is  framed  of  wood  and  covered  with  lead,  like  St.  Paul's, 
London,  but  the  construction  is  much  heavier.  The  total 
height  to  the  top  of  the  cross  which  surmounts  the  lantern  i^ 
330  feet. 

The  modern  Pantheon  at  Paris,  formerly  the  church  of 
St.  Genevieve,  was  built  by  J.  G.  Soufflot,  who  distinguished 
himself  by  his  architectural  works,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
The  dome,  which  is  lofty,  is  sustained  by  four  pillars,  arched 
over  the  cross  parts.  The  angular  spaces  are  filled  up  with 
pendentives,  terminating  in  a  circular  ring,  on  which  a  cylin- 
drical wall  is  built,  supporting  the  cupola.  In  the  latter  par- 
ticular it  is  similar  to  St.  Paul's. 

Of  wooden  domes,  that  of  the  Halle  du  Ble,  at  Paris,  is 
an  excellent  example ;  it  being  more  than  200  feet  in 
diameter,  and  only  a  foot  in  thickness. 

A  new  material  has  been  lately  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  dome  of  the  church  of  St.  "ls;iac,  at  St,  Peters- 
burij,  erected  under  the  direction  of  the  Chevalier  de  Mont- 
feriand.  An  account  of  the  construction  is  given  by  Mr. 
Godwin  as  follows: — "The  walls  of  the  dome  are  airried 
up  in  solid  construction  of  brick,  with  tiers  of  stone-bond, 
and  are  above  8  feet  thick.  On  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
cornice  of  the  circular  colonnade  which  girds  the  drum,  there 
is  a  series  of  twenty-four  cast-iron  ribs,  the  feet  of  which 
rest  on  a  cast-iron  plate  7  feet  wide,  which  funs  quite  round 
the  circumference.  At  their  head  all  the  ribs  are  attached  to 
a  horizontal  plate  or  curb,  G  feet  3  inches  wide,  which  follows 
the  periphery  of  the  dome.  At  this  height  the  rib  is  divided 
into  2,  the  one  part  about  12  feet  6  inches  deep,  following 


DOM 


279 


DOM 


the  sweep  of  the  inner  dome  for  a  height  of  20  feet,  is  at  its 
summit  bolted  to  a  cast-iron  perforated  cylinder,  21  feet  in 
diameter,  and  7  feet  high;  this  forms  the  centre  aperture 
at  the  summit  of  the  inner  dome.  The  other  part  follows  the 
line  of  an  intermediate  cone,  with  a  aitenary  outline,  and 
similar  to  the  one  in  St.  Paul's  ;  it  is  also  21  feet  long,  and 
2  leet  6  inches  deep,  and  perforated  to  render  it  lighter.  At 
this  heiglit  the  heads  of  the  ribs  are  again  secured  to  another 
horizontal  plate  or  curb,  which  forms  a  complete  circle,  and 
is  'S  feet  wide;  and  tiiis  curb  and  the  ribs  are  tied  to  the 
cylindrical  opening  of  the  inner  dome,  already  mentioned,  by 
radiating  beams  2  feet  3  inches  deep.  The  conical  ribs  have 
tlan  another  length  of  21  feet,  and  their  heads  are  again  con- 
nected by  another  horizontal  plate,  from  which  spring  the 
circular  ribs,  about  IG  feet  long,  tbrraing  a  dome  to  the  inter- 
mediate cone,  and  their  heads  are  also  bolted  to  a  cylinder, 
8  feet  (}  inches  in  diameter,  and  18  inches  high.  But  the 
upper  portions  of  the  ribs  diverge  at  top,  so  as  to  form  aLase 
for  the  octagonal  ciipolino,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  cast- 
iron  .story -po.vts,  ribs,  and  bracketings,  inclusive  of  the  dome 
of  the  cupolino,  with  its  ball  and  cross  at  the  apex,  which  last 
are  of  brass-gilt.  The  filling  in  between  the  ribs  cons'sts  of 
pots,  the  surfaces  of  whicl)  are  subsequently  rendered  with 
plaster,  and  painted  with  sacred  subjects.  The  e.xternal  face 
of  this  outer  dome  is  covered  with  bronze  gilt  in  three  thick- 
nesses of  leaves  of  ducat  gold.  The  whole  entablature  and 
flat,  and  the  balustrade  over  the  peristyle  of  the  drum  of  the 
cupola,  likewise  consist  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  framing, 
faced  with  plates  of  copper,  to  form  the  profiles  and  mould- 
ings. The  24  pedestals  of  this  balustrade  carry  winged 
angels  of  bronze,  above  9  feet  high,  eachof  a  single  casting. 
"The  quantity  of  metal  employed  in  the  work  is  as 
follows : — 

Ducat  gold 247  lbs. 

Copper 524-  tons 

Brass 32l|    " 

Wrought-iron      ....  524|-    " 
Cast-irou 1068      " 


1966i  tons  247  lbs. 

"The  roofing  is  wholly  of  iron,  covered  with  copper.  The 
raising  of  the  monolithic  shafts  of  the  24  columns  of  the 
exterior  peristyle  of  the  dome — each  of  which  weighed  nearly 
6(5  tons — to  the  height  of  150  feet,  w-as  an  operation  requiring 
considerable  skill.  The  first  column  was  raised  on  the 
17th  November,  1837,  and  in  two  months  the  24  columns 
were  completely  fixed. 

"The  skeleton  of  the  entablature  of  the  peristyle  of  the 
dome  is  of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  resting  on  the  columns, 
and  affixed  to  them  by  wronght-irou  pins,  which  are  let  a  con- 
siderable depth  into  the  shafts,  and  the  frame- w^ork  is  also  let 
into  the  cylindrical  wall  of  the  dome,  securely  affixed  to  three 
templates.  The  cornice,  with  its  modillions  and  mouldings, 
rests  on  cast-iron  corbels ;  the  caissons  and  rosettes  of  the 
inner  soffit  also  rest  on  cast-iron  girders. 

_  "  The  careful  skill  w^th  which  the  architect  has  fulfilled 
his  part,  and  the  feeling  for  decorative  art  with  which  he  has 
embellished  the  church  of  St.  Isaac,  render  it  one  of  the  most 
striking  edifices  of  the  nineteenth  century." 

All  the  ancient  lioman  domes  are  on  the  convex  side  a 
much  less  portion  of  a  sphere  than  a  hemisphere  ;  but  tho-e, 
f^rom  the  completion  of  the  church  of  Santa  Sophia,  to  the 
finishing  of  St.  Paufs  cupola,  are  of  the  surmounted  kind, 
approat-hing  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  the  proportion  of 
towers,  or  spires,  which  were  so  much  admired  and  adopted 
in  the  middle  ages.     Tlie  sides  of  the  section  of  St.  Paul's 


dome  are  struck  with  centres  in  the  base  line,  which,  if  con- 
tinned,  would  meet  in  an  angle  in  the  axis  of  the  dome. 
Since  the  revival  of  Grecian  architecture,  the  contour  of  the 
old  Roman  dome  has  also  been  revived,  especially  in  cases 
where  other  parts  of  the  building  are  decorated  with  any  of 
the  orders.  Exterior  domes  can  never  be  correctly  applied 
to  buildings  in  the  pointed  style  of  architecture. 

The  following  are  the  admeasurements  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal domes  in  Europe,  taken  from  Mr.  Ware's  "  Tracts  on 
Vaults  and  Bridges :" — 


Domes  of  Antiquity. 


Dome  of  the  Pantheon 

"  Minerva  Medica,  at  Rome. 

"  Batlis  at  Caracalla 

"  Baths  at  Diocletian 

Temple  of  Mercury 

"         Diana 

"  Apollo 

"         Proserpine  and  Venus 


Feet 

in  diameter 

taken  externally. 

Heifrht 

from  the 

^ountl  line. 

142 

143 

78 

97 

112 

116 

74 

83 

68 

98 

78 

120 

87 

77 

Domes  of  comparatively  Modern  Times. 


Santa  Sophia,  at  Constantinople. 
Mosque  of  Achmet,  " 

S:m.  Vitate,  at  Riivenna 

San.  Marco,  at  Venice 


115 
92 
55 
44 


201 

120 

91 


From  the  time  of  Dnmelleschi  to  ipe  present  period. 


S.anta  Maria  del  Fiore,  at  Florence 139 

The  Chapel  of  the  Medici 91 

Baptistry,  at  Florence 86 

Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome 139 

Chapel  of  the  Madonna  delta  Salute,  at 

Venice 70 

Cliapel  of  the  Superga,  at  Turin 64 

"           Invalides,  at  Paris 80 

"           Val  de  Grace,  Paris 55 

"           Sorbonne,  Paris 40 

Pantheon,  or  St  Genevieve,  Paris 67 

Cathedn-a  of  St  Paul's,  London 112 


SIO 
199 

no 

330 

133 
128 
173 
133 
110 
190 
215 


In  the  reigns  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  her  successor  king 
James  1.,  square  turrets,  surmounted  with  domes  resembling 
a  bell  in  their  outline,  were  much  used. 

Domes  are  sometimes  made-convex  below,  and  concave 
above;  the  former  being  a  nmch  greater  portion  of  the  side 
than  the  latter :  these  may  be  denominated  Moresque,  Turkish, 
or  Hindoo. 

Mr.  Bunce  invented  a  dome  that  requires  no  centering; 
in  this  construction,'  all  the  abutting  joints  are  continued  in 
uninterrupted  vertical  planes ;  but  the  horizontal  joints  of 
every  two  stones  break  on  the  middle  of  the  stones  on  either 
side  ;  so  that  every  alternate  stone  of  a  course  projects 
upwards,  and  leaves  a  recess  for  the  insertion  of  the  stones 
of  the  next  course.  Upon  this  principle,  the  intervals,  as  the 
building  approaches  neaf-er  the  top,  becomes  more  wedge- 
formed,  and,  the  interior  circumference  being  less  than  the 
exterior,  the  stones  can  be  in.scrted  only  on  the  outside :  con- 
.sequently,  if  made  so  exact  as  just  to  fit  into  their  places,  they 
cannot  fall  inwardly.  This  mode  of  joining  stones  may  be 
cx)nvenient,  as  requiring  no  centering  ;  but  unless  the  courses 
be  nicely  equilibrated,  it  is  more  liable  to  burst,  than  when 
a  dome  "is  constructed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  since  every 
row  of  stones,  from  the  base  to  the  top,  forms  an  arch  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest. 


DOM 


280 


DOM 


The  equilibrium  and  pressure  of  domes  is  very  dilfercnt 
from  tliat  of  common  aroliiiig,  tliough  tiiere  are  some  jiroper- 
ties  common  to  bolh.  Tlius,  in  cylindrical  and  cyliiidroidal 
vaulliiig,  of  unift)rm  thickness,  if  the  tangent  to  the  arch  at 
the  bottom  be  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  the  vault  cannot 
stiuid ;  neither  can  it  be  built  with  a  concave  contour  in 
whiile,  or  in  part;  and  to  bring  an  arch  to  an  equilibrium, 
whether  its  section  be  circular  or  elliptical,  the  iutrailos  being 
given,  both  extremities  of  the  arch  must  be  loaded,  od  infi- 
nitum, between  the  extrados  of  the  curve  which  runs  upwards, 
and  the  vertical  assymptote  rising  from  each  fuot.  So,  in  thin 
domes,  of  equal  thickness,  if  the  curved  surface  rise  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  base,  it  will  burst  at  the  bottom,  whatever 
be  the  contour. 

Yet,  though  dome-vaulting,  in  this  particular,  agrees  with 
common  arching,  they  dilfei-  materially  in  several  other  fioints. 
For,  in  order  to  equilibrate  the  figure  of  the  former,  after  the 
convexity  has  been  carried  to  its  full  extent  of  equilibrium 
around,  and  equidistant  from  the  summit  on  the  exterior  side, 
the  curvature  may  be  changed  into  a  concavity  :  here  the 
interior  circumference  of  the  courses  is  less  tlian  the  exterior, 
and  therefore,  whatever  the  pressure  towards  the  axis,  the 
course  camiot  fall  inwardly,  without  squeezing  the  stones  into 
a  less  compass.  Hence  a  vault  may  be  executed  with  a  con- 
vex surface  inwardly,  and  a. concave  surface  outwardly,  and 
be  sufliciently  firm. 

The  strongest  form  of  a  circular  vault,  required  to  bear  a 
■weight  on  its  top,  is  that  of  a  truncated  cone,  similar  to  the 
exterior  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  conceive  any  force  acting  on  the  summit,  that  would  be 
capable  of  disturbing  ^ts  equilibrium  :  for  the  pressure  being 
communicated  in  the  sloping  right  line  of  the  sides  of  the 
cone,  perpendicular  to  the  joints,  the  conic  sides  have  no 
t<'iidenc3'  to  bend  to  one  side  more  than  to  another;  the 
gravity  of  the  materials  towards  the  axis,  being  counteracted 
by  the  abutting  vertical  joints. 

In  dome-vaulting,  the  case  is  very  different:  for  here  the 
contour  being  convex,  there  is  a  certain  load,  which,  if  laid 
on  the  top,  must  burst  it  outwardly,  which  weight  becomes 
greater  in  propoition  as  the  contour  approximates  towards 
the  chords  of  the  arches  of  the  two  sides,  or  to  a  conic  vaulting 
on  the  same  base,  carried  up  to  the  same  altitude,  and  ending 
in  the  same  circular  course.  For  example,  suppose  a  hori- 
zontal line,  tangt-nt  at  the  vertex,  proceed  from  the  key-stone 
downwards,  ciiur>e  by  course;  it  will  be  evident,  that  every 
successive  coursing-joint  may  be  made  to  slant  as  much,  and 
consequently,  that  the  pressure  of  the  arch-stones  of  any 
course  towards  the  axis  will  be  so  great,  as  to  be  more  than 
adequate  to  the  resistance  of  the  weight  of  all  the  super- 
incumbent parts.  Hence  it  may  be  clearly  deduced,  that  there 
is  a  certain  degree  of  curvature  to  be  given  to  the  contour, 
which  will  just  prevent  the  stones  in  any  succeeding  course 
fioin  being  fircid  outwardly. 

The  circular  vault,  tluis  balanced,  is  indeed  an  equilibrated 
dome  ;  but,  instead  of  the  strongest,  it  is  the  weakest  of  all 
between  its  own  contour  and  that  of  a  cone  upon  the  same 
base,  rising  to  the  same  height,  in  a  key-stone,  or  in  an  equal 
circular  course.  The  equililirated  dome  has  therefore  the 
boldest  contour;  hut  is  the  limit  of  an  infinitude  of  inscribed 
circular  vaults,  all  of  them  stronger  than  itself 

In  other  respects,  circular  vaulting  differs  from  straight 
vaulting  in  being  built  with  courses  in  circular  rings  ;  and  in 
having  the  stones  in  each  course  of  equal  length,  which  press, 
ing  equally  towards  the  axis,  cannot  slide  inwardly.  Circular 
vaults  may  therefore  be  open  at  the  top  ;  and  the  equilibrated 
dome,  which,  as  we  have  just  observed,  is  the  weakest  of  all, 
may  be  nuide  to  bear  a  lantern  of  equal  weight  with  the  part 


that  would  otherwise  have  completed  the  whole.  Domes  of 
flatter  contours  will  bear  more,  in  proportion  as  they 
approach  nearer  to  that  of  a  cone  :  and  circular  vaults,  that 
are  either  straight  or  concave  on  the  sides,  if  chained  at 
the  bottom,  may  be  loaded  to  any  degree,  without  giving 
way,  until  the  materials  of  which  they  are  built  be  crushed 
to  powder. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  equilibrium  and  pressure 
of  domfts  may  be  comprehended  without  any  acquaintance 
with  cither  algebra  or  fluxions,  and  will  be  of  use  to  the 
ordinary  workmen  ;  for  the  satisfaction  of  more  scientific 
readers,  we  subjoin  Dr.  Hobison's  theory. 

Problem. — To  determine  the  thickness  of  doinc-vaulting 
when  the  curve  is  given,  or  the  curve  when  the  thickness  is 
given. 

Plate  1.  Figure  1. — "Let  b  i  a  be  the  curve  which  pro- 
duces the  dome  by  revolving  round  the  vertical  axis  a  d.  We 
shall  here  suppose  the  curve  to  be  drawn  through  the  middle 
of  the  arch-stones,  and  that  the  coursing  or  horizontal  joints 
are  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the  curve.  We  shall  sup- 
pose (as  is  always  the  Case)  that  the  thickness  k  l,  h  i,  <kc. 
of  the  ^rch-stones  is  very  .small  in  comparison  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  arch.  If  we  consider  any  porti>)n  h  a  A  of  the 
dome,  it  is  plain  that  it  presses  on  the  curve  of  which  ii  l  is 
an  arch-stone,  in  a  direction  4  c,  perpendicular  to  the  joint 
H  I,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  next  superior  element  {i  h  of  the 
curve.  ■  As  we  proceed  downwards,  course  after  course,  we 
see  plainly  that  this  direction  must  change,  because  the 
weight  of  each  course  is  superadded  to  that  of  the  portion 
above  itto  complete  the  pressure  of  the  course  below.  Through 
B  draw  the  vertical  line  b  c  g  meeting  (3  h,  produced  in  c. 
We  may  take  b  c  to  express  the  pressure  of  all  that  is  above 
it,  propagated  in  this  direction  to  the  joint  k  l.  We  may  also 
suppose  the  weight  of  the  course  h  l  united  in  fi, -and  acting 
on  the  vertical.  Let  it  be  represented  by  h  f.  If  we  form 
the  parallelogram  6  f  g  c,  the  diagonal  b  g  will  represent 
the  direction  and  intensity  of  the  whole  pressure  on  the 
joint  K  L. 

'■  W^ehave  seen,  that  if  b  a,  the  thrust  compounded  of  the 
thrust  b  c  exerted  by  all  the  courses  above  h  i  l  k.  and  if  the 
force  b  f,  or  the  weight  of  that  course  be  everywhere  coin- 
cident with  b  B,  the  element  of  the  curve,  we  shall  have  an 
equilibrated  dome  ;  if  it  fall  within  it,  we  have  a  dome  which 
will  bear  a  greater  load,  and  if  it  fall  without  it,  the  dome 
will  break  at  the  joint.  We  must  endeavoin-  to  gi't  analytical 
expressions  of  these  conditions.  Therefore  draw  tlieordinates 
b  6  4",  B  D  b",  c  (I  c".  Let  the  tangents  at  b  and  b"  meet  the 
axis  in  m,  and  make  m  o,  m  p,  e.ieh  equal  to  b  c,  and  complete 
the  parallelogram  m  o  n  p.  and  jjraw  o  q  perpendicular  to  the 
axis,  and  produce  b  f,  cutting  the  ordinates  in  f-  and  e.  It  is 
plain  that  m  n  is  to  m  o  as  the  weight  of  the  arch  n  a  h  to  the 
thrust  b  c,  which  it  exerts  on  the  joint  k  i.  (this  thrust  beins; 
propagated  through  the  course  of  h  i  l  k.)  and  that  m  q,  or  its 
equal  b  e,  or  6  d,  may  represent  the  weight  of  the  Itdf  a  h. 
"  Let  a  d  be  called  i,  and  d  b  be  called  y.  Then  h  e  =  i, 
and  e  c  ■=  y  (because  b  c  is  in  the  direction  of  the  element 
P  b).  It  is  plain  if  we  make  y  constant,  b  c  is  the  second 
fluxion  of  .r,  or  b  c  =  i,  and  b  eand  b  e  may  be  considered  as 
equal,  and  taken  indiscriminately  for  x.  We  have  also 
4  c  =  v/  ^2  +  y.) ;  let  d  be  the  depth  or  thickness  of  h  i  of  the 
arch-stones.  Then  d^/  i,  =  y, ;  will  represent  the  trapezium 
H  L  ;  and  since  the  circumference  of  every  course  increases 
in  the  proportion  of  the  radius  y,  d  y\/  x  -f  ij  will  represent 
the  whole  course.  If  s  be  taken  to  represent  the  sum  or 
aggregate  of  the  quantities  annexed  to  it,  tlic  formula  will  be 
analogous  to  the  Anient  of  a  fluxion,  and  s  d  y  v'  a'  +  v'  will 


DOM 


281 


DOM 


represent  the  wliole  mass,  and  also  the  weight  of  the  vaulting 
down  to  the  joint  h  i.     Therefore  we  have  this  proportion  : 

s  d  >/  y/  ic'  +  y*  :   d  y  ^  x'  -\-  y^  =  b  e  :   b  ¥  —  b  e  :   cg  = 
dd: 


c  Q  =  a;  :  c  g. 


Therefore  c  o 


dy  x^y  X*  +  y' 


s  rf  y  v'  i'  +  y' 

"  If  the  curvature  of  the  dome  be  precisely  such  as  puts  it 

in  equilibrium,   but   witiiout  any   mutual    pressure    in   the 

vertical  joints,  this  value  of  c  o  must  be  equal  to  c  b,  or  to 

i,  the  point  g  coinciding  with  b.     This  condition  will  be 


expressed  by  the  equation 


venicntly  by 


d  y  ^/  i»  +  y' 


dy  Xs/  x'  +  y' 
s  rf  y  ■/  -r'  +  y' 

X 


X  or  more  con- 


But  this  form  gives  only 


srfyv'i;*  +  y»       i 

a  tottering  equilibrium,  independent  of  the  friction  of  the 
joints  and  cohesion  of  the  cement.  An  equilibrium,  accom- 
panied by  some  lirm  stability  produced  by  the  mutual  press- 
ure of  the  vertical  joints,  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula. 

dy  ^  x-\-  \f 


■"  I  ,  where  t 


d  y  y/  x^  ■\-  y^       x 

sdy^i''  +y^^  i    °^  ^^  s  d  y  ^  x'  +  y~  ^ 

is  some  variable  positive  quantity  which  increases  when  x 
increases.  This  last  equation  will  also  express  the  equili- 
brated dome,  if  <  be  a  constant  quantity,  because  in  this  case  : 

—  is  ==  0 


"  Since  a  firm  stability  requires  that 


d  y  X  y/  x^  +  y^ 


sdy  ,/  x^  +  y'^ 

shall  be  greater  than  .r,  and  c  a  must  be  greater  than  c  b. 
Hence  we  learn  that  figures  of  too  great  curvatures,  whose 
sides  descend  too  rapidly,  are  improper.     Also  since  stability 

dy  X\/  x^  +  y' 
requires  that  we  have :: greater  than 

s  (f  y  v/  i*  +  y',  we  learn  that  the  upper  part  of  the  dome 
must  not  be  made  very  heavy.  This,  by  diminishing  the 
proportion  of  6  f  to  i  c,  diminishes  the  angle  c  4  g,  and  may 
set  the  point  G  above  b,  which  will  infallibly  spring  the  dome 
in  that  place.  We  see  here  also,  that  the  algebraic  analysis 
expresses  that  peculiarity  of  dome-vaulting,  that  the  weight 
of  the  upper  part  may  even  be  suppressed. 

dy  -/"FTy"     *      '■ 

"  The  fluent  of  the  equation =  — | is  most 

sdyy/i'^  +  y'      i       t 

easily  f nmcl.  It  is  l  s  (/  y  ^/  P  +  y''  —  i.x  -{-  f,  where  l  is 
the  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  the  quantity  annexed  to  it.  If  we 
consider  y  as  constant  and  correct  the  fluent,  so  as  to  make  it 
nothing  at  the  vertex,  it  may  be  expressed  thus : 

Lsdyy'i^  +  y*  —  La=:Li— Ly-fL*.       This  gives 


sdy  y/  .c«  +  y* 


L  ^e,  and  therefore 


s  dy  y/  x''  +  i/'' 


x 

y 


This  last  equation  will  easily  give  us  the  depth  of  the 
vaulting,  or  thickness,  rf,  of  the  arch,   when  the  curve  is 


given.     For  its  fluxion  is 
a  t'  x  ■\-  a  t'  X 


d  y  V  x'  +.v»        t'x+  ti 


and  d 


yy  V  ^^  +  y' 

36 


:,  which  is  all  expressed  in  known  quantities  : 


for  we  may  put  in  place  of  t  any  power  or  function  of  x  or  of 

y,  and  thus  convert  the  expression  into  another,  which  will 

still  be  applicable  to  all  sorts  of  curves. 

X        t' 
"  Instead,  of  the  second  member  -  -\ —  we  might  employ 

p  X 

—r-,  where/)  is  some  number  greater  than  unity.     This  will 

evidently  give  a  dome  having  stability ;  because  the  original 
will  be  greater  than  x.     This  will 


formula 


dy  Xy/  x'  -{-  y' 


sdy  v'  i*  +  y" 


give  d 


pax 


p_  1 


.  Each  of  these  forms  has  its  advantages 

yyWx^+y^ 

when  applied  to  particular  cases.     Each  of  them  also  gives 

d  = =^=r  when  the  curvature  is  such  as  in  precise 

y  y  y/  x^  +  i/^ 

equilibrium  :  and  lastly,  if  d  be  constant,  that  is,  if  the  vault- 
ing be  of  uiiifiirm  thickness,  we  obtain  the  form  of  the  curve, 
because  then  the  relation  of  a;  to  a;  and  to  y  is  given. 

"The  chief  use  of  this  analysis  is  to  discover  what  curves 
are  improper  for  domes,  or  what  portions  of  given  curves  may 
Ije  employed  with  safety. 

"The  chief  difliculty  in  the  case  of  this  analysis  arises  from 
the  necessity  of  expressing  the  weight  of  the  incumbent  part, 
or  s  d  y  y/x^  -f  y^  This  requires  the  measurement  of  the 
conoidal  surface,  which  in  most  cases  can  be  had  only  by 
approximation,  by  means  of  infinite  series.  We  cannot 
expect  that  the  generality  of  practical  builders  are  familiar 
with  this  branch  of  mathematics,  and  therefore  will  not 
engage  in  it  here  ;  but  content  ourselves  with  giving  such 
instances  as  can  be  understood  by  such  as  have  that 
moderate  mathematical  knowledge,  which  every  man  should 
possess,  who  takes  the  name  of  engineer. 

"  The  surfiice  of  any  circular  portion  of  a  sphere  is 
very  easily  had,  being  equal  to  the  circle  inscribed  with  a 
ladius  equal  to  the  arch.     This  radius  is  evidently  equal  to 

"  In  order  to  discover  what  portion  of  a  hemisphere  may 
be  employed  (for  it  is  evident  we  cannot  employ  the  whole) 
when  the  thickness  of  the  vaulting  is  uniform,  we  may  recur 

d  y  X  y/  i?  +  i/^ 

to  the  equation  or  formula :; '—=  sdy  y/i^  -f-  y'. 

Let  a  be  the  radius  of  the  hemisphere.     We  have 


ayy 


Va'  - 


:  and  X 


a  y' 


■  -  y'l^ 


f .  Substituting  these  values 


in  the  formula,  we  obtain   the  equation  y^  y/  a'  —  y'  = 

o  y  it 

We  easily  obtain  the  fluent  of  the  second 


^a'^-y^ 
member  =  a' 


a«  v/  "'  —  y\  and  y  =  a  y/  —  \  +  ^4. 
Therefore,  if  the  radius  of  the  hemisphere  be  one-half,  the 

breadth  of  the  dome  must  not  exceed  s/— ^  +  V  i,  "'"  0.786, 
and  the  height  will  be  618.  The  arch  from  the  vertex  is 
about  51°  49'.  much  more  of  the  hemisphere  cannot  stand 
even,  though  aided  by  the  cement,  and  by  the  friction  of  the 
coursing  joints.  This  last  circumstance,  by  giving  connection 
to  the  upper  parts,  causes  the  whole  to  press  more  vertically 
on  the  course  below,  and  this  diminishes  the  outward  thrust; 
but  at  the  same  time  diminishes  the  mutual  abutment  of  the 
vertical  joints,  which  is  a  great  cause  of  firmness  in  the 
vaulting.  A  Gothic  dome,  of  which  the  upper  part  is  a 
portion  of  a  sphere  not  exceeding  45'^  fiom  the  vertex,  and 


DOM 


282 


DOM 


Ihe  lower  part  is  concave  outwards,  will  be  very  strong,  and 
not  iiiigraceliil. 

'■  Persuaded  that  what  has  been  said  on  this  subject  con- 
vinces the  leader  that  a  vaulting,  perfectly  etjuilibrated 
throughout  is  by  no  means  the  best  form,  provided  that  the 
base  is  secure  from  separating,  we  think  it  unnecessary  to 
give  the  investigation  of  that  form,  which  has  considerable 
intricacy,  and  shall  merely  give  its  dimensions.  The  thick- 
ness is  supposed  uniform.  The  numbers  in  the  first  column 
of  the  table  express  the  portion  of  the  axis  counted  from  the 
vcrte.\,  and  those  of  the  second  are  the  length  of  the  oidinatcs. 


AD 

DB 

AD 

DB 

AD 

DB 

0.4 

100 

610.4 

1080 

2990 

1560 

S.4 

200 

744 

1140 

3442 

1600 

11.4 

300 

904 

1200 

3972 

1640 

26.6 

400 

1100 

1260 

4432 

1670 

62.4 

600 

1.S36 

1320 

49.52 

1700 

91.4 

600 

1522 

1360 

5336 

1720 

146.8 

700 

1738 

1400 

5756 

1740 

223.4 

800 

1984 

1440 

6214 

1760 

326.6 

900 

2270 

1480 

6714 

1780 

465.4 

1000 

2602 

1620 

7260 

1800 

"Tlie  curve  formed  according  to  these  dimensions  will  not 
appear  very  graceful,  because  there  is  an  abrupt  change  in 
its  curvature  at  a  small  distance  from  the  vertex.  If,  how- 
ever, the  middle  be  occupied  by  a  lantern  of  equal,  or  of 
smaller  weight  than  the  part  whose  place  it  supplies,  the 
whole  will  be  elegant  and  free  from  defect. 

Figure  3  represents  four  diflerent  contours  of  domes,  upon 
a  square  plan,  No.  5 ;  No.  1,  shows  a  semicircle  contour; 
No.  2,  a  pointed  contour;  No.  3,  a  Turkish,  or  Mahometan 
contour;  No.  4,  a  bell-formed  contour,  as  used  iu  the  reigns 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 

FUjure  4  represents  five  different  contours,  upon  an  octa- 
gonal plan.  No.  G ;  No.  1,  the  contour  of  a  dome,  the  vertical 
section  of  which  being  a  semi-ellipsis,  with  the  lesser  axis 
placed  horizontal  ;  No.  2,  the  contour  of  a  semicircular  sec- 
tion ;  No.  3,  the  contoui-  of  a  dome,  the  vertical  section  of 
wlikh  is  a  semi-ellipsis,  placed  upon  the  greater  axis;  No.  4, 
the  contour  of  a  dome,  the  vertical  section  |)arallcl  to  either 
side  being  the  segment  of  a  circle  :  No.  5,  a  pointed  contour, 
formed  similar  to  the  dome  of  the  cathedral  church  of  S"- 
Mai  ia  del  Fiore,  at  Florence,  which  was  both  octangular  upon 
the  plan,  a«d  pointed  iu  its  vertical  section. 

Figure  5  represents  five  contours  upon  a  circular  plan, 
No.  0;  No.  1,  is  formed  by  having  its  vertical  section  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  which  was  the  general  practice  of  the 
Romans,  in  the  exterior  form  of  their  domes,  as  in  the  Pan- 
theon at  Rome;  No.  2,  a  dome  with  a  semicircular  a.\al 
section,  a  form  very  frequently  used  in  modern  times ;  No.  3, 
an  ellipsoidal  dome,  whose  axis  is  the  greater  semi-axis  of 
the  ellipsis;  N<i.  4,  represents  a  dome  with  a  parabolical 
contour,  the  vertical  section  being  that  of  a  curve,  and  the 
axis  of  tiie  parabolical  section  being  the  same  as  that  of  the 
dome.  This  contour  is  more  pointed  than  any  part  of  an 
ellipsis;  No.  5,  lepresents  a  dome  with  an  hyperbolical  con- 
tour, the  vertical  section  being  an  hyperbola;  this  is  still 
more  pointed  than  the  paraliolical  dome. 

Fiijurv  (j  shows  loLir  variations  of  contours  :  No.  1,  pointed 
like  the  dome  of  St  Paul's  cathedral  church,  London,  which 
is  composed  of  two  arcs  of  a  circle;  No.  2,  a  dome  with  a 
small  concavity  upwards,  springing  perpendicularly  from  its 
base;  No.  3,  another  contour  of  a  dome,  with  a  small  con- 
cavity at  the  top,  but  spreading  outwards  as  it  rises  from  the 
bottom,  with  a  convexity  in  its  vertical  section;  No.  4,  a 
dome  of  the  same  nature  as  the  last,  but  dissimilar  in  its 
form,  the  convex  part  being  nmch  quicker.     Such  forms  as 


the  last  three  may  be  denominated  Moresque,  Turkish,  or 
Hindoo,  as  they  are  practised  by  the  Moors,  Turks,  and 
Hindoos.  'ITiis  form  was  introduced  into  England  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  W..,  and  in  constant  use  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  Its  use  was  in  the  crowning  of  turrets,  as  in 
the  octagonal  buttresses  of  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel,  and 
the  towers  of  King's  College  chapel,  Cambridge:  the  turrets 
at  the  entrance  of  Christ's  College,  Oxford,  executed  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  are  surmounted  with  domes  of  this  form. 
The  bell-formed  dotne.  Figure  3,  No.  4,  succeeded  Figure  6, 
No.  2  ;  examples  of  it  may  be  seen  at  Audley-End,  in  Essex, 
built  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

It  is  a  property  of  all  domes  to  have  their  horizontal  sec- 
tions similar  to  each  other,  and  to  the  base  of  the  dome. 

What  may  be  properly  denominated  a  Roman  dome,  is  one 
whose  axal  section  is  a  senucircle,  or  the  segment  of  a  circle 
less  than  a  semicircle.  Among  the  ancients,  domes  were 
only  used  in  covering  whole  buildings  of  a  circular  plan; 
but  among  moderns  they  arc  used  in  covering  any  apartment, 
or  distinct  portion  of  a  building,  which  too  frequently  has  a 
very  insignificant  appearance,  and,  for  want  of  magnitude, 
destroys  the  general  contour  of  the  whole,  producing  a  kind 
of  mixed  outline  at  the  finish  of  the  edifice ;  where  in 
most  points  of  view  it  is  completely  lost. 

In  modern  architecture,  the  dome,  when  used,  is  gene- 
rally raised  upon  a  tower,  or  turret,  and  by  this  means  the 
figure  is  shown  more  completely  than  if  it  were  inmiediatcly 
raised  from  the  walls ;  but  care  should  be  taken,  that  if  the 
place  over  which  it  is  to  be  erected  be  too  small,  it  should  not 
be  adopted  ;  and  if  admitted  in  an  edifice,  it  shotild  bear  a 
good  proportion  to  the  whole  mass :  when  a  dome  is  properly 
managed,  nothing  adds  more  grace  or  dignity  to  the  termina- 
tion of  an  edifice  than  the  domic  contour. 

Plate  III.  Figure  1. —  Giveit  (lie  plan  of  a  sqvare  dome, 
and  one  of  the  axal  ribs,  at  right  angles  to  one  of  the  sides  ; 
to  find  tlie  curve  of  the  angle  rib,  and  the  covering. 

The  axis  of  a  square  dome  is  the  vertical  line  in  which  the 
diagonal  planes  would  intersect  each  other. 

Let  A  I)  c  D  be  a  plan  of  the  dome  ;  a  c  and  n  d  the  inter- 
sections of  the  diagonal  jdanes;  e  f  the  base  of  the  rib  ;  ek 
the  height  of  the  given  rib  ;  and  the  curve  line  k  i  h  o  f,  the 
section  of  the  upper  surface,  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  boarding.  Produce  e  f  to  k  ;  divide  the  curve  line  k  f 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  the  more  the  truer  will  be 
the  operation  ;  let  the  parts  be  f  G,  o  h,  n  i,  i  k,  which 
extend  upon  the  straight  line  v  k ;  the  first  from  f  to  g,  the 
second  from  g  to  /(,  the  third  fi-om  h  to  i,  and  the  fourth  from 
i  to  k ;  from  the  points  g,  ii,  i,  in  the  curve  of  the  given  rib, 
draw  G  g'  n,  n  h'  o,  i  i'  p,  parallel  to  a  d,  cutting  the  base  of 
the  rib  e  f  at  the  points  o',  ii',  i',  and  the  half  diagonal  d  e 
at  the  points  n,  o,  p  ;  also,  through  the  points  g,  h,  i,  draw  n  g  n, 
o  II  o,  p  i  p,  parallel  to  a  d.  Take  the  intercepted  parts  g  n, 
n  o,  I  p,  between  e  f  and  e  d,  apply  them  successively  to  the 
lines  parallel  to  a  d,  on  each  side  of  f  k,  from  g  to  «,  and 
fiom  g  to  n,  from  h  to  o,  and  from  h  to  o,  from  i  to  ]},  and 
from  i  to  p,  and  through  the  points  a,  »,  o,p,  k,  on  each  side 
of  f  k,  draw  a  curve;  then  the  space,  a  k  n,  comprehended 
between  the  two  curve  lines  and  the  side  a  d  of  the  plan,  is 
the  form  of  the  whole  covering  for  each  side  of  the  dome. 

Tojind  the  hip-line  of  the  angle  rib  whose  base  is  e  d. 

From  the  points,  n,  o,  p,  e,  draw  n  q,  o  r,  p  s,  and  e  t, 
perpendicular  to  e  d  :  make  n  q,  o  r,  p  s,  e  t,  successively 
equal  to  g'  g,  ii'  ii,  i'  i,  e  k  :  and  through  the  points  d,  q,  r, 
s,  T,  draw  a  curve,  which  will  be  the  hip-line. 

Figure  2. — A  dome  likewise  upon  a  square  plane,  but  the 
given  axal  rib  at  right  angles  to  the  side,  is  the  segment  of  a 
circle  less  than  a  semi-circle. 


Aj>  ©M  iK- 


fh  riK  I 


A 

-1~ 


Fief.  2. 


F^.C.  ^'.1. 


f'ig.S.    kA'^1 


ri.'f  3      .'\'.i 


.V3.: 


.  1'; 


-^         ,'.'./. 


^^'J' 


^\'J 


//t::un    /vi  t' A'icho/s-i 


£n^''iyJl.7ifieu:. 


_D03rf;^. 


/'/,.//■/•  /// 


/■y/ 


Fif,  2 


Villi-  '--,'11  . 


R   r/,.',r 


Figure  3. — Plan  of  a  polygonal  dome,  showing  the  cover- 
ing extended,  and  the  angle-rib.  The  method  of  finding  the 
covering  and  angle-rib  for  Figures  2  and  3,  is  the  same  as  in 
Figure  1,  and  may  be  described  in  the  same  words. 

Instead  of  laying  out  the  covering  and  angle-rib,  as  in 
Figure  3,  of  the  octagonal  dome,  they  may  be  laid  down 
as  in  Figure  4,  without  laying  down  the  whole  plan;  and  if 
only  the  covering  be  wanted,  it  may  be  found  without  any 
part  of  the  plan,  as  in  Figure  5.  Thus,  let  a  d  represent 
the  middle  of  the  boarding  for  one  of  the  sides,  and  let  a  b, 
at  right  angles  thereto,  be  half  the  breadth  of  the  side  a  h, 
Figure  3  ;  let  a  r,  Figure  5,  represent  half  the  base  of  the 
rib  ;  on  AB  describe  a  quadrant  or  similar  figure  to  the  given 
rib,  ILK,  Figure  5  :  make  A  d  equal  to  the  circumference,  l  k, 
of  the  given  rib.  The  rule  for  this  purpose  will  be  found 
under  those  for  measuring  segments  of  circles ;  see  the  article 
Segment  ;  or  if  the  arc  be  that  of  a  quadrant,  the  quadrantal 
arc  may  be  foand,  as  in  the  article  Circle,  and  then  taking  a 
f  lurth  part  of  the  whole  circle,  or  the  half  of  a  semi-circle.  We 
-shall  liere  give  examples  both  fora  complete  quadrant,  and  for 
a  rib  which  is  the  half  of  a  segment  less  than  a  semi-circle  : 

Figure  3. — Suppose  the  base,  i  l,  to  be  20  feet,  then 
3'-  X  20 

=  31  feet  5  inches. 

2 

Again,  suppose  the  base  to  be  12  feet,  as  before,  but  the 
height  to  be  only  5  feet,  then  the  whole  chord  will  be  24  feet, 
and  the  versed  sine  5  feet. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  sum  of  si.v  times  the  square  of  the 
half  chord,  and  five  times  the  square  of  the  versed  sine,  by 
the  chord ;  and  divide  the  product  by  the  sum  of  si.x  times 
the  square  of  the  half  chord  and  the  square  of  the  versed  sine  ; 
and  the  quotient  is  the  length  of  the  are,  nearly. 
Here  the  half  chord  is  12  feet :  therefore, 

( 6  X  12'  -t-  5  X  5' )  X  24 

=  26.69,  the  answer. 

6  X  12"  +  5' 

Or  thus,  at  full  length : 
then  6  X  12'  +  5'  =  S64  +  25  =  889. 
12  5 

12  5 


144 
6 


12» 


25  =  5' 
5 


864  =  6  X  12» 
125 


125  =  5  X  5' 


389  =  6  X  12'  -f  5  X  5" 

24  whole  chord,  or  base  of  two  ribs. 


3956 
1978 


889)  23736  (26.63 

1778    13.315   feet    for   the    length  of    the 

curved  hip. 

5956 
5334 


6220 
5334 


8860 
8001 

%^9 


Note. — The  above  rule  is  the  invention  of  the  author. 


Figure  5. — Then  making  a  d  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
arc,  divide  the  curve  b  c  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and 
draw  the  lines  «/(,/?,  ^  *,  parallel  to  b  a,  cutting  a  c  at /;,  /,  k; 
divide  the  straight  line  a  d  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the 
curve  B  c  is  divided  into,  at  the  points  /,  m,  n,  and  draw 
lo,  mp,  and  n  g,  parallel  also  to  a  b  ;  making  I  o,m  p,  n  q, 
respectively  equal  to  he,  if,  and  kg,  and  through  the  points 
B,  o,p,(j,  ■D,(]riiw  a  curve;  then  the  space  comprehended 
between  this  curve  and  the  straight  lines  ad  and  a  b,  will  be 
half  the  covering  of  one  of  the  sides. 

Figure  6. —  Given  k  l  m  n,  the  plan  of  an  ohlong  dome,  and 
the  rib  a  b;  to  find  the  hip  and  the  rib  parallel  to  the  longi- 
tudinal  side,  also  the  covering  vpon  the  longitudinal  and 
transverse  sides. 

Divide  the  curve  a  b  into  .any  number  of  equal  parts,  at 
the  points  of  division  1,  2,  3,  and  draw  lines  1  k;  2  i,  3  A, 
parallel  to  nk,  the  longitudinal  side  cutting  the  seat  of  the 
hip  ^G  :  from  the  points  of  intersection  in  k  g  draw  lines 
parallel  to  K  L,  the  breadth  of  the  dome,  to  the  points  m,  n,  o  ; 
draw  GE  parallel  to  n  k,  and  produce  it  to  f;  also  produce 
A  c  to  D  ;  take  the  parts  of  the  given  rib  a  b,  and  extend 
them  on  c  d,  from  c  to  1,  from  I  to  2,  from  2  to  3,  and  from 
3  to  D  :  make  1  to,  2  n,  3  o,  on  each  side  of  c  d,  respectively 
equal  to  the  parallel  distances  from  a  k,  comprehended  be- 
tween the  lines  a  g,  and  k  g  ;  from  the  points  d,  e,  f  cut  by 
the  lines  parallel  to  k  l,  make  da,  e  b,  and  f  c,  respectively 
equal  to  the  several  heights  of  the  given  rib  a  b,  and  trace 
a  curve  through  the  points  e,  a,  b,  c  A:  upon  the  straight 
line  E  F,  extend  the  parts  bo,  a  b,  b  c,  c  a,  of  the  arc  e  a, 
f]-om  E  to  a,  from  a  to  b,  from  b  to  c,  and  from  c  to  f  ;  through 
the  points  a,  b,  c,  in  e  f,  draw  k  k,  i  i,  h  h,  parallel  to  k  l  ; 
make  the  parts  a  k,  b  i,  c  h,  respectively  equal  to  the  parallels 
of  e  k,  comprehended  between  e  g  and  k  g  ;  then  k  f  l,  is 
the  form  of  the  boarding  for  each  end,  and  l  d  m,  that  of 
the  sides. 

The  angle-rib  is  found  the  same  as  in  the  square 
dome. 

Figure  7,  No.  1. — To  find  the  covering  of  an  oblong  poly- 
gonal dome. 

Given  the  plan  abcdefghi,  and  the  axal  section 
through  its  breadth,  a  semi-circle.  Take  any  straight  line, 
N  Q,  No.  2;  in  No.  1,  draw  lines  from  the  middle  point  i, 
perpendicular  to  the  sides  g  h,  h  a,  a  b,  of  the  polygon, 
and  let  these  perpendiculars  be  i  k,  i  h,  and  i  l  :  on  the 
straight  line  m  q,  No.  2,  make  m  o  equal  to  i  k,  m  p  equal  to 
I H,  and  N  Q  equal  to  i  l,  No.  1.  In  No.  2,  draw  m  n  perpen- 
dicular to  M  o  ;  from  the  centre  m,  with  the  radius  m  o, 
describe  the  quadrant  o  n  :  divide  the  arc  o  n  into  any  num- 
ber of  equal  parts,  say  four,  w  z,  z  y,  yx,x  n,  at  the  points 
z,  y,  X  ;  from  the  points  x,  y,  z.  No  2,  draw  lines  x  u,  yv,zw, 
cutting  M  o  at  v,  v,  w  ;  transfer  the  distances  m  u,  u  v,  v  w,  w  o, 
to  the  straight  line  i  k.  No.  1.  Through  the  points  of  divi- 
sion, draw  lines  parallel  to  h  g.  to  cut  the  diagonals  o  i,  and 
H  I ;  from  the  points  of  section  in  h  i,  draw  lines  parallel  to 
H  A,  to  cut  the  ne.xt  diagonal  a  i  :  fiom  the  points  of  section 
in  A  I,  draw  lines  parallel  to  a  b,  cutting  b  i  :  take  the  parts 
o  z,  z  y,y  x,  x  s.  No.  2,  and  extend  them  to  k  r.  No.  1,  and 
draw  lines  through  the  points  of  section,  parallel  to  n  g; 
make  the  two  parts  of  the  lines  so  drawn  on  each  side  of  k  r, 
respectively  equal  to  the  lines  drawn  parallel  to  h  g,  term! 
nated  by  k  i,  and  h  i.  With  the  greater  semi-axis  m  p,  and 
lesser  semi-axis  m  n,  describe  the  quadrant  of  an  ellipsis  n  p  m  : 
through  the  points  z,  y,  x,  draw  lines  parallel  to  m  p,  to  cut 
the  elliptic  curve  :  extend  the  elliptic  curve  so  cut,  upon  the 
straight  line  H  s,  and  through  the  points  of  section,  draw  lines 
parallel  to  n  a;  transfer  each  of  the  lines  contained  between 
H  I  and  a  I,  respectively,  to  each  of  the  parallels  on  the  other 


DOM 


284 


DOM 


side  of  H  A  ;  or  draw  lines  through  the  several  points  of  sec- 
tion in  the  diagonal  ai,  paraHel  to  is,  to  cut  the  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  H  8,  and  the  points  of  intersection  will  form  the 
direction  of  the  line  for  the  edge  of  the  covering  ii  s  a.  In 
like  manner,  by  describing  the  quadrant  of  the  ellipsis  m  q  n, 
and  by  drawing  lines  through  the  points  z,  y,  x,  to  cut  the 
curve  N  Q,  by  proceeding  as  before,  we  shall  obtain  the  cover- 
ing A  B  T.  The  three  coverings  o  b  n,  ii  s  a,  a  t  b,  cover  more 
than  one-quarter  of  the  whole,  by  the  half  coverings  o  r  k, 
and  LTD, of  the  side  and  end.  The  covering  of  each  side  so 
found  answers  to  the  opposite  side,  by  turning  the  back  for 
the  front.  Each  covering,  except  that  upon  the  side,  and 
that  upon  the  end,  will  cover  four  different  sides :  the 
Covering  upon  the  sides  and  ends  only  answer  in  two  oppo- 
site places. 

The  angle-ribs  of  this  dome  are  found  as  usual.  If  the  cir- 
cumference of  each  quadrant  or  rib  perpendicular  to  the  side, 
were  ascertained  by  calculation,  then  the  boarding  could  gasily 
be  laid  out  without  the  use  of  a  plan,  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  in  Figure  5,  as  is  obvious  from  what  has  already 
been  said. 

To  construct  the  ribs  of  a  spherical  dome.^  with  eiffhl  axal 
ribs,  and  one  purlin  in  the  middle. 

Plate  II.  Fir/ure  1,  No.  1. — Let  A  B  c  D  E  F  G  H,  be  the 
semi-plan,  which  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  four  equal 
parts,  and  let  a  h  be  the  diameter,  terminating  the  semi-plan  ; 
divide  the  semi-circumference  into  four  equal  parts,  from  the 
extremity  a,  to  the  other  extremity  h,  of  the  diameter  a  h  ; 
and  the  points  of  division  will  mark  the  middle  of  the  back, 
or  convex  sides  of  the  ribs.  This  being  the  case,  let  b  c  e  b, 
use  d,F  a  g  f,  be  the  plans  of  the  intermediate  ribs,  b  c,  d  e, 
and  FG,  having  the  points  of  division  in  the  middle;  the  lines 
1!  6,  0  f,  D  (/,  Ts.  e,  Y  J]  Q  g,  being  the  places  of  the  vertical 
sides,  and  parallel  to  the  lines  drawn  from  the  middle  of 
B  c,  D  E,  F  G,  to  the  centre.  Draw  v  x,  No.  2,  parallel  to  a  u. 
No.  1  :  from  the  side  a  «,  b  c  c  6,  d  e  i?  rf,  &c.,  draw  lines  cut- 
ting V  X,  perpendicular  to  a  n  ;  then  taking  v  x  ior  the  under 
side  of  the  kirb  or  wall-plate,  draw  its  proper  thickness.  In 
the  elevation,  No.  2,  of  the  dome,  the  front  ribs  are  quadrants, 
forming  a  semi-circle  with  the  upjier  side  of  the  wall-plate, 
which  is  of  course  the  diameter ;  the  curves  of  the  sides  of 
each  of  the  other  ribs  are  the  quadrants  of  an  ellipsis  of  the 
same  height  with  the  front  rib,  and  their  projected  places, 
from  the  plan  upon  the  kirb  v  x,  gives  the  lesser  semi-axis. 
To  form  the  purlins,  place  the  section  of  one  of  them  in  its 
situation,  and,  circumscribing  its  angles,  draw  the  square 
m  H  o  p,  draw  m  q,  and  n  r,  parallel  to  v  x,  and  the  lines  from 
the  several  angles  of  the  purlins,  also  parallel  to  v  x ;  then, 
where  they  cut  the  ojiposite  rib  y  x  form  the  section  of  the 
purlin,  and  then  the  circumscribing  square^  rst.  First  form 
a  ring,  whose  greater  diameter  is  m  q,  or  n  r,  and  whose  inner, 
or  less  diameter,  is p  t.or  os, and  whose  thickness  is  7/1  )i,  or po; 
the  ring  being  thus  formed, gauge  lines  from  each  of  the  sides, 
as  is  shown  by  the  seution  ;  then  cut  ofl'the  angles  made  by 
the  horizontal  and  perpendicular  surfaces,  between  each  two 
lines,  on  each  two  adjoining  sides,  and  the  purlin  will  be 
formed.  The  ri  lis  of  this  dome  are  not  complete  quadrants,  as 
they  abut  upon  the  upper  kirb  w  y  at  the  top. 

The  method  of  covering  this  dome  is,  to  suppose  the  sur- 
face polygonal;  the  principle  is  the  same  as  is  shown  in 
Plate  III". 

Figure  2. — The  ribs  of  an  elliptic  dome  are  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  Figure  l,and  the  covering  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding Plate;  the  covering  of  one  quarter  being  found, 
answers  for  the  whole,  as  has  been  observed.  It  may  be 
noticed,  once  for  all,  as  a  general  rule  to  cover  any  dome, 


divide  a  quadrant  of  the  plan  into  as  many  equal  parts  as 
there  are  to  be  boards  in  each  quarter,  then  draw  lines  from 
the  points  of  section,  to  the  centre  of  the  plan,  and  draw 
chords  by  joining  each  two  adjacent  points,  so  that  there  will 
be  as  many  triangles  formed  as  there  are  boards  :  from  the 
centre  of  the  plan,  draw  a  perpendicular  to  each  of  the  chords, 
meeting  each  chord  ;  make  the  length  of  each  perpendicular 
the  base  of  a  rib,  and  take  the  common  height  of  the  dome 
as  the  height  of  each  rib,  and  place  it  at  the  extremity,  at 
right  angles  to  each  base  ;  and  describe  the  quadrant  of  a 
circle  or  ellipsis,  according  as  the  base  and  height  may  be 
equal,  or  unequal.  To  find  the  covering  for  any  side,  divide 
the  curve  of  the  upper  side  of  the  rib,  so  found,  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
base  to  intersect  therewith,  and  the  whole  will  be  completed, 
as  shown  in  Plate  III. 

No.  6,  shows  the  covering  over  ion;  No.  7,  over  i  n  m  ; 
No.  4,  the  middle  rib ;  No.  5,  the  rib  between  the  side  and 
end  ribs. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  square  dome,  the  axal  sections 
through  the  middle  of  the  sides  being  semi-circles. 

Let  the  radius  of  the  circle  be  represented  by  r ;  suppose 
then,  in  the  vertical  section,  that  we  draw  any  line  parallel 
to  the  base,  for  the  section  of  the  generating  plane,  which  is 
equal  to  the  side  of  the  generating  square.  Suppose  the  axis 
to  be  drawn  upon  the  section,  and  the  part  of  the  axis  from 
the  summit  to  the  generating  line,  to  be  denoted  by  x  and  y, 
to  denote  the  half  generating  line,  we  shall  then  have,  by 
the  property  of  the  circle,  y  =:  (2  r  a;  —  ^')  i,  and  conse- 
quently 2  y  =  2  (2  r  x — x'^)  \  the  whole  length  of  the  side 
of  the  generating  square. 

Therefore,  4  y'  =  4  (2  r  x — x') 
and  4  y'  i  =  4  i  (2  ?•  x — x')  the  fluxion  of  the  solid.    The 

4  x' 
fluent  of  4  y'  X  =  4  r  x' — -  for  the  solidity  of  the  seg- 

ment  of  the  dome.  Now,  therefore,  if  the  solidity  of  the  whole 
dome  be  required,  it  is  only  supposing  x  to  become  equal  to  r  ; 


we  then  find  4  r  x'- 


4x' 


=  4?-' 


4  )■" 


8 


Sup. 


pose  d  =  the  diameter,  equal  to  2  r,  and  a  =r,  the  altitude, 
,  that  is,  the  solidity  of  the  dome  is 


then  will 


8  r' 


2d^a 


3  3 

equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  circumscribing  rectangular  prism. 
If  in  the  above  dome  all  the  horizontal  sections  had  been 
circles  instead  of  squares,  the  dome  would  have  been  sphe- 
rical ;  let  us  suppose  that  p  =  .7854,  the  area  of  a  circle,  the 
diameter  of  wliich  is  unity,  then  in  the  case  of  the  segment 

(4.r'\ 
4  rx' —  1    for    the    solidity 

of  the  dome  when  less  than  a  hemisphere;  or,  putting 
2r  =  d,  and  a  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  segment,  then 


4rx'- 


4  X*  \  /  4  x'  \ 

J  =  |j  I  2  rf  a' —  j  and  the  hemispheric 


2rf»a 


solidity  is  p  ■ 


The  same  form  of  expression  may  be 


shown  for  all  polygonal  domes  whatever  :  it  is  only  using  a 
proper  multiplier  for  p,  when  the  radius  of  its  circumscribing 
circle  is  unit}'. 

Suppose  it  were  required  to  find  the  solidity  of  a  trun- 


HJOMTES 


riATE  n 


Ii<i  1 


A  ••<  1    1 


I     L  ''   H 


nf  'iy  K.  TAm- 


DOM 


285 


DOM 


cated  heniisjiherio  dome,  let  x  :=  the  altitude  of  the  dome,  a? 

before,  then,  by  tiie  nature  of  the  circle,  we  have 

y''  =z  r'  —  x'  equal  to  one  quarter  of  the  generating  square. 

4  >/*  —  4r^  —  i  X*  for  the  generating  square. 

4  y'  a:  =  4  r'  x  —  ix*  x  the  fluxion  of  the  solid. 


Thft  fluent  of  4  y'  j:  =  4  r'x  — 


4i^ 
3 


:  now  let  d  =  the 


diameter  equal  2  r,  and  a  equal  the  altitude  of  the  dome,  then 


4x' 


4  a" 


4  r^  X —  =  iP  a  —- —  equal    to    the    solidity   of    the 

o  o 

/                4  a'  \ 
square  truncated  dome,  and  p  I  cP  a —  1    equal    the 

solidity  of  the  circular  dome.     Let  us  suppose  the  same 
expression  to  be  applied  to  a  hemispheric  dome, 

/               4  o'  \  /  4  r'  \ 

then  pi  (Pa —  I  =  i'  I  d^  r  =  —^  I 

/   „           <^''-\  2fZ*r  2</»a      , 

=  ^  I  d^  r — I  z=  p  — —  :=p  — - — ,   the   same   for- 
mula as  above. 

Practical  application  of  the  preceding  rules. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  dome  less  than  a  hemisphere,  upon 
a  square  plan,  when  its  a.ml  sections,  parallel  to  the  sides,  are 
circles. 

From  twice  the  diameter  of  the  vertical  section  multiplied 
into  the  square  of  the  altitude,  subtract  the  third  part  of  four 
times  the  cube  of  the  altitude,  and  the  remainder  is  the  soli- 
dity of  tiie  square  segmental  dome. 

£x<tinple. — Suppose  the  altitude  of  the  dome  to  be  4  feet, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  vertical  section  20  feet,  the  solidity 
of  the  dome  is  requiied. 

20  4 

2  4 

40  twice  the  diameter  of  the  vertical  16    square   of   the 

16                  section.  .             [altitude. 

4 

640  4 


851 


554|  solidity  required  of  the  square 


dome. 


16 
4 

64 
4 


3)256 

"~^ 

Suppose  now  a  circular  dome  of  the  same  dimensions:  Tlien 

.7854 
554| 

31416 
39270 
39270 


435.1116 
2618 
2018 


To  find  the  solidity  of  a  truncated  square  dome,  the  axal 
section  beino  that  part  of  a  semi-circle  left  by  cutting  o^'  a 
segment  parallel  to  the  diameter. 

From  the  square  of  the  side  of  the  base,  multiplied  into  the 
altitude  of  the  dome,  subtract  the  third  part  of  four  times 
the  cube  of  the  altitude,  and  the  remainder  is  the  solidity 
required. 

Example. — Suppose  the  side  of  the  base  20  feet,  and  the 
altitude  6  feet,  wiiat  is  the  solidity  ? 


20 
20 

400 
6 

2400 

288 


2112  solidity  of  the  dome  required. 


6 
6 

36 
6 

216 
4 

3)864 

288 


435.6352  feet,  the  solidity  required. 


But  if  the  horizontal  sections  h.ad  been  circles  instead  of 
squares,  we  should  then  have  the  solidity  of  the  circular 
dome  as  follows : 

2112 

.7854 


8448 
10500 
16896 
14784 


1658.7648  the  solidity  of  the  dome 
when  the  horizontal  sections  are  circular. 

It  may  here  be  remarked,  that  the  segment  and  truncated 
domes  matvc  together  a  complete  square  dome,  each  side  of 
the  base  being  20  feet,  and  the  altitude  10  feet. 

Now  the  solidity  of  the  segment  dome  is  554|  feet, 
and  that  of  the  truncated  dome    ...      21 12 

Therefore  the  whole  square  dome  whose  

vertical  section  is  a  semi-circle,  is    .    .    2666§ 

Now,  the  rule  for  measuring  a  square  dome  with  semi-circu- 
lar vertical  sections  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  base,  is  to  take 
two-thirds  of  the  area  of  the  base,  multiplied  into  the  height: 

20 
20 

400  area  of  the  base 
10 


3)4000 


133.3J 
13331 


2666|^  the  solidity,  as  before. 

But  as  it  may  be  objected  by  many,  that,  when  a  square  or 
circular  dome,  whose  vertical  section  is  the  segment  of  a  cir- 
cle, is  required  to  find  its  solidity,  it  is  difficult  to  find  the 
diameter  of  the  vertical  section,  and  that  it  would  be  more 
eligible  to  find  the  solidity  from  the  side  or  diameter  of  its 
base,  and  the  altitude  of  the  section  :  in  ordiT  to  save  the 
troul)le  of  finding  the  diameter,  we  shall  here  show  the 
investigation  of  another  rule,  independent  of  any  foreign  or 
adventitious  dimension. 


DOM 


286 


DOM 


Let  s  equal  the  side  of  the  square  base, 
then  —  is  equal  to  half  the  side  of  the  base ; 

lit 

and  if  d  be  the  diameter  of  the  section,  and  a  its  altitude; 
then,  by  the  property  of  the  circle, 

—  =a((i  —  a^  z=  d  a  —  o' 


therefore,  da  =  —  ■\-  c? 


consequently,  d=.  —--\-  a 

and  2  t?  —  r — f-  2  a 
2rt 

Therefore,  by  substituting  - — h  2  a  for  2  </  in  the  formula 


%da^  - 


4rt' 


we  obtain  —  +  -13—  for   the   solidity  of  the 
2        o 


segmental  dome,  independent  of  the  diameter  of  the  section. 

This  rule  may  be  expressed  thus : 

To  half  the  arfa  of  the  square  base,  multiplied  into  the 
altitude,  add  two-thirds  of  the  cube  of  the  altitude,  and  the 
sum  will  be  the  solidity  of  the  dome. 

Let  us  tiilie  the  same  example  as  at  first,  and  we  shall  find 
the  side  of  the  square  of  the  base  to  be  IG  feet :  therefore. 


16 
,_16 

96 
16 

256  square  of  the  base. 
4  altitude. 


4 
4 

16 
4 

64  cube  of  the  altitude. 
2 


2)1024 
512 

4'>3 


3)128 


554|  cubic  feet,  aS  before,  in  the  segmental  dome. 
The  solidity  of  any  dome  whatever  may  be  found  by  the 
follnwing  general  rule  : 

To  the  areas  of  the  two  ends,  add  four  times  the  area  in 
the  middle  ;  then,  one-sixth  of  the  sum  m\iltiplied  by  the 
altitude,  gives  the  solid  contents.  This  rule  applies  to  all 
domes  whose  vertical  section  is  contained  between  any  two 
opposite  arcs  of  the  same  circle,  and  two  jiarallel  lines,  and 
will  even  apply  to  those  domes  which  are  the  segment  of  a 
sphere.  In  the  seccond  example,  the  side  of  the  square  of 
the  base  being  20,  and  of  the  top  16,  the  middle  area  will  be 
found  to  be  364. 

20  16  364 

20  16  4 


400  area  of  base. 


96 
16 

256  area  of  top. 


1456 
256 
400 


21 12  solidity. 

Because  multiplying  and  dividing  by  6,  gives  the  same 
number. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  hollow  square  truncated  dome,  the 
shell  being  of  equal  thicknesx,  supposiiiq  each  edi/e  of  the  base 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  which  the  section  is 
a  part. 

We  found  before,  supposing  d  =  the  side  of  the  square 


base,  and  a  equal  the  altitude,  that  the  solidity  of  the  solid 

4a' 

dome  was  expressed  by  0?'  a jp-,  then  to  find  the  solidity 

o 

of  the  shell,  it  is  only  finding  the  solidity  of  two  solid 
domes,  of  the  same  altitude,  but  of  different  dimensions  at 
the  base,  and  deducting  the  greater  from  the  less. 

Now  let  D  be  the  side  of  the  base  to  the  external  surface, 
and  d  the  side  of  the  base  corresponding  to  the  internal  sur- 
face ;  then  the  solidity  of  the  solid  comprehended  within  the 
external  surface,  and  the  two  parallel  jilanes  forming  the 

4rt' 
end,  is  d'  i 


d'a- 


3 

4a» 


'  a  —  (/^  a  =  a  (d'  —  <;') 


In  like  manner,  the  solidity  of] 

the  solid   which  would  fill 

the  cavity,  is 
then,  by  subtracting  the  latter 

of  those    expressions    from 

the  former,  we  obtain 
for  the  solidity  of  the  shell. 

This  rule  may  be  thus  expressed  in  words: 

Multiply  the  diirurence  of  the  areas  of  the  bases  by  the 
altitude  of  the  dome,  and  the  product  will  give  the  solidity 
of  the  shell. 

Example. — Suppose  the  side  of  the  base,  between  the 
external  convex  surface,  to  be  20  feet,  and  the  side  of  the 
base  of  the  internal  cavity,  or  bason,  to  be  18  feet,  the 
solidity  of  the  shell  is  required. 


18 
18 


144 

18 

324 


20 
20 

[surface. 

400  area  of  the  base  contained  between  the  convex 
324  area  of  the  base  contained  between  the  concave 

surface. 

76  difference  of  the  areas  of  the  bases. 
6 


456  solidity  of  the  shell,  as  required. 

To  find  the  convex  surface  of  a  dome. 

Let  the  diameter  b  o  =  c? 

B  A  :=  a; 

and  c  A  =:  y    . 

B  c  =  z 

we  have,  by  similar  triangles, 

A  o  c  and  ced,  ca:co::ce:ci 

d         .       . 
tliat  IS,  y  :  —  :  :  a;    :  z  ■■ 


di 


2    ■  ■        ■  "       2y ■ 
but  since  the  fluxion  of  the  surface  whose  sections  are  circu- 
lar is  denoted  by  2  p  y  z,  where  j)  is  equal  to  3.1416  ; 

therefore,  we  have  2pi/z=^pdx 

and  the  fluent  of    2  p  y  z  =  p  d  x  :  therefore,  the 

superficies  of  the  segment  of  a  hemispheric  dome  is  equal  to 

the  convex  surface  of  a  cylinder  of  the  same  altitude,  and  of 

a  diameter  equal  to  the  diameter  of  a  great  circle  of  the 

sphere  ;  now,  when  the  segment  becomes  a  hemisphere,  then 

pd^ 
j>  dx  =■^1  but    since  p  =z  ^   y.    .7854,   we    shall   have 


pd^ 
IT 


2  X  .7854ci' ;  that  is,  the  convex  area  of  the  hemi- 
spheric dome  is  double  the  area  of  its  base ;  and  since  the 
area  of  any  segmental  dome  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  cylinder 
of  the  same  altitude,  and  of  a  diameter  equal  to  that  of  its 
great  circle  ;  it  follows  also,  that  the  convex  surface  of  any 
truncated  dome  is  equal  to  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  of  the 
same  altitude,  and  of  a  diameter  equal  to  the  great  circle  of 
the  sphere. 


DOM 


287 


DOM 


To  find  the  convex  surface  of  the  segment  of  a  dome,  inde- 
pendent of  the  diameter  of  the  great  circle. 
Let  D  =  the  diameter  of  the  great  circle, 
o  =  the  altitude  of  the  dome, 
d  =  the  diameter  of  the  base  of  the  dome ; 

then,  by  the  property  of  the  circle,  d  a  —  a'  =  — , 

therefore   d  =  a  +  -— , 
4a 

But^  D  a  is  equal  to  the  convex  surface ;  therefore 
pDa  =  pa'  +  C_  =  the  area  of  the  convex  surface 


-H"'  +  ?)- 


Therefore, 


To  find  the  area  of  the  segment  of  a  dome: 
Multiply  the  sum  of  the  square  of  the  altitude  and  the 
fourth  part  of  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  base,  by 
3.1416,  and  the  product  will  be  the  superficies  of  the  dome. 

Example. — What  is  the  superficies  of  the  segment  of  a 
dome,  the  diameter  of  the  base  being  17.25  feet,  and  the 
height  4.5  feet  1 


17.25 
17.25 

8625 
3450 
12075 
1725 

4)297.5625 


4.5 
4.5 

225 
180 

20.25 


[base's  diameter. 
74.3906  the  fourth  part  of  the  square  of  the 
20.25       square  of  the  altitude. 


94  0106  the  sum. 
3.1416 


5678436 
946406 
3785624 
946406 
2839218 

297.32290896  feet,  the  surface  required. 

To  show  that  the  superficies  of  any  portion  of  a  sphere, 
contained  between  any  two  parallel  planes,  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  a  circumference  of  a  great  circle  into  the  dis- 
tiuice  of  the  parallel  planes ;  that  is,  equal  to  the  surface  of 
a  cylinder,  the  base  of  which  is  equal  to  the  great  circle  of 
the  sphere,  and  the  altitude  equal  to  the  distance  of  the 
parallel  planes : 

Let  A  equal  the  altitude  of  the  segment  of  the  sphere, 
including  both  the  altitude  of  the  segment  wanting,  and  the 
distance  of  the  parallel  planes  ;  also,  let  a  equal  the  altitude 
of  the  segment  wanting;  and  let  c  be  the  circumference  of 
the  great  circle. 

Then,  whether  the  segment  include  the  part  contained  be- 
tween the  paralljl  planes,  or  be  the  segment  cut  off,  the  area 
of  the  curved  surface  will  still  be  expressed  by  the  product 
under  the  circumfL^ronce  of  the  great  circle  and  the  height 
of  the  segment ;  therefore,  c  a  is  equal  to  the  superficies  of 
the  segment,  including  that  of  the  solid  contained  between 
tlie  two  parallel  planes  ;  also,  c  a  is  the  superficies  of  the 


segment  cut  off;  but  the  difference  between  the  areas  of  the 
curved  surfaces  of  these  two  segment-s  is  equal  to  the  curved 
surface  of  the  solid  contained  between  the  two  parallel  planes; 
therefore,  c  a  —  c  a  =  c(a  —  «)  is  the  surface  of  the  sphere 
contained  between  the  parallel  planes. 

It  would,  however,  be  very  desirable  to  have  another  sub- 
stitute in  terms  of  the  upper  and  lower  diameter  of  the  solid, 
in  place  of  the  diameter  of  a  great  circle ;  for  this  purpose, 
we  shall  here  give  the  following  rules  : 

Given  any  two  parallel  chords  in  a  circle,  and  their  distance, 
to  find  the  distance  of  the  greater  chord  from  the  centre. 

To  the  square  of  the  distance  between  the  chords  add  the 
square  of  half  the  lesser  chord.  The  difference  between  this 
sum  and  the  square  of  half  the  greater  chord,  divided  by 
twice  the  distance  of  the  chords,  gives  the  distance  from  the 
greater  chord  to  the  centre. 

Example. — Suppose  the  greater  chord,  c  d,  is  48  feet,  and 
the  lesser,  a  b,  30  feet,  and  their  distance,  e  g,  13  feet ;  what 
is  the  distance,  e  f,  from  the  centre  to  the  greater  chord,  c  d  ? 

13        30  =  15  48  =  24 

13        "2"      15  2~      24 


39 
13 

169 


75 
15 


[chord. 


96 

48 


[chord. 


[ctiord.     [cnora. 

225  square  of  the  less    576  square  of  greater 
169  square  of  distance.    394 

394  26)  182  (7  dist.  required. 

182 

Given  the  chord  of  a  circle,  and  its  distance  from  the  centre, 
to  find  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

To  the  square  of  the  half  chord,  add  the  square  of  the 
distance  from  the  centre,  and  the  square  root  of  the  sum  will 
be  the  radius  required. 

Example. — Given  the  chord  c  d,  48  feet,  and  its  distance 
E  F  fiom  the  centre,  7  feet,  the  radius  of  the  circle  is 
required. 

48^24  7X7  =  49 

2      24 


96 
48 

576 
49 


625  (25  the  radius  required. 
4 


45)  225 
225 

Suppose,  then,  that  we  would  wish  to  obtain  the  area  o. 
the  curved  surface  of  a  dome,  contained  between  two  parallel 
planes,  the  greater  of  which  is  30  feet  diameter,  and  the 
lesser  20  feet  diameter,  and  the  distance  between  them  being 
5  feet. 

10  X  10=  100  15  X  15=225 

5  X    5  =    25  125 


125 


1.0)10,0  the  difference. 
10.  feet. 


the  distance  of  the  greater  chord  fiom  the  centre. 


fl5)«  =  225 

(10)'  :==  100 


325  (  18.02  the  radius  of  the  circle. 
1 


28  )  225 
224 


3G02).. 10000 
7204 


.2796 

Say  then,  that  the  diameter  is  36  feet,  omitting  the  very 
small  fjaotional  part  .02. 

TIk^i   3G  X  3.1416  =  113.976   the   circumference  of  a 
great  circle. 

Tlierclbre  113.976  X  5  =  569.880  feet,  the  superficial 
content  of  the  dome. 

Fujure  2.  — In  order  to  show  the  truth  of  the  above  rule, 
for  finding  tlic  above  diameter  of  a  circle,  from  the  two  chords, 
and  the  distance  between  tliem  being  given  ; 
Let  y  =  F  I,  the  lieight  of  the  lesser  segment ; 
A  =  F  B,  the  distance  between  the  chords ; 
a;  =  B  D,  the  distance  from  the  nearest  chord  a  o,  to 
the  centre  i ; 

c  =  A  B,  half  the  greater  chord  a  a ; 
c  :=  E  F,  half  the  lesser  chord ; 
Then,  by  the  property  of  the  circle,  we  have 
F  I  X  F  K  =  E  K*  =  c' 

and  biXbk^ba'^c' 

But  F  I  =  y 

and  F  K  =  y  +  2.!;  +  2/4 

also  B  I  =  y  +    h 


and 


1/  +    h  + 


Therefore  y  X  {,'/  +  2  j  +  2  h)  =  c'  first  equation ; 

(y  +  A)   X  (y  +     A  +  2x)  =  c' the  second  equation  ; 
y'  +  2x1/  +  2Ay  =  c',  the  first  actually  multiiilied ; 
y'  +  A  y  4-  2x  y  -j-  A  y  -h  A*  +  2  A  X  =  c',  the  second 
multiplied. 

Then  by  putting  )i  in  the  place  of  a;  +  ^^  in  each  of  these 
equati(jns, 

the  first  becomes  y'  +  2  »  y  =  c' 
and  the  second    y'  +  2  «  y  +  2  A  a;  =  c'  —  A' 


y'  +  2  n  1/  +  n*  ■■ 
the  square  of  the  first.     Thercfire 
first  value  of  y  =  (c"  +  «')  ^  - 


c'  +  ?t'  by  completing 


posed ; 


y»  +  2  n  y  =  c» 


■  2  A  a;  second  trans- 


therefore  y'  +  2  «  y  -|-  n^  =  c'  —  A'  —  2  A  x  +  n^ 
y   +  n  =  (c'  -  A'  -  2  A  a:  +  n''){  ;  the 
second 

value  of       y  =  (c'  —  A'  —  2  A  a;  +  ?t')  J  —  n. 
Then  by  making  the  first  and  second  value  of  y  equal  to 
each  other,  and  by  taking  away  the  negative  quantity  —  n, 
which  is  common  to  both  sides,  and  squaring  the  equation, 
we  obtain 

c'  +  7i'  =  c»  —  A'  —  2  A  a;  +  n' 
or      c'  =  c'  —  A'  —  2  A  a; 
or2Ax  =  c'— c»—    A' 


and  consequently  x  = 


-c'  — A'c'  — (A'+  c') 


2  A 


which  expression  agrees  with  the  rule. 


The  second  rule  for  finding  the  radius  of  the  circle,  is  only 
to  find  the  hypofhonuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle:  the  two 
sides  containing  the  ri^lit  angle  being  given,  the  square  of  the 
hypotlieniise  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two 
sides  by  the  47th  Proposition  of  Euclid. 

DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE,  that  department  of  the 
art  wliieh  relates  especially  to  the  design  and  erection  of  edi- 
fices adapted  to  private  purposes  as  distinguished  from  those 
erected  for  public  uses,  more  particularly  of  such  as  are  em- 
ployed as  jirivate  dwellings.  Although  holding  an  inferior 
position  in  the  scale  when  compared  with  other  branches  of 
the  art,  domestic  architecture  is  of  sufTicient  importance  at 
the  present  day  to  merit  the  greatest  attention  of  the  f)rofes- 
sional  man.  Amongst  the  ancients  this  department  held  a 
very  low  position,  all  the  energies  of  the  architect  being  em- 
ployed on  the  public  buildings  and  temples.  Such  a  term 
would  scarcely  have  been  understood  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Egyptians,  and  but  little  amongst  the  earlier  Romans,  their 
private  dwellings  scarcely  deserving  the  name  of  buildings. 
As  luxury  increased  at  Rome,  the  houses  of  private  indivi- 
duals increased  in  size  and  magnificence,  as  well  as  in  accom- 
mod.atioii,  and  the  country-residences  of  the  higher  classes 
seem  to  have  been  buildings  of  some  importance;  Pliny'a 
villa  contained  thirty-seven  apartments  on  the  ground-floor. 
Specimens  of  Roman  houses  e.\ist  at  llcrculaneum  and 
Pompeii,  as  well  as  some  few  elsewhere.  There  is  a  villa  at 
Bignor  in  Sussex,  which  contains  74  rooms,  and  covers  an 
area  030  feet  in  length,  by  335  feet  in  breadth. 

Of  English  Domestic  architecture,  we  need  say  little  in 
this  place;  the  term  can  scarcely  be  applied  to  any  habitable 
buildings  erected  previous  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and 
the  buildings  of  this  date  will  be  dilated  upon  when  treating 
of  the  style  known,  after  the  name  of  the  reigning  family,  as 
the  Tudor  style.  Up  to  the  period  in  whieli  this  style  pre- 
vailed, all  the  larger  residences  in  England  were  fortified 
more  or  less.  For  an  account  of  the  earlier  of  these  edifices 
we  refer  to  Castles.  See  also  House,  Tudor  or  Eliza- 
BETtiAN  Architecture,  Villa,  Roman  Architecture,  &c. 

DOMICIL,  or  Domicile,  {domic  Hi  urn,  a  mansion),  in 
general,  the  place  of  residence  of  an  individual  or  family  ; 
in  a  more  restricted  sense,  where  a  person  resides  only  for 
a  time. 

DONJON,  or  Dongeon,  the  princip.al  tower  of  a  castle 
usually  raised  on  a  natural  or  .artificial  mound,  in  the  inner- 
most court  or  ballium.  Its  lower  part  was  used  as  a  prison, 
and  it  was  frequently  called  the  donjon-kcep.  Hence  the 
modern  term  dungeon. 

DOOKS,  pieces  of  wood,  about  nine  inches  in  length,-  in- 
serted in  stone  or  briek  walls;  the  term  is  used  in  Scotland, 
and  is  of  the  same  import  with  the  London  term,  pliiijs,  or 
tvood  hrir/iS. 

DOOR,  (from  the  Saxon  dor),  the  gate  of  a  house,  or  the 
passage  into  an  edifice,  apartment,  &e. 

Tlie  construction  of  doors  naturally  divides  itself  into  two 
branches,  viz.,  the  formation  and  proportion  of  the  aperture, 
or  opening,  which,  in  outer  walls,  belong  to  the  mason  or 
bricklayer;  and  framing  of  the  gate  or  leaf,  by  which  the 
entrance  is  to  be  secured,  together  with  its  appurtenances, 
which  appcrt.ains  to  the  joiner's  department. 

The  proportion  of  the  aperture  must  .always  be  according 
to  the  size  and  intention  of  the  building,  and  should  be 
attended  to  above  every  other  consideration :  in  general  the 
dimensions  may  be  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  two,  for  large  doors, 
and  from  three  to  seven  in  those  of  less  size. 

Entrances  are  of  two  kinds;  doors  and  gates.  The  former 
are  used  only  for  the  passage  of  persons  on  foot;  the  latter 
admit  horsemen  and  carriages.    Doors  are  used  for  churches, 


DOO 


289 


DOO 


public  edifices,  dwelling-iiouses,  and  apartments  :  gates 
serve  as  inlets  to  cities,  fortresses,  parks,  gardens,  &c. 
Apertures  of  gates,  being  always  wide,  are  usually  arched  ; 
wiiile  the  figure  of  doors  is  generally  a  parallelogram. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  the  hypothyron,  or  aperture  for 
doors,  should  be  as  follows  : — "  The  height  from  the  pave- 
ment to  the  celling  of  the  temple  being  divided  into  three 
parts  and  a  half,  two  of  the  whole  parts  were  allowed  for 
the  height  of  the  door.  These  two  parts  were  subdivided 
into  twelve  smaller  parts,  of  which  five  and  a  half  were 
allowed  as  the  width  of  tlie  door  at  the  base;  and  the  upper 
part  was  contracted  according  to  the  following  rules  :  if  not 
more  than  l(i  feet  high,  the  contraction  was  one-third  of  the 
widih  of  the  jamb  on  the  face  ;  if  the  height  was  more  than 
10  and  not  moie  than  25  feet,  a  fourth  part  of  the  width  of 
the  jamb  only  was  employed  ;  and  from  beyond  25  feet,  and 
not  exceeding  30  feet,  one-eiglith  only." —  Vitruvius,  book  iv. 
Public  buildings,  palaces,  and  noblemen's  mansions,  where 
a  great  concourse  of  company  may  be  expected,  should  have 
doors  of  much  greater  dimensions  than  those  of  buildings  of 
inferior  rank  ;  from  si.\  to  twelve  feet  may  be  taken  for  the 
width  of  the  outer  entrance,  and  from  four  to  six  feet  for 
tliose  in  the  interior;  in  private  houses,  the  latter,  if  they 
have  but  one  leaf,  should  never  be  more  than  three  feet  and 
a  half  in  breadth,  nor  less  than  that  of  the  windows.  In  all 
cases  their  height  shonid  be  proportioned  to  that  of  the  story 
in  which  they  are  placed,  except  where  they  are  used  for 
laying  two  apartments  into  one  ;  in  which  case  they  will  be 
of  a  height  less  than  double  the  width. 

Vitruvius,  as  we  have  before  observed,  has  prescribed 
rules  for  Attic,  Ionic,  and  Doric  doors,  all  of  which  have 
their  apertures  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top ;  examples 
of  this  shape  may  be  seen  in  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  the  temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli, 
and  in  other  Greek  and  Uoman  remains.  These  doors 
possess  the  advant;ige  of  shutting  themselves,  to  which  they 
probably  owe  their  invention  ;  and  they  may  be  conveniently 
adopted  in  modern  houses,  as  they  rise  in  opening,  and  will 
clear  a  carpet,  though  when  shut,  they  go  close  down  upon 
the  floor. 

The  principal  entrance  to  a  building  of  any  magnitude 
should  be  in  the  centre,  as  productive  of  the  greater  symmetry 
of  appearance,  and  as  communicating  more  readily  with  the 
various  apartments  of  the  interior.  In  the  principal  rooms, 
the  door  should  be  two  feet,  at  least,  from  the  return  of  the 
wall,  to  admit  of  furniture  being  placed  close  up  in  the 
corner. 

The  lintels  of  exterior  doors  should  always  range  with 
those  of  the  windows.  Apertures  placed  in  blank  arcades, 
are  usually  placed  at  the  same  height  as  the  springing  of  the 
arch  :  when  they  have  dressings,  the  head  of  the  architrave, 
or  cornice,  is  generally  on  the  level  of  the  impost. 

The  decorations  of  a  door-way  commonly  consist  either  of 
an  architrave  surrounding  it,  with  or  without  a  cornice,  or 
with  a  complete  entablature  :  consoles  arc  sometimes  intro- 
duced, flanking  the  architrave  jambs,  and  supporting  the 
ends  of  the  cornice.  When  the  architrave  jambs  are  flanked 
with  pilasters,  whether  of  the  orders,  or  of  some  emblematical 
form,  the  projections  of  their  bases  and  capitals  are  always 
less  than  that  of  the  surrounding  architrave,  and  the  archi- 
trave over  the  capitals  is  similar  to  that  over  the  door  itself. 
Doors  are  sometimes  decorated  with  one  of  the  five  orders, 
and  in  very  considerable  buildings,  the  entrance  is  adorned 
with  a  portico,  so  as  to  resemble  an  ancient  Grecian 
temple. 

in  embellishing  the  piers  of  gates,  or  outer  doors,  it  should 
be  remembered,  as  a  general  rule,  that  as  the  pier  is  itself 

37 


only  an  inferior  building,  it  should  never  be  richer  than  the 
front  of  the  house.  As  for  instance,  where  the  front  of 
the  latter  is  ornamented  with  Doric  columns,  the  Ionic  should 
not  be  found  in  the  piers  ;  and  it  would  be  better  to  omit 
columns  altogether,  than  use  the  Tus&m  order  for  piers  in 
any  case.  If  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian  orders  be  used  in  the 
front  of  the  house,  the  Doric  or  Ionic  may  be  with  propriety 
introduced  in  the  piers.  Niches  are  almost  always  introduced 
into  piers,  for  which  reason  the  columns  do  better  on  pedes- 
tals, because  the  continued  moulding  from  their  cap  forms 
an  agreeable  ornament  under  tiie  niche. 

The  wooden  closures  by  which  the  apertures  arc  opened 
or  closed,  come  within  the  province  of  the  joiner  :  these  are 
properly  the  doors,  and  are  either  framed,  battened,  or 
ledged,  as  described  in  the  following  articles.  In  ordinary, 
and  even  in  good  houses,  frequently,  the  doors  are  of  deal ; 
in  noblemen's  mansions,  they  are  often  of  mahogany,  solid 
or  veneered,  and  sometimes  of  wainscot,  especially  when  the 
building  is  in  the  antique  style.  Apartments  reserved  for 
the  reception  of  money,  plate,  jewels,  &c.  are  usually  .secured 
with  iron  doors  ;  and  in  the  descriptions  of  ancient  temples, 
we  read  of  doors  of  ivory,  brass,  silver,  and  gold. 

Door,  Baize,  the  inner  door  of  an  apartment,  covered 
with  baize  for  securing  the  room  from  the  influx  of  the 
cold  air. 

Doors,  Baden,  though  formerly  much  in  use,  arc  now 
confined  to  buildings  in  the  pointed  style  of  architecture. 
They  consist  of  boards  glued  together,  to  the  size  of  the 
aperture,  with  styles,  rails,  and  munnions,  made  of  battens, 
nailed  upon  them,  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  framed 
door.  This  may  be  done,  either  on  one  or  both  sides ;  and 
the  door  is  accordingly  denominated  single  or  double  battened. 
The  vertical  joints  should  be  hid  by  the  munnions  of  the 
framing  ;  and  the  latter,  instead  of  being  glued,  shonid  be 
bolted  through  to  a  framing  behind,  which  will  make  them 
very  strong.  The  large  gates  and  doors  of  ancient  British 
edifices  are  thus  constructed.  The  practice  of  imitating  the 
framing  of  Grecian  and  Roman  doors,  is  not,  however,  to  be 
recommended  in  modern  times,  especially  if  no  bolts  be  used  : 
for  the  stuff",  however  well  seasoned,  will  be  subject  to  the 
influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  shrink  or  swell,  as  the  air 
is  dry  or  damp.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  this 
evil  will  be  enhanced  in  proportion  as  the  wood  is  less 
seasoned. 

Doors,  Framed,  which  are  either  single,  folding,  double, 
or  double  margin,  are  employed  in  all  descriptions  of  build- 
ings, and  consist  of  styles,  rails,  panels,  and,  in  most  cases, 
of  munnions  also.  The  framing  includes  all  the  parts  but 
the  panels,  and  is  held  together  with  mortices  and  tenons. 
The  styles  are  the  vertical  parts  of  the  framing  at  the  sides. 
The  rails  are  the  horizontal  pieces,  tenoned  into  the  styles. 
Munnions  are  parts  of  the  framing,  tenoned  into  the  rails. 
The  panels  fill  up  the  holes  left  in  putting  the  framing 
together,  and  are  let  into  grooves  cut  in  the  internal  edges 
of'' the  styles,  rails,  and  munnions.  Doors  are  generally 
framed  in  rectangular  compartments ;  though  other  forms, 
as  circles,  ellipses,  lozenges,  &c.  may  be  adopted,  according 
to  the  fancy  of  the  proprietor,  or  the  taste  of  the  builder. 
Framed  doors  are  either  square  or  moulded ;  the  former  arc 
used  only  in  common  houses.  Mouldings  are  of  various 
forms,  some  confined  within  the  framing,  and  others  project- 
in<T  beyond  it.  The  mouldings  and  form  of  the  panels  of  the 
door,  generally  regulate  those  of  the  window-shutters. 

Folding  doors,  or  doors  of  communicalion,  are  made  in  two 
breadths,  and  have  a  pair  of  styles  to  each  leaf. 

The  Building  Act  (7  and  8  Vict.  cap.  8-4)  requires  that  open- 
ings through  party  walls  be  secured  by  wrought-iron  doors. 


DOR 


290 


DOR 


"  Such  openings  must  not  be  made  wider  than  six  feet, 
nor  higher  than  eight  feet,  unless  in  each  case,  and  upon 
special  evidence  ol"  necessity  for  convenience  or  otherwise, 
the  official  referees  sliall  previously  authorize  larger 
openings. 

"  And  the  floor,  and  the  jambs,  and  the  head  of  every  such 
opening,  must  bo  composed  of  brick  or  stone,  or  iron  work 
throughout  the  whole  tliickncss  of  the  wall. 

"  And  every  such  opening  must  have  a  strong  wrought- 
iron  door  on  each  side  of  the  party  wall,  fitted  and  hung  to 
such  opening  without  wood-work  of  any  kind  ;  and  sucli 
doors  must  not  bo  less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick  m 
the  panels  thereof. 

"  And  each  of  such  doors  must  be  distant  from  the  other 
not  less  than  the  full  thickness  of  the  party  wall." 

Double  doors  are  contrived  to  close  against  each  other,  in 
opposite  directions,  the  one  opening  outwards,  the  other 
going  inwards,  in  order  to  keep  the  apartment  warm  :  the 
inner  door  being  generally  covered  w  ith  baize. 

Double  moryin  doors,  are  single  doors,  with  a  broad  piece 
running  vertically  down  the  middle,  allied  the  staff-style, 
imitating  the  two  internal  styles  of  folding  doors  when  shut. 

AVhatevcr  kind  of  door  be  adopted,  it  should,  for  the  sake 
of  uniformity,  be  used  in  all  the  apartments  of  the  same 
story. 

Farther  particulars  may  bo  seen  under  Architkave,  and 
Joinery. 

The  term  door  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  gates  of  locks 
or  sluices. 

DOORWAY,  the  entrance  or  aperture  in  which  the  door 
is  hung.  Doorways  are  usually  rectangular  in  shape,  but 
sometimes  arched.  In  the  early  styles  previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  arch,  all  apertures  consisted  by  necessity  of 
an  horizontal  lintel  supported  by  two  vertical  jambs,  although 
not  unfrequently  the  jambs  inclined  converging  upwards. 
Doorways  were  enriched  in  a  variety  of  ways,  often  by  a 
platband  running  round  the  jambs  and  lintel,  and  sometimes 
by  an  entablature  above  the  lintel.  An  elaborate  work  upon 
the  subject  has  been  published  by  Professor  Donaldson. 

Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the  arch,  that  form  was 
applied  to  doorways,  the  form  of  the  arch,  whether  semi- 
circular, pointed,  or  otherwise,  being  determined  by  the  date 
and  style  of  the  building.  Of  the  first  form,  the  Romanesque 
style  adbrds  us  some  very  beautiful  specimens;  witness  that 
of  the  Temple  Church,  London,  which  is  a  very  fine  e.xample, 
and  consists  of  a  compound  arch,  that  is  to  say,  a  series  of 
concentric  and  receding  arches,  each  arch  with  its  pier  being 
profusely  adorned  with  pillars  and  enriched  mouldings  of  all 
kinds.  These  doorways  seem  to  have  been  admired  in 
all  ages,  for  frequently,  when  all  the  rest  of  a  church  has  been 
pulled  down  to  make  room  for  one  of  a  more  elaborate  or 
more  fashionable  style  of  architecture,  the  old  Romanesque 
doorway  has  been  preserved,  and  worked  up  in  the  new 
structure.  For  exquisite  e.\amples  of  doorways  in  the 
pointed  styles,  we  have  only  to  refer  to  the  magnificent 
western  entrances  of  the  Continental  cathedrals,  and  the 
smaller  and  less  elaborate,  though  not  less  beautiful,  examples 
in  our  own  country. 

DOORWAY-l'LANE,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  the 
space  between  the  doorway  properly  so  called,  and  the  larger 
door  archway  within  which  it  is  placed.  This  space  is 
frequently  ornamented  with  sculpture,  &:c. 

Doric  order,  the  most  ancient  Grecian  order  of  archi- 
tecture, was  first  used  in  building  the  temple  of  Juno  at 
Argos,  at  the  period  when  Dorus,  father  of  the  Dorians, 
reigned  in  the  Peloponnesus  ;  though,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
its  symmetry  and  proportions  were  not  fixed  till  Ion,  the 


nephew  of  Dorus,  and  chief  of  the  lonians,  led  an  Athenian 
colony  into  that  part  of  Asia  Minor  which  was  afterwards 
distinguished  by  his  name,  and  there  built  a  temple,  after 
the  lashion  of  those  in  the  Dorian  states,  the  columns  of 
which  were  six  diameters  in  height,  taking  the  proportion 
from  the  ratio  that  a  man's  foot  bears  to  the  height  of  his 
body. 

The  Doric  is  distinguished,  in  general  appearance,  from  the 
succeeding  orders,  by  its  bold  and  massy  proportions,  as  well 
as  by  its  comparative  want  of  ornamentation  ;  all  its  parts  are 
bold  and  prominent,  its  details  few  and  imposing. 

Its  origin  is  stated  by  Vitruvius  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  primitive  buildings  of  the  Greeks,  which  were 
made  of  timber ;  but  others  derive  the  style  from  the  stone 
structures  of  Egypt,  and  others  from  those  of  Persia  and  the 
East.  It  would  be  the  more  natural  method  to  discuss  this 
subject  ere  proceeding  farther,  but  as  the  discussion  could 
not  be  readily  understood  without  some  previous  aciiuaintance 
with  the  details  and  general  character  of  the  order,  it  may 
be  as  well  to  turn  our  attention  to  these  matters  first  of  all. 

This  order  then  consists,  like  the  others,  of  column  and 
entablature,  but  ditfers  from  them  in  this,  that  the  first  men- 
tioned division  comprises  only  two  members,  the  shaft  and 
capital ;  the  base,  which  is  indispensable  in  the  other  orders, 
being  omitted  in  this,  at  least  in  the  earlier  and  purer 
examples,  as  practised  by  the  Greeks."  The  reason  of  this 
omission  has  been  accounted  for  in  various  ways  by  ditferent 
writers  ;  Vitruvius  will  have  it,  that  the  base  was  first  intro- 
duced in  the  Ionic  order  to  represent  the  sandal  or  covering 
of  a  woman's  foot,  and  that  in  the  Doric,  which  resembled  in 
some  way  or  other  a  strong  muscular  and  barefooted  man, 
this  member  was  not  appropriate.  Some  are  of  opinion  that 
the  omission  was  occasioned  by  the  close  proximity  of  the 
columns  in  this  order,  which  would  not  admit  of  .any  excres- 
cence at  the  base.  It  is  true  the  intercolumniation  is  very 
contracted,  and  the  addition  of  any  base,  especially  of  a  square 
one  with  its  angular  corners,  would  render  the  passage 
between  the  columns  extremely  narrow  and  inconvenient ; 
indeed,  even  without  a  base,  the  space  was  inconveniently 
small,  and  was  felt  to  be  so,  as  we  gather  from  the  fict  that 
the  intercolumniation  of  the  portico  opposite  the  entrance- 
door  was  increased  in  width,  evidently  to  afford  readier  access 
to  the  interior ;  notwithstanding,  we  can  scarcely  bring 
ourselves  to  conclude  that  this  was  the  reason  of  the  absence 
of  a  base.  We  rather  incline  to  believe  that  a  base  had  as 
yet  never  been  thought  of,  the  idea  had  not  yet  suggested 
itself;  in  Egyptian  temples,  from  which  we  believe  the 
Doric  order  to  have  emanated,  the  columns  were  usually 
devoid  of  bases,  and  it  is  but  reasonable  to  presume  that  in 
their  earlier  essays,  the  Greeks  aimed  at  nothing  more 
than  a  copy,  and  did  not  think  either  of  addition  or 
improvement. 

The  Doric  shaft  then  rises  immediately  from  the  platform 
on  which  the  building  stands,  but  this  platform  was  usually 
raised  on  a  scries  of  three  or  more  steps  or  gradations,  the 
risers  of  which  are  proportioned  not  to  the  capacity  of 
the  human  step,  but  to  the  magnitude  of  the  building. 
The  shaft,  when  comp.ared  with  those  of  the  other  orders,  is 
of  stunted  and  massj-  proportions,  its  height  being  only 
5  or  6  times  greater  than  its  lower  diameter ;  the  upper 
diameter,  however,  is  of  much  smaller  dimensions,  the 
column  converging  rapidly  towards  the  capital,  a  circumstance 
which  gives  an  appearance  of  great  stability.  Towards  the 
top  of  the  column,  a  narrow  channel  is  carved  out  round 
the  sh.aft,  so  as  to  form  an  aniuilus  in  recession,  and  this 
marks  the  division  between  the  shaft  and  capital,  although 
a  portion  above  this  is  in  form  nothing  more  than  a  continuation 


of  the  shaft.  The  shaft  was  almost  universally  fluted,  very 
fow  exceptions  to  the  contrary  existing ;  tiio  number  of  the 
flutes  is  either  IG  or  20,  and  their  profile  is  that  of  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle  les:^  than  a  semi-circle,  being  much  broader 
and  flatter  or  shallower  than  those  of  the  succeeding  orders. 
These  flutes  meet  each  other  in  a  sharp  arris,  without  the 
intervention  of  fillets,  which  are  universal  in  the  later  orders; 
a  slight  fillet,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  examples  at  Eleusis, 
Sermium,  Khamuus  and  Thoricus,  but  so  narrow  as  to  be 
insignificant.  Much  pains  have  been  taken  by  various 
authors  to  account  for  the  introduotion  and  use  of  those 
flutes,  but  in  our  opinion  without  success;  one  supposes 
that  they  are  imitations  of  the  crevices  in  the  stems  of  the 
trees  out  of  which  the  timber-huts,  the  primitive  models  of 
the  stone  structures,  were  constructed;  another, that  the  idea 
was  occasioned  by  the  rainstreak  running  down  the  shafts 
of  the  columns ;  and  a  third,  that  flutings  were  hollowed  out 
for  the  purpose  of  resting  spars  in  the  crevices.  Such 
hypotheses  are  doubtless  very  ingenious,  although  not  to  all 
minds  equally  convincing  ;  for  our  own  part,  we  do  not  see 
the  absolute  necessity  there  is  to  account  for  the  reason  and 
origin  of  every  small  member  or  ornamental  detail.  We 
require  no  further  reason  for  the  use  of  flutes,  beyond  the 
ert'ect  produced  by  them  as  a  means  of  decoration,  and  as 
such  we  think  their  origin  very  easily  accounted  for.  In  the 
majority  of  Egyptian  examples,  from  which — to  prejudge 
the  question — we  suppose  those  of  Greece  to  have  been 
derived,  the  columns  were  reeded,  or  ornamented  with  pro- 
jecting staves  instead  of  recessed  flutes;  nor  are  the  two 
methods  of  decoration  so  dissimilar  and  unconnected,  for  we 
have  only  to  remove  the  staves  to  produce  the  flutes:  and 
besides  these  methods  we  find  another,  in  which  the  columns 
are  what  is  called  canted,  that  is  to  say,  have  their  horizontal 
sections  rectilineal  polygons,  the  faces  of  the  polygon  or  sides 
of  the  column  being  flat,  instead  of  convex  or  concave. 
Thus  we  have  three  kinds  of  polygonal  columns,  the  first  of 
which  seems  to  possess  the  primitive  form,  and  the  others 
to  be  inercly  enriched  variations  of  the  same.  At  Amada 
in  Nubia,  there  is  a  very  curious  illustration  of  the  progress 
made  in  the  improvement  and  enrichment  of  columns,  where 
in  the  same  building  we  find  one  column  a  mere  pier  or 
simple  parallelopiped,  and  another  and  adjoining  one  both 
rounded  olf  at  the  corners  and  fluted  ;  this  last  bears  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  the  Grecian  Doric,  on  which 
account  we  shall  have  to  refer  to  the  subject  again  ere  the 
close  of  this  article.  Specimens  of  Doric  canted  columns 
are  to  be  found  in  the  portico  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon, 
and  in  the  temple  of  Cora ;  the  flutes,  however,  are  the  most 
prevalent,  as  they  are  the  most  beautiful  means  of  enrich- 
ment;  the  pleasing  effect  produced  by  them  is  attributable 
mainly  to  the  diversity  of  light  and  shade  so  created,  but 
this  is  not  their  only  advantage  ;  they  likewise  give  a  variety 
and  lightness  of  appearance  to  the  column,  which  would 
otlierwise  appear  heavy,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  the  dimmu- 
tion  of  the  breadth  of  the  channels  as  viewed  by  the  eye,  add 
to  the  apparent  circularity  of  the  column.  We  have  no 
specimens  of  reeded  columns  in  this  order.  The  flutes 
diminish  in  width  as  they  reach  the  top  of  the  shaft,  to 
correspond  with  the  diminution  of  the  shaft;  they  are  carried 
above  the  necking  of  the  capital,  and  usually  terminate 
immediately  below  the  annulets,  butting  upon  a  plane  surface 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  columns,  or  parallel  to  the 
liorizon,  as  in  the  Propylaja  at  Athens.  In  other  cases,  as 
in  the  temples  of  Theseus  and  of  Minerva  at  Athens,  as  well 
as  in  the  Portico  of  Philip,  in  the  island  of  Delos,  the  upper 
ends  of  the  flutes  terminate  upon  the  superficies  of  a  cone, 
immediately  under  the  annulets,  in  a  tangent  to  the  bottom 


of  the  curve  of  the  echinus  of  the  capital.  The  same 
kind  of  termination  takes  place  in  the  temple  of  Apollo,  at 
Cora,  in  Italy  ;  but  in  this  examjile,  the  conic  termination 
of  the  flutes  is  not  immediately  under  the  abacus,  but  at  a 
small  distance  down  the  shaft,  leaving  a  small  portion  quite 
a  plain  cylinder,  and  thus  forming  the  hypotrachelium  or 
neck  of  the  capital.  Palladio  and  other  Italian  authors  have 
terminated  the  flutes  of  the  shafts  of  their  design  of  Doric 
columns  in  the  segments  of  spheres  tanged  by  the  surfaces 
of  the  fluting.  In  some  few  instances  the  -shaft  is  fluted  only 
at  the  upper  and  lower  extremities,  the  other  part  being  left 
plain,  although  probably  with  the  intention  of  being  orna- 
mented in  a  similar  manner  at  some  future  time.  Examples 
of  this  are  to  be  found  at  Eleusis  and  Thoricus  in  Attica, 
at  Egesta  and  Selinus  in  Sicily,  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delos  and  at  Rhamnus,  which  last  forms  a  peculiar  instance, 
the  columns  of  the  pronaos  being  fluted  the  whole  length  of 
the  shaft  in  front ;  with  eleven  channels,  having  at  the  back 
nine  plain  surfaces.  We  have  above  stated  the  number  of 
channels  to  be  16  or  20,  but  the  latter  is  by  far  the  more 
usual ;  examples  of  which  practice  are,  the  Parthenon, 
Theseum  and  Propyla^a  at  Athens,  with  others  at  Corinth, 
Delos,  Eleusis,  Rhamnus,  Thoricus,  Bassae,  Agrigentum,  and 
in  the  temple  of  Ceres,  at  Paistum.  There  are  but  few 
examples  with  only  10  channels,  of  which  number  are  those 
at  Sunium,  and  the  upper  range  of  the  interior  columns  in 
the  temple  of  Neptune  at  Ptestum,  in  which  last  mentioned 
building  there  are  specimens  of  columns  with  as  many  as 
24  flutes.  The  channels  were  not  always  circular,  but 
semetimes  semi-ellipses,  and  at  others  eccentric  curves. 
Doric  anta  were  never  fluted. 

The  first  object  which  attracts  notice  in  passing  the  eye  up 
the  column,  and  which  breaks  the  outline  of  the  fluting,  is 
what  is  termed  the  hypotrachelium,  or  under-necking  of  the 
capital.  This  consists  of  one  or  more  channels  cut  in  reces- 
sion round  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft ;  in  some  instances,  as 
at  the  temple  of  Alinerva  at  Sunium,  in  the  Agora  at  Athens, 
and  in  most  of  the  examples  at  Agrigentum  ;  this  division  is 
so  fine  as  almost  to  escape  jiotice,  and  in  others  is  very  pro- 
minent, the  channels  varying  both  in  size  and  number.  In 
the  Parthenon,  and  in  the  Propylasa  at  Eleusis,  and  at 
Rhamnus,  there  is  a  single  rectangular  groove ;  at  the  Pro- 
pylaja  at  Athens,  a  groove  chamfered  on  the  upper  edge, 
and  at  the  Theseum,  a  groove  chamfered  on  both  edges,  so 
as  to  form  an  acute  angle  at  the  meeting  of  the  chamfers. 
At  Corinth  there  are  three  channels  similar  to  those  in  the 
Propylrea  at  Athens,  having  a  fillet  between  each  two,  as 
also  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassce,  but  in  this  example 
the  channels  are  of  a  curvilinear  section.  At  Passtum  there 
are  three  fine  channels,  which,  at  their  junction  with  the 
arrises  of  the  flutes,  are  cut  into  the  shape  of  diamonds,  the 
projecting  edge  of  the  arris  being  chamfered  off.  The  hypo- 
trachelium of  three  channels  ie  considered  a  mark  of  antiquity, 
for  although  they  are  not  of  necessity  found  in  all  ancient 
examples,  yet  they  are  never  inserted  in  those  of  later  date. 
Some  writers  consider  those  channels  as  the  commencement 
of  the  capital,  while  others  are  inclined  to  think  them  but  a 
continuation  of  the  shaft.  In  the  other  orders  the  correspond- 
ing member  is  certainly  the  division  between  the  two  parts, 
all  above  being  giving  to  the  capital,  and  all  below  to  the 
shaft ;  the  difficulty  in  this  ease  arising  from  the  fact  of  the 
continuation  of  the  flutes  above  this  point,  the  space  between 
the  hypotrachelium  and  annulets  being  precisely  similar  to 
the  lower  portion  of  the  shaft,  yet  at  the  same  time  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  assign  any  other  reason  for  the  introduction  of  the 
grooves,  except  they  serve  to  mark  the  division  between 
the  two  members  of  the  column.     Without  the  intervention 


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DOR 


of  such  a  mark  as  lliis  the  capital  would  have  appeared  stunted 
and  heavy,  but,  as  it  is,  the  sliadow  produced  by  the  sinking, 
murks  to  the  eye  a  distinct  division,  and,  in  appearance  at 
least,  increases,  at  the  same  time,  the  length  and  comparative 
liglitness  of  the  capital. 

Above  tlic  hypotraclielium,  the  shaft,  with  its  fluting,  is 
continued  for  a  short  distance,  and  meets  the  annulets  of  the 
capital  in  a  curve  or  apothe.sis  ;  this  portion  forming,  accord- 
ing to  our  notion,  the  necking  of  the  capital.  The  annulets 
come  next,  and  form  the  lower  portion  of  what  may  be  termed 
the  capital-proper,  about  which  there  exists  no  dillorencc  of 
opinion.  The  following  particulars  of  the  number  and  fornt  of 
annulets  in  difl'erent  examples  arefurnished  by  a  contributor  to 
"  The  15uilder,"  to  whose  valuable  writings,  <jn  this  subject,  we 
shall  liave  occasion  to  advert  more  than  once  in  this  article: 

••The  ammlets,  in  Grecian  Doric  eolums,  vary  as  well  in 
their  profile  as  in  their  number.  Some  examples  may  be 
interesting,  to  show  the  exhaustlcss  genius  of  the  Greeks, 
even  in  details  the  most  minute,  and  that  although  the  general 
principles  of  art  in  the  Doric  order  are  the  same,  yet  that 
they  could  produce  great  variety  in  tiieir  details.  In  the 
Parthenon,  that  best  and  purest  of  all  examples,  we  find, 
under  tlie  echinus  of  the  capitals  in  the  porticos,  live  rings, 
placed  on  a  slope,  continued,  as  it  were,  fjom  the  lower  link 
of  llie  echinus,  and  in  the  columns  of  thepronaosof  thesame 
edilice,  there  are  but  three  rings.  In  the  temple  of  Theseus, 
the  prolile  of  the  annulets  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
Parthenon  ;  the  rings  aio  four  in  number,  and  the  underside 
iii'  the  lower  arris  of  each  ring  is  slightly  undercut.  In  the 
example  from  the  portico  at  Athens,  presumed  to  belong  to 
the  Agora,  or  market-place,  we  see  how  widely  the  artist 
departed  from  the  graceful  and  flowing  outline  of  earlier  pat- 
terns ;  this,  of  the  age  of  Augustus,  is  one  of  the  latest  known 
examples  of  Grecian-Doric,  yet  in  many  points  it  cannot  be 
safely  recommended  for  modern  imitation.  In  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Bassa;,  a  building  of  the  pure  ago 
of  (jreek  art,  the  annulets  are  four  in  number,  resembling  in 
their  contour  those  in  the  Parthenon,  excepting  that  the 
second  and  third  rings  recede  a  little  from  a  line  drawn  from 
the  lirst  to  the  fourth.  At  Ilhamnus,  where  are  two  temples, 
at  Sunium,  and  iii  the  Dodecastyle  portico  of  CeresatEleusis 
the  rings  are  three  in  number,  profiled  like  the  best  examples 
at  Athens  ;  at  Egesta  and  Selinus,  they  are  three  in  immber ; 
at  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Agrigentum,  of 
Apollo  in  the  isle  of  Delos,  and  in  the  portico  of  Philip 
at  the  same  place,  at  Corinth  (where  the  annulets  have  a 
great  projection,  and  are  very  deeply  undercut),  in  the 
llypiBthral  temple  at  Piestum,  in  the  temple  of  Diana,  in 
the  Propylaja  at  Eleusis,  in  the  Propytea  at  Athens  (an 
excellent  example)  and  at  Thoricus,  the  rings  are  four  in 
number.  At  the  latter  place  the  annulets  are  remarkable, 
and  probably  singular  in  their  way.  In  the  capital  from  tiie 
Pseudodipteral  temple  at  Ptestum,  in  which  many  pecu- 
liarities are  observable ;  the  immense  size  and  projection  of 
the  abacus  seem  to  crush  the  echinus,  which  has  beneath  it 
two  rings,  under  wliich  the  flutings  curl  in  the  form  of  leaves. 
At  Selinus,  Mr.  Woods  noticed  some  remaikable  features  in 
the  capitals  : — 'The  shape  of  these  capitals  is  very  j)cculiar  ; 
1  have  seen  nothing  like  them  in  Greece,  except  a  fragment 
on  a  very  small  scale  which  I  noticed  at  Cortu.  The  common 
Grecian-Doric  capitals  in  the  best  examples  form  a  sort  of 
ogee,  and  we  find  this  curve  at  the  third  temple,  but  in  the 
great  temple,  and  in  two  of  the  three  smaller  ones,  a  deep 
hollow  interrupts  the  flow  of  the  lines.'  These  capitals  were 
each  cut  out  of  a  block  of  stone  thirteen  feet  sfpiare." 

The  next  member  of  the  cajiital  is  the  echinus,  which  is 
similar  to  an  ovolo,  or  quarter-round   moulding,  and  which. 


spreading  out  from  above  the  annulets,  serves  to  support  the 
overhanging  abacus.  In  the  best  examples  it  is  usually  very 
flat  in  profile,  being  little  more,  than  a  frustum  of  an  inverted 
cone,  having  its  base  rounded  off  at  its  edge,  and  quirked,  as 
it  were,  where  it  meets  the  abacus.  Its  use  seems  to  have 
originated  from  an  imitation  of  the  cushion-capitals  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  lower  portion  only  being  reserved  hi  Grecian 
buildings.  The  diameter  of  the  top  of  the  echinus  is  equal 
to,  or  somewhat  greater  than,  the  lower  diameter  of  the 
column.     We  refer  again  to  the  writer  above  alluded  to. 

"In  those  buildings  which  belong  to  the  best  age  of 
Grecian  art — the  days  of  Pericles,  and  his  chief  architects, 
Gallicrates  and  Ictinus — as  seen  at  Athens,  Basste,  Sunium, 
Thoricus,  Eleusis,  Kliamnus,  and  elsewhere,  we  shall  find 
that  the  echinus  has  its  lower  part  either  very  slightly  curved 
or  else  perfectly  straight ;  whilst,  in  buildings  of  later  date, 
and  of  equivocal  taste,  we  find  that  the  moulding  nearly  re- 
sembles an  elongated  or  ovate  quarter-round,  as  in  the  Agora 
at  Athens,  and  in  a  building  at  t'adachio.  Professor  Donald- 
son has  drawn  notice  to  the  general  principle  which  "  directed 
the  Greeks  in  composition  of  their  Doric  capitals.  From 
the  necking  to  the  abacus,  the  outline  is  that  of  a  cy  ma-reversa, 
having  a  projection  that  varied  according  to  the  era,  or  style 
of  art  peculiar  to  the  country  ;  the  existing  Attic  examples 
being  but  slightly  projecting,  while  the  immense  abacus  of 
the  orders  now  remaining  at  Corinth,  Passtum,  and  in  Sicily, 
gives  a  bolder  profile  to  the  capital."  Some  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  vast  proportions  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  at 
Agrigentum,  when  we  find  that  the  echinus  of  each  column  is 
formed  of  two  stones,  each  weighing  21 J  tons,  held  together 
by  plugs  or  dowels  by  the  centre  stone  of  the  abacus,  which 
is  in  three  pieces.  In  the  capitals  of  the  antte  of  Greek 
examples  the  echinus  is  generally  undercut,  so  as  to  form 
that  remarkable  moulding  called  the  hawk's-beak,  or  binl's- 
beak  moulding.  The  proportionate  depth  of  the  abacus 
and  echinus  to  each  other,  is  not  always  the  same ;  but, 
as  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  hold,  that  the  former  member 
should  have  the  greatest  depth.  In  the  Parthenon,  the  rela- 
tion, in  this  respect,  is  as  II  to  9  ;  at  Sunium  and  at  Bassa% 
as  7  to  G  ;  at  Thoricus,  as  C  to  5  ;  at  Eleusis,  as  12  to  9.  In 
the  best  examples  with  which  we  are  acquainted — as,  for 
instance,  in  the  Parthenon  and  Thcseum — the  echinus  has 
nearly  the  same  projection  as  the  abacus  (it  is  actually  the 
same  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Bassie) ;  and  we 
shall  find,  that  the  sharper  is  its  outline — that  is,  the  more  it 
is  remote  from  the  quarter-round — the  more  it  is  held  in 
estimation  ;  and  that,  as  it  approaches  the  ovolo  in  form,  so 
it  may  be  traced  to  belong  to  a  declining  period,  or  one  nearer 
to  the  time  of  the  Roman  use  of  the  Dojic  order.  If  we 
grant  for  a  moment,  that  timber  construction  aflbrded  the  first 
hints  for  architectural  composition,  and  that  the  origin  of  the 
abacus  may  be  traced  to  the  intervention  of  a  cube  of  wood 
between  the  column  and  its  entablature;  where  will  the 
advocates  of  this  system  find  the  prototype  of  the  echinus  ? 
To  the  Greeks  we  must  look  for  adoption  of  this  beauti- 
ful moulding,  which  coiuiects,  in  such  a  happy  manner,  the 
square  abacus  with  the  circular  shaft;  and  truly  may  it  be 
said  to  be  their  own  invention,  even  if  we  are  compelled  to 
admit,  that  some  slight  hint  for  it  is  to  be  found  among  the 
heavy  capitals  of  Egypt.  Professor  Ilosking  has  well  ob- 
served :  "  Greek  architecture  is  distinguished  for  nothing 
more  than  for  the  grace  and  beauty  of  its  mouldings;  and  it 
may  be  remarked  of  them  generally,  that  they  are  ccceutiic, 
and  not  regular  curves.  They  must  be  drawn,  fur  they  can- 
not be  described,  or  struck;  so  that,  though  they  may  be 
called  circular,  or  ellipticid,  it  is  seldom  that  they  are  really 
so ;  not  but  that  they  may  be ;  but  if  they  are,  it  is  consider- 


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ably  the  result  of  chance,  not  of  design.  Hence,  all  attempts 
to  give  rules  for  striking  inouKlings  arc  worse  than  useless,  for 
they  are  injurious  ;  tlic  hand  alone,  directed  by  good  taste, 
can  adapt  them  to  their  purpose,  and  give  them  the  spirit  and 
feeling  whicli  render  them  elleclive  and  pleasing." 

The  abacus  at  the  top  of  the  capital  is  of  the  simplest 
description,  being  merely  a  square  slab  of  stone,  of  consider- 
able thickness,  harmonizing  well  with  the  massy  appearance 
of  the  entire  column.  It  projects  considerably  beyond  the 
upper  part  oi  the  shaft,  and  sometimes  even  beyond  the 
lower  diameter,  and  always  advances  in  front  of  the  general 
surface  of  the  epistylium.  Where  the  abacus  overhangs  be- 
yond the  foot  of  the  column,  it  is  considered  as  an  indication 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  building  ;  examples  of  which  occur 
at  Corinth,  P;estum,  Egesta,  and  elsewhere.  This  comijletes 
the  description  of  the  column. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  in  passing,  that  Doric  antaj 
differ  from  coluums,  in  maintaining  the  same  width  from  top 
to  bottom,  which  equals  the  average  diameter  of  the  column. 
They  have  a  simple  moulding  and  groove  at  their  base  ;  the 
capital  likewise  is  very  simple,  and  the  abacus  and  other 
mouldings  are  much  nariower  than  in  the  capital  of  the 
colunui.     Antai  arc  never  fluted. 

The  Doric  entablature  consists  as  usual  of  three  members, 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  the  first  or  lowermost  of 
which,  otherwise  termed  the  epis/ylium,  is  simply  a  plain 
fascia  surmounted  by  a  broad  fillet  termed  the  kenia,  which 
forms  the  separation  between  it  and  the  frieze,  and  to  which 
another  fillet,  with  small  cylindrical  guttai  depending  from 
it,  is  attached  in  separate  portions  beneath  each  triglyph  of 
the  frieze.  The  epistylium  recedes  from  the  face  of  the 
abacus,  projecting  beyond  the  upper  diameter  of  the  shaft, 
but  falling  short  of  the  extremity  of  the  lower  diameter, 
so  as  only  partially  to  overhang  the  column.  A  line  dropped 
vertically  from  the  face  of  the  architrave  would  cut  the  abacus, 
pass  without  the  upper  portion  of  the  shaft,  but  fall  within 
it  ere  it  reached  the  base.  The  average  heiglit  of  this  mem- 
ber, inclusive  of  the  taenia,  is  equal  to  the  upj)er  diameter  of 
th:;  column. 

Above  the  architrave  is  the  frieze,  which  forms  the  most 
characteristic  feature  in  the  whole  entablature,  although  of 
no  greater  dimensions  than  the  epistylium.  The  height  of 
the  two  members  is  nearly  equal,  with  but  slight  varia- 
tions in  any  example,  the  frieze  being  seldom,  if  ever,  the 
deeper,  more  frequently  the  shallower  of  the  two.  The  peculiar 
ornamentation  of  this  portion  of  the  entablature  gives  it  its 
specific  character  ;  being  divided  into  a  series  of  projectintr 
and  recessed  panels.  The  distinguishing  feature  is  the  Iri- 
gli/ph,  which  is  a  slightly  projecting  tablet,  somewhat  wider 
than  the  semi-diameter  of  the  base  of  the  column,  and  chan- 
nelled vertically  with  three  grooves,  or  yXv(pE<;,  whence  the 
name  triglyph.  These  channels  are  so  disposed,  that  there 
shall  be  a  space  in  the  centre  of  the  projecting  slab,  with  a 
channel  on  each  side  of  it,  and  beyond  these  again,  on  either 
side,  another  equal  space,  with  a  half-groove  outside,  on  the 
edge  of  the  slab,  which  indeed  is  nothing  more  than  a  cham- 
fered edge.  The  two  channels,  and  the  two  halves  on  the 
extremities  together  make  up  the  three  grooves,  or  ghjphs. 

Beneath  each  triglyph,  and  attached  to  a  fillet,  are  a  series  of 
gnttie  or  drops,  immediately  under  the  trenia  of  the  architrave. 
This  decoration  we  have  alluded  to  in  describing  the  episty- 
hum,  but  although  it  is  attached  to  that  member,  it  belongs, 
strictly  speaking,  to  the  triglyph,  of  which  it  is  a  conti- 
nuation ;  Its  position,  however,  in  this  place,  serves  a  very 
useful  purpose,  for  it  both  gives  a  variety  to  the  otherwise 
monotonous  surface  of  the  architrave,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
presents  to  the  eye  a  sort  of  connection  between  this  portion 


of  the  entablature  and  the  frieze  above  it.  The  gutt£e  are 
six  in  number,  of  a  conical  form,  and  are  said  to  represent 
drops  of  rain  that  have  trickled  down  the  channels  of  the 
triglyph,  and  settled  beneath  the  taenia  ;  others  again  suppose 
them  to  represent  the  heads  of  nails,  or  screws,  used  in  the 
wooden  structure.  The  channels  of  the  triglyph  are  of  a  tri- 
angular section,  and  arc  not  continued  the  entire  height  of 
the  block,  although  at  the  bottom  they  butt  against  the  taenia. 
Each  triglyph  is  surmounted  by  a  capital,  or  slightly-project^ 
ing  band,  which,  in  the  Greek  examples  is  of  very  slight 
projection,  and  is  not  returned  at  the  sides,  except  in  the  case 
of  triglyphs  at  the  angles  of  the  building.  The  position  of 
these  ornaments  is  such,  that  there  shall  be  one  over  the  centre 
of  each  column,  and  one  midway  between  every  pair  of 
columns  ;  but  there  is  an  exception  to  this  disposition  at  the 
angles  of  buildings,  where  the  triglyph  is  not  placed  over  the 
centre  of  the  column,  but  is  brought  up  quite  to  the  edge  or 
outer  angle  of  the  frieze,  so  that  a  line  dropped  perpendicularly 
from  the  outer  edge  of  the  corner  triglyph,  would  touch  the 
base  of  the  column.  This  disposition  gives  occasion  for  an 
alteration  of  the  intercolumniation  between  the  two  end 
columns,  these  being  brought  closer  together  by  the  space  of 
half  a  triglyph  ;  an  advantage  is  obtained  by  this  means,  inas- 
much as  an  appearance  of  greater  strength  is  given  to  the 
extremities  of  the  colonnade. 

The  spaces  between  the  triglyphs  are  called  metopes,  and 
are  usually  filled  up  with  sculptures  in  bas-relief,  from  which 
circumstance  the  frieze  was  called  by  the  Greeks  zoophorits, 
because  it  contained  representations  of  living  figures,  men  or 
animals.  These  metopes  are  usually  of  a  square  form,  their 
breadth  being  equal  to  the  height  of  the  frieze,  but  there  is 
a  slight  variation  in  difierent  examples.  In  the  Doric  portico 
at  Athens,  the  breadth  of  the  metope  is  3',,  3"  and  3',,  3".6, 
while  the  height  is  3',,  0".  7,  including  the  band  or  capital 
over  it;  or  without  the  band,  2',,  9"  .  05  ;  in  the  temple  of 
Minerva  at  Athens,  the  height  of  the  metope,  without  the 
band,  is  3',,  11"  .  15,  and  its  breadth  4',,  3"  .  35  :  in  the  Pro- 
pylcea,  the  breadth  is  3',,  8"  .25,  and  the  height  3',,  9"  .85, 
including  the  band  and  the  bend  over  it ;  and  in  the  Theseum, 
the  breadth  is  2',,  0"  .475,  and  the  height  2',,  5",  without  the 
band.  Each  metope  is  surmounted  with  a  band,  or  capital, 
similar  to  that  of  the  triglyph,  though  not  of  equal  width 
or  projection. 

The  entablature  belonging  to  the  monument  of  Thrasyllus 
is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule,  the  frieze  being  without 
the  characteristic  addition  of  triglyphs,  their  place  being 
filled  up  with  wreaths  ;  the  gutta2,  however,  are  retained,  but 
instead  of  being  disposed  at  intervals,  they  are  continued  un- 
interruptedly beneath  the  fillet. 

The  Doric  cornice  consists  of  few  but  bold  parts,  the  most 
characteristic  of  which  are  the  mutules.  These  are  a  series 
of  shallow  plates  attached  to  the  soffit  of  the  corona, 
sloping  forward,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  mutule  in  front 
is  considerably  lower  than  at  the  back,  and  having  their 
soffits  studded  with  cylindrical  or  conical  gutfa; ;  these  guttae 
were  eighteen  in  number,  and  placed  in  three  rows  of  six 
each.  A  mutule  was  placed  over  each  triglyph,  and  an  inter- 
mediate one  over  each  mutule ;  their  width  being  equal  to 
that  of  the  triglyphs.  Under  the  mutules  was  generally  a 
plain  band,  but  sometimes  an  ogee  is  found  in  this  place,  ilie 
corona  is  a  boldly-projecting  flat  moulding,  of  somewhat 
greater  depth  than  the  abacus  of  the  capital,  and  is  generally 
finished  off  above  with  a  small  ovolo  and  fillet  supporting  the 
cymatium,  which  consists  of  two  similar  mouldings,  but  of 
more  imposing  dimensions.  In  raking  cornices  the  mutules 
are  omitted,  but  a  new  moulding,  termed  the  epilitheJas,  is 
added  as  a  finish,  which  is  either  an  ovolo  or  cymatium. 


DOR 


294 


DOR 


When  used,  the  epitithedas  was  continued  a  little  way  at  the 
angles,  and  terminated  against  a  carved  block.  The  pedi- 
ment in  this  order  is  of  a  low  pitch,  and  always  about  the 
same  height,  whatever  the  span  may  be ;  upon  an  average  the 
height  equals  that  of  the  entablature,  more  or  less,  but  is 
scarcely  ever  so  great  as  to  make  the  tympanum  higher  than 
the  entablature. 

Having  completed  this  general  description  of  the  order,  it 
may  be  as  well  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  proportions 
observed  in  the  dilTerent  parts. 

The  height  of  the  column  varies  from  four  times  the  lower 
diameter,  as  in  the  earliest  existing  e.xample  at  Corinth, 
to  (JJ  times,  as  at  the  portico  of  Philip,  but  in  the  purest 
examples  the  height  is  about  5J-  times  the  lower  diameter, 
the  upper  diameter  being  \  less  than  the  lower.  The  entab- 
lature varies  from  If  to  3  diameters  in  height,  of  which  f 
go  to  the  epistylium,  |  to  the  frieze,  and  the  remainder  to  the 
cornice. 

To  afford  more  detailed  information,  we  give  the  following 
proportions  from  the  temple  at  Sunium,  and  the  accompany- 
ing table,  as  prepared  by  Mr.  Brown. 

"  The  proportions  of  the  temple  at  Sunium  are  thus 
ordered  :  make  the  column  6  diameters  high,  and  the  entab- 


lature ^  of  the  column,  or  divide  the  whole  height  into  13 
j)arts,  of  which  give  10  to  the  column,  and  3  to  the  entabia- 
lure.  The  upper  diameter  of  the  column  is  3  of  the  lower. 
The  capital  -J  a  diameter,  which,  being  divided  into  5  parts, 
2  are  to  be  given  to  the  abacus,  2  to  the  ovolo  and  annulets, 
and  1  to  the  necking.  The  length  of  the  abacus  1  J- diameter. 
The  entablature  is  to  be  divided  into  8  parts,  giving  3  to 
the  architrave,  3  to  the  frieze,  and  2  to  the  cornice.  In 
dividing  the  cornice,  take  ^  for  the  cymatium,  fdlct,  and 
moulding,  |-  for  the  corona  alone,  and  leave  \  for  that  part 
of  the  fascia  which  appears  below  a  horizontal  line  drawn 
from  the  lower  front  edge  of  the  corona.  The  whole  projec. 
tion  of  the  cornice  is  1  diameter,  reckoning  from  the  centre 
of  the  column.  The  capital  of  the  triglyph  to  be  J  of  the 
whole  height  of  the  fiieze.  The  capital  or  fillet  of  tiic  archi- 
trave to  be  ^  of  the  height  of  the  architrave.  The  architrave 
to  overhang  the  upper  pait  of  the  shaft  by  ^  the  diUcrcnce 
between  that  and  the  lower  diameter.  In  distributing  the 
triglyphs,  take  1^  diameter,  or  75  minutes  for  the  widlh  of 
the  triglyph  and  metope,  and  of  this  give  |-  to  the  former, 
and  -|  to  the  latter,  or  nearly  28  and  47  minutes.  Tims  a 
monotriglyph  intcrcolumniation  will  be  75  +  75 — GO^OO 
minutes,  or  1^  diameter." 


A  Table  of  the  Proportions  of  some  of  the  Grecian  Doric  Orders,  accordinr  to  the  Module  of  Sixtij  Parts, 

formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  Shaft  of  the  Column. 


Propylcea,  or  Entrance  into  the  Citadel  of  Athens 

Portico  of  the  Agora,  at  Athens 

Temple  of  Minerva,  or  Parthenon  at  Athens. . . 

Temple  at  Corinth 

Temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens 

Temple  of  Minerva  at  Sunium 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Nemous,  near  Argos 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Pauliellenius  at  Argive  . . . . 
Portico  of  Philip, -King  of  Macedon,  at  Dolos  . . 

Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delos  (plain  shaft) 

Temple  of  Minerva  at  Syracuse 

Temple  of  Juno  Lucina  at  Agrigentum 

Temple  of  Concord  at  Agrigentum 

Temple  of  Selinus 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Selinus 

Pseudo-dipteral  Temple  at  P.-cstum 

Hexastyle  Temple  at  Pajstum 

Hypajthral  Temple  of  Neptune  at  Piostum. . . . 

Inner  Peristyle  of  Temple  of  Neptune 

Upper  Columns  to  ditto 

Temple  of  Egesta  (plain  shaft) 


Lower 
Diameter. 

Upper 
Diameter. 

Height  of 
Column. 

Archi- 
trave. 

Frieze. 

Cornice. 

Inter  colum- 
niation. 

PedeetaL 

Minutes. 
60 
60 

Minutes. 

Dlam.          Mln. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

Diam.         Min. 

Rise. 

47 

6       2+ 

40 

42 

21 

1     n 

1      7 

60 

47 

5     33i 

43 

43 

82 

1        17$ 

1   91  4 

60 

44s 

4       4 

48f 

— 

— 

1        14 

— 

60 

46r 

5     42i- 

50 

49J 

— 

1      37i 

1   81   2 

00 

45| 

5     54 

m 

m 

— 

1       28 

— 

60 

49 

6     31 

38§- 

43| 

— 

— 

— 

60 

44i 

5     24 

51J 

61i 

— 

1       41 

— 

60 

49J 

6     32i 

38J 

43J 

25i 

2       42J 

— 

60 

42i 

6       3f 

49f 

42i 

— 

— 

— 

60 

46 

4     24J 

44i 

40 

— 

1          5J 

— 

60 

45J 

4     42 

65 

45 

— 

1        15 

— 

60 

46 

4     48i 

46j 

46i 

25 

1        lOj 

— 

60 

46 

4     21J 

46i 

44|. 

— 

1          2i 

— 

60 

S5i 

4     34+ 

62 

44f 

26 

— 

— 

60 

m 

4     27 

50 

— 

— 

59J     67| 

— 

60 

43 

4     47$ 

45f 

44J 

24f 

1          1* 

— 

60 

4U 

4       8 

m 

40i 

21i 

1        4-1 

— 

60 

43 

1  m 

39 

— 

— 

1       22f 

— 

60 

•14i 

3     50 

68 

— 

— 

2       49 

— 

60 

44i 

— 

49J 

m 

40i 

1        11 

— 

In  comparing  the  above  with  the  table  on  the  next  page, 
in  which  the  dates  are  given,  it  will  be  readily  observable 
with  what  regularity  the  proportionate  height  of  the  columns 
increased  from  the  earliest  example  at  Corinth  to  the  latest, 
the  Agora  at  Athens  :  the  last,  however,  forming  somewhat 
of  an  exception  to  the  rule,  the  height  being  less  in  this 
case  than  in  the  two  previous  examples,  viz  ;  those  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  NemEeus,  and  of  the  Portico  of  Philip  of 
Macedon.  The  diminution  of  the  shall  will  be  seen 
to  average  about  15  minutes,  the  upper  diameter  ranging 


from  49^  in  the  portico  of  Philip,  a  late  example,  to  35J  in 
the  temple  at  Selinus,  one  of  the  earlier  buildings ;  thus 
affording  additional  proof  of  the  comparative  lightness 
of  the  later  structures.  We  have  to  call  attention  likewi-e 
to  the  general  equality  in  height  between  the  architrave 
and  frieze,  noticing  at  the  same  time  one  or  two  exccjitions 
in  which  there  is  a  considerable  variation,  especially  in  tkit 
at  Agrigentum  ;  the  height  of  the  architrave  of  the  upper 
colonnade  in  the  temple  of  Neptune  is  remarkable,  as  is  also 
that  of  the  frieze  and  cornice  at  Egesta. 


DOR 


295 


DOR 


The  following  useful,  though  somewhat  different  table,  is  the  compilation  of  the  writer  to  whom  wc  have  previously 
alluded. 

This  table  exhibits  at  one  view  the  jiroportions  of  the  columns  in  some  of  the  principal  buildings  in,  Greece  and 
its  colonies,  concluding  with  the  scale  which  the  Roman  and  Italian  schools  assigned  to  the  Boric. 


Date  of  Erection. 


About  800  B.  c. 

600  or  100  B.  c 

600  B.  0. 


About  450  B.  c. 

600  B.  c. 
About  461  B.  c. 

448  B.  c. 
About  430  B.  0. 


Age  of  Pericles.   ] 


About  338  B.  c. 

100  B.  c. 
Time  of  Augustus. 
About  80  A.  D. 
About  300  A.  D. 


Nome  of  Building. 


Temple  at  Corinth 

Great  Hypietbral  Temple  at  PiEstum    ... 

Temple  at  Seliuus  , 

Octostyle  at  Selinus   , 

Temple  of  Minerva  at  Syracuse 5 

Temple  of  Hercules  at  Agrigentum , 

Temple  of  Concord  at  ditto  

Temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius  at  Egina. . 

Temple  of  Tlieseus 

Parthenon 

Temple  of  Apollo  at  BassiE 

Temple  of  Minerva  at  Sunium , 

Temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusia 

Temple  of  Diana  Propylaea  at  Eleusis 

Temple  at  Rhamnus i 

Temple  of  Apollo,  Delos  

Portico  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  Delos 

Temple  of  Jupiter  NemjEus 

Agora,  at  Athens 

Theatre  of  Marcellus,  at  Rome 

Coliseum 

Baths  of  Diocletian 


Name  of 
Architect 


Probably  Archias 
of  Corinth. 


Libon. 

Ictinus. 
Ictinus. 
Ictinus. 

Corabus. 

Alcamenes,  a  pupil 
of  Phidias. 


Height 

of 
Column. 


ft.  in. 
23  8 
23     10 


32 

48 


28       8 


33 
22 

17 
18 
34 
19 
19 


14  10 

13  4 

18  8 

18  8 

33  8 

26  2 
21  0 

27  3 


Diameter. 


ft.  in. 

8  10 

7  0 

7  6 

10  7 


7 
4 

11 

10 
2 

4 

0 

10 


Number  of 

Diameters 

high. 


4A 

45. 


Supposed 


Number  of 
Columns 
in  Portico. 


12 
2  in  antis. 


Number  of 

Columns 
on  the  side. 


14 
12 
16 


14 


13 
17 
15 


12 


The  intercolumniation  of  this  order  differs  from  that  of  all 
the  others,  inasmuch  as  the  intercolumns  are  determined  not 
by  the  diameters  of  the  column,  but  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  triglyphs ;  and  the  different  methods,  instead  of  being 
distinguished  as  jyycnostyle,  eustyle,  araostyle,  <{:c.,  are  com- 
prehended under  the  terms  monotriglyph,  ditriglyph,  etc., 
according  to  the  number  of  triglyphs  over  each  intercolumn  ; 
the  former  term  designating  the  arrangement  in  which  there 
is  but  one  triglyph  between  the  columns,  the  latter  that  in 
which  there  are  two  within  the  same  limivs.  This  method 
of  disposing  the  columns  naturally  arises  from  the  employ- 
ment of  the  triglyph,  for  this  ornament  forms  so  conspicuous 
an  object  in  the  elevation,  that  it  was  necessary  to  make  its 
position  conform  with  the  other  principal  members  of  the 
order,  of  which  the  column  is  the  most  important,  so  that 
the  colonnade  and  entablature  might  present  to  the  eye  a 
similar  arrangement.  Had  the  triglyphs  been  placed  in  the 
frieze  without  reference  to  the  position  of  the  columns,  the 
eye,  after  passing  up  the  length  of  the  column,  would  have 
been  confused  upon  reaching  the  frieze,  and  probably  would 
have  stopped  short  at  that  member,  there  being  nothing  to 
carry  it  upward  to  the  cornice.  Did  we  adopt  the  Vitruvian 
theory,  the  position  of  the  triglyph  would  readily  be  accounted 
for  in  another  way,  for  it  stands  to  reason,  that  the  feet  of 
the  rafters  would  be  placed  immediately  over  their  support. 

It  being  necessary  then  that  the  triglyph  should  stand  over 


the  centre  of  each  column,  and  the  proportion  of  the  metope 
or  space  between  the  triglyph  being  determined,  we  only 
require  the  height  of  the  frieze,  and  the  intercolumniation  is 
fi.\ed.  The  width  of  the  metope  being  about  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  frieze,  and  the  triglyphs  somewhat  less,  it  is 
evident,  that  to  place  a  column  under  every  triglyph,  would 
be  impracticable,  without  increasing  the  height  of  the  frieze 
quite  beyond  proportion  ;  there  would  be  scarcely  room  for 
the  feet  of  the  columns,  much  less  for  any  space  between. 
It  became  necessary  therefore  to  place  another  triglyph  in 
the  centre  of  each  intercolumn,  with  two  metopes  instead  of 
one  :  this  arrangement  answered  very  well,  and  is  the  most 
frequent  in  Doric  temples,  and  indeed  is  seldom  departed 
from  in  any  buildings.  By  inserting  another  triglyph,  you 
are  compelled  to  add  another  metope,  and  this  makes  the 
intercolumn  half  as  wide  again,  which  is  almost  too  wide  to 
suit  the  requirements  of  taste,  as  well  as  the  proportions 
and  construction  of  Doric  buildings.  There  are  very  few 
instances  of  this  arrangement,  and  these  only  in  the  centre 
intercolumn  opposite  the  entrances,  where  greater  space  was 
required  ;  this  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  Propylasa,  where 
a  large  space  was  required  for  the  admission  of  chariots.  It 
may  be  supposed,  that  the  monotriglyphic  method  would 
cause  the  columns  to  appear  too  closely  set,  and  this  cer- 
tainly would  be  the  case  in  some  instances,  where  the 
columns  are  less  than  a  diameter  and  half  apart,  were  it  not 


DOR 


290 


DOR 


that  the  shafts  converge  so  rapidly  towards  the  upper  diam- 
eter as  to  leave  a  space  under  the  soffit  of  tlie  architrave,  even 
in  such  instances  equal  to  more  than  twice  the  upper  diam- 
eter. 

The  peculiar  position  of  the  extreme  triglyph  has  already 
been  noticed  in  speaking  of  that  member,  as  also  the  effect 
produced  by  it  in  lessening  the  extreme  intcrcolumn  by  the 
space  of  half  a  triglyph ;  but  there  still  remains  to  notice 
another  peculiarity,  which  was  first  published  by  Mr. 
Donaldson  ;  we  allude  to  the  inward  inclination  of  the  outer 
columns. 

"  The  axis  of  the  columns  of  the  Parthenon,"  says  he, 
"  both  on  tlie  flanks  and  on  the  fronts,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
temple  at  Egina,  and  of  Concord  at  Agrigentum,  have  a  con- 
siderable inclination  inwards  (a  circumstance  I  am  not  aware 
to  have  been  before  noticed)  though  not  to  such  a  degree  as 
required  by  Vitruvius,  and  not  confined,  as  he  directs,  to  the 
columns  of  the  peristyles  only."  Vitruvius  thus  directed  : — 
"The  bases  being  thus  completed,  we  are  to  raise  the 
columns  on  them.  Those  of  the  pronaos  and  posticum  are 
to  be  kept  with  axes  perpendicular:  the  angular  ones 
excepted,  which,  as  well  as  those  on  the  flanks  right  and  left, 
are  to  be  so  placed,  that  their  interior  faces  towards  the  cella 
be  perpendicular.  The  exterior  faces  will  diminish  upwards, 
as  above  mentioned.  Thus  the  diminution  will  give  a  pleas- 
ing eflect  to  the  temple." 

Mr.  Bartholomew  alludes  to  the  same  circumstance  thus : — 

'•The  ancients,  knowing  how  much  more  secure  were  their 
fabrics  when  made  to  settle  together  and  consolidate  by  their 
own  gravity,  set  the  lateral  columns  of  their  temples  with 
their  axes  falling  towards  the  cells,  so  that  the  inner  faces  of 
the  shafts  of  the  columns  should  be  perpendicular,  and  the 
outer  fiices  of  them  receding  the  whole  quantity  of  columnar 
diminution,  in  order  to  aflbrd  to  the  building  a  more  solid, 
pyramidal,  and  graceful  appearance ;  and  by  this  shrewd 
device  they  rendered  the  avenues  between  the  side-walls 
and  the  colonnades  of  their  temples  no  wider  next  the  soffits 
of  the  architraves  than  down  upon  the  pavement ;  and  it  is 
not  improbable,  that  the  preservation  of  this  symmetry  led 
to  the  omission  of  the  inner  columns  of  the  ancient  Pseudo- 
dipteral  temples  ;  whereas  the  moderns,  in  general,  not 
attending  to  his  dynamic  and  optical  nicety  in  architecture, 
so  set  their  columns,  that  when  we  walk  down  a  modern 
collonnade,  we  cannot  divest  ourselves  of  the  idea  that  the 
axes  of  all  the  columns  are  falling  outwards  :  and,  indeed, 
accurate  admeasurement  would  often  find  this  to  be  no  illu- 
sion, since  the  work,  not  erected  so  as  to  fall  together,  will, 
in  general,  with  the  slightest  inevitable  settlement,  expand  at 
its  upper  part."  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  angular  columns  arc  made  somewhat  thicker 
than  the  others,  so  as  to  give  them  an  appearance  of  much 
jrroater  strength. 

Having  arrived  thus  far,  we  cannot  do  better  than  give 
descriptions  of  some  of  the  more  noted  edifices  belonging  to 
this  order,  amongst  which  are  the  Parthenon,  Thescum,  the 
ancient  temple  at  Corinth,  the  Propykca  at  Athens,  and  the 
Posoidonium  at  Psestum.  The  following  accounts  are 
selected  from  Mr.  Godwin's  lectures  on  Ai-chitcctural 
Anti(|uitics." 

"  The  Parthenon,  or  the  temple  dedicated  to  the  virgin- 
goddess  Minerva  (the  Greek  word  irapOsvog,  signifying  a 
virgin),  was  designed  by  Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  about  the 
year  438  b.  c,  whilst  Phidias  wrought  the  marble  figures 
into  life  by  his  magic  touch.  This  temple,  erected  upon  the 
site  of  the  old  Ilecatompcdon  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  is 
justly  looked  upon  as  the  finest  example  of  the  Grecian 
Doric,  and  has  excited  for  22  centuries  the  admiration  and 


delight  of  all  who  have  seen  it.  With  the  words  of  the 
noble  author  before  quoted,  all  will  probably  agree.  '  In 
the  majestic  simplicity  of  its  general  design,  the  grandeur  of 
its  proportions  and  the  exquisite  taste  and  skill  disjilaycd  in 
the  execution  of  its  ornamental  parts,  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  perfect,  as  well  as  deservedly  the  most  cclcbnitoil, 
production  of  Grecian  art.'  (Lord  Aberdeen's  Inquiry, 
p.  142.) 

"  When  Sir  George  Wheeler  and  Dr.  Spon  visited  this 
edifice,  a.  d.  1676,  the  temple  was  entire.  In  the  ycarltiST 
Athens  was  besieged  by  the  Venetians,  when  a  shell  falling 
on  the  structure,  the  Parthenon  was  reduced  to  the  state  in 
which  it  was  seen  by  Stuart  and  Rcvett.  This  celebrated 
temple  had  at  each  end  a  portico  of  8  columns  in  front,  and 
on  the  sides  were  30  more,  making  40  to  the  colonnade 
which  surrounded  the  cell  of  the  building.  The  breadth  of 
the  front  of  the  building  is  101  feet,  the  length  221  feet  on 
the  upper  step,  and  the  height  05  feet.  Tlie  columns  are  6 
feet  1  inch  in  diameter,  those  at  the  angles  are  2  inches  more, 
and  the  distance  from  column  to  column  is  7  feet  11  inches. 
The  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  extended  to  a  range  of  1,100 
feet,  consisting  of  upwards  of  COO  figures.  Behind  the 
great  porticos,  there  are  two  of  smaller  dimensions,  which 
are  called  the  pronaos  and  posticus  ;  these  inner  porticos 
have  in  each  6  columns.  The  portion  of  the  building  en- 
closed by  the  columirs  was  divided  by  a  cross  wall  into  two 
parts,  whereof  the  larger,  called  the  cella  or  naos  (ship) 
answered  to  our  nave  ;  the  sm.aller  part,  in  which  was  the 
public  treasury,  was  called  the  opisthodomus.  In  this  part, 
according  to  Wheeler,  were  six  columns,  but  no  vestige  re- 
mains of  them.  Tlie  cell,  where  was  placed  the  fiimous 
statue  of  Minerva  by  Phidias,  was  open  to  the  sky  in  the 
centre  (whence  such  a  temple  was  called  hypsethral  from  the 
Greek  vtto,  under,  and  alOfjp,  either,  air),  having  a  colonnade 
round  it,  supporting  a  gallery  above,  in  which  was  a  second 
row  of  columns.  These  have  all  likewise  disappeared,  but 
the  circles  w-ere  traced  by  Stuart  on  the  pavement  whereon 
the  lower  range  of  columns  had  stood.  The  sculptures  in  the 
pediment  of  the  eastern  front  represented  the  introduction  of 
Minerva  among  the  assembled  gods,  giving  us  an  admirable 
idea  of  the  mythology  of  the  ancients,  each  of  the  deities 
being  distinguished  by  his  or  her  peculiar  symbols.  The 
metopes  or  spaces  between  the  triglyphs,  recorded  the  liat- 
tles  between  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapitha,  a  fruitful  subject 
of  illustration  among  poets  as  well  as  sculptors,  and  a  favnur- 
ite  theme  with  the  Greeks,  from  their  famous  heroes  Her- 
cules and  Theseus  bearing  a  prominent  ]iart  in  the  contest ; 
fifteen  of  these  metopes  are  in  the  British  Museum.  Tiie 
western  pediment  contained  a  representation  of  the  contest 
between  Minerva  and  Neptune  (in  the  o])inions  of  Colonel 
Leake  and  Mr.  Cockerel!,  this  contest  was  in  the  eastern  ped- 
iment) ;  but  the  most  celebrated  sculpture  is'that  which  re- 
presents the  Panathenaic  procession  :  this  composition  is  3 
feet  4  inches  high,  and  was  continued  in  the  fjiezc  quite 
round  on  the  outside  wall  of  the  cell  of  the  temple.  The 
figures  of  these  groups,  which  occupy  a  length  of  520  feet, 
are  generally  allowed  to  be  of  finer  execution  than  those 
in  the  metopes. 

"'  With  respect  to  the  beauty  of  the  basso-relievos,'  says 
the  great  Flaxman,  'they  are  as  jierfcct  nature  as  it  is  jpos- 
sible  to  put  into  the  compass  of  the  marble  in  which  llu-y 
are  executed,  and  that  of  the  most  elegant  kind.'  Another 
sculptor,  Kossi,  calls  them  'jewels.' 

"  The  Panathenaic  procession,  which,  with  fifteen  of  the 
metopes,  formerly  likewise  belonging  to  the  Parthenon,  now 
adorns  the  British  Museum,  under  the  name  of  the  Elgin 
Marbles,    consists,    as  bclbre  observed,   of  many   hundred 


DOK 


297 


DOR 


figures.  Among  them  nie  several  equestrian  figures,  which 
are  <.le>igncJ  in  the  most  admirable  manner,  and  are  remark- 
able for  the  varied  attitudes  of  the  horses,  and  for  the  case 
and  graee  of  tiie  riders.  Otlicr  figures  in  the  procession  are 
charioteers  in  their  cars,  one  of  whom  is  supposed  to  be  the 
victor  ill  a  chariot-race,  as  a  man  is  about  to  crown  him. 
Then  follow  men  carrying  trays;  then  tiie  sacrificers  and  the 
oxen,  each  Athenian  colony  sending  an  o.\  to  this  great  festival. 
Females  are  also  present ;  some  carrying  dishes  or  pateras, 
others  bearing  jiitchers  of  water.  Two  of  the  young  females 
had  situations  of  great  importance,  their  oflico  being  to  cany 
the  sacred  baskets.  Several  gods  and  goddesses  are  likewise 
introduced  :  they  are  seated  to  denote  their  dignity.  These 
tigures  are  all  in  high  relief,  so  that  they  are  visible  at  some 
distance;  and  ititliough  it  is  impossible  now  to  decide  how 
much  was  the  actual  work  of  Phidias  himself,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  they,  as  well  as  the  other  sculptured  decorations 
of  the  temple,  were  all  designed  by  the  great  master.  (It  is 
known,  he  jiraitised  the  art  of  painting  previously  to  that  of 
sculpture.)  It  has  been  ascertained,  that  they  are  as  carefully 
finished  In-hind  as  before,  and  in  jilaces  which  could  not  be 
visible  when  once  they  had  reached  their  destination;  hence, 
it  is  justly  inferred,  that  all  these  sculptures  had  to  undergo 
the  ordeal  of  a  searching  criticism  of  the  public  eye,  before 
they  left  the  artist's  studio. 

'■Ill  addition  to  the  embellishments  already  described,  which 
adorned  the  temple,  Phidias  made  the  celebrated  statue  of 
jNIinerva  which  stood  in  the  cell,  or  open  part  of  the  build- 
ing. This  figure,  formed  of  ivory  and  gold,  was  thirty-seven 
feet  high.  Pausanias  says  that  it  stood  erect ;  the  goddess 
was  represented  with  her  garments  reaching  to  her  feet,  hel- 
metcd,  and  with  a  Medusa's  head  on  her  Itreast ;  in  one  hand 
she  held  a  spear,  and  on  the  other  stood  a  Victory  of  about 
four  cubits  high.  Monsieur  (iuartreinore  de  Quincy,  who 
bestowed  great  pains  in  iiivesligating  the  subject  of  ancient 
scul|)ture,  has  calculated,  that  the  value  of  the  gold  employed 
on  this  famous  statue  was  eipial  to  £130,000  sterling. 

"  A  fiic-simile  of  the  I'artlieuoii,  as  far  a.s  the  architecture  is 
concerned,  has  been  erected  at  Edinburgh,  on  the  Calton- 
liill,  in  a  situation  resembling  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  Mr. 
Baiikes  proposed  it  as  the  model  for  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum, 
at  Cambridge.  The  proportions  of  its  Doric  order  are  imi- 
tated in  the  portico  of  Covout  Garden  Theatre. 

'■  The  Temple  of  Theseus  which  is  generally  reckoned  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Pericles,  and  earlier  in  date  than  the 
Parthenon,  is  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  of  Athenian 
magiiihcence,  and,  in  the  the  time  of  Stuart,  was  one  of  the 
nio>t  perlect.  '  The  sanctuary  of  Theseus  was  raised  by  the 
Athenians  after  the  Medes  were  at  Marathon,  when  Cimon, 
the  son  of  Miltiades,  e.\[>elled  the  people  of  Scyros,  a  retri- 
bution for  the  death  of  Theseus,  and  carried  liis  bones  to 
Athens.'  (Pausanias.) 

"  Plutareh  places  this  event  at  a  date  which  is  generally 
considered  equivalent  to  the  year  467  B.C.  The  Parthenon 
is.  by  some  writers,  believed  to  have  been  commenced  about 
418  B.  c.  (the  year  in  which  Cimon  died),  and  to  have  occu- 
pied sixteen  years  in  erection.  In  the  opinion  of  Lord  Aber- 
deen, '  The  temple  of  Theseus  may  be  considered  as  nearly 
(oi'val  with  the  buildings  of  the  Acropolis,  or  perhaps  of  an 
origin  somewhat  earlier.'  (Inquiry,  p.  143.)  The  Theseum 
is  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  is  raised  upon  two  steps, 
being  peculiar  in  this  respect.  The  portico  at  each  end  con- 
sists of  si.\  columns  in  front ;  at  each  side  are  eleven  columns, 
not  counting  the  angle-columns  of  the  portico  ;  so  that  the 
building  is  surrounded  by  thirty-four  columns.  Behind  the 
porticos  are  others,  consisting  of  only  two  columns  between 
antte  ;  there  are  three  deep  recesses,  which  lead  to  the  cell. 
38 


There  is  here  no  division  in  the  internal  part,  where  it  is 
presumed  that  the  remains  of  Theseus  were  buried.  This 
temple  is  104  feet  long,  45  feet  wide,  both  dimensions  being 
taken  on  the  upper  "step,  and  25  feet  2  inches  high  ;  the 
diameter  of  the  columns  is  3  feet  3  inches.  The  sculptures 
in  the  metopes  were  representations  of  the  ex])loits  of  The- 
seus, and  of  the  laliours  of  Hercules,  who  appears  to  have 
been  honoured  in  this  temple,  as  well  as  Theseus,  his  kins- 
man and  friend.  The  frieze  of  the  wall  behind  the  eastern 
portico  was  adorned  with  a  representation  of  a  battle  and 
victory,  in  which  six  of  the  divinities  are  jireseiit ;  three  of 
whom  are  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  Among  the  com- 
batants is  one  of  superior  stature  and  dignity,  hurling  at  his 
assailants  a  stone  of  prodigious  size;  he  is  supposcil  to  be 
Theseus,  in  the  act  of  overthrowing  the  Persians  at  Mara- 
thon. The  battle  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapilluu  w;is 
sculptured  on  the  wall  behind  the  western  portico.  The 
sculptures  (of  which  are  casts  in  the  British  Museum)  are, 
according  to  Pausanias,  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the 
famous  Michon. 

"  It  has  been  discovered  of  late  years,  that  the  Parthenon, 
and  nearly  all  the  buildings  at  Athens,  had  colours  ajiplied 
to  their  different  enrichments ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
the  advocates  of  Greek  polychromy  have  clearly  made  out 
that  this  practice  belongs  to  the  pure  age  of  Pericles  and 
Phidias.  It  is  much  more  likely  to  have  been  introduced 
long  after  their  time. 

'•  The  temple  of  Corinth  is  probably  the  most  ancient  speci 
ment  of  the  Doric  order  in  existence.  It  is  built  of  a  rough 
porous  stone,  and  is  supposed  to  have  had  porticos  of  six 
columns,  five  of  which  remain  in  the  western  front,  and  six 
are  seen  on  one  flank  ;  its  arrangement,  perhaps,  was  similar 
to  that  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  ;  the  columns  are  5  feet  10 
inches  in  diameter,  and  their  shafts,  21  feet  in  height,  are 
composed  each  of  a  single  stone.  There  is  no  sculpture  upon 
the  temple,  as  all  above  the  architrave  has  long  since  disap- 
peared. Since  Stuart's  time,  five  of  the  columns  which 
appear  in  the  flank,  in  his  work,  have  liecn  blown  into  frag- 
ments by  gunpowder,  to  assist  in  building  the  house  of  a 
governor  of  Corinth.  Lord  Aberdeen  observes,  '  It  has 
been  said,  that  this  temple  was  dedicated  to  Venus ;  but,  in 
fact,  no  information  is  to  be  obtained  respecting  its  origin. 
Whatever  may  have  been  its  destination,  no  one  can  doubt, 
from  the  appearance  of'the  ruins  alone,  that  they  formed  part 
of  a  structure  of  the  most  remote  antiquity. 

"  One  of  the  noblest  efforts  of  the  genius  of  Ictinus  is  to 
be  seen  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  in  Arcadia.  It 
offers  many  architectural  peculiarities,  and  exhibits  a  greater 
variety  of  details  than  are  usually  met  with  in  the  Grecian 
temples. 

'•  Pausanias,  speaking  of  this  building,  which  is  at  Bassre, 
near  Phigalia,  states,  that  '  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius 
(the  deliverer),  which,  together  with  the  roof,  is  of  stone, 
surpasses  all  the  temples  which  are  in  Peloponnesus  (with 
the  exception  of  that  in  Tegea)  in  the  beauty  of  the  stone, 
and  harmony  of  the  proportions.' 

"The  entrance  to  the  temjile  was  fiicing  the  north,  contrary 
to  the  usual  practice.  The  temple  was  47  feet  broad,  125 
feet  long,  and  ascended  by  three  steps.  There  were  six 
columns  in  each  front,  and  fifteen  on  each  flank,  all  3  feet  7 
inches  in  diameter,  and  19  fectG  inches  high.  In  the  interior 
of  the  cell  were  attached  columns,  of  the  Ionic  order,  of  a  very 
ancient  character,  (together  with  a  single  insulated  column  of 
the  Corinthian  order,)  over  which,  on  the  four  sides  of  the 
cell,  ranged  the  sculptured  frieze.  The  columns  and  walls 
are  constructed  of  the  hard  and  beautiful  limestone  of  the 
country,  but  the  sculpture  and  roof  are  of  marble.     It  would 


DOR 


298 


DOR 


not  appear,  from  !Mr.  Donaldson's  description,  that  any  deco- 
rations existed  in  tile  pediments,  or  metopes.  'The  arrange- 
ment of  tlio,  engaged  columns  of  the  cella  is  very  peculiar. 
A  similar  disposition  has  never  hitherto  been  found,  though, 
perhajjs,  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymieus,  at  Branchidio, 
near  Miletus,  the  jirojecting  pilasters  conveyed  the  same 
efl'ect,  less  distinctly  expressed.  The  spaces  between  the 
Ionic  columns  seem  to  afford  admirable  situations  for  statues, 
as  they  would  be  secured  by  the  columns  on  each  side,  and 
by  the  soffits  above,  from  the  occasional  inclemencies  of  even 
that  mild  atmosphere.' 

'•  Tile  Propyliua,  a  Doric  structure,  forms  the  only  entrance 
to  the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  I'ausauias  says,  'There  is  only 
one  entrance  to  the  Acropolis,  it  being  in  every  remaining  part 
of  its  circuit  a  precipice,  fortified  with  strong  walls.  The 
entrance  was  fronted  by  a  magnificent  building,  called  the 
Propykea,  covered  with  roofs  of  white  marble,  which  sur- 
passed, for  beauty,  all  that  he  liad  before  seen.  This  was 
begun  during  the  ministration  of  Pericles,  B.C.  437,  and  was 
iinished  in  five  years  (Mnesicles  being  the  architect),  at  an 
expense  equivalent  to  .£404,000.  The  front  of  the  Propykea 
consisted  of  six  colnmns,  and  at  the  back  of  the  building  was 
a  small  portico  ;  between  the  two  was  the  wall,  in  which 
were  five  gates.  The  centre  reached  from  the  platform  to 
the  height  of  the  entablature  ;  it  was  13  feet  wide,  and  was 
used  on  solemn  occasions  for  the  chariots.  The  road-way 
was  between  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns  ;  a  gate  of  6  feet 
wide,  and  of  less  height  than  the  centre,  occupied  each 
side,  and  beyond  them  were  two  smaller  doorways,  which 
were  used  for  ordinary  passage.  On  the  right  of  the  Pro- 
pyla;a  was  a  building  called  the  temple  of  Victory -without- 
wings.  On  the  left,  was  an  edifice  adorned  with  paintings, 
the  work  of  Polygnotus  ;  the  subjects  chiefly  from  Homer; 
and  it  is  supposed,  that  herein  stood  a  group  of  the  Graces, 
draped,  the  performance  of  the  ccleliratcd  Socrates,  who  pur- 
sued his  father's  profession  of  a  sculptor,  until  he  devoted  the 
energies  of  his  wonderful  mind  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 

'•  .Similar  iii  plan  to  the  building  at  Athens,  is  the  Propytea 
at  I'lleusis,  and,  in  design,  little  inferior  to  its  Athenian  pro- 
totype. It  was  erected,  together  with  the  Temple  of  Ceres, 
to  which  it  served  as  a  vestibule,  and  the  connected  Temple 
of  Diana-Proj)yl;Ba,  by  Pericles,  for  the  solemnization  of  the 
Mysteries  of  Cei'es,  the  most  sacred  among  the  religious  rites 
of  Greece. 

"  The  Propykea  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  at 
Athens,  having  at  each  end  a  portico  of  six  columns,  five 
gates,  and  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns  within.  To  make  the 
central  opening  large  enough  to  admit  chariots,  the  usual  ar- 
rangement is  departed  from,  by  the  .addition  of  a  triglyph  in 
the  frieze  over  the  space  between  the  central  columns."  The 
pavement,  the  steps,  and  every  part  of  the  superstructure, 
were  of  fine  Pentelic  marble  ;  the  roof,  also,  was  covered 
with  marble  slabs,  worked  into  the  shape  of  tiles  ;  the  joints 
of  these  tiles  were  covered  with  others,  which  follow  the  slope 
ot  the  roof,  to  prevent  the  admission  of  w.ater.  This  inge- 
nious contrivance  was  the  invention  of  Byzcs,  of  Naxos ; 
and  it  was  so  highly  appreciated  by  the  Greeks,  that  they 
honoured  the  inventor  with  a  statue.  The  termination  of 
the  joint-tiles  was  formed  by  an  upright  tile,  on  which  was 
painted  the  lotus.  Byzes  lived  580  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

"  After  passing  through  the  Projiylica  at  Eleusis,  the  vota- 
ries had  to  enter  another  building,  forming  a  second  vestibule 
to  the  grand  mystic  temple.  The  order  in  this  building  was 
the  Ionic.  Beyond  this  vestibule  was  the  Temple  of  Ceres, 
which  was  protected  by  the  sacred  inclosure,  or  wall.  In 
front  was  a  portico  of  twelve  coluimis,  which  have  the  pecu- 


liarity of  not  being  fluted  from  top  to  bottom,  as  Doric 
columns  usually  are,  but  their  shafts  plain  throughout  their 
whole  height,  with  the  exception  of  a  part  at  their  top  and  at 
the  bottom  of  each,  about  7  inches  high,  which  is  fluted. 
Within  the  temple,  according  to  a  passage  in  Plutarch,  it  is 
imagined  there  were  two  ranges  of  columns,  with  others  over 
them.     The  architect  of  this  building  was  Xenoclcs. 

"  In  front  of  the  Eleusinian  Propykea  was  the  temple  of 
Diana  Propylasa,  presenting  an  arrangement  in  its  porticos 
differing  from  any  examples  we  have  hitherto  noticed  ;  instead 
of  columns  at  its  angles,  anta;,  which  are  often  improperly 
called  pilasters,  terminate  its  fronts  :  the  distinction  between 
the  Greek  anta3  and  Roman  pilasters  is  very  great.  The 
former  were  never  diminished  (or  so  slightly  as  not  to  appear 
so  to  the  eye),  and  wore  not  ffuted,  their  capitals  consisted 
of  straight  lines ;  whereas  the  Roman  pilasters  were 
diminished  like  their  columns,  frequently  ffuted,  and  their 
capitals  generally  resembled  those  of  the  accoinjianying 
columns.  The  temple  of  which  we  are  speaking,  was  small, 
with  a  front  measuring  only  20  feet  10  inches  on  its  upper 
step  ;  its  length  39  feet  9  inches,  and  its  height  to  the  top 
of  the  cornice  20  feet  (>  inches  ;  the  building  was  of  Pentelic 
marble,  but  with  roof  tiles  of  baked  clay. 

"  At  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  once  existed  a  niiigni- 
ficent  hexastyle  temple  of  .Jupiter,  of  which  the  dimensions 
are  presumed  to  have  been  230  feet  by  95  feet.  Mr.  Dodwell 
measured  a  column,  of  which  the  diameter  was  7  feet  3  inches. 
Within  this  building  was  enshrined  the  master-piece  of 
Phidias,  his  statue  of  Jupiter,  of  gold  and  ivory,  50  cubits 
high. 

"  At  Rhamnus  in  Attica,  on  the  sea-coast,  is  a  fine  Doric 
temple  of  Nemesis,  which  stands  in  a  noble  situation,  elevated 
300  feet  above  the  sea.  Pausanias  says  that  it  was  built  by 
Aleemenes,  the  pupil  of  Phidias.  This  temple,  and  a  smaller 
one  adjoining  it,  dedicated  to  Themis,  were  inclosed  by  a 
wall  of  white  marble,  remains  of  which  are  yet  to  be  traced. 
The  temple  of  Nemesis  had  at  each  end  porticos  of  6  columns, 
and  ffanks  containing  12  each  ;  the  external  columns,  like 
those  to  the  temple  of  Ceres,  were  only  fluted  at  top  and 
bottom.  It  is  ascertained  that  the  mouldings  of  the  cornices 
were  painted  red,  a  practice  adopted  by  the  Greeks  in  other 
temples.  The  details  in  this  building  are  very  fine.  Close 
to  it  is  the  small  building  which  bears  the  name  of  Themis, 
but  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  temple  of  Nemesis, 
injured  by  the  Persians ;  and  the  Greeks  not  caring  to  repair 
a  structure  desecrated  by  their  enemies,  chose  rather  to  erect 
another.  The  smaller  building  is  in  fiict  of  an  earlier  style, 
being  one  of  the  class  called  in  aiitis,  a  mode  of  building 
well  known  to  be  of  groat  antiquity.  It  is  very  similar  to 
the  small  temple  of  Diana  at  Eleusis. 

"At  Sunium,  which  is  a  promontory  forming  a  southernmost 
point  of  Attica,  are  the  remains  of  two  Doric  buildings  ;  one 
is  a  Propyla;;a,  the  porticos  of  which  have  two  columns  placed 
between  anta;.  The  other  building  is  a  tcm[ile  dedicated  to 
Mincrva-Sunias.  The  portico  consisted  of  G  columns,  and 
10  have  been  ascertained  on  the  flanks  ;  but  the  building  is 
so  much  in  ruins,  that  the  exact  number  cannot  be  clearly 
made  out.  The  structures  are  of  marble,  highly  finished, 
and  belong  to  the  best  ages  of  Grecian  architecture.  '  The 
striking  remains  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  on  the  promontory 
of  Sunium  arc,  in  all  probability,  to  be  attributed  to  the 
same  authors.' 

"At  Thoricus,  about  eight  miles  to  the  north  of  Cape 
Sunium,  are  the  remains  of  a  singular  Doric  building,  which 
was  found  h.alf-buried  in  the  sand,  which  being  cleared,  a 
portico  was  discovered,  having  14  columns  on  each  front, 
and  7  in   each  return  ;  and  as   no   remains  of   walls  were 


DOR 


299 


DOR 


discovered  within  the  area,  it  is  conjectured  that  the  building 
was  not  a  temple,  but  an  open  portico,  perhaps  an  agora ; 
these  columns  are  only  fluted  at  their  upper  and  lower 
extremities. 

'•  Leaving  Attica,  we  shall  now  pass  into  Sicily,  where  we 
find  the  remains  of  one  of  the  most  astonishing  specimens  of 
Doric  architecture,  surpassing  in  magnitude  all  that  we  have 
hither  to  noticed.  This  is  the  celebrated  temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  at  Agrigontum,  now  called  Girgenti,  and  which 
Virgil  styled,  from  a  neighbouring  river,  Agragas.  It  was 
the  wealthiest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Sicily,  and  accord- 
ing to  Diogenes  Laertius,  contained  within  its  territory 
800,000  persons.  'The  temples  of  Agrigentum,  numerous 
and  costly  as  they  are,  appear  to  have  arisen  during  little 
more  than  a  single  century.  The  prosperity  and  independ- 
ence of  the  city  commenced  with  Theron,  about  450  years 
before  Christ;  after  the  battle  of  Ilimera  (fought  on  the 
same  day  as  that  of  Salamis),  his  thoughts  were  entirely 
turned  to  its  decorations,  and  the  Carthaginian  prisoners 
were  made  to  assist  by  their  labour  in  the  erection  of  trophies 
to  perpetuate  the  glory  of  their  conquerors.  The  Agrigen- 
tines  continued  in  this  employment  until  a  second  and  more 
successful  invasion  of  the  Carthaginians  found  them  occupied 
in  completing  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olynipius,  the  greatest 
in  the  island,  and  one  of  the  most  stupendous  monuments  of 
ancient  times.' 

"The  temple  of  Jupiter  was,  in  its  proportions,  truly 
colossal,  and  it  ranked  among  ancient  Greek  temples  as 
second  only  to  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  (which  was  425 
feet  long,  and  220  feet  in  breadth);  it  was 309 feet  in  length, 
its  breadth  182  feet,  and  its  height  120  feet,  in  which  dimen- 
sions Mr.  Cockerell  is  of  opinion  that  it  exceeded  the  build- 
ing at  Ephesus.  Unlike  other  Doric  structures,  in  this 
temple  the  columns  are  not  detached  fiom  the  walls,  thus 
they  present  only  the  appearance  of  half-columns ;  these, 
however,  are  13  feet  in  diameter,  so  that  if  the  columns  had 
been  disengaged,  their  circumference  would  have  been  more 
than  40  feet,  a  dimension  exceeding  the  largest  columns  in 
Egyptian  architecture.  (The  Roman-Doric  column,  erected 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  called  the  Monument,  is  only  15 
feet  in  diameter,  though  of  a  proportion  much  loftier).  The 
echinus  of  the  capitals  is  formed  of  two  large  stones,  each 
weighing  21^  tons;  the  triglyphs  are  in  single  stones,  each 
weighing  12J  tons  ;  few  of  the  stones  employed  in  the  entab- 
lature weigh  less  than  8  tons;  and  a  man  could  stand  in  one 
of  the  flutings  of  the  columns.  As  compared  with  a  modern 
building,  we  may  observe,  that  the  width  of  the  cell  is  two 
feet  more  than  the  nave  of  St.  Paul's,  and  the  height  exceeds 
it  by  18  feet.  The  front  portico,  in  which  were  7  columns,  had 
the  battle  between  the  Gods  and  the  Titans  represented  in  the 
pediment ;  and  in  that  of  the  other  portico  was  sculptured  a 
representation  of  the  siege  of  Troy,  in  which  each  hero  was 
distinguished  by  the  peculiarity  of  his  dress  and  arras.  (Dio- 
dorus).  In  the  interior  was  a  double  row  of  pilasters  rang- 
ing like  the  pillars  of  a  cathedral  ;  the  attic  story  above  the 
pilasters  was  supported  by  the  figures  of  the  rebellious  and 
defeated  giants,  most  appropriately  placed  there  to  con- 
tribute to  the  glory  of  Olympian  Jove,  whose  power  they 
dared  to  oppose.  The  proportions  of  the  Titans  are  as 
vast  as  the  other  parts  of  the  structure  :  being  25  feet  in 
height ;  with  heads  alone  3  feet  10  inches,  and  chests  3  feet 
across. 

'■  The  other  temples  of  Agrigentum  were  very  numerous ; 
in  the  year  1790,  by  Sir  Richard  Colt  Hoare,  1 1  could  be 
traced  in  different  stages  of  dilapidation.  The  next  in  size 
to  that  of  Jupiter  was  one  dedicated  to  Hercules,  which  was 
154  feet  long,   and  55  feet  broad,  having  6  Doric  fluted 


columns  in  each  front,  and  14  on  each  flank ;  the  columns 
were  7  feet  in  diameter  at  bottom,  and  only  4  feet  10  inches 
below  the  capitals,  showing  a  very  great  diminution. 

"At  Selinus,  or  Selinuntium,  (so  called  from  the  great 
quantity  of  parsley,  askivov)^  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily, 
were  six  magnificent  Doric  temples,  probably  the  largest 
ever  erected  in  this  style,  and  which  appear  to  have  been  over- 
thrown by  an  earthquake.  One  of  these  is  believed  to  have 
been  331  feet  long,  and  101  feet  broad,  with  columns  GO  feet 
high ;  a  stone,  which  is  supposed  to  have  formed  part  of  an 
architrave,  is  40  feet  long,  7  feet  deep,  and  3  feet  thick,  and 
some  of  the  columns  were  found  to  be  12  feet  in  diameter, 
and  others  10  feet  10  inches,  and  48  feet  high.  Near  these 
ruins  were  the  remains  of  a  hexastyle-peripteral  temple,  com- 
puted to  have  been  180  feet  long,  and  7()  feet  broad  on  its 
upper  step,  and  to  have  had  30  columns  in  all,  0  feet  8  inches 
in  diameter.  Another  temple,  not  far  from  these,  was  232 
feet  by  83  feet  on  its  upper  step,  with  fluted  columns,  0  in 
each  front,  and  10  on  the  flanks.  The  other  three  temples 
are  supposed  to  have  been  unfinished  when  they  were  thrown 
down.  One  of  these  had  porticos  of  7  columns  in  front  with 
17  on  each  flank  ;  another  had  0  columns  in  the  porticos, 
and  10  on  each  flank.  In  the  quarry  near  Campo  Bello, 
whence  it  is  presumed  the  materials  were  derived,  are  yet 
some  shafts  of  colunms,  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  one  of 
12  feet,  still  joined  to  their  natural  bed  of  stone.  Mr. 
Wood  measured  one  block  of  an  architrave,  20  feet  2 
inches  long,  4  feet  9  inches  wide,  and  0  feet  10  inches  high. 
The  city  \vas,  409  b.  c,  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Carthagi- 
nians. 

"  At  Segoste,  the  ancient  vEgosta,  is  a  famous  Grecian- 
Doric  temple,  almost  entire,  standing  in  a  splendid  situation 
on  the  brow  of  a  precipice.  There  are  0  columns  in  each 
front,  and  14  at  each  side,  making  30  in  all  ;  these  arc  about 
30  feet  high;  the  length  of  the  building  is  190  feet,  its 
width  78  feet ;  the  stones  composing  the  architrave  are  of 
great  size,  and  one  extends  over  two  columns  :  the  date  of 
it  erection,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  its  dedication,  are 
unknown.  The  columns,  which  are  fluted,  are  0  feet  7 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  4  feet  11  inches  below 
the  capital. 

"In  a  notice  of  Grecian-Doric  architecture,  we  must  not 
omit  to  speak  of  some  ancient  temples  in  Italy,  namely,  at 
Prostum,  the  ancient  Posidonium,  so  denominated  from  its 
tutelary  God,  Neptune,  who,  by  the  Greeks,  was  called 
IIoaei6o)V.  From  its  unhealthiness,  the  place  had,  in  very 
early  times,  fdlen  into  decay,  and  Augustus  visited  the 
temples  as  venerable  antiquities  in  his  day  ;  but  they  were 
completely  forgotten,  until  in  1755  discovered  by  an  artist 
of  Naples.  Among  the  ruins,  which  are  very  extensive,  arc 
three  buildings  of  imposing  character,  two  of  them,  are  tem- 
ples. The  temple  of  Neptune,  raised  on  3  steps,  was  194 
feet  long,  and  78  feet  broad,  having  0  fluted  columns  in  each 
front,  and  14  (including  the  angular  ones)  at  each  side. 
The  entablature  and  capitals  were  equal  to  half  the  height  of 
the  columns,  of  which  the  shafts  only  were  27  feet,  the  lower 
diameters  6  feet  10  inches,  the  upper  diameter  4  feet  8  inches, 
and  with  24  flutings ;  the  intercolumns  are  7  feet  7  inches 
wide.  The  cell  is  90  feet  by  43  feet,  having  14  columns  in 
2  rows,  with  shafts  10  feet  11  inches  high,  4  feet  9  inches  in 
diameter,  and  with  20  flutings.  These  columns  support  a 
deep  architrave,  on  which  rises  another  set  of  columns,  about 
11  feet  high.  The  largest  stone  in  this  building  is  13  feet 
8  inches  by  4  feet  8  inches  by  2  feet  3  inches.  Professor 
Wilkins,  in  this  temple,  detects  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
temple  of  Solomon,  (Prolusiones).  The  temple  of  Ceres  is 
in  a  lighter  style  than  the  former  building.     It  is  108  feet 


DOR 


300 


DUli 


lon^',  and  48  feet  broad,  with  the  same  number  of  columns, 
as  in  the  teiitple  ot'i\e|itiine  ;  ihc  diameter  of  the  cohimns  is 
at  hottom  4  feet  S  inches;  at  top,  8  feet  15  inches;  and  their 
shafts  have  20  (lutings.  The  third  building  is  called  a 
I!asilie:i,  because  there  is  no  aj)[)eiirance  of  a  cell,  or  altar. 
It  is  170  feet  long, and  80  broad;  and  it  is  raised  on  three 
steps,  having  nine  columns  in  each  front  (the  only  example 
of  such  arrangement),  and  eighteen  on  each  side,  with  the 
lower  diameter  4  feet  G  inches,  and  20  flutings.  Both  fronts 
have  a  vestibule,  and  the  interior  was  divided  by  cohimns. 
The  date  of  these  structures  is  unknown.  One  of  the  most 
ancient  Doric  temples  in  (Jreece  is  in  the  island  of  Egina ; 
this  was  a  hexastyle  temple,  dedicated  to  .lupiter  Panhelle- 
nius.  "It  is  said  by  Pausanias  to  have  been  built  by  Eaciis, 
considerably  before  the  Trojan  war,  a  story  wholly  incredi- 
ble, but  which  serves  to  prove  that  it  had  outlivc<l  all  tradi- 
tion of  its  real  origin.  It  is  still  nearly  entire."  There  were 
tw(dvc  columns  on  each  (lank,  making  thirty-six  in  all,  of  a 
porous  stone,  covered  with  a  thin  stucco,  and  the  architrave 
and  cornice  were  painted  in  colours.  Fifteen  statues,  for- 
merly l)elonging  to  this  temple,  are  now  at  Munich:  they  arc 
supiiosed  to  represent  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  contending 
for  the  body  of  Patroclus ;  they  have  been  restored  by 
Tliorwaldsen.  Illustrations  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
have  been  published  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Cockerell,  and  have 
proved  a  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  Doric 
architecture. 

Modi'rn  examples  of  this  order  are  to  be  seen  in  Covent 
(Jarden  Theatre  ;  the  Corn  Market,  Mark  Lane,  where  the 
details  of  the  monument  of  Thrasyllus  are  copied  ;  in  the 
new  galleries  and  entrance  of  the  British  Museum,  where 
polychrome  is  introduced;  and  at  the  entrance-gateway  to 
the  Terniiinis  of  the  North  Western  Railway. 

The  origin  of  the  Doric  order  has  ever  been  a  disputed 
point  amongst  writers  upon  the  subject,  some  fcjllowing  one 
theory,  and  some  another.  Vitruvius,  whose  opinion  is  valua- 
ble, as  coming  from  the  oldest  writer  upon  architectural 
matters,  w'ill  have  it,  that  the  earliest  stone  temples  of 
Gj'cece  were  but  imitations  of  the  wooden  structures  previously 
employed,  and  that  the  members  of  the  Doric  order,  both 
structural  and  ornamental,  owe  their  origin  to  similar  parts  in 
the  less  permanent  building.  This  primitive  mode  of  build- 
ing is  supposed  to  have  been  similar,  in  some  respects,  to  the 
log-houses  erected  l)y  colonists  of  the  j)resent  day,  consist- 
ing of  trunks  of  trees  fixed  vertically  in  the  ground,  at  short 
distances  from  each  other,  and  forming  the  support  to  the 
several  members  of  the  roof.  From  the  various  portions  of 
this  timber  construction,  are  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
those  of  the  later  stone  edifice.  The  following  opinion  as  to 
some  of  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  two  kinds  of  structures, 
is  given  by  Vitruvius  : 

"  In  the  upper  part  of  all  edifices,  timbers,  called  by 
various  names,  are  disposed,  which,  as  in  names  so  in  uses, 
dilfer.  The  tiabes  are  those  laid  over  the  columns,  parastatai 
and  antas,  in  the  contiguations  and  floors.  If  the  span  of  the 
roof  is  great,  under  the  culmen,  in  the  top  of  the  fastigiiim, 
arc  disposed  columens  (from  whence  columns  derive  their 
name),  transtnv,  and  cai>reols;  but  if  the  span  is  small, 
coluinens  and  canthers,  projecting  to  the  extrentities  of  the 
eaves.  Above  the  canthers  are  the  tetnplats,  and  over  them, 
but  under  the  tiles,  are  the  assers,  projecting  so  far  as  to  shel- 
ter the  walls.  Thus  each,  according  to  its  use,  has  its  proper 
place  and  order.  This  disposition  of  the  work,  the  artificers, 
when  they  erected  sacred  edifices,  imitated  in  sculptures  of 
stone  and  marble ;  and  this  invention  the  ancient  workmen 
thought  proper  to  pursue.  Thus,  whenever  they  constructed 
any  building,  they  laid  the  joists  from  the  interior  walls  to  the 


extreme  parts,  then  built  up  the  interjoist,  and,  to  give  the 
woi'k  a  pleasing  appeanance,  adorned  the  lop  with  a  cornice 
and  fisiigium  ;  then,  as  niiicli  of  the  joists  as  projected  beyond 
the  wall  they  .sawed  otl",  which,  appearing  unhandsome,  they 
made  tablets,  like  Iriglyphs  now  in  use,  fixed  them  ag.iinst  the 
sawed  ends  of  the  joists,  and  painted  them  in  wax,  that  the 
seetures  of  the  joists  might  not  olfend  the  sight.  Thus,  the 
triglyphs,  interjoists,  and  opas,  in  Doric  work,  had  their 
origin  from  the  disposition  of  the  timbers  of  the  roof. 

"Afterward,  in  other  works,  some  made  the  canthers,  that 
were  perpendicularly  over  the  triglyphs,  to  project  outward, 
and  carved  their  projecture;  hence,  as  the  triglyphs  arose 
from  the  disposition  of  the  joists,  so  the  mutules  under  the 
corona  were  derived  from  the  projecture  of  the  canthers; 
wherefore,  in  stone  or  marble  structures,  the  mutules  are 
represented  declining,  in  imitation  of  the  canthers  ;  and, 
also,  on  account  of  the  droppings  fi-oni  the  eaves,  it  is  proper 
they  should  have  such  declination. 

"  From  this  imitation,  thi^refiirc,  arose  the  use  of  triglyphs 
and  mutules  in  Doric  work  ;  for  it  cannot  be,  as  .some  erro- 
neously assert,  that  the  triglyphs  represent  windows;  because 
triglyphs  are  disposed  in  the  angles,  and  over  the  (piarters  of 
the  columns,  in  which  places  windows  are  not  permitted  ; 
for,  if  windows  were  there  left,  the  union  of  the  angles  of 
buildings  would  be  dissolved;  also,  if  the  triglyphs  are  sup- 
posed to  be  situated  in  the  place  of  the  windows,  by  the 
same  reason,  the  dentils  in  Ionic  work  may  be  thouglit  to 
occu|)y  the  places  of  windows ;  for  the  intervals  between  the 
dentils,  as  well  as  between  the  triglyphs,  are  called  me  topee ; 
the  Greeks  calling  the  bed  of  the  joists  and  assers,  opax  (as 
we  call  it  cava,  columbaria') ;  so,  because  the  interjoist  is 
between  two  opte,  it  is  by  them  called  met-opx.  As  the  tri- 
glyphs and  mutules  in  the  Doric  order  are  (bunded  upon  those 
principles,  so  the  dentils,  in  the  Ionic,  derive  their  proper 
origin  from  the  workmanship;  and  as  the  mutules  represent 
the  projectures  of  the  canthers,  the  dentils  in  the  lonoic  order 
are  in  imitation  of  the  projecture  of  the  assers." 

This  theory  is  a  very  plausible  one,  so  far  as  it  goes  ;  ami 
were  wc  unable  to  account  for  such  matters  in  a  dillereiit 
way,  it  might  be  passed  over  as  correct,  but  for  one  objection, 
and  thtit  aloneatonce  throws  discredit  upon  the  whole  account. 
The  dilliculty  may  be  put  in  this  way  :  if  the  prototype  of 
the  stone  structure  were  constructed  of  timber,  how  comes 
it,  that  the  proportions  of  the  former  arc  of  so  heavy  and 
massive  a  character  1  and  how  is  it,  that  the  columns  are  so 
thickly  set  1  Timber  construction  would  have  led  to  very 
different  results ;  slenderness  and  lightness  are  the  char.ac- 
teristics  of  buildings  of  .such  material,  and  so,  necessarily,  of 
its  antitype.  The  reverse,  however,  is  the  case ;  and  not 
only  so,  but  we  (ind,  that  the  older  the  edifice,  (and  therefore 
the  more  similar  to  its  prototype)  the  heavier,  also,  its 
proportions  ;  whereas,  if  Vitruvius's  theory  be  correct,  the 
contrary  sliould  be  observable.  Hut,  besides  this,  we  can 
account  (or  all  the  details  alluded  to  by  Vitruvius  in  a  very 
diflcreut,  and,  to  our  mind,  far  more  satisfactory  manner,  as 
we  shall  attempt  to  explain  presently. 

As  regards  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  this  style  of 
building  into  Greece,  nothing  can  1)C  stated  with  certainty  ; 
neither  can  it  bo  satisfactorily  .ascertained  in  what  locality  it 
first  appeared:  great  ditierences  of  opinion  exist  on  both 
subjects.  \'itruvius,  as  usual,  decides  the  matter  without 
any  apparent  difliculty.     He  says  : 

"The  most  ancient  and  first  invented  of  the  llirce  kinds 
of  columns  is  the  ])oric;  for,  when  Dorus,  the  son  of 
Hellenus,  and  the  nymph  Optieos,  reigned  over  all  Achaia 
and  Peloponnesus,  the  temple  of  Juno,  in  the  ancient 
city  of  Argos,  w\as  erected,  and  this  order  happened  to  be 


DOR 


301 


DOR 


used  in  the  fane.  Tlie  same  order  was  also  used  in  the 
other  cities  of  Achaia  before  the  laws  of  its  symmetry  were 
established. 

"  AJlerward,  when  the  Athenians,  according  to  the  re- 
sponses of  Apollo  and  Dclphos  and  the  common  consent  of 
all  Greece,  transplanted,  at  one  time,  thirteen  colonies  into 
Asia,  apportioning  to  every  colony  a  leader,  they  gave  the 
chief  command  to  Ion,  the  son  of  Xuthus  and  Creusa,  whom 
also  the  Delphian  Apollo  acluiowlcdged  for  his  son.  These 
colonies  he  conducted  to  Asia,  seized  on  the  territory  of 
Caria,  and  there  founded  many  large  cities,  as  Ephesus, 
^Miletus,  Mynuta,  (which  last  was  formerly  overflowed  with 
water,  and  its  rites  and  privileges,  by  Ion,  transferred  to 
tiie  Milesians),  i'riene,  Samos,  Teos,  Colophon,  Chios, 
Erythrx",  Phocis,  Clazoniente,  Lebedus,  and  Melite.  This 
latter,  on  account  of  the  arrogance  of  the  citizens,  was 
destroyed  in  the  war  declared  against  it,  by  the  unanimous 
determination  of  the  other  cities,  and,  in  its  place,  by  the 
favour  of  king  Attains  and  Arsinoe,  the  city  of  Smyrna  was 
received  amongst  the  lonians.  When  those  cities  extirpated 
the  Carians  and  Leleges,  they,  from  their  leader,  Ion,  called 
that  territory  Ionia. 

"  There  they  began  to  erect  fanes,  and  constitute  temples 
to  the  immortal  gods.  Eirst,  they  erected  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Panionias,  in  the  manner  they  had  seen  it  in  Achaia ; 
which  manner  they  called  Doric,  because  they  had  seen  it 
first  used  in  the  Dorian  cities.  In  this  temple  they  were  desi- 
rous of  using  columns,  but  were  ignorant  of  their  symmetry, 
and  of  the  proportions  necessary  to  enable  them  to  sustain 
the  weight,  and  give  them  a  handsome  appearance  :  they 
measured  the  human  foot,  and  finding  the  foot  of  a  man  to 
be  the  fifth  part  of  his  height,  they  gave  that  proportion 
to  their  columns,  making  the  thickness  of  the  shaft  at  the 
base  equal  to  the  si.xth  part  of  the  height,  including  the 
capital.  Thus  the  Doric  column,  having  the  proportion, 
firnmess,  and  beauty  of  the  human  body,  first  began  to  be 
used  in  buildings." 

The  former  part  of  this  statement  may  or  may  not  be 
coirect,  but  if  its  credit  stands  upon  an  equal  footing  with 
that  of  the  latter  part,  we  shall  not  be  justified  in  placing 
much  confidence  in  it;  for  ere  we  can  give  credence  to  his 
opinion  respecting  the  proportions  of  the  order,  we  must 
suppose  the  men  of  that  age  to  have  been  of  a  very  different 
description  to  those  of  the  present  day. 

If  Vitruvius  be  correct  in  his  supposition  regaiding  the 
introduction  of  the  order,  we  must  suppose  several  temples 
to  have  been  erected  in  this  style  before  Homer's  time,  but,  if 
so,  it  would  appear  strange  that  one,  generally  -so  minute  in 
his  descriptions  of  persons  and  places,  should  not  have  given 
us  some  description  of  them.  It  is  true,  that  he  alludes  to 
three  or  four  temples, — to  those  of  Minerva  at  Athens  and 
Troy,  and  of  Apollo  and  Neptune  at  Delphi  and  yEgcea, 
respectively, — still  he  has  not  given  any  description  of  them, 
and  leaves  us  entirely  to  conjecture :  according  to  the  account 
of  Pausanias,  the  temple  at  Delphi  was  nothing  better  than 
a  hut  covered  with  laurel  and  branches.  But  if  we  discard 
the  account  given  by  Vitruvius,  we  shall  not  be  much  nearer 
the  goal,  having  no  data  to  work  upon.  If  we  allow  the 
name  of  the  order  to  give  us  some  clue  as  to  its  origin,  we 
are  still  in  the  same  predicament,  for  many  provinces  bore 
the  name  of  Doris  ;  and  at  best,  as  Lord  Aberdeen  remarks, 
3  name  is  often  the  least  satisfactory  mode  of  accounting  for 
the  birth  of  the  thing  which  bears  it.  Many  are  of  opinion 
that  the  order  was  first  employed  in  the  cities  of  Corinth, 
Sicyon,  and  Argos,  shortly  after  the  return  of  the  Heraclidce, 
but  others  suppose  it  to  have  originated  amongst  the  colonists 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  there  certainly  does  appear  some  reason 


for  supposing  that  the  temples  here  were  far  in  advance  of 
those  in  Greece-proper. 

In  whatever  part  of  Greece  the  Doric  order  was  first 
employed,  there  seems  very  good  reason  to  believe  that  it 
had  its  origin  in  Egypt,  or  rather  perhaps  that  the  temples 
of  that  country  suggested  the  idea  ;  nor  is  there  any  jmina 
facie  grounds  for  rejecting  this  supposition,  for  we  know,  in 
the  first  place,  that  Greece  was,  at  least,  to  some  extent,  colo- 
nized from  Egypt ;  Cecrops  was  from  that  country,  and 
Cadmus  from  one  not  far  distant;  and  besides  this,  we  know 
that  in  after  times  the  Greeks  were  in  the  habit  of  trading 
with  Egypt,  and  were  held  in  so  great  esteem  by  Amasis, 
that  he  gave  them  the  city  of  Naucratis,  and  afforded  them 
every  encouragement  and  convenience.  Another  internal 
evidence  of  the  connection  of  the  two  people  is  afforded  in 
the  identity  of  their  mythology. 

But  let  us  consider  the  architectural  features  observable  in 
the  buildings  of  the  two  countries.  In  general  appearance 
they  agree  ;  they  are  both  of  massive  proportions,  and  both 
consist  of  similar  parts,  columns,  entablature,  and  such  like. 
Nor  are  they  less  similar  in  detail ;  in  Egyptian  temples  we 
have  an  entablature  consisting  of  three  members,  architrave, 
frieze,  and  cornice,  the  first  of  which,  like  the  Doric,  is  com- 
paratively plain,  and  the  last  simple,  but  bold.  The  simi- 
larity of  the  frieze  in  both  styles  is  remarkable,  extending 
even  to  triglyphs  and  mutules,  and  in  both  styles  are  those 
features  equally  essential.  The  similarity  of  the  columns  may 
not  be  at  first  so  apparent,  although  we  can  point  out  many 
Egyptian  columns  without  bases,  with  square  plain  abaci, 
and  may  suggest  the  probability  of  the  Grecian  echinus 
being  copied  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  bulging  or  cushion- 
capitals  of  Egypt :  the  annulets  round  the  necking  of  the 
capital  are  likewise  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  that  coun- 
try. As  regards  the  rest  of  the  column,  it  is  true,  speaking 
generally,  that  Egyptian  specimens  are  not  fluted,  neither  do 
they  diminish,  like  the  Greek,  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
diameter ;  instead  of  concave  flutes,  however,  we  have 
convex  rods,  or  probably  reeds ;  and  if  the  latter,  we  have 
only  to  divide  them  vertically  down  the  centre,  and  we 
have  the  Doric  flutes.  But  even  if  this  last  idea  be  too 
fanciful,  the  diflerence  between  a  cabled  and  fluted  column 
is  not  so  great,  the  ornamentation  is  decidedly  of  a  similar  cha- 
racter; end  even  if  this  be  disallowed,  there  are  specimens  of 
fluted  columns  in  Egypt,  and  specimens  which  altogether 
bear  a  very  marked  resemblance  to  the  Grecian-Doric.  These 
columns  were  first  noticed  by  Mr.  Barry,  who  considers  them 
of  greater  antiquity  than  any  Grecian  specimens.  The  first 
is  a  portico  of  two  fluted  columns  in  antis,  about  5^  diame- 
ters in  height,  and  surmounted  by  a  plain  abacus  ;  the  flutes 
are  20  in  number,  and  of  shallow  contour  ;  the  columns  are 
without  bases.  The  next  example  is  from  Kalaptchic  on  the 
Nile,  the  abacus  of  which  is  square,  and  11  inches  thick; 
the  shaft,  which  has  a  trifling  diminution,  is  7  feet  8  inches 
high,  and  3  feet  2  inches  diameter.  The  circumference  is 
in  24  divisions,  whereof  4,  which  are  at  right  angles  with 
each  other,  are  flat  faces,  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  and  the 
other  intervening  ones  are  sunk  into  flat  elliptical  flutes  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  deep.  Another  specimen  is  to  be  seen  at 
Amada  in  Nubia,  consisting  of  two  columns,  one  of  which 
is  a  simple  parallelopiped,  and  the  other,  at  the  corner  of  the 
building,  is  both  cylindrical  and  fluted,  leaving,  however,  a 
square  abacus  similar  to  that  of  the  parallelopiped,  which,  in 
this  case,  is  the  only  capital ;  the  base  is  also  of  a  square 
plan.  Of  these  two  columns,  the  former  is  evidently  the 
earlier  design,  the  latter,  previously  of  the  same  shape,  whe- 
ther for  convenience  or  otherwise,  lias  been  rounded  off  at 
the  corners  and  somewhat  ornamented. 


DOR 


302 


DOR 


Were  it  allowable  to  select  portions  from  these  examples 
and  place  tliuiii  together  at  discretion,  there  would  be  no  great 
difficulty  ill  forming  a  very  perfect  specimen  of  Grecian- 
Doric,  but  even  without  such  a  metamorphosis,  we  suggest, 
there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  a  great  and  indubi- 
fcible  similarity  between  the  structures  of  Egypt  and  the 
earlier  ones  of  Greece,  the  likeness  being  more  striking  in 
some  examples  than  in  others,  yet  not  being  entirely 
absent  in  any.  Wc  may  conclude,  therefore,  we  prcsimie, 
that  there  is  a  very  strong  probability  of  the  Doric  order 
having  been  derived  from  the  architecture  of  Egypt. 

This  order,  as  practised  by  the  Romans  and  Italians,  differs 
in  some  essential  particulars  from  that  above  described,  and 
in  process  of  time  its  original  character  seems  to  have  been 
all  but  entirely  lost,  the  identity  being  evidenced  only  by  the 
remains  of  some  few  details.  The  few  points  in  which 
the  resemblance  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  orders  is 
preserved,  are — the  employment  of  triglyphs  and  metopes 
in  the  frieze,  and  of  mutules  in  the  corona,  the  fluting  with 
arrises  instead  of  fdlets,  when  indeed  flutes  were  introduced, 
and  the  general  form  of  the  capital  consisting  of  echinus  and 
abacus.  The  distinctions  are  much  more  numerous,  amongst 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  elongation  of  the  shaft  and 
the  not  unfrequent  absence  of  flutes  ;  the  addition  of  a  base, 
variations  in  the  form  of  the  capital  and  of  the  several  mem- 
bers of  the  entablature,  the  amplification  of  mouldings  and 
such  like  :  so  that  were  two  examples,  one  of  each  kind, 
placed  before  a  person  unacquainted  with  the  subject,  he 
would  have  greater  difficulty  in  tracing  their  resemblance, 
than  in  pointing  out  their  incongruities. 

The  height  of  the  column  is  increased  from  six  to  eight 
diameters,  and  in  some  cases,  as  recommended  by  Vitruvius 
for  porticos,  to  eight  and  a  half.  It  is  either  fluted  or  left 
plain,  and  sometimes  is  partially  fluted,  the  channels  extend- 
ing about  two-thirds  of  the  shaft,  the  remaining  portion 
below,  from  the  base  upwards,  being  left  blank. 

The  addition  of  the  base  follows  very  naturally  the  elonga- 
tion of  the  shaft,  for  were  it  still  to  be  omitted,  the  lower 
portion  of  the  column  would  look  too  small,  and  would  give 
to  the  edifice  an  appearance  of  weakness;  the  colunnis  would 
seem  unsteady  ;  whereas  in  the  Gicek  examples,  the  massive 
proportions  and  the  rapid  spreading  of  the  shaft  from  the 
capital  downwards,  gives  the  eflect  of  strength  and  stability. 
The  base  generally  used  is  that  termed  the  attic,  and  consists 
of  a  plinth,  a  torus,  a  hollow  moulding  or  scotia  with  a  fillet 
above  and  below  it,  upon  the  uppermost  of  which  is  another 
torus  and  fillet,  out  of  which  the  shaft  rises  with  an  apophyge ; 
a  simpler  base,  however,  is  sometimes  made  use  of,  comprising 
only  a  torus  and  two  shallow  fillets  above  it,  and  occasionally 
merely  a  plinth  and  simple  fillet. 

In  the  capital,  the  sunk  annulets  of  the  Greek  examples 
are  converted  into  projecting  fillets  in  the  Roman  ;  the  shaft 
is  separated  from  the  cap  by  an  astragal  which  gives  much 
greater  distinctness  to  the  necking,  which  again  is  sometimes 
relieved  with  rosets  and  buds,  or  other  ornament.  Above 
the  neck  are  three  flat  annular  fillets,  and  these  above  the 
ovolo  surmounted  by  the  abacus.  The  ovolo,  however,  is 
not  of  so  much  importance  as  in  the  Greek  order,  nor  of  the 
same  severe  contour ;  the  abacus  likewise  is  much  shallower, 
and  has  the  addition  of  mouldings  on  its  top.  The  height  of 
the  capital  is  equal  to  ^  a  diameter,  or  1  module,  but  this 
is  not  always  tlic  case,  for  in  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus  at 
Rome,  it  is  33  minutes,  and  in  the  Coliseum  as  much  as  88. 

The  architrave  is  often  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Greek, 
but  is  of  less  height,  being  equal  to  only  two-thirds  of  the 
frieze,  or  half  a  diameter  ;  in  a  few  instances,  the  architrave 
is  composed  of  two   fascias.     The  new  frieze  is  also  verv 


similar  to  the  old  one,  with  some  slight  exceptions,  the 
mutules  being  frequently  filled  with  o.x-skulls  and  patteras, 
and  sometimes  left  plain  ;  the  capitals  of  the  triglyphs  are  of 
greater  projection  than  before,  and  are  returned  at  the  ends. 
The  triglyphs  besides  are  in  Roman  examples,  invariably 
placed  over  the  centre  of  the  columns,  so  that  the  ends  of  the 
frieze  are  finished  with  half-metopos,  and  not  with  triglyphs 
as  in  the  Grecian  order.  In  the  Coliseum,  the  triglyphs  are 
entirely  omitted. 

The  cornice  difTers  considerably  from  the  Grecian,  having 
its  soflit  flat  and  the  mutules  square,  with  a  similar  interval 
between  them.  In  Grecian  examples,  the  guttie  generally 
appear  in  front  below  the  mutules  ;  but  in  the  Roman,  they 
do  not  so,  and  are  sometimes  even  omitted  ;  sometimes  the 
mutules  entirely  disappear,  as  in  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus, 
where  dentils  with  an  ogee  bed-mould  are  substituted  in 
their  place,  and  the  Basilica  at  Vicenza,  designed  by  Paladdio, 
has  merely  a  bold  ogee  and  ovolo  in  their  place.  The  inter- 
vals between  the  mutules  are  frequently  enriched  with  panels 
and  sculpture.  The  mutules  and  band  are  surmounted  by 
a  small  ogee  moulding,  and  under  them  is  an  ogee  or  ovolo 
forming  a  bed-moulding.  The  mutules  support  the  cornice- 
proper,  consisting  of  the  corona,  an  ogee  and  fillet,  and  a 
cavetto  finished  at  the  top  with  a  fillet. 

With  Vitruvius's  account  of  the  order,  we  conclude  this 
article  ;  it  runs  as  follows  : — 

"  Some  architects,"  says  ho,  "  have  maintained  that  tem- 
ples should  not  be  built  of  the  Doric  order,  because  it  occasions 
an  imperfection  and  an  inconvenience  in  the  symmetry  ;  for 
this  reason  it  was  rejected  by  Tarchesius,  Pytheus,  and  also 
by  Hermogenes  :  the  latter,  after  he  had  prepared  marble 
materials  for  a  Doric  temple,  altered  them,  and  from  the 
same  materials,  raised  an  Ionic  temple  to  Bacchus.  How- 
ever, it  was  not  because  the  appearance  was  unhandsome,  or 
the  manner  or  form  ignoble  ;  but  because  it  impeded  the 
distribution,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  triglyphs  and 
lacunars  was  unsuitable  to  the  design  ;  for  it  is  necessary 
that  the  triglyphs  should  be  disposed  over  the  middle  quarters 
of  the  columns  ;  the  metopes  whieh  are  between  the  triglyphs, 
be  made  as  long  as  high  ;  and  the  triglyphs  over  the  angle 
columns  he  placed  at  the  extremities,  and  not  over  the 
middle  quarters.  So  that  the  metopes  which  adjoin  the  angular 
triglyphs,  are  not  square,  but  more  oblong  by  half  the  breadth 
of  atriglvph.  Those  who  would  make  all  the  metopes  equal, 
contr.act  the  extreme  intercolumn  half  the  breadth  of  a  triglyph  ; 
but  this,  whether  it  is  done  by  lengthening  the  metope,  or  by 
contracting  the  intercolumn,  is  a  defect.  On  this  account, 
the  ancients  avoided  the  use  of  the  Doric  order  in  sacred 
edifices.  Following,  however,  our  method,  we  shall  give  the 
explanation  of  this  order,  as  we  have  received  it  from 
the  masters ;  so  that  those  who  attend  to  these  precepts  will 
here  find  described  the  rules  by  which  they  m.ay  erect  a  tem- 
ple in  the  Doric  manner,  without  fault  or  imj>erfection. 

"  Tlie  front  of  the  Doric  temple,  where  the  cfdumns  arc 
erected,  is,  if  tetrastyle,  divided  into  28  parts ;  if  hcxastyle, 
into  44.  Of  these  parts  one  will  be  a  module,  called  in 
Greek,  embates,  by  which  the  distribution  of  the  whole  work 
is  regulated.  The  thickness  of  the  column  is  two  modules ; 
the  height,  including  the  capitals,  14.  The  thickness  of  the 
capital  one  module,  the  breadth  two  and  the  sixth  part  of  a 
module.  ITie  thickness  of  the  capital  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  of  which  one  is  for  the  abacus  with  its  cymatium, 
another  for  the  echinus  with  its  annulets  ;  and  the  third  for 
the  hypotrachclion.  The  columns  are  diminished  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  for  Ionic  columns  in  the  third  book. 

'■  The  height  of  the  epistylium  with  the  tenia  and  giittce 
is  one  module.     TTie  tenia  is  the  seventh  part  of  a  module. 


iUMii":; 


ami;  Joi.i'iiMi;  ("r^UiitiJ!; 


■wwiiii 


wwwww^ 


J.Mi 


' "■" ^"  m 


Is5 


7^ 


LuJW-iulw^gcWWlijBrtiQtijB  ^Ul 


^ 


t^' 

!_]  I41a;j( 


IJOJ 


M-;  2. 


Ji'nr^'-byJtTUw 


DORIC      ORDETR-a     PILATE,  III. 
MODE  ft  AT^ 


""iMiiiSmf 


111 


I -'-I 


Vratvn.  by  FJ^ickolson.. 


.'lUJ     hv  f'    ///r« 


ID  O  MIC   OTRjDZiJR, 
FROM    Till-:     THEATRE  OF  M.IRCELL  CS  .IT  ROME. 


1'i.Mi-:  //. 


Dm >c»  bv  P NiehoUon 


^nif'hv/!  7ff 


DOR 


303 


DOU 


The  length  of  the  guttae,  under  the  tenia,  coincides  with  the 
peipendicular  of  the  triglyphs.  Their  lieight,  with  the  reguhi, 
is  the  sixth  part  of  a  module.  The  breadth  of  the  bottom  of 
the  epistylium  answers  to  the  hypotracheliou  at  the  top 
of  tlie  columns. 

"  Upon  the  epistylium,  the  triglyphs,  having  the  metopes 
between  them,  are  placed  ;  being  one  module  and  a  half 
high,  and  one  module  broad  in  front;  they  are  so  distributed, 
that  those  which  happen  over  the  angle,  as  well  as  over  the 
intermediate  column*,  may  be  perpendicular  to  the  middle 
quarters  thereof;  two  are  left  in  the  intercolumns  ;  and  in 
tlie  middle  intorcolumn  of  the  pronaos  and  of  the  posticus, 
three  ;  for,  by  this  enlargement  of  the  middle  interval,  the 
approach  to  the  image  of  the  god  is  rendered  more  commo- 
dious and  free  from  impediment. 

"The  breadth  of  the  triglyph  is  divided  into  six  parts;  of 
which,  five  are  placed  in  the  middle,  two  and  a  half  being 
on  either  side.  The  middle  one  makes  the  regula,  or  femur, 
which  the  Greeks  call  meros.  On  either  side  this,  are  the 
channels,  sunk  as  if  imprinted  with  the  elbow  of  a  square. 
To  the  right  and  left  of  these,  another  femur  is  formed,  and 
at  the  extremities,  semi-channels  are  slanted. 

"  The  triglyphs  being  thus  disposed,  the  metopes,  which  are 
between  the  triglyphs,  are  as  high  as  long.  At  the  extreme 
angles,  semi-metopes  are  impressed,  half  a  module  broad. 
Thus,  the  metopes,  intercolumns,  and  lacunars,  being  regu- 
larly distributed,  all  defects  will  be  avoided.  The  capital  of 
the  triglyph  is  made  the  sixth  part  of  a  module. 

"  Over  the  capital  of  the  triglyphs,  is  placed  the  corona, 
projecting  the  half  and  the  sixth  part  of  a  module,  having  a 
Doric  cymatiuni  below,  and  another  above.  The  thickness 
of  the  corona,  with  the  cymatiums,  is  half  a  module.  In  the 
under  part  of  the  corona,  perpendicular  to  the  triglyphs,  and 
to  the  middle  of  the  metopes,  the  directions  of  the  viiE,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  guttae,  are  to  be  so  contrived,  that 
there  may  be  six  guttje  in  length,  and  three  in  breadth. 
The  remaining  spaces  (the  metopes  being  broader  than  the 
triglyphs)  are  left  plain,  or  have  the  sculptures  of  thunder- 
bolts. Near  the  edge  of  the  same  corona  a  line  is  enchased, 
which  is  called  scotia.  The  tympan,  sima,  corona,  and  the 
rest,  are  executed  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  described 
for  the  Ionic  order. 

"  The  foregoing  is  the  method  for  composing  diastyle 
works  ;  but  if  the  structure  is  to  be  made  sistyle  and  mono- 
triglyph,  the  front  of  the  temple,  if  tetrastyle,  is  divided  into 
twenty-three  parts  ;  if  hexastyle,  into  thirty-five.  Of  these, 
one  part  will  be  a  module,  by  which  the  work  is  to  be  regu- 
lated, as  before  written.  Then,  over  every  epistylium,  two 
metopes  and  triglyphs  are  disposed.  In  the  angles,  this 
species  is  larger  than  the  former  by  as  much  as  the  space 
of  the  bisected  hemitriglyph.  So  that  there  happens  in  the 
middle  epistylium,  under  the  fastigium,  the  space  of  three 
triglyphs  and  three  metopes,  for  the  enlargement  of  the 
middle  iutercolumn  renders  the  entrance  of  the  temple  more 
spacious,  and  gives  an  appearance  of  dignity  towards  the 
statue  of  the  sod. 

o 

"  Lpon  the  capital  of  the  triglyphs  the  corona  is  to  be 
placed,  having,  as  before  said,  a  Doric  cymatium  at  bottom, 
and  another  at  top.  The  thickness  of  the  corona,  with  its 
cymatiums,  is  half  a  module.  The  under  part  of  the  corona, 
perpendicular  to  the  triglyphs  and  to  the  middle  of  the 
metopes,  is  to  be  divided,  for  the  direction  of  the  viae,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  guttae  ;  all  the  rest  are  the  same  as 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  diastyle  species. 

"  The  colunms  are  to  be  wrought  in  twenty  stritc,  which, 
if  made  flat,  form  twenty  angles  ;  but  if  they  are  liollowed, 
they  are  to  be  thus  peiformed  :  A  square  is  described  whose 


sides  are  equal  to  the  interval  of  a  stria: ;  in  the  centre  of 
the  square,  the  central  point  of  the  compasses  is  placed,  and  a 
circular  line  drawn  touching  the  angles  of  the  square  ;  and 
that  portion  of  the  curve  which  is  between  the  lines  of  the 
circle  and  the  square,  forms  the  hollow  of  the  striae.  Thus, 
the  Doric  column  will  have  its  proper  kind  of  striature. 
With  regard  to  the  swelling  which  it  has  in  the  middle,  it  is 
the  same  as  has  been  described  for  Ionic  columns." 

To  exemplify  this  order,  and  illustrate  the  true  Grecian 
Doric,  we  have  chosen  that  beautiful  specimen  from  the 
magnificent  portico  of  the  Parthenon,  at  Athens,  exhibited 
in  Plate  I. :  the  proportions  are  numbered  in  minutes,  in  the 
usual  way.  The  outline  exhibits  the  profile  of  the  flank, 
and  the  finished  order  shows  the  profile  on  the  front  of  the 
portico,  adjoining  that  represented  by  the  outline. 

Plate  II. — Outline  of  the  modern  Doric. 

Plate  III. — A  finished  plate  of  the  same,  from  Sir  Wm. 
Chambers,  who  took,  his  example  from  Vignola. 

Plate  IV. — Roman  Doric,  from  the  theatre  of  Marcellus, 
at  Rome  ;  showing  both  the  outline  and  finished  plate. 

DORMAN,  a  cross  beam. 

Dorman-Tree,  a  joist,  or  sleeper. 

DORMANT,  or  Dormer,  a  window  made  upon  the  slop- 
ing plane,  or  side  of  a  roof,  with  a  glass  frame  perpendicular 
to  the  horizon. 

Dormer  windows  occur  frequently  in  domestic  edifices  of 
the  Gothic  style,  in  which  they  form  a  very  picturesque  fea- 
ture. Their  frequency  is  especially  remarkable  in  the  old 
halls,  &c.,  of  France  and  Flanders. 

Dormant-Tree,  see  Summer. 

DORMITORY,  a  sleeping  room. 

DORON,  the  Grecian  palm,  whence  their  bricks  were 
called  tctradoron,  and  pentadoron. 

DOS  D'ANE  (French),  an  obtuse  ridge,  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  two  inelmed  planes.  The  term  is  synonymous 
with  our  word,  coped. 

DOSEL,  or  Doser,  a  rich  hanging  of  tapestry  or  other 
stuftj  or  screen  of  ornamental  woodwork  employed  to  deco- 
rate the  back  of  an  altar,  throne,  &c. 

DOUBLE  VAULT,  two  vaults  of  brick  or  stone,  carried 
up  separately,  and  including  between  them  a  hollow  or  cavity, 
such  as  that  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome. 

DOUBLE  BUILDING,  one  in  which  the  walls  arc  car- 
ried up  double;  sometimes  cellars  are  carried  up  with  double 
walls,  and  double  vaults,  so  as  to  include  a  cavity  of  air 
in  order  to  keep  the  wine  cool. 

DOUBLE  COLUiAIN.    See  Column. 

DOUBLE  CURVATURE,  the  curvature  of  a  curve,  of 
which  no  part  can  be  brought  into  a  plane,  such  as  the 
cylindro-cylindric  curve,  &c. 

DOUBLE  DOORS,  those  where  two  doors  are  made  in 
the  same  aperture,  in  order  to  keep  the  apartment  warm.  See 
Door. 

DOUBLE  FLOOR,  one  constructed  of  binding  and  bridg- 
ing-joists.    See  Floor. 

DOUBLE-HUNG  SASHES,  are  those  where  the  window 
consists  of  two  sashes,  each  of  which  is  moveable  by  means 
of  weights. 

DOUBLE  MARGIN  DOOR,  that  which  represents  two 
doors  in  the  same  breadth,  but  is,  in  fact,  only  one  door.  See 
Door. 

DOUBLE  TORUS.    See  Moulding. 

DOUBLE  WINDING  STAIPiS.    See  Stairs. 

DOUBLING,  the  same  as  eaves-boards ;  the  term  is 
used  in  Scotland. 

DOUCINE,  or  DOUCHINE,  (from  the  French),  the 
suiia-recta. 


DUVE-UOT,  ti  small  building  or  box  in  which  domestic 
pigeons  hreud. 

JJOVK-TAIL,  in  joinery,  a  piece  of  wood  formed  like  the 
tail  of  a  dove. 

DOVE-TAiLING,  the  method  of  fastening  one  piece  of 
\vr)od  to  another,  by  projecting  pins,  cut  in  the  form  of  dove- 
tails in  one  piece,  and  let  into  hollows  of  the  same  form  in 
the  other.  Dove-tailing  is  either  exposed  or  concealed  ;  con- 
cealed dove-tailing  is  of  two  kinds,  lapped  and  mitred. 

DOVE-TAIL  MASONRY.     See  AIasonry. 

DOVE-TAIL  MOULDING.  A  moulding  used  in  Nor- 
man  buildings,  so  called  from  the  shape  of  tlie  running  orna- 
ment employed  in  its  decoration,  which  consists  of  a  fillet, 
tracing  in  its  progi-css  the  form  of  a  dove-tail,  the  alternate 
dove-tails  being  inverted,  and  having  one  side  common 
to  both. 

DOVE-TAIL  NOTCH,  a  cotnmon  dove-tail  notch  is  that 
where  the  bottom  is  in  tlie  form  of  a  trapezoid. 

An  undercut  dove-tail  notch  is  that  where  the  bottom 
is  a  parallelogram  uf  greater  breadth  than  the  width  of  the 
parallelogram  cut  out  of  the  surface  ;  the  excess  in  breadth 
being  alike  on  both  sides. 

DOVE-TAIL  SAW,  a  saw  used  for  dove-tailing.  Its 
plate  is  about  9  inches  long,  and  has  about  15  teeth  in  every 
inch  ;  a  rigid  iron  or  brass  back  is  added,  to  give  stiflfuess  to 
the  plate. 

Dt>\VEL,  the  pin  or  tenon  used  in  joining  together  two 
pieces  of  any  substance.  This  pin  or  dowel  is  of  wood  or 
iron,  and  is  thus  used.  Holes  corresponding  to  each  other 
are  made  in  the  boards  to  be  joined  ;  one-half  of  the  pin  is 
inserted  into  the  hole  in  the  one  piece,  and  the  other  piece  is 
then  thrust  homo  on  it. 

DOWELLLXG,  or  Dow-eling,  the  fastening  together  two 
boards  by  the  method  above  described. 

DliAG,  a  term  applied  to  anything  bearing  down,  or  rub- 
bing upon  another  ;  thus,  a  door  is  said  to  drag,  when  its 
hinges  arc  so  loosened,  that  the  lower  edge  rubs  upon  the 
Hour  :  and  the  term  is  also  applied  in  masonry  to  a  thin  plate 
of  steel  indented  on  the  edge,  used  for  finishing  the  dressing  of 
scift  stone  which  has  no  grit. 

Dll AGON-PIECE,  a  beam  bisecting  the  wall  plate,  for 
receiving  the  heel  or  foot  of  the  hip-rafters.  It  is  most  com- 
monly a  very  short  piece  of  timber,  fi.xed  at  right  angles  into 
another  piece,  called  the  angle-tie,  or  diagonal-tie,  which  is 
again  supported  by  each  adjoining  wall-plate  being  cocked 
down  thereon. 

DUAGON-BEAMS,  according  to  Neve,  are  said  to  be 
"  two  strong  braces  or  struts,  that  stand  under  a  bressummer, 
meeting  in  an  angle  under  the  shoulder  of  a  king-piece." 
— Neve's  BuHder^s  Dictionary.  The  writers  of  the  present 
work  have  never  heard  the  term  applied  to  story-posts  and 
bressummers,  nor  have  they  been  able  to  learn  any  such 
application  of  it ;  the  word  beam  is  improper  for  any  piece  of 
timber,  that  stands  slanting  as  a  brace  or  strut.  Neve's 
Builders  Dictionary  was  an  original  work  ;  and  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  author,  who  subscribes  himself  "  Philom.ath," 
(a  lover  of  learning)  instead  of  architect,  carpenter,  joiner, 
mason,  &cc.,  might  have  been  misinformed  by  the  workmen, 
among  whom  he  made  his  inquiries.  The  Buildcr^s  Dic- 
tionary, in  two  volumes,  was  copied  from  Neve,  as  was  the 
Dictionary  of  the  first  volume  of  the  Builder's  Magazine  ; 
and  we  may  farther  add,  most  of  the  Cyclopajdias  and  Ency- 
clopasdias  have  applied  the  term  in  the  same  way  as  Neve, 
and  have  used  the  same  words  in  describing  it.  But  with 
regard  to  the  application  of  the  term  dragon-piece,  as  it  is 
delined  above,  we  can  refer  the  reader  to  the  oldest  books 
that  arc  published  ;  see  page  '2'M,  in  the  Rules  for  framing 


roof;  at  the  end  of  Godfrey  Kichards'  Palladio,  wliere  that 
author  says,  "  3.  Dragon-beams  for  the  hip  to  stand  on,"  and 
immediately  following,  he  says,  "  4.  Beam  or  summer,  where- 
in the  dragon-beams  are  framed  ;"  referring  at  the  same  time 
to  Figure  c,  or  Plate  c  ;  see  also  our  review  of  carpentrv, 
at  the  end  of  Godfrey  Richards'  Palladio.  The  sense  ii 
which  Godfrey  Richards  uses  the  term,  is  the  same  as  that 
now  in  use.  It  is  true,  that  Moxon  explains  dragon-beam 
in  the  same  way  as  Neve,  but  he  refers  to  no  figure.  The 
second  edition  of  Godfrey  Richards'  Palladio  is  dated  1670, 
and  the  first  edition  must  be  much  more  early.  The  first 
edition  of  Neve's  Builder's  Dictionary  is  dated  1703 ;  we 
have  also  the  corroboration  of  Batty  Langley,  see  Plate  II. 
of  the  Addenda,  consisting  of  fourteen  plates  of  roofs,  at  the 
end  of  his  designs,  where  he  says,  "a  c,  6  f,  c  e,  d  e,  dragon- 
pieces  to  receive  the  feet  of  the  hip-rafters  "  so  that  Godfrey 
Richards  and  Batty  Langley  apply  the  same  meaning  to  the 
term.  We  have  been  thus  particular,  because  a  proper  ex- 
planation of  the  word,  as  it  is  used,  has  not  been  given,  and 
to  show  that  it  is  an  injury  to  a  work,  to  describe  a  term 
which  has  no  existence,  or,  if  it  has,  must  be  confined  to 
some  remote  corner. 

DRAIN,  a  subterraneous  passage  for  water.  If  a  build- 
ing is  obliged  to  be  erected  in  a  damp  soil,  it  will  be  proper 
to  drain  the  ground  before  the  foundation  is  laid.  In  large 
buildings,  there  must  be  one  principal  drain,  and  several 
smaller  ones,  depending  on  the  extent  of  the  ground  ;  and 
observe,  that  those  with  circular  bottoms  are  better  than 
those  which  have  straight  ones,  as  the  water  will  run  much 
deeper  in  the  former,  than  in  the  latter,  and  will  consequently 
clear  away  the  sediment  much  easier.  The  large  drain 
ought  to  be  of  sufticient  height  to  admit  a  person  to  clean  it 
with  ease.  Circular,  ban-el,  or  cylindric  drains,  arc  much 
stronger  than  common  drains,  in  which  the  sides  are  formed 
by  vertical  walls.    See  Drainage  and  Sewerage. 

DRAINAGE.  As  we  shall  have  occasion  to  treat  this 
important  subject  at  some  length,  and  as,  in  so  doing,  it  is 
desirable  to  consider  the  question  both  in  its  more  compre- 
hensive and  general  sense,  as  well  as  in  its  details,  we  shall 
refer  the  reader  to  the  article  Sewerage.  Under  that  head, 
we  shall  enter  fully  into  the  various  methods  of  house  drain- 
age, as  suggested  by  the  improved  knowledge  of  modern 
times,  and  describe  the  extensive  works  which  have  been 
constructed  for  this  purpose  in  the  metropolis.  See  Cloaca, 
Sewer,  Sewage. 

DRAUGHT,  in  architecture,  the  representation  of  a 
building  on  paper,  explanatory  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
exterior  and  interior,  by  means  of  plans,  elevations,  and  sec- 
tions, drawn  to  a  scale,  by  which  all  the  parts  are  represented 
in  the  same  proportion  as  the  parts  of  the  edifice  intended  to 
be  executed.  All  the  horizontal  parts  are  explained  by  plans ; 
the  faces  of  the  vertical  parts  are  represented  by  elevations 
and  sections  ;  particularly,  when  the  plane  of  delineation  is 
parallel  to  the  faces  to  be  represented.  The  vertical  dimen- 
sions of  buildings  upon  circular  and  polygonal  plans  are 
understood  from  the  elevations  and  sections.  In  complex 
buildings,  besides  the  general  plans,  elevations,  and  sections, 
a  set  of  drawings  should  be  made  to  show  the  detail  of  the 
small  parts. 

In  addition  to  the  drawings  which  are  used  in  conducting 
the  work,  a  perspective  representation  of  the  exterior  should 
be  furnished  by  the  architect,  in  order  to  show  tiic  general 
appearance  and  effect  of  the  intended  edifice  to  the  emjiloyer, 
and  perhaps,  in  some  instances,  two  or  more  perspective 
representations  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  bring  more 
parts  into  view,  which  should  be  drawn  to  such  points  as 
those    in  which  the  building  will   be   most  generally  seen. 


DRA 


305 


DRA 


When  several  stories  of  a  building  difler  in  their  construc- 
tion, eueii  story  requires  a  separate  plan.  The  sections  are 
generally  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  edifice,  taken  through 
the  most  complex  or  principal  part.  Most  buildings  require 
at  least  two  sections,  some  many  more.  When  the  sides  of 
a  building  are  dissimilar,  as  many  elevations  will  be  neces- 
sary as  the  edifice  has  sides. 

The  number,  the  form,  and  disposition  of  rooms  are  shown 
by  the  plans.  The  architect  who  gives  the  design  of  a  build- 
ing, ouglit  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  constructive  parts 
of  carpentry,  masonry,  and  bricklaying,  before  he  commits 
his  ideas  to  paper,  or  otherwise  ho  may  be  liable  to  public 
censure.     See  Design. 

DKAUGiir,  in  mechanics,  the  force  or  power  necessary  to 
move  any  machine,  as  a  horse-mill,  waggon,  cart,  plough,  &c. 

Draught,  in  carpentry  and  joinery  ;  when  a  tenon  is  in- 
tended to  he  piinied  to  the  cheeks  or  sides  of  a  moi'tise,  and 
when  the  hole  through  the  tenon  is  put  nearer  to  the 
shoulder  than  the  holes  through  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise 
from  the  abutment,  which  receives  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon, 
or  which  eomes  in  contact  with  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon, 
the  |)in  is  .said  to  draw,  or  have  a  draught. 

Dralgut,  in  masonry,  a  part  of  the  surface  of  the  stone 
hewn  to  the  breadth  of  the  chisel  on  the  margin  of  the  stone, 
either  according  to  a  curve  or  straight  line,  as  the  surface  of 
the  stone  is  to  be.  reduced  to  a  plane  or  curved  surface. 
When  the  draughts  are  formed  round  diflerent  sides  of  the 
stone,  the  intermediate  part  is  wrought  to  the  surface,  by 
applying  a  straight-edge  or  templet.  In  large  stones,  par- 
ticularly when  the  substance  is  required  to  be  much  reduced, 
sometimes  several  intermediate  parallel  draughts,  dividing 
the  stone  equidistantly  in  its  length,  are  made,  and  thus  the 
intermediate  parts  may  be  hewn  down  nearly  by  the  eye, 
without  the  application  of  the  straight-edge  or  templet. 

DRAUGHT  COMPASSES,  those  provided  with  several 
moveable  points,  to  draw  fine  lines  in  architecture.  See  the 
words  Compass  and  Mathematical  Instruments. 

DU.WV-BORE,  when  a  mortise  and  tenon  is  intended  to 
be  pinned,  by  piercing  the  hole  through  the  tenon,  nearer  to 
the  shoulder  than  the  holes  through  the  cheeks  fiom  the 
abutment,  in  which  the  shoulder  is  to  come  in  contact,  the 
muriise  and  tenon  is  said  to  be  di'aw-bored  :  see  the  follow- 
ing word. 

DRAW-BORE  PINS,  pieces  of  steel,  made  in  the  form 
(  f  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  but  rather  taper,  and  inserted  in 
handles,  with  the  greatest  diameter  ne.xt  to  the  handle,  fur 
driving  through  the  draw-bores  of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  in 
order  to  bring  the  shoulder  of  the  rail  close  home  to  the 
abutment  on  the  edge  of  the  style  ;  when  this  is  effected,  the 
draw-bore  pins,  if  more  than  one  be  used,  are  to  be  taken 
out  one  at  a  time,  and  the  holes  immediately  filled  up  with 
wooden  pegs. 

DRANV-BUIDGE,  in  general,  a  bridge  constructed  of 
several  boards  nailed  or  bolted  to  a  frame.  This  being  f;is- 
tened  at  one  end,  by  means  of  strong  hinges,  to  a  beam  laid 
horizontally,  and  parallel  to  the  frame,  and  being  acted  upon 
at  its  other  extremity  by  levers,  or  by  chains,  worked  either 
by  wheels  or  by  hand  ;  the  platform  thus  constructed  may 
be  raised  to  a  perpendicular  direction.  Drawbridges  are 
usually  placed  over  narrow  ditches,  in  forti'esses,  at  the  ends 
of  great  bridges,  and  especially  over  the  excavations  close  to 
the  gates,  so  that  they  may  be  raised  or  let  down  at  pleasure. 

When  drawbridges  are  made  close  on  the  outside  of  the 
gates,  the  masonry  ought  to  be  sunk  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
whole  depth  of  the  frame  to  lie  within  it;  else  the  oblique 
fire  from  the  besiegers'  batteries  would  act  on  the  edge  of  the 
frame,  and  soon  render  it  unserviceable.    In  canal  navigation, 

39 


and  in  wet  docks,  swing  bridges,  that  turn  horizontally  upon 
one  end  as  an  axis,  have  almost  wholly  superseded  draw- 
bridges.    See  Iron  Bridge. 

DRAWING,  in  its  strict  meaning,  may  be  defined  as  the 
art  of  representing  objects,  on  any  convenient  surface,  by 
lines  describing  their  form  and  contour.  This  is  independent 
of  colour,  and  even  of  shadow;  because,  notwithstanding 
form  may  be  expressed  by  outline  alone,  shadow,  while 
giving  surface  and  substance,  must  be  dependent  upon  form, 
and,  in  many  cases,  requires  to  be  accurately  defined  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  perspective. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  process  of  ordinary 
architectural  drawing,  we  shall  venture  to  insert  some  caustic, 
though  just  observations  of  Mr.  Bartholomew,  on  this  neces- 
sary study. 

"  There  is  no  small  boasting,  in  the  present  day,  of  archi- 
tectural drawing.  An  architect  cannot  draw  too  well  ;  but 
when  he  obtains  much  practice,  he  will  find,  that,  besidrs 
designing  the  form  and  the  details  of  his  works,  he  has  little 
time  for  drawing  ;  in  general,  he  has  as  little  time  for  making 
the  clean  and  fair  copies  of  his  drawings  as  the  sculptor  has 
for  the  stone-cutting  department  of  his  art ;  while,  if  he 
cannot  design,  and  is  unacquainted  with  the  other  many 
branches  of  knowledge  which  he  should  possess,  he  should 
cease  to  call  himself  an  architect. 

"  In  making  drawing  his  sole  study,  (but  with  the  inter- 
ruptions which  business  will  naturally  bring,)  the  pupil 
becomes  only  a  bad  artist,  and  no  architect  at  all.  The 
pernicious  folly  of  imagining,  that  he  who  can  make  an 
architectural  drawing  must  of  necessity  be  able  to  make  an 
architectural  building,  has  wrought  largely  towards  the  ruin 
of  real  architecture,  and  has  tended  more  than  any  thing  else 
to  fill  our  metropolis,  and  other  places,  with  white-washed 
and  even  stone  ruins,  which  the  weak  have  mistaken  fijr 
architecture,  and  has  led  to  that  general  disregard  to  struc- 
tural propriety,  which  is  the  besetting  sin  of  modern' works. 

"  Now,  the  time  spent  in  learning  to  draw  badly  ;  a  work 
without  truth,  without  philosophy,  without  art,  without 
structural  excellence,  without  geometrical  ground-work, 
without  adaptation  to  its  purpose,  without  real  beauty,  either 
abstract  or  obvious  ;  this  time,  so  misemployed,  might  have 
been  successfully  employed  by  him  (were  architectural  edu- 
cation such  as  it  should  be)  in,  by  the  age  of  tweiity-fivo  or 
thirty  years  at  the  utmost,  learning  thoroughly  all  the  known 
arts  of  trussing,  of  roofing,  of  vaulting,  of  doming,  of 
framing  arches,  pyramids,  and  all  other  parts  of  architecture 
in  structural  perfection.  This  safe  ground-work,  with  the 
necessary  growth  of  mind,  expansion  of  power,  freedom  of 
ability,  would  lead  the  professing  architect  to  soar  aloft,  over 
all  the  chained  spirits  who  fancy  a  few  water-colours  alone 
can  raise  them  above  San  Micheli  and  Palladio — above  W^ren 
and  Chambers.  They  know  they  cannot  surpass  Raffaello 
and  Buonarotti  in  drawing ;  yet  they  do  not  consider  that 
they  might  with  ease  surpass  them  both  in  architectural  de- 
sign and  construction  :  thus  they  choose  that  competition  in 
which  they  cannot  succeed,  and  neglect  the  one  in  which 
they  might  gain  an  easy  victory.  They  might  be  the  first 
of  architects,  but  they  choose  rather  to  be  the  last  of  artists : 
instead  of  gazing  with  an  astonished  ignorance  upon  ancient 
buildings,  they  might  as  much  surpass  them  as  the  science 
of  the  moderns  surpasses  that  of  the  ancients." — '  Bartholo- 
mew's Specifications  for  Practical  Architecture.'  However 
severe  these  strictures  may  appear,  there  is  great  truth  in 
them,  and  they  deserve  the  serious  attention  of  the  student. 

Drawing  is  the  basis  of  architecture,  engraving,  and 
painting  ;  and  may  be  divided  into  outlines  and  shadowing. 
The  outline,  or  contour,  represents  the  boundaries  of  an 


D  U  A 


30G 


DRA 


object,  as  they  appear  to  terminate  against  the  back  ground  ; 
tlie  outline,  as  its  name  implies,  takes  in  all  the  parts  of  the 
bodi-.  The  interior  parts  are  marked  by  lines,  if  such  be 
distinct  on  the  body,  and  the  ditlerent  inclinations  of  the 
surface  are  defined  by  depth  of  colour,  ia  proportion  to  the 
hiclinalion. 

In  fanciful  objects,  whatever  the  figure  may  be,  the  general 
form  sliould  be  first  sketched  out  slightly,  that  what  is  found 
to  be  amiss  may  be  more  easily  removed,  and  corrections  more 
easily  made.  Estimate  as  nearly  as  you  can  the  principal 
points  of  the  original,  and  fix  dots  at  proportional  distances, 
disposed  at  equal  ajiparcnt  angles  on  your  paper ;  then  draw 
your  lines  carefully  to  them,  beginning  at  the  upper  part, 
and  working  either  from  the  right  to  the  loft,  or  in  the  con- 
trary direction,  according  to  their  tendency  downwards. 
I'ut  in  the  divisions  first,  and  when  these  are  nearly  right, 
mark  in  the  smaller  parts  ;  then,  having  got  your  work  alto- 
gether, examine  it  scrupulously,  rubbing  it  gently  with  a 
piece  of  bread,  in  order  to  render  the  lines  more  obscure: 
revise  and  correct  the  whole  as  often  as  it  may  be  found 
necessary.  Compare  all  the  parts  of  the  copy  with  the 
original,  in  every  direction,  first  horizontally  and  then  verti- 
cally, from  a  given  point,  which  may  be  supposed  to  be  the 
centre  of  the  picture. 

Beginners  should  make  their  drawings  of  the  same  size  as 
the  oiiginal,  in  order  to  exercise  the  eye  in  measuring  with 
exactness  ;  afier  some  practice,  however,  it  will  be  better  to 
vary  the  size  from  the  original,  in  order  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  estimating  distances,  that,  when  combined,  will  form 
parts,  similar  to  the  whole,  as  also  to  the  whole  mass  or 
general  contour. 

After  the  outlines  are  finished,  the  learner  may  proceed  to 
the  shadows  ;  the  first  lesson  should  be  simple,  only  indi- 
cating the  principal  projections.  The  simplest  method  of 
forming  these  is,  by  repeated  lines  nearly  parallel  to  the  out- 
line, and  as  he  advances  with  more  shades,  these  lines  should 
be  crossed  by  other  equidistant  lines.  This  manner  of 
sketching  constitutes  that  peculiar  manner  of  drawing  called 
hatclnnrj,  a  mode  very  well  calculated  to  give  freedom  of 
hand  in  any  style  of  drawing.  The  chief  things  to  be  at- 
tended to  are,  that  the  lines  conform  as  much  as  possible  to 
the  original,  bearing  all  their  inflections  in  the  same  ratio ; 
the  intersections  should  not  be  too  violent,  nor  the  lines  so 
strong  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  net-work. 

In  architectural  drawing,  the  shadows  are  made  out  by 
washing  or  tinting  the  paper  with  Indian  ink,  sepia,  or 
bister,  laid  on  with  a  camel-hair  pencil :  this  may  be  done  in 
two  dillerent  ways;  the  one  is  by  laying  down  the  shades  as 
nearly  in  their  places  as  possible,  with  tints  sufliciently  dark, 
and  softening  oil'  the  edges  with  a  clean  pencil  and  water,  and 
when  dry,  the  process  may  be  repeated  again,  as  often  as  may 
be  found  necessary  ;  the  other  is  by  working  with  very  light 
tints  at  first,  in  blotches  placed  near  each  other,  then  blending 
these  by  a  faint  wash  over  the  whole,  and  when  nearly  dry, 
strengthening  them  by  filling  up  the  interstices  with  other 
blotches  :  thus,  by  repeated  blotches,  the  surface  will  acquire 
the  degree  of  tint  required  in  the  various  parts.  This  mode 
is  called  stippling,  .ind  in  the  hand  of  an  artist  is  perhaps  the 
best,  at  least  for  finished  drawings.  In  the  shadows  of  any- 
thing projecting  from  a  surface,  we  shall,  for  the  sake  of 
example,  suppose  a  pole  projecting  from  the  surface  of  a  wall, 
at  a  con-<iderable  distance  from  it ;  the  outline  of  the  shadow 
next  to  the  foot  of  the  pole  will  be  very  dark  and  definite, 
but  in  proceeding  towards  the  extremity,  the  edge  becomes 
more  penmubral,  and  at  last,  in  a  very  extended  shadow,  is 
hardly  definite.  All  shadows  are  darker  nearer  to  the  body 
than  llrjse  which  are  more  remote  ;   attached  columns  and 


pilasters  will  throw  a  stronger  shadow  than  insulated  columns 
upon  the  wall  behind,  and  the  projections  of  the  shadows  of 
insulated  columns  will  be  darker,  and  more  defined  upon 
their  edges,  than  those  which  are  placed  at  a  gi-eater  distance 
from  the  wall,  and,  again,  the  middle  part  of  the  shadows 
•will  be  darker  than  the  edges. 

The  shadow  of  a  plane  figure  falling  upon  a  plane  parallel 
to  it,  will  form  a  figure  similar  and  equal  to  that  which 
throws  it,  as  the  shadow  of  all  lines  on  a  plane,  parallel  to 
these  lines,  w'ill  also  be  parallel  to  the  same  lines  which  pro- 
ject them.  Besides  what  has  been  already  hinted  above, 
there  is  another  method,  which  is  excellent  for  mouldings, 
particularly  when  small,  viz.,  to  use  very  little  ink  in  the 
pencil  ;  let  us,  for  example,  suppose  we  were  to  shade  a 
moulding:  take  the  camel-hair  pencil  with  so  little  ink  that 
it  cannot  run,  or  that  it  will  dry  the  instant  it  is  put  on 
the  paper,  and  run  it  the  whole  length  of  the  moulding,  upon 
that  part  which  requires  to  be  the  darkest ;  then  repeat  the 
process  in  the  same  manner,  by  making  the  tint  broader,  or 
to  spread  fivrther  over ;  repeat  in  this  manner,  by  making  the 
last  tint  spread  over  each  edge  of  the  preceding,  keeping  the 
edges  of  every  tint  as  straight  and  parallel  as  possible,  until 
the  moulding  has  acquired  its  full  variety  of  tints,  so  as  to 
represent  all  the  various  inclinations  of  the  original  surface. 
If  any  part  appear  too  light,  it  is  only  necessary  to  go  over 
that  part  again,  touching  only  the  part  that  is  too  light.  Or, 
the  learner  may  begin  the  reverse  way,  by  making  the  broad 
tints  first,  and  proceed  to  make  narrower  and  narrower  tints 
each  time. 

In  shadowing  a  cylinder  of  considerable  width,  begin  at 
the  line  of  demarcation  of  light  and  shade,  where  a  plane 
from  the  luminary  would  touch  the  curved  surface  in  a 
straight  line  of  contact,  and  having  gone  the  whole  length  of 
this  line  with  a  tint,  soften  the  edges  with  water.  Proceed 
in  the  same  manner  the  second  time  with  a  broader  tint, 
covering  the  edges  of  the  former,  and  washing  off  the  edges 
as  before,  thus  continually  spreading  each  repeated  tint, 
until  you  come  to  the  line  of  light,  viz.,  where  a  plane 
extended  from  the  luminary  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder, 
included  in  the  plane,  would  cut  the  surflice  of  the  cylinder. 
Then  from  the  opposite  edge  of  the  representation  of  the 
cylinder,  lay  a  light  tint  close  to  the  line,  as  narrow  as  it  can 
be  put  on,  and  soften  the  edge  of  it  next  to  the  line  of  light ; 
lay  a  broader  tint  next  time,  and  soften  the  edge  in  like  man- 
ner, next  to  the  line  of  light ;  proceed  in  this  manner,  until 
you  come  again  in  contact  with  the  line  of  light ;  observing, 
that  the  depth  of  colour  in  receding  from  the  line  of  light  in 
the  parts  which  represent  equal  distances,  should  be  the  same, 
or  of  an  equal  degree.  In  washing  towards  the  line  of  light, 
the  washes  must  be  lighter  and  lighter,  as  too  much  colour 
will  destroy  the  delicacy  necessary  to  be  preserved  in  the 
light  part.  If,  after  all,  any  part  should  appear  to  be  too 
light,  the  defect  may  be  made  up  by  tinting  that  part  only, 
with  very  little  ink  in  the  pencil.  For  other  informat'on, 
concerning  the  manner  of  preparing  the  tints,  wc  shall  refer 
to  the  article  Shadowing. 

DRAWING-KNIFE,  an  edged  tool,  made  sharp  at  the 
end,  for  cutting  a  deep  incision  into  the  wood,  along  a  straight- 
edge, the  edge  of  a  square  or  templet,  in  order  to  enter  the 
saw  without  ragging  the  wood.  A  chisel  or  firmer  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  the  drawing-knife.  In  joinery,  the 
drawing-knife  is  useful  in  rebating  across  the  grain,  cutting 
the  shoulders  of  tenons,  grooving  across  the  fibres. 

DRAWING-ROOM,  a  principal  apartment  of  a  great 
mansion,  or  nobleman's  house,  to  which  it  is  usual  for 
company  to  withdraw  after  dinner,  and  in  which  formal  visits 
are  received.     Sec  Dininc-Room.     In  small  houses,  the  draw- 


ing-room  may  communicate  with  the  dining-room,  but  in 
large  houses,  it  will  be  no  detriment,  and  might  even  be  pre- 
ferred by  many,  if'the  library,  or  an  antc-rooni  should  inter- 
vene. The  term  is  frequently  written  withdrawing-room. 
See  Room. 

DRAWING-SLATE,  a  soft  stone  of  fine  grain,  used  as 
a  inarking  or  drawing  material.  It  is  sometimes  called  black 
clialk. 

DRAWINGS,  Working,  See  Working  Drawings. 

DRAWN  THROUGH  or  along  the  Axis,  or  through  or 
ALONG  A  STRAIGHT  LiNE,  is  whcu  a  plane  meets  a  straight 
line,  so  that  all  parts  or  points  in  the  line  are  also  in  the 
plane. 

DREDGING.  Tlie  operation  of  removing  mud,  silt,  and 
other  depositions  from  the  bottom  of  harbours,  canals,  rivers, 
docks,  &c.,  by  means  of  a  Dredging  Machine. 

DRESS,  in  masonry,  to  prepare  stones  for  building. 

DRESSED,  the  preparation  that  a  stone  requires  before 
it  is  ready  to  be  used  in  building,  &c.  Stones  are  dressed 
sometimes  by  the  hammer  only,  thence  termed  hammer- 
dressed  ;  sometimes  by  the  mallet  and  chisel,  the  foce  after- 
wards being  rubbed  smooth.  In  Scotland  the  term  is  only 
understood  of  hammer-dressing. 

DRESSER,  a  kind  of  bench  or  table,  with  drawers,  set 
in  the  kitciien,  used  for  culinary  purposes :  it  is  generally 
reckoned  as  a  fixture  of  the  building,  or  a  part  thereof. 

DRESSING-ROOM,  a  room  adjoining  a  sleeping-room, 
used  for  dressing  in,  as  its  name  implies.  A  dressing-room 
ought  to  have  two  doors,  one  to  communicate  with  the 
sleeping-room,  and  another  to  communicate  with  the  passage, 
for  the  valet,  or  servant. 

DRESSINGS,  all  kinds  of  mouldings  projecting  beyond 
the  naked  of  walls  or  ceilings,  are  called  by  the  general 
name  of  dressing.  In  joinery,  tiie  architraves  of  apertures, 
or  other  appendages,  as  also  the  projecting  moulding  used 
as  a  finish,  is  called  a  dressing,  and  frequently /acf/i^r. 

DRI  FT,  the  horizontal  push  or  force,  which  an  arch  exerts 
from  the  gravitation  of  the  stones,  which  are  kept  from 
descending  by  the  inclination  of  the  beds  of  the  arch,  and 
the  resistance  of  the  pier.  The  terms  shoot  and  thrust,  are 
also  employed  to  express  the  same  idea. 

DRIP,  the  edge  of  a  roof;  the  eaves;  the  corona  of  the 
cornice.     See  Larmier,  Corona. 

DRIPPING  EAVES,  when  the  slope  of  a  roof  is  con- 
tinued downwards,  so  as  to  project  over  the  roof  of  a  build- 
ing, the  part  thus  projecting  over  is  called  dripping  eaves, 
in  contradistinction  to  those  roofs  that  have  blocking  courses, 
which  run  above  the  slope  of  the  roof,  and  which  have 
gutters  behind  for  carrying  off  the  water.  Dripping  eaves 
are  prohibited,  in  the  city  of  London,  by  the  Building  act. 

DRIPS,  steps  made  in  flat  roofs,  to  walk  upon.  This 
way  of  building  is  much  used  in  Italy,  where  the  roof  is  not 
quite  flat,  but  a  little  raised  in  the  middle,  otherwise  the 
steps  would  have  no  rise. 

DRIPSTONE,  the  projecting  moulding  or  cornice  over 
windows,  doorways,  &c.,  is  called  a  dripstone.  Its  use  is  to 
throw  off  the  rain,  and  in  some  of  the  old  buildings  in  the 
country,  it  has  been  made  of  an  ornamental  character.  The 
dripstone  is  of  various  forms,  and  when  a  head  is  not  used 
as  a  termination  or  support,  a  simple  moulding  is  adopted. 
It  is  also  called  label,  weather-moulding,  and  water-table. 

The  term  drijjstone,  however,  is  more  particularly  applied 
to  the  boss  at  the  termination  of  the  moulding  from  which 
the  rain  drips,  after  bemg  conducted  down  the  moulding ; 
the  latter  is  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  weather- 
moulding. 

DRIVER,  Pile.     See  Pile  Driver. 


DROPS,  in  architecture,  small  pendent  cylinders,  or  the 
frustums  of  cones  attached  to  a  vertical  surface,  the  axis  of 
the  cylinders  or  cones  having  also  a  vertical  position,  and 
their  upper  ends  attached  to  a  horizontal  surface. 

Drops  are  used  in  the  cornice  of  the  Doric  order  under 
the  mutules,  and  in  the  architrave  under  the  triglyphs. 
Each  mutide  has  three  rows  from  front  to  rear,  with  six 
drops  in  each  row,  disposed  at  equal  distanc^cs,  in  lines 
parallel  to  the  front.  The  drops  upon  the  architrave  are 
also  six  feet  under  each  trigylph,  disposed  also  cquidistantly. 
Drops  in  the  form  of  frustums  of  cones,  arc  only  peculiar  to 
Roman  architecture,  and  to  some  of  the  temples  of  Pa^stum  ; 
there  are  some  Grecian-Dorics,  however,  wherein  the  drops 
in  their  vertical  section  have  the  upper  part  nearly  parallel, 
and  terminate  below  with  a  concavity,  the  part  above  being 
a  tangent  to  the  curve.  In  the  Roman-Doric,  the  surface  of 
the  metopes  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  architrave,  and  the 
vertical  surface  of  the  trigylph  prt>jects  at  the  same  distance 
as  the  drops,  which  are  hung  from  the  tenia.  In  tlie  Grecian 
Doric,  the  faces  of  the  triglyphs  are  generally  disposed  in 
the  same  vertical  surface  with  the  face  of  the  cpistv  Hum, 
and  consequently,  the  regula  and  drops  pending  therefiom 
project.  The  Doric  portico  at  Athens,  the  portico  of  Philip 
king  of  Macedon,  and  the  temple  of  Apollo  in  the  island  of 
Delos,  are  instances  wherein  the  surflice  of  the  epistyle  is 
within  the  surfiice  of  the  triglyph ;  but  it  is  to  be  observed, 
in  the  two  latter  examples,  that  there  is  a  drop  in  each  angle 
common  to  every  return  face.  All  examples  of  the  Doric 
order,  except  the  portico  of  the  Agora,  or  Doric  portico,  at 
Athens,  have  the  sides  of  each  extreme  drop  under  the 
regula  in  the  same  vertical  line  as  each  edge  of  the  triglyph 
above,  and  the  whole  six  drops  are  contained  within  the 
perpendiculars,  by  producing  the  edges  of  the  triglyiihs. 

In  all  the  drops  of  the  Doric  architraves  to  be  mot  with, 
the  horizontal  sections  are  circles,  increasing  towards  the 
bottom  of  the  drops,  or  of  a  cylindrical  form,  except  in  the 
instance  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Cora,  in  Italy,  where 
the  soffits  of  the  drops  in  the  architraves  are  inclined.  It  is 
singular,  that  in  this  example,  the  drops  pending  from  the 
corona  are  continued  cquidistantly  without  interruption  in 
three  rows,  two  behind  the  front  row ;  and  that  those  pend- 
ing from  the  corona  are  perfectly  cylindrical,  with  level 
soffits,  while  those  pending  from  the  regula  are  conical,  and 
have  inclined  soffits,  which  form  an  obtuse  angle  with  the 
face  of  the  epistyle.  In  the  choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus, 
the  tenia  of  the  epistylium  has  a  continued  row  of  drops,  but 
this  example  cannot  be  accounted  a  Doric  order,  having  no 
other  peculiarity  to  the  Doric  composition. 

The  drops  pending  from  the  soffits  of  the  mutules,  have 
their  soffits  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  soffits  of  the  mutules, 
and  consequently,  inclining ;  whUe  those  of  the  epistyle  have 
their  soffits  in  a  horizontal  plane. 

The  height  of  the  drops  in  the  cornice  of  the  Doric  portico 
at  Athens,  is  little  more  than  one  quarter  of  their  diameter, 
while  those  of  the  epistyle  have  their  height  moi-c  than  half 
their  diameter. 

In  the  peripteral  temple  at  Pa;stum,  the  coi'ona  has  no 
pending  mutules,  nor  any  drops.  In  the  theatre  of  Marcellus 
at  Rome,  there  are  no  mutules,  the  interstices  between  the 
drops  are  formed  by  excavating  upwards  into  the  soffit  of 
the  corona,  and  are  covered  on  the  front  with  a  moulding, 
which  has  its  soffit  in  the  same  inclined  plane  with  the 
soffits  of  the  drops,  so  that  the  drops  show  no  geometrical 
elevation.  In  the  enneastyle,  or  nine-column  temple  at 
Ptestum,  the  cornice  is  destroyed,  and  the  architrave 
seems  to  have  been  originally  without  either  mutules 
or  drops. 


DRY 


308 


DRY 


The  term  ffultcB  is  also  applicable  to  what  we  have 
callc'l  i/ropx. 

DRO  V  ED  ASHLAR,  a  term  used  in  Scotland  for  chiseled, 
or  raiK^oiii-tooled  ashlar.  It  is  the  most  inftrior  kind  of  hewn 
work  usod  in  building.  It  is  true,  that  what  is  there  called 
broached  work,  is  sometimes  done  without  being  droved,  but 
in  good  broached  work,  the  face  of  the  stone  should  be 
previously  droved,  and  then  broached.  See  the  article 
^Masonmiv. 

DRO\' ED  AND  BROACHED,  a  term  used  in  Scotland, 
in  a  more  specific  manner  than  that  of  broached  work  ;  see 
the  preceding  word. 

DIIOVED  AND  STRIPED,  work  that  is  first  droved 
and  thL'U  striped  :  the  stripes  are  shallow  grooves  done  with 
a  half  or  thrfc-quarter  inch  chisel,  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
deep,  leaving  the  droved  interstices  prominent.  These  kinds 
of  hewn  work  arc  not  used  in  England,  or  at  least  very 
seldom  ;  the  wurk  is  either  regularly  tooled,  or  rubbed 
smooth. 

DRUIDICAL  TEMPLE,  stone  pillars,  arranged  in  the 
circnmfereMce  of  the  circle,  surmounted  with  an  architrave 
or  entablature,  such   as  Stonehenge.     See  Celtic   Archi- 

TECTfRE. 

DRU.M,  a  cylinder,  generally  formed  of  cast-iron,  but 
sometimes  of  wood,  and  used  on  the  inclined  planes  of  rail- 
ways, for  receiving  the  rope  which  is  wound  round  the  sur- 
fiicc  of  its  periphery,  by  which  movement  the  waggons  are 
conveved  along  the  line.  Drums  are  used  when  the  plane  is 
worked  by  a  single  rope. 

Drum,  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  capitals,  the  solid 
part,  in  the  form  of  a  vase,  to  which  foliage,  stalks,  and 
caulicoli  are  attached.     The  drum  is  otherwise  called  vase. 

Drum.     See  Dome. 

DRY-ROT,  a  highly  destructive  vegetable  disease,  affect- 
ing the  timber  in  the  foundations,  and  other  parts  of  build- 
ings, in  particular  soils  and  situations.  It  alTccts  the  wood, 
or  ligneous  parts,  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  leave  it  connected 
by  nothing  but  the  small  hard  fibrous  portions,  which  give  it 
a  curious  tremulous  appearance,  but  all  of  which,  when 
touched  by  the  hand  in  the  more  advanced  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease, readily  moulder  into  a  brownish  snuff-like  dust.  It  is 
attended  with  a  peculiar  earthy  smell,  similar  to  that  which 
issues  from  wood  fresh  dug  up  after  having  lain  some  time 
in  the  ground  in  contact  with  decaying  animal  matter,  and  is 
materially  different  from  that  natural  sort  of  decay  which  takes 
place  in  wood  from  the  presence  of  wetness. 

On  the  causes  of  this  decay  numerous  volumes  have  been 
written,  and  equally  numerous  have  been  the  nostrums  for  its 
prevention  or  "  cure."  There  can  bo  little  doul)t  that,  in  very 
many  cases,  dry-rot  has  been  engendered  by  the  extreme 
wetness  of  the  timber,  caused  by  its  long  immersion  in  the 
water,  in  docks,  canals,  &c.  In  our  hastily-constructed  build- 
ings, the  timber,  after  having  been  thus  swelled  by  soaking 
too  much  beyond  its  former  and  its  ultimate  bulk,  is  frequently 
fr.'imed  together  while  in  this  wet  sUite,  and  it  cannot  be  sur- 
prising that  the  dry-rot  soon  appears  as  a  natural  consequence 
of  such  unwise  proceedings. 

It  has  been  said,  that  moist  and  warm  situations,  where  the 
circulation  of  the  air  is  impeded,  is  the  generating  cause  of 
this  disease  ;  that  the  effluvia  from  timber  so  diseased,  will 
carry  their  effects  to  the  circumjacent  timber  ;  and  that  any 
sort  of  wood,  dry  as  well  as  damp,  so  exposed,  will  be  soon 
destroyed.  Timber  once  infected  cannot  be  restored,  and  the 
only  remedy  lies  in  cutting  away  the  diseased  parts,  to  pre- 
vent the  extension  of  the  evil  to  the  remainder ;  and  to  effect 
even  the  latter,  a  free  circulation  of  air  must  bo  admitted, 
and  the  parts  be  washed  over  with  a  strong  solution  of  iron. 


copper,  or  zinc.  Patents  have  been  granted  for  various  appli- 
cations of  the  latter,  as  preventives  of  the  dry-rot,  the  dis- 
tinguishing  features  of  the  processes  therein  employed  consist- 
ing in  first  preparing  the  timber  by  a  good  steaming,  or  drying 
out  of  the  sap,  and  afterwards  injecting,  soaking,  or  boiling 
the  timber  in  a  solution  of  copperas,  or  other  metallic  salt. 
The  following  observations  on  this  important  subject  were 
some  time  since  addressed  to  the  editor  of  the  "  Engineers 
and  ^Mechanics'  Encyclopedia,"  by  Mr.  John  Gregory,  who 
is  an  experienced  and  observant  shipwright ;  and  as  they 
appear  to  mark  out  clearly  the  true  cause  of,  and  to  suggest 
a  very  simple  remedy  for,  the  evil,  it  is  right  to  give  them  a 
place  in  this  work.  Mr.  Gregoi-y  says,  "  Instead  of  squaring 
a  piece  of  timber  according  to  the  usual  method,  by  leaving 
the  heart  of  the  tree  in  the  centre,  my  plan  is  to  saw  it  right 
down  the  middle,  through  the  heart,  into  two  equal  parts, 
immediately  after  the  tree  is  felled;  and  my  reasons  f>r  this 
I  will  now  endeavour  to  explain,  to  the  best  of  my  ability. 
It  is,  I  believe,  a  well-known  fact,  that  a  tree  does  not, 
literally  speaking,  die  on  receiving  the  final  stroke  of  the  axe, 
but  that  it  continues  for  a  long  period  afterwards  to  vegetate, 
though  less  vigorously.  At  length,  however,  the  sap  ceases 
to  circulate,  the  pores  become  closed,  and  the  juices  of  the 
tree  thus  shut  up  undergo  decomposition,  and  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  dry-rot.  It  is  well  known,  that  a  man,  who  dies 
in  a  full  habit  of  bod}',  soon  decays;  the  same  effect  takes 
place  in  a  tree  full  of  sap,  unless  we  adopt  the  same  method 
with  respect  to  it  as  the  Egyptians  practised  with  the  human 
body,  viz.,  that  of  depriving  it  of  all  moisture,  which  process 
would  give  to  our  timber  a  durability  almost  everlasting. 
My  mind  has  been  long  impressed  with  this  idea,  which  has 
been  confirmed  by  my  having  recently  noticed,  that  several 
of  the  timbers,  in  a  very  ancient  public  building,  which  had 
been  sawn  originally  in  the  manner  I  have  proposed,  were 
pcrfccllij  sound,  although  they  had  withstood  the  dilapidating 
hand  of  time  for  seven  hundred  years ;  while  other  timbers  in 
the  same  building,  which  had  not  been  so  cut,  but  apparently 
squared  out  with  the  heart  in  the  centre,  were  perfectly  rot- 
ten. That  the  dry-rot  is  certainly  caused  by  the  juices  being 
enclosed  in  the  heart  of  the  timber,  I  have  had  frequent 
opportunities  of  observing  during  my  long  practical  expe- 
rience in  the  repairing  of  ships.  In  the  frame  of  a  ship  in 
which  such  large  quantities  of  timber  are  employed,  1  have 
uniformly  noticed  :  First,  that  the  decay  commences  in  the 
run  fore  and  aft,  which  is  owing  to  the  timbers  being  fitted 
so  close  together  at  the  heels  or  lower  ends.  The  evil  being 
thus  enclosed  in  the  hearts  of  the  timbers,  and  the  air  having 
no  access  to  the  exterior  of  them  to  carry  off  the  moisture  by 
evaporation,  internal  decay  is  the  necessary  consequence. 
1  have  sometimes  witnessed  these  parts  of  the  frame  of  a  ship 
in  such  a  rotten  state,  as  to  have  been  justly  compared  by  the 
workmen  to  a  heap  of  manure.  Secondly,  those  timbers  in 
the  midships  that  have  been  bored  off  with  the  outside 
planks,  are  not  so  affected,  which  I  attribute  to  the  circum- 
stance of  the  holes  admitting  a  current  of  air  through  them, 
the  destructive  juices  being  thereby  carried  off.  Thirdly,  it 
frequently  happens,  that  the  floor-timbers  of  an  old  ship  are 
found,  on  breaking  up,  to  be  nearly  as  sound  as  they  were 
when  first  put  in.  Their  preservation  seems  to  be  owing  to 
the  effect  of  the  salt  water,  which  constantly  laves  over  them, 
causing  them  to  become,  in  a  manner,  pickled  ;  or  it  may  be, 
that  the  salt  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  wood,  the 
destructive  effects  of  its  natural  juices  arc  thereby  prevented. 
Fo\irthly,  the  planks  in  the  bottom,  nearest  to  the  timbers, 
take  the  infection  first ;  and  where  the  tree-nails  are  not  close, 
the  disease  rapidly  extends  endways  of  the  grain.  Fifihly, 
those  parts  of  the  deck-planks  that  lie  vpon  the  beams  are 


DUN 


309 


DUN 


those  which  are  first  infected  with  the  rot,  the  cause  of  -which 
is  evident,  as  those  parts  that  are  between  the  beams  are 
generally  quite  sound.  Sixthly,  in  the  beams  of  ships  the 
decay  usually  commences  in  the  internal  parts,  which  is 
decidedly  owing,  in  my  opinion,  to  the  erroneous  method  of 
preparing  the  timber,  as  before-mentioned  ;  but  when  timber, 
so  pi-epared,  is  used,  I  would  recommend,  as  the  best  preven- 
tive of  the  rot,  that  a  few  holes  be  bored  through  the  beam 
fore  and  aft,  and,  what  would  still  add  to  the  benefit,  to  bore 
another  hole  lengthways  of  the  grain,  to  meet  those  which 
are  bored  crossways.  But  the  best  preventive,  I  am  con- 
fident, w^ould  be  the  adoption  of  my  mode  of  preparing  the 
timber,  viz.,  to  saw  it  lengthways  right  through  the  heart, 
by  whicii  not  only  greater  durability  would  be  obtained,  but 
great  economy  in  the  consumption  of  the  timber." 

Though,  as  we  have  before  observed,  volumes  have  been 
written  on  the  subject  of  dry-rot,  the  causes  of  it  are  still, 
perhaps,  as  little  understood  as  ever ;  and,  as  was  stated  by 
ilr.  I5ramley,  of  Leeds,  in  a  paper  read  to  the  Society  for  the 
Encuuragement  of  Arts,  &c., '"  to  bring  the  matter  to  the  test 
by  experiments,  would  require  the  observations  of  a  long 
period,  and  in  selected  situations."  "  Wood  used  for  the 
general  purposes  of  man,"  he  observes,  "  is  cut  down  at 
dilierent  periods  ;  and  although  it  may  be  felled  at  the  proper 
season,  or  when  most  free  from  sap  or  moisture,  it  is  not 
always  to  be  eft'ected.  Nay,  even  admitting  it  to  have  been 
cut  down  in  the  most  favourable  situation,  it  still  abounds 
with  such  an  extra  proportion  of  moisture,  as  to  require  a 
regular  exposure  to  the  air  prior  to  its  being  applied  to  use, 
if  we  wish  to  guard  against  that  shrinking  which  always 
takes  place  where  this  precaution  has  not  been  taken.  And 
although  the  fir-kind  contains  less  of  this  watery  portion,  yet 
it  assuredly  possesses  a  considerable  share  ;  and  it  is  in  this 
species,  he  apprehends,  that  the  evil,  called  the  dry-rot,  most 
generally  occurs;  as,  from  the  facility  of  working  tlie  same, 
it  is  most  generally  applied  to  buildings.  But,  supposing  it 
to  be  fir,  or  any  other  species,  wood  felled  when  abounding 
with  any  extra  proportion  of  sap,  and  applied  to  use  without 
tiie  proper  seasoning  or  exposure  to  a  free  current  of  air, 
until  such  extra  moisture  has  had  time  to  exhale,  is  most 
liable  to  the  disease  in  question  ;  and  the  cure,  or  principal 
prevention  against  it,  would  be  the  precaution  of  felling  all 
wood  only  at  the  propei'  season,  or  when  the  sap  is  not  in 
circulation.  The  next  mode  of  prevention  would  be  to  use 
such  wood  only  as  has  been  for  a  considerable  period  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  a  free  current  of  air,  or,  where  conveni- 
ence will  admit,  to  that  of  air  heated  to  a  moderate  degree ; 
such  air  extracting,  with  greater  facility,  the  enclosed  mois- 
ture, and  in  a  more  certain  ratio  than  the  irregularity  of  our 
atmosphere  will  allow  under  other  circumstances." 

This  is  not  the  place  for  examining  into  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  ditferent  processes  which  have  been  introduced 
fir  seasoning  timber.  The  most  noted  of  these  are  Kyan's, 
Burnett's,  Payne's,  and  Bethell's,  all  of  which  have  been 
described  by  their  advocates  as  perfect  pr.eventives  of  dry-rot ; 
it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  they  have  all  been  found  successful, 
and  have  also  all  failed.  The  best  preventive  of  dry-rot,  in 
our  opinion,  is  to  have  the  tmiber  thoroughly  dry  before  it  is 
converted,  and  to  let  plenty  of  air  get  to  it  when  the  buUding 
is  completed. 

DUBBING,  in  bricklaying,  is  replacing  and  making 
good  any  decayed  brickwork,  when  the  wall  is  to  be 
repointed. 

DUN,  or  BURGH,  the  name  of  an  ancient  species  of 
buildings,  of  a  circular  form,  common  in  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands,  the  Hebrides,  and  northern  parts  of  Scot- 
land.    The  latter  term  points  out  the  founders,  who  at  the 


same  time  bestowed  on  them  their  natal  name  of  horg,  "  a 
defence  or  castle,"  a  Suco-Gothic  word  ;  and  the  Highlanders 
universally  apply  to  these  places  the  Celtic  name  dun,  signify- 
ing a  hill  defended  by  a  tower,  which  plainly  points  out 
their  use.  They  arc  confined  to  the  countries  once  subject 
to  the  crown  of  Norway.  With  few  exceptions,  they  are 
built  within  sight  of  the  sea,  and  one  or  more  within  sight  of 
the  other  ;  so  that  on  a  signal  by  fire,  by  flag,  or  by  trumpet, 
they  could  give  notice  of  approaching  danger,  and  yield  a 
mutual  succour.  In  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  island.s,  they 
are  most  frequently  called  wart  or  xcard  hills,  which  shows 
that  they  were  garrisoned.  They  had  their  wardmadher,  or 
watchman,  a  sort  of  sentinel,  who  stood  on  the  top,  and 
challenged  all  who  came  in  sight.  The  gackman  was  an 
oflioer  of  the  same  kind,  who  not  only  was  on  the  watch 
against  surprise,  but  was  to  give  notice  if  he  saw  any  ships 
in  distress.  He  was  allowed  a  large  horn  of  generous  liquor, 
which  he  had  always  by  him,  to  keep  up  his  spirits.  Along 
the  Orkney  and  Shetland  shores,  they  almost  form  a  chain  ; 
and  by  that  means  not  only  kept  the  natives  in  subjection, 
but  were  situated  commodiously  for  covering  the  landing  of 
their  countrymen,  who  were  perpetually  roving  on  piratical 
expeditions.  These  towers  were  even  made  use  of  as  state 
prisons ;  for  we  learn  from  Torfteus,  that  after  Sucno  had 
surprised  Paul,  count  of  Caithness,  he  carried  him  into 
Sutherland,  and  confined  him  there  in  a  Norwegian  tower. 
Out  of  our  owm  kingdom,  no  buildings  similar  to  these 
are  to  be  found,  except  in  Scandinavia.  On  the  mountain 
Swalberg  in  Norway  is  one  ;  the  Stir-biskop,  at  Upsal  in 
Sweden,  is  another ;  and  Umseborg,  in  the  same  kingdom, 
is  a  third. 

In  these  buildings,  there  is  no  appearance  of  an  arch ;  the 
wall,  which  consists  of  the  best  flat  stones  the  workmen  could 
find,  is  well  laid,  is  in  thickness  about  14  feet,  and  in  some 
instances  not  more  than  12  feet  high;  the  structure  of  a  dun 
is  upon  a  circular  plan,  about  20  or  30  feet  in  diameter. 
The  door  of  entrance  is  very  low,  and  was  shut  up  occasion- 
ally with  a  broad  flat  stone.  In  some  instances,  where  the 
stones  were  not  flat  or  well  bedded,  the  wall  is  found  propped 
up  with  heaps  of  stones,  like  buttresses,  on  the  outside  ;  so 
as  to  give  the  whole  more  the  appearance  of  a  mount,  than 
of  a  building,  as  is  particularly  the  case  with  one  at  Loth- 
beg,  in  the  parish  of  Lothis.  The  most  entire  dun  is  that  at 
Glenby,  not  far  from  Inverness,  and  described  by  Mr.  Pen- 
nant, in  his  voyage  to  the  Hebrides ;  from  whose  very 
curious  and  original  account,  the  following  particulars  are 
extracted : — 

"  It  is  placed  about  two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
valley.  The  more  entire  side  is  about  thirty  feet  six 
inches  in  height,  and  was,  some  years  ago,  about  ten  feet 
higher.  The  whole  structure  appears  to  have  been,  on  the 
outside,  of  a  conical  form  ;  but  on  the  inside,  the  surround- 
ing wall  is  quite  perpendicular ;  so  that  it  must  have  been 
much  thicker  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  It  enclosed  a 
small  circular  area  of  thirty-three  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  ; 
and  was  constructed  merely  of  flat  stones  neatly  placed  one 
upon  another,  without  any  cement  or  mortar.  At  ten  feet 
from  the  ground  it  was  found  to  be  seven  feet  four  inches 
thick;  and  within  this  thickness  were  two  surrounding 
galleries ;  one  quite  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tower,  about  six 
feet  two  inches  high,  and  two  feet  five  inches  wide  at  the 
bottom ;  but  made  narrower  at  the  top ;  and  flagged  and 
covered  with  great  flat  stones.  And  the  other  gallery  was 
placed  directly  over  this,  having  these  flag-stones  for  its 
floor,  and  being  only  five  feet  six  inches  high,  and  only 
twenty  mches  wide  at  the  bottom  ;  but  covered  at  top,  in 
like  manner,  with  other  great  flat  stones. 


DUO 


310 


DUO 


"Tliis  upper  gallery,  in  which  a  man  could  barely  make 
his  way,  went  quite  round  the  tower,  without  any  division  or 
partition  ;  but  the  lower  gallery,  underneath  this,  is  parted 
oil'  into  separate  spaces,  by  great  flag-stones  placed  upright ; 
which  several  spaces,  or  little  cells,  were  in  general  acces- 
sible only  by  means  of  holes  in  the  floor  or  gallery  above  ; 
so  tliat  nothing  can  be  more  obvious,  than  that  these  cells 
were  intended  for  the  keeping  and  preserving  of  stores ; 
whilst  the  upper  gallery  cannot  but  remind  us  somewhat 
of  the  little  gallery  within  the  wall  of  the  round  tower  at 
Brimless. 

"  Besides  these  galleries,  there  were,  on  the  inside  of  the 
circular  wall,  open  to  the  circular  enclosed  apartment,  four 
perpendicular  rows  of  small  cavities,  or,  as  they  have  been 
described  by  others,  four  stages  or  nests  of  small  square  open 
holes,  dividing  the  interior  circular  wall  into  four  parts,  and 
turning  up  from  the  lower  part  of  the  tower  to  the  top  ;  each 
little  hole,  or  nest,  in  the  row,  divided  fiom  that  beneath 
only  by  a  sort  of  shelf,  or  flixg-stone,  and  forming  a  little 
cupboard. 

"  The  appearance  of  this  sort  of  little  cupboards,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  sections  of  galleries,  is  similar  to  those  in  this 
tower,  as  they  are  seen  in  the  wall  of  another  dun,  in  the 
same  neighbourhood.  And  these  square  cavities  seem  obvi- 
ously to  have  been  intended  to  hold  the  drinking  horns,  and 
other  utensils  for  banqueting  in  these  rude  dens." 

DUODECIMALS,  a  term  applied  to  an  arithmetical  me- 
thod of  ascertaining  the  number  of  square  feet  and  square 
inches  in  a  rectangular  space,  whose  sides  are  given  in  feet 
and  inches. 

In  this  series  of  denominations  (beginning  with  feet)  every 
unit  in  the  preceding  denomination  makes  twelve  in  that 
which  succeeds  it:  that  is,  every  foot  contains  12  inches,  or 
firsts;  every  first,  12  seconds  ;  and  so  on.  There  will  be  as 
many  denominations  in  the  product  as  in  both  factors  taken 
together. 

Feet  are  either  marked  with  or  without  an  /;  inches  are 
called  Jirsls  by  the  mark  thus  (')  being  placed  above  ;  seconds 
by  the  mark  thus  ('')  being  placed  above  ;  thirds  thus  ('"), 
and  so  on.  In  multiplying  any  two  single  denominations 
together,  the  value  of  the  product  will  be  known  by  adding 

the  indices  of  the  two  factors.     Thus,  suppose  7  to  be  mul- 

tiplied  by  11,  then  the  product  is  77,  or  77  fifths,  because 
adding  the  index  "  of  the  seven  to  the  index  "'  of  the  eleven, 
produces  v  or  fifths. 

To  multiply  duodecimals  together. — Write  the  multiplier 
under  the  multiplicand,  so  that  the  place  of  feet  may  stand 
under  the  last  place  of  the  multiplicand;  begin  with  the 
ri"ht-hand  denomination  of  the  multiplier,  and  multiply  it 
by  every  denomination  of  the  multiplicand,  throwing  the 
twelves  out  of  every  pioduct,  and  carrying  as  many  units  to 
the  next;  place  the  remainders,  if  any,  under  the  multiplier, 
so  that  like  parts  in  the  product  may  be  under  like  parts  of 
the  multiplicand  ;  proceed  with  every  successive  figure  of 
the  multiplier,  towards  the  left,  in  the  same  manner,  always 
placing  the  first  figure  of  the  product  under  the  multiplier; 
then  tjie  sum  of  the  products  will  be  the  total. 

Uxatnple  1. 

Multiply  C 9' by  3.. C 
ft.     , 
G..9 
3..G 


6' 


3..4..C=C..9X  6 
20  ..3       =G..9x3 


Examjile  2. 
Multiply  G..5'..4"  by  3 

ft.       ,         „ 

6..5..4 

3..6 

ft     ,     „ 

3..2..8..0=6..5..4  X  G 
19..4..0       =G..5..4x3 


IV         V         Tl      Vil 

..0 

.5 

..  0..  0..  G..2 

ft 

„      .,     It     t 

4. 

3. 

2. .8. .9..  5.. 

Answer  22..G..  8..0 
In  the  first  example,  there  is  only  one  place  of  duodecimals 
in  each  fiictor;  there  are,  therefore,  two  places  in  the  product. 
In  the  second  example,  there  are  two  places  of  duodeci- 
mals in  the  multiplicand,  and  one  in  the  multiplier,  which 
make  together  three ;  tliere  are,  therefore,  three  denomina- 
tions in  the  product. 

Example  3. 

ft       ,       „       ,„      iV       T     Tl 

What   is   the    product   of   4  ..  3..  2..  8  ..  9  ..  5..  3  by 

Tl 

3 

0..    3..0..  5..  CO..    6..  2 

8..6..5..5..6..10..6 
2..1  ..    7..4..  4..  8..  7..    G 
1..9..4..  1..7..  11. .2. .3 
1..0..9..8..2..4..3..    9 

1..0..11..5..6,.8..2..    0..   1..1..2..2..4..G 

In  this  example,  because  there  are  no  feet  in  the  multiplier, 
the  place  is  supplied  by  the  cipher.  The  multiplicand  has 
six  places  of  duodecimals,  and  the  multiplier  seven  ;  there 
are,  therefore,  thirteen  places  of  duodecimals  in  the  product. 
The  first  place  of  figures  is  feet,  and  the  succeeding  are  the 
duodecimal  places;  the  product  is  one  foot,  no  inches,  eleven 
seconds,  five  thirds,  (S:c.  But,  independently  of  the  consi- 
deration of  there  being  as  many  places  of  duodecimals  in  the 
product  asm  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand,  the  method  of 
placing  the  denominations  of  the  factors  gives  the  correct 
places  of  the  product,  since  like  parts  of  the  product  stand 
under  like  parts  of  the  multiplicand  ;  it  also  shows  the  afilnity, 
not  only  between  duodecimals,  but  between  decimals  .and 
every  series  of  denominations,  of  which  the  same  number  in 
any  place  makes  one  of  the  next  towards  the  left  hand.  Tlio 
consideration  is  also  useful,  in  discovering  readily  what  kind 
of  product  arises  by  multiplying  any  two  single  denomina- 
tions together. 

When  the  number  of  feet  runs  very  high  in  each  factor,  it 
will  be  much  better  to  reduce  all  the  denominat  ions  in  both  into 
the  lowest,  then  multiply  the  factors,  so  reduced,  and  divide 
by  12  as  often  as  there  are  duodecimal  places  in  the  product. 

Example  4. 
"      ,      „       ft     , 
Multiply  6  ..  5  ..  4  by  3 ..  G  as  in  Example  1. 


Answer  23 ..7. .6 


6 
12 

77 
12 


5..4 


3. 
12 
42 


6 


928 
42 
ISoG 
3712 


12)38076 
12)3248 
12)270  ..  8 


22  ..  G  ..  8  the  same  as  before- 


Example  5. 

ft    ,     »     ,„     «v         ft     ,    „    ,„ 
Multiply  3..6..4.,6..5..by  0..0..5..3 

«      .„  ft       -       „     ,.,     iv 

5..3         3..6..4..6..5 
12  12 


63 


42 
12 

"ioi 

12 

6102 
12 


73229 
63 

219087 
439374 

12)4613427 

12)384452 ..  3 

12)32037  ..  8 

12)2669 ..  9 

12)222 ..  5 

12)18..  6 


Proofs  by  duodecimals. 
ft    ,    i„       ,„      iv 
3..6..4..   6..   5 

0..0..5..3 

0..  10..  7..  1.. 7. .3 
1..5..  7..10..8..1 

1..6..    6..    5..9..8..3 


12)1  ..6 

0..1..6..6..5..9..8..3 

the  product,  the  same  as  by  duodecimals. 

In  this  example,  because  there  are  seven  places  of  duode- 
cimals in  the  two  factors,  viz.,  four  in  the  multiplicand,  and 
three  in  the  multiplier,  the  product  4613427  is  divided  seven 
times  successively  by  12. 

There  is  another  method  of  duodecimals,  almost  equally 
convenient.  The  rule  is  as  follows :  First. — Under  the 
multiplicand,  place  the  corresponding  denominations  of  the 
multiplier. 

Then  multiply  each  denomination,  from  right  to  left,  of  the 
multiplicand,  by  each  term  of  the  multiplier  successively 
from  the  left  to  the  right,  placing  the  first  denomination  of 
each  row,  or  product,  one  place  nearer  to  the  right,  and  carry- 
ing one  from  every  twelve  in  the  product  of  any  denomi- 
nation, to  that  which  succeeds  it  towards  the  left,  up  to  the 
place  of  feet ;  then  the  sum  of  all  the  like  products  will  be 
the  total. 

Example  6. 

ft      -     ,.        ft    ,      „ 
Multiply  10..  4 ..  5  by  7  ..  8 ..  6 
ft 

10..    4..    5  Multiplicand. 
7..    8..    6  Multiplier. 

72..    6..  11 
6..  10..  11. .4 
5..   2..  2. .6 


79..  II  ..   0..6..6 


Example  7. 
Multiply  23 ..  4  ..  6  ..  7  by  7 ..  8  ..5..  10 


23  ..4..   6..    7 
7. .8..   5..  10 


163  ..7..  10..   1 
15  ..7..   0..   4..  8 

9..  8..  10 ..8. .11 
1..   9..    5. .9..   5, 


10 


180  ..2..   4..10..2..  4..  10 

Proof  by  the  first  method. 


23 ..4..    6..    7 

7. .8..   5..  10 

1..   9..    5..  9..    5..  10 
9..    8..10..  8..  11 
15..7..   0..    4..8 
163  ..7. .10..    1 

180  ..2..   4..  10..  2..   4..  10 

There  is  the  same  number  of  figures  in  each  operation,  but 
in  the  last  the  products  are  inverted.  The  first  method, 
which  is  here  used  to  prove  the  second,  issimilarto  thecom- 
mon  method  of  multiplication  of  integers,  the  first  place  of 
figures  of  every  product  being  placed  under  the  second  deno- 
mination towards  the  left. 

When  feet  and  inches  only  are  concerned,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  articles  Cross  Multiplication,  and 
Practice. 

DWANGS,  a  term  used  in  Scotland,  for  the  short  pieces 
of  timber  employed  in  strutting  a  floor. 

DWARF  WALLS,  low  walls  of  less  height  than  the 
story  of  a  building.  Sometimes  the  joists  of  a  ground-floor 
rest  upon  dwarf  walls ;  and  the  enclosures  of  courts  are  fre- 
quently formed  by  them  with  a  railing  of  iron  on  their  top : 
indeed,  any  low  wall  used  as  a  fence,  may  be  termed  a  dwarf 
wall. 

DWELLING-HOUSE.     See  Building  and  House. 

DYE,  the  plain  part  of  a  pedestal,  contained  between  the 
base  and  cornice,  in  the  form  of  a  square  prism,  approaching 
frequently  to  a  cube  or  dye,  whence  the  name  originates. 

The  dye  of  a  pedestal  is  generally  placed  in  the  same  ver- 
tical plane  with  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plinths  of  columns; 
there  is,  however,  an  instance  in  the  dye  of  the  pedestals  of 
the  columns  of  the  Stoa,  or  Portico,  at  Athens,  where  the 
dye  recedes  within  the  vertical  sides  of  the  plinths  of  the 
bases.  The  practice  of  using  pedestals  under  columns,  is 
bad  at  the  best ;  but  in  this  instance  their  employment  is  still 
more  ridiculous,  being  contrary  to  the  rules  of  true  taste  and 
philosophy. 

Dte,  is  also  used  for  a  cube  of  stone,  placed  under  the  feet 
of  a  statue  and  beneath  its  pedestal,  to  raise,  and  show  it  to 
more  advantage. 

Dye.     See  Dado. 

DYNAMOMETER,  {measurer  of  power),  a  term  which 
has  been  applied  to  an  instrument  for  measuring  force  or 
power.  The  Dynamometer  has  been  used  by  engineers  for 
ascertaining  the  tractive  power  required  in  drawing  carriages 


ECB 


312 


ECC 


upon  roads  or  vessels,  upon  canals,  and  also  for  measuring 
the  relative  force  of  men  and  other  animals.  These  eflects 
are  usually  manifested  by  the  compression  or  distension  of 
a  strong  spring,  or  by  a  steel-yard  upon  the  principle  of  a 
bent  lever  balance  ;  but  in  both  these  constructions  the  instru- 
ment is  subject  to  great  vibration,  owing  to  the  inequalities 


in  the  resistance  and  in  the  moving  force,  which  render  the 
indications  very  uncertain.  A  very  ingenious  applicatievn  of 
the  Dynamometer  was  made  by  .Sir  John  Macncijl,  to  the 
Jvoad  indicator,  in  experiments  on  the  comparative  condition 
of  ditTerent  descriptions  of  roads. 
DYPTERON.  See  Dipteron. 


E. 


ECB 


EARS.  See  Crosettes  and  Ancones. 

EAGLE,  in  architecture,  a  figure  of  that  bird  anciently 
used  as  an  attribute  of  Jupiter,  in  the  capitals  and  friezes  of 
the  columns  of  temples  consecrated  to  that  deity. 

Also  a  lettern,  or  reading-desk,  used  in  churches,  from 
whence  the  lessons  arc  read.  It  is  so  called  from  its  form, 
which  is  that  of  an  eagle  with  outspread  wings,  on  which 
the  book  is  laid,  sometimes  represented  as  trampling  under 
foot  a  serpent.  The  material  is  generally  brass,  and  the 
image  is  supported  on  a  stem  of  similar  material,  pierced  and 
otherwise  enriched.  See  Lettern. 

EAlvTH-TABLE,  the  course  of  masonry  or  other  work 
level  with  the  ground. 

EARTHEN  FLOORS.  See  Floors. 

EATING-ROOM.  See  Dining-Room. 

EAVES,  (from  the  Saxon,)  the  margin  or  edge  of  the 
roof  of  a  house,  which  overhangs  the  walls,  in  order  to  throw 
off  the  water  from  the  face  of  the  masonry  or  brickwork. 

Eaves  Lath,  or  Eaves  Board,  an  arris  fillet,  or  thick 
feather-edged  board,  placed  at  the  eaves  of  a  roof,  for  raising 
the  bottom  of  the  first  course  of  slates  above  the  sloping 
plane  of  the  side  of  the  roof,  so  as  that  the  ne.xt  course  may 
be  properly  bedded  :  that  is,  when  the  lower  ends  rest  firmly 
upon  those  which  form  the  eaves-course.  It  is  sometimes 
also  called  cavea  cafch. 

EBONY,  a  species  of  hard,  heavy,  and  durable  wood, 
which  admits  of  a  fine  polish  or  gloss.  The  most  usual 
colour  is  black,  red,  or  green ;  but  the  best  i  sa  jet  black, 
free  from  veins  and  rind,  very  heavy,  astringent,  and  of  an 
acrid  pungent  taste.  Ebony  is  wrought  into  toys,  and  is 
much  used  for  mosaic  and  inlaid  work. 

ECATVEA,  statues  erected  to  the  goddess  Hecate,  for 
whom  the  Athenians  had  a  great  veneration,  believing  her 
to  be  the  overseer  and  protectress  of  their  families. 

ECBATANA,  the  capital  of  ancient  Media,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Median  and  Persian  kings.  It  was  situated  in 
a  plain,  about  twelve  stadia  from  mount  Oronles.  Diodorus 
says  it  was  250  stadia  in  circuit.  Tiie  walls  were  seven  in 
number,  built  upon  a  circular  plan,  rising  gradually  above 
each  otiier,  by  the  heiglit  of  each  wall  conforming  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  situation  of  the  ground.  In  the  book  of 
Judith,  we  read  that  they  were  00  cubits  in  height,  and 
50  in  breadth;  that  the  towers  over  the  gates  were  100 
cubits  in  iieight,  and  the  breadth  of  the  foundation  GO  cubits, 
and  that  the  walls  were  built  of  hewn  and  polished  stones, 
each  stone  being  G  cubits  in  length  and  ',i  in  breadth.  Tlie 
royal  palace  and  treasury  were  within  the  inmost  of  the 
seven  walls.  Diodorus  says,  the  timber  of  the  palace  was 
cedar  or  cypress ;  and  various  parts  of  it  were  cased  with 
gold  or  silver.  There  are  no  monuments  remaining  of  this 
superb  palace,  where  the  monarchs  of  Asia  generally  passed 
their  summer  ;  and  it  is  rather  to  be  lamented  that  a  disagree- 
ment should  exist  among  modern  travellers,  about  the  site  on 
which  this  stately  metrojiolis  stood. 


ECC 

The  site  of  Ecbatana  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  ;  but 
the  dispute  has  arisen  solely  because  those  who  have  discussed 
the  question,  either  did  not  know  the  evidence  on  which  the 
question  must  be  decided,  or  did  not  understand  it.  The 
route  of  commerce  between  the  low  country  in  the  ancient 
Seleucia,  and  the  modern  Bagdad  and  the  high  table-land 
of  Iran,  is  determined  by  the  physical  character  of  the  country, 
and  has  continued  the  same  from  the  earliest  recorded  history 
of  those  countries,  to  the  present  day.  The  places  marked 
in  the  "  Itinerary"  of  Isidore,  as  lying  between  Seleucia  and 
Ecbatana,  are  the  places  indicated  by  modern  travellers  as 
lying  on  the  route  between  Bagdad  and  Hamadan. 

ECCENTRICITY,  the  distance  between  the  foci  of  an 
ellipsis  ;  it  is  otherwise  called  ellipticitt/. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.  Under  this 
title  it  is  our  intention  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  places 
of  worship  employed  by  the  early  Christians,  to  consider  the 
origin  and  progress  of  buildings  devoted  to  this  purpose,  with 
a  cursory  glance  at  their  history,  and  to  describe  generally 
their  form,  distribution,  and  structural  arrangement. 

Information  on  such  subjects  is  to  be  sought  for  amongst 
the  patristic  writings,  the  early  ecclesiastical  historians,  more 
especially  Eusebius,  and  the  early  Christian  writers  generally. 
Collateral  evidence  corroborative  of  the  testimony  afli"orded 
from  such  sources,  is  to  be  found  amongst  cotemporary  heathen 
authors  in  their  occasional  and  incidental  reference  to  such 
subjects.  Evidence  on  this  matter  from  all  sources  has  been 
carefully  collated,  and  much  valuable  information  gained  by 
the  patient  and  learned  research  of  Bingliani,  who  has  included 
it  in  his  most  elaborate  work,  the  Oriijines  Ecclesiasticcs  ; 
to  which  we  shall  have  occasion  frequently  to  refer  in  the 
following  pages. 

Of  the  forms  of  churches  for  the  first  three  centuries, 
during  the  time  of  persecution,  we  know  but  little;  and  it 
is  probable  that  during  the  very  earliest  period,  when  the 
Christian  church  was  in  a  normal  state,  so  to  speak,  whilst 
she  numbered  but  few  advocates,  and  they  poor  and  of  little 
innucnce,whcn  "  not  many  wise,  not  many  noble  were  called  ;" 
it  is  probable,  we  repeat,  that  Christians  had  no  fixed  form 
or  arrangement  of  parts  in  their  places  of  public  worship, 
but  that  a  dwelling-house  of -some  member  or  even  a  portion 
of  such  house,  was  set  apart  fjr  the  purpose.  It  is  nearly 
certain  that  no  structures  were  built  for  the  especial  purpose, 
during  the  first  division  of  this  period  ;  for  not  only  would 
they  have  attracted  attention  ami  sus]iicion,  but  would  have 
been  destroyed  together  with  the  worsliippcrs :  the  earliest 
Christians  were  compelled  to  secrecy  and  obscuj  ity.at  least  they 
did  not  bring  themselvcsofTensively  orostentatiously  forwards 
into  notice,  although  not  shriid<ing  from  an  open  avowal  of 
their  faith  when  called  upon  for  it ;  lor  be  it  remembered,  they 
were  to  be  "  wise  as  serpents,  and  harjulcss  as  doves." 

In  the  Sacred  Writings,  more  especially  in  the  "  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,"  and  in  the  c|>istles  to  the  various  churches,  we 
not  luifrequently  meet  with  the  word  churcli,  or  EKuXTjaia, 


ECC 


313 


ECC 


which  must  in  some  eases  undoubtedly  apply  to  the  edifice 
or  room  in  which  it  was  custt)mary  for  the  Christians  to 
issomblo;  wo  know  besides  that  it  was  a  practice  with  the 
early  Christians  of  the  apostolic  times  to  assemble  together 
in  some  appointed  place  for  the  purpose  of  worship  and  devo- 
tion. It  is  evident  from  the  accounts  of  the  evangelists,  that 
the  eleven  continued  together  after  their  Master's  crucifixion, 
whether  engaged  in  prayer  and  fasting,  we  cannot  say  ;  but 
they  were  certainly  in  one  place  when  the  women  came  and 
told  them  of  the  resurrection,  hi  the  evening  of  the  same  day, 
likewise,  it  is  mentioned  that  they  were  assembled  together 
in  one  place,  and  with  closed  doors,  for  fear  of  the  Jews ;  and 
eight  days  afterwaids,  they  were  again  together  with  closed 
doors.  These  would  seem  somewhat  to  invalidate  the  supposi- 
tion of  their  being  collected  together  for  prayer,  or  at  least 
public  prayer,  for  it  is  mentioned  that  after  the  return  of  the 
apostles  from  Bethany,  "  they  w'ere  continually  in  the  Temple 
praising  and  blessing  God."  Again  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
they  were  all  together  in  one  house,  and,  as  it  is  noticed,  with 
one  accord,  wiiich  expression  would  seem  to  express  the  exists 
ence  of  some  object,  reason,  or  purpose  of  their  being  together, 
and  what  more  likely  than  for  common  prayer'!  yet  they  still 
attended  the  public  services  of  the  Temple,  for  it  is  related 
that  after  this,  "  Peter  and  John  went  up  together  into  the 
Temple  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  being  the  ninth  hour."  After 
the  incident  which  occurs  at  this  time  in  the  Temple,  and 
when  Peter  and  John  were  released  from  custody,  they 
returned  to  their  companions,  who  were  assembled  together 
— probably  in  the  same  place  as  before — and  after  relating 
the  circumstances,  it  is  told  us  that  they  prayed  and  "  spake 
the  word  of  God  with  boldness."  Some  time  subsequent  to 
these  events,  it  is  rehited  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  while 
at  Antioch,  that  for  a  whole  year  they  assembled  themselves 
with  the  church,  and  taught  much  people.  This  was  in  all 
probability  in  a  stated  place  set  apart  for  the  purpose.  Still 
stronger  is  the  probability  with  regard  to  the  house  of  Mary, 
where  Peter  fled  after  his  escape  from  prison,  and  where 
many  Christians  were  gathered  together  praying  ;  one  might 
suppose  that  a  room  in  her  house  had  been  given  by  Mary 
for  the  purpose  of  public  worship.  Lydia  probably  made  a 
similar  gift.  But,  not  to  multiply  instances,  we  would  par- 
ticularly allude  to  a  circumstance  which  occurred  while  Paul 
was  staying  at  Troas ;  for  it  is  related  that  "upon  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  when  the  disciples  came  together  to  break 
bre.ad," — in  other  words,  to  celebrate  the  eucharist, — "  Paul 
preached  unto  them,  ready  to  depart  on  the  morrow,  and 
continued  his  speech  until  midnight.  And  there  were  many 
lights  in  the  upper  chamber,  where  they  were  gathered 
together.  Now  there  sat  in  a  window,  a  certain  young  man 
named  Eutychus,  being  fallen  into  a  deep  sleep  ;  and  as  Paul 
was  long  preaching,  he  sunk  down  with  sleep,  and  fell  down 
from  the  third  loft,  and  was  taken  up  dead  ;"  upon  which  Paul 
goes  down  to  him,  and  restores  him  to  life.  This  is  probably 
the  most  minute  description  of  the  place,  time,  and  mode  of 
worship  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  It  will  not 
escape  remark  that  the  room  in  this  instance  is  said  to  have 
been  an  upper  room,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it 
was  a  practice  amongst  Christians,  to  use  the  upper  room,  or 
Ilyperoon,  for  this  purpose;  it  will  be  remembered  that  it  was 
an  upper  room  in  which  the  Saviour  celebrated  the  passover 
and  instituted  the  eucharist,  and  it  may  possibly  have  been 
for  some  reason  'of  this  kind,  rather  than  from  the  situation 
and  nature  of  the  place,  that  the  upper  room  was  adopted. 

It  has  been  maintained  that  the  early  Christians  had  no 
places  set  apart  for  public  worship  ;  but  as  Bingham  combats 
this  argument,  it  may  be  as  well  to  let  him  speak  for  him- 
self.    His  remarks  are  for  the  most  part  a  summary  of  the 


inquiries  of  the  learned  Mcde,  who  has  treated  this  particular 
subject  at  considerable  length : — 

"  A  very  singular  paradox  has  been  advanced  by  some 
learned  man,"  says  Bingham,  "that  for  the  three  first 
centuries  after  Christ,  (i.  e.)  before  Constantine  ascended 
the  throne  of  the  Roman  empire,  a.d.  300,  when  he  estab- 
lished Christianity,  and  soon  after  abolished  paganism,  the 
Christians,  owing  to  the  cruel  persecutions  to  which  they 
were  exposed  by  the  pagans  in  these  centuries,  first  under 
the  tyrant  Nero,  a.d.  64  ;  and  next  under  the  Koman  emperor 
Domitian,  a.d.  94,  had  no  such  places  of  worship  as 
churches.  This  statement  is  grounded  upon  some  mistaken 
passages  of  Crigen,  Minutius  Felix,  and  Arnobius,  who  say 
that  the  Christians  had  no  temples,  which  they  take  as  a 
denial  of  their  having  any  churches;  which  opinion,  though 
advanced  with  some  show  of  learning  by  Vedelius,  Suicerus, 
and  others,  is  altogether  without  foundation,  contradicted  by 
the  authors  which  they  allege,  and  by  themselves  in  the 
arguments  they  produce.  Dr.  Mcde  has  given  us  an  elaborate 
disquisition  on  the  subject,  in  confutation  of  this  opinion, 
wherein  he  has  collected  the  authorities  of  the  ancients,  which, 
for  the  three  first  ages,  prove  the  existence  of  Christian 
churches. 

"  We  shall  briefly,  for  the  sake  of  those  who  have  not  that 
learned  author,  give  the  substance  of  his  proofs,  and  add  some 
others  of  our  own  observation.  In  the  first  place,  he  shows 
that  the  ancient  authors,  St.  Austin,  St.  Basil,  St.  Jerom, 
and  St.  Chrysostom,  and  those  under  the  name  of  Sedulius, 
fficumenius,  Theophylact,  in  their  comments  on  that  passage 
of  St.  Paul,  (1  Cor.  xi.  22,)  '  Have  ye  not  houses  to  eat  and 
drink  in?  or,  despise  ye  the  church  of  God?'  all  took  the 
word  church  there,  not  for  the  assembly,  but  for  an  assembly- 
room,  or  place  expressly  set  apart  for  sacred  devotional  pur- 
poses. Now  the  apostles,  at  stated  seasons,  were  in  the  habit 
of  meeting  together  for  prayer,  and  supplication  for  the  pros- 
perity of  Christianity,  upon  mount  Zion,  at  Jerusalem,  the 
Ilyperoon,  or  upper  room,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  (Acts  i.  13,)  and  where  they  were  gathered 
together  when  the  Holy  Ghost  came  upon  them,  (Acts  ii.) 
and  where  our  blessed  Lord  also  celebrated  his  Last  Supper, 
and  where  he  appeared  to  his  disciples  on  two  successive 
sabbaths  after  his  resurrection,  to  their  great  amazement, 
and  at  a  time  when  the  doors  were  close  shut  and  barred, 
for  fear  of  the  Jews,  (John  xx.  19.)  Here  the  seven  deacons 
were  elected  and  ordained,  (Acts  vi.  3,)  and  here  the  first 
council  of  the  churches  was  held  at  Jerusalem,  (Acts  xv.) 
This  place  becoming  holy  and  sacred  by  these  meetings,  was 
afterwards  inclosed  within  a  goodly  edifice,  called  the  church 
of  mount  Zion  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
it  was  called  the  high  church  of  the  apostles. 

"This  was  the  olicog,  or  same  house  of  assembly  at  Jeru- 
salem, that  is  mentioned,  (Acts  ii.  46,)  where  the  apostles 
met  for  the  breaking  of  bread,  when  they  had  all  things  in 
common.  Some  think  the  word  Kar  oIkco  is  not  to  be  trans- 
lated from  house  to  house,  as  in  our  version,  but  in  the  house 
or  room  where  the  Christian  assembly  was  used  to  meet 
together.  The  next  argument  is  drawn  from  what  Eusebius 
observes  of  the  ■deQanevTai  in  Egypt,  whether  Essenes,  or 
Christians,  they  had  their  OEjiveia,  or  places  appropriated  for 
divine  worship,  from  the  days  of  St.  Mark,  and  that  such 
places  are  to  be  understood  in  all  such  passages  of  St.  Paul, 
as  "  Salute  ye  the  churches "  in  such  and  such  an  house  ; 
that  is,  the  congregation  which  meet  in  the  houses  of  such 
pious  Christians,  who  had  generally  some  part  of  their  dwell- 
ing, or  upper  rooms,  or  housetop,  (see  Acts  x.  9,)  remote 
from  noise,  set  apart  for  the  church  to  assemble  in,  or,  like 
that  of  Lydia's,  (Acts  xvi.  15.)     At  ilacedonia  was  such  an 


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314 


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(ippriipriateil  room,  (sec  Acts  xx.,)  where  St.  Paul,  on  the 
lirst  (l:iv  of  the  week,  preached  to  an  iiniiiciise  multitude,  and 
ooiitiiiued  his  discourse  till  midnight,  when  a  young  man, 
named  lilutychus,  sitting  in  tlie  window  where  the  lattice  was 
open,  being  overcome  by  sleep,  fell  from  the  upper  story,  and 
was  taken  up  dead,  but  whom  St.  Paul  again  restored  to  life. 
That  there  were  devotional  places,  or  oratories,  set  apart 
e.\[iressly  for  Christian  worship  in  the  first  century,  I  think 
we  have  sufficient  evidence  ;  whether  we  call  these  places 
churches  or  not.  The  following  century  is,  however,  more 
clear,  where  they  are  called  sometimes  by  the  name  of 
Cfenaculum  ;  at  othei's,  by  that  wliich  we  have  before  men- 
tioned, as  Ilyperoon.  Thus  we  find  Ivucian,  a  pagan,  or  who- 
ever was  the  author  of  the  dialogue  called  l'hiloj)atris,  about 
the  time  of  Trajan,  one  of  the  pagan  emperors,  bringing  in 
one  Cretias,  telling  how  the  Christians  carried  hitn  into  a 
Ilyperoon,  the  place  of  their  assembly,  with  a  design  of 
making  him  a  proselyte  to  their  religion.  He  argues  further, 
from  the  tradition  of  the  church,  derived  tVom  the  ancient 
author  of  the  liecognitians,  under  the  name  of  Clemens  Ro- 
nianus,  which  says,  that  'I'heophilus,  to  whom  St.  Luke  is 
supposed  to  have  inscribed  his  Gospel  at  Antioch,  where  the 
name  of  Chrislians  was  first  given  to  the  followers  of  Christ, 
did  convert  his  house  into  a  church  ;  and  the  like  is  reported 
of  the  house  of  Pudens,  a  Koman  senator  and  martyr,  in  the 
Acta  I'udentis,  that  it  was  turned  into  a  church  after  his 
martyrdom.  He  concludes  this  first  century  with  the 
testimony  of  Clemens  Romanus,  in  his  geiniine  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  who  says,  that  God  has  ordained  well-appropriate 
places,  where  at  appointed  times  and  seasons  he  would  be 
solenuily  served,  so  that  all  things  might  be  done  religiously 
and  orderly. 

"  In  the  second  century,  while  the  persecutions  were  still 
rife  against  the  Christians,  more  cruel  acts  were  passed  under 
Trijan,  a.  d.  107,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  a.  d.  106,  against 
them,  by  which  it  became  necessary  for  them  to  act  with 
firmness,  and  in  compact.  Thus  Ignatius,  in  his  epistle  to 
the  Magnesians,  exhorts  them  to  meet  together  in  one  place, 
which  he  calls  -6  vaov  Oca,  the  temple  of  God,  and,  in  his 
epistle  to  the  Philadelphians,  he  informs  us,  that  at  this  time 
tliero  was  one  allar  in  every  church,  and  one  apostolic  bishop, 
or  head,  appointed  with  his  presbytery  and  deacons.  The 
present  Greek  copies,  indeed,  read  it  a  little  different  from 
Dr.  Mede,  leaving  out  the  word  ch\irch,  but  the  mentioning 
one  altar  is  sufficient  to  intimate  they  had  then  a  stated  place 
for  their  ecclesiastical  or  Christian  assembly.  Tcrtullian, 
who  lived  in  the  following  century,  has  clearly  intimated 
that  the  Christians,  at  this  time,  had  churches,  when,  com- 
plaining against  those  who  followed  the  trade  of  idol-making, 
(for  the  Gentiles  excused  themselves,  that  they  did  not  wor- 
ship them,) — he  says,  '  the  zeal  of  faith  cannot  declaim  all 
the  day  long  upon  this  point,  bewailing  that  any  Christians 
should  come  into  the  house  of  God  from  the  shop  of  the 
enemy,  and  lift  up  their  hands  to  God  the  Father,  which 
were  the  mothers  or  makers  of  idols.'  In  another  place  he 
calls  the  church  Domus  C'olumbce,  the  house  of  the  dove, 
meaning  either  Christ,  or  his  dove-like  religion.  And  again, 
he  expressly  distinguishes  between  the  baptistry  and  the 
church,  which  in  those  days  were  places  separate  from  each 
other.  In  this  age,  Pius,  bishop  of  Rome,  wrote  two  short 
epistles  to  Ju.stus,  bishop  of  Vienne  in  Gaul ;  in  the  first  of 
which  is  mentioned  one  Euprepia,  a  pious  matron,  who  is 
said  to  have  consigned  the  title  of  her  house  over  to  the 
church,  in  which  was  to  be  celebrated  Divine  oflices  of  wor- 
ship. And  in  the  other  epistle  is  named  one  Pastor,  a  pres- 
byter, who  is  commended  for  erecting  a  titulus,  that  is,  a 
small  Christian  church ;  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  towards  the 


end  of  this  century,  also  uses  the  name  Ecclesia,  for  the  place 
of  the  assembly,  as  well  as  the  congregation  ;  for,  speaking  of 
the  church,  he  says,  '  I  call  not  now  the  place  alone  by  this 
name,  but  the  congregation  of  the  elect  people,  the  church  ;' 
and  so,  in  his  famous  homily,  Qiiis  dives  Salvelur,  he  brings 
in  the  Asian  bishop,  to  whom  St.  Joini  committed  the  young 
man  to  be  trained  u]>  in  the  Christian  discipline,  complaining 
that  the  youth  was  become  a  villain  and  a  robber,  and, 
instead  of  following  the  church,  had  now  betaken  himself  to 
the  mountains,  with  a  conij)any  like  himself.  By  this  it  is 
plain,  that,  in  his  time,  the  word  Ecclesia  was  taken  for 
a  church,  or  sacred  place,  as  well  as  for  the  Christian  assem- 
bly themselves,  and  that  such  a  building  as  a  church  must 
have  been  known  and  understood.  We  have  also  the  Scri[v 
ture  accounts  of  the  seven  Apocalyptic  clunches,  in  Asia 
Minor,  to  whom  St.  John  the  Divine,  wrote  from  the  isle  of 
Patmos,  where  he  was  banished  by  the  emperor  Domitian, 
A.  n.  00.  Tliese  churches  were  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos, 
Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea,  (Revelation 
ii.  and  iii.) ;  some  of  whose  ruins,  as  travellers  inform  us, 
now  remain. 

"  In  the  third  century,  the  testimonies  are  both  more  numer- 
o\is  and  certain  respecting  the  churches  of  the  Apostolic 
Christians,  though  a  succession  of  Roman  emperors  had  passed 
edicts  against  them  of  a  more  severe  and  cruel  nature,  with 
the  exception  of  that  of  Neio's.  The  persecuting  emperors 
of  this  century  were  Septimius  Severus,  a.d.  203;  Maximi- 
nus  Thrax,  a.d.  236;  Decius,  a.  d.  250 ;  Gallus,  a.  d.  258  ; 
Valerianus,  a.  d.  258  ;  and  lastly,  Diocletian,  a.  u.  302. 

"We  have  a  testimony,  in  this  age,  of  the  existence  of 
Christian  churches,  from  a  heathen  author.  Lampridius,  in 
the  life  of  Alexander  Severus,  reports,  'that  there  happening 
a  dispute  between  the  Christians  and  victuallers  about  a  cer- 
tain noted  public  place,  each  party  challenging  it  as  their 
own,  the  emperor's  rescript  determined  it  thus,  in  favour  of 
the  Christians:  that  it  was  better  thi.t  God  should  be  wor- 
shipped there  after  any  manner,  than  that  it  should  be  given 
up  to  the  victuallers.'  About  the  middle  of  this  period 
lived  the  flimous  Gregory  of  Neoca;sarea,  surnamed  Thau- 
maturgus,  who  himself  built  several  churches  in  Neocffisarea, 
and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Pontus,  as  Gregory  Nyssen  reports 
in  his  life.  St.  Cyprian,  about  the  same  time,  speaks  of  the 
place  where  the  church  assembled,  under  the  name  of  Domini- 
cum,  the  Lord's  house ;  and,  in  another,  opposes  the  church 
and  the  capitol — the  altar  of  the  Lord's  house,  and  the  altars 
of  images  and  idol-gods,  to  one  another ;  for,  speaking  against 
some  that  had  lapsed,  and,  without  due  contrition,  were  for 
intruding  themselves  into  the  church  again—  '  If  this  were 
once  permitted,'  says  he,  'what  then  remains  but  that  the 
church  should  give  way  to  the  capitol,  and  the  priests  with- 
draw and  take  away  the  altar  of  the  Lord  with  them,  and  let 
the  images  and  idol-gods,  with  their  altars,  succeed,  and  take 
possession  of  the  sanctuary,  where  the  venerable  bench  of 
our  clergy  sit?'  About  this  time,  also,  Dionysius,  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  speaks  of  the  churches  as  appropriate  to  the 
service  of  God. 

"  It  appears  further,  from  the  rescript  of  Gallienus  the 
emperor,  recorded  by  Eusebius,  where  he  restores  the  Chris- 
tians their  churches,  under  the  name  tottoi  6(n]rTrj6i<7fioi,  wor- 
shipping places ;  and  from  what  has  been  noted  before,  out 
of  the  letter  of  Aurelian,  which  chides  the  senate  for  demur- 
ring about  opening  Sibylline  books,  as  if  they  had  been  con- 
sulting, not  ia  the  capitol,  but  in  a  Christian  church.  As 
also  that  other  rescript  of  his,  in  Eusebius,  that  the  request 
of  the  council  of  Antioch  ordered  Paulus  Samosatensis  to 
be  turned  out  of  the  house  of  the  church.  But  the  testi- 
mony  of  Eusebius  goes  further   beyond  all   others ;    for, 


speaking  of  the  peaceable  times  which  the  Christians  enjoyed 
from  the  persecutions  of  Valerian  to  that  of  Diocletian,  he 
observes,  '  that  the  number  of  Christians  so  grew  and  mul- 
tiplied in  that  Jij'ly  years,  that  their  ancient  churches  were 
not  large  enough  to  receive  them,  and  therefore  they  erected, 
from  the  foundations,  more  ample  and  spacious  ones  in  every 
city.' 

"  The  only  objection  against  all  this,  made  with  any  show  of 
probability,  is  drawn  from  some  of  the  ancient  apologists — 
Origen,  Minutius  Felix,  Arnobius,  and  Lactantius,  who 
seem  to  say,  '  that  the  Christians,  in  their  time,  had  no 
temples  or  altars,  nor  ought  to  have  any  ;'  but,  as  Dr.  Mede 
shows  at  large,  this  is  only  spoken  against  such  temples,  as 
the  heathens  pleaded  for  in  the  notion  of  encloistering  the 
Deity  by  an  idol,  otherwise  the  very  authors  from  whom  the 
objection  is  drawn,  must  largely  contradict  themselves  ;  for 
Arnobius  owns  they  had  their  conventicula,  houses  of  assem- 
bly, which  he  complains  were  barbarously  destroyed  in  the 
last  persecutions.  And  Lactantius  says  the  same,  giving 
them  also  the  name  of  the  temples  of  God,  which  Diocletian 
ordered  to  be  demolished,  at  Bithynia.  And  Origen  himself 
speaks  of  adorning  the  Christian  churches  and  altars,  in  one 
of  his  Homilies  upon  Joshua.  Lactantius,  in  another  of  his 
Institutions,  speaks  of  one  of  the  Christian  conventicula  in 
a  town  of  Phrygia,  which  the  heathen  had  burnt,  with  the 
whole  assembly  in  it.  And  in  his  book  de  Mortibtis  Perse- 
cutonnn,  he  gives  a  more  particular  account  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  churches  throughout  the  heathen  world  ;  for  he  not 
only  mentions  the  demolishing  the  stately  churches  of  Nico- 
media,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bithynia,  but  intimates,  that  the 
same  fate  attended  the  churches  over  all  the  world;  however 
it  was,  both  Eusebius  and  Lactantius  agreed  in  this  one  point, 
that  there  were  churches  before  the  last  persecution. 

"  As  a  further  proof  of  the  existence  of  Christian  churches 
in  the  middle  of  this  century,  we  have  a  remarkable  story  told 
by  Eusebius  concerning  the  martyr  Marinus,  a.d.  259,  in  the 
time  of  Gallienus  Marinus, who,  being  a  candidate  for  a  Roman 
office  at  Caisarea,  was  informed  against  as  a  Christian,  by  an 
antagonist,  who  pleaded  that  he  ought  not  to  have  the  office, 
upon  that  score.  Thejudge,  upon  examination  finding  it  to  be 
so,  gives  him  three  hours  to  consider  whether  he  would  quit  his 
religion  or  his  life.  During  this  space,  Theotecnus,  bishop  of 
Csesarea,  meets  with  him,  and,  taking  him  by  the  hand  carries 
him  to  the  church,  and  sets  him  by  the  holy  table,  then  offers 
him  a  Bible  and  a  sword,  and  bids  him  take  his  choice.  He 
readily,  without  demur,  lays  his  hand  upon  the  Bible,  where- 
upon the  bishop  thus  bespake  him  :  'And  here,'  says  he, 
'adhere  to  God,  and  in  his  strength  enjoy  what  thou  hast 
chosen,  and  go  in  peace  :'  with  this  he  immediately  returned 
from  the  church  to  the  judge,  makes  his  confession,  receives 
his  sentence,  and  dies  a  martyr. 

"  Optatus  takes  notice  of  forty  churches  in  Rome  before  the 
last  persecution,  which,  being  taken  from  the  Christians,  were 
afterwards  restored  to  them  by  order  of  Maxentius,  as  St. 
Austin  has  more  than  once  informed  us.  We  have  also  read 
of  some  Christian  churches  in  Africa,  that  were  demolished 
in  this  persecution  ;  as  at  Zama  and  Furni,  noticed  in  the 
Gesta  Purgationis  of  Cecilian  and  Felix.  Others  were  taken 
away  ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  till  they  were  restored  again, 
both  councils  and  church-assemblies  were  held  in  private 
houses,  as  Optatus  observes  of  the  council  of  Cita.  And 
St.  Austin  after  him  says,  '  It  was  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
that  a  few  bishops  should  hold  a  council  in  a  private  house, 
in  the  heat  of  persecution,  when  the  martyrs  made  no  scru- 
ple, in  the  like  case,  to  be  baptized  in  prison,  and  Christians 
meet  in  prison  to  celebrate  the  sacrament  with  the  martyrs, 
as  well  as  in  secluded  places.'     But  not  to  multiply  instances 


of  this  nature,  the  very  tenor  of  the  imperial  edicts,  which 
raised  the  last  persecution,  is  undeniable  evidence,  that  the 
Christians,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  had  their  public  churches, 
to  which  they  resorted  so  long  as  they  had  opportunities  to 
frequent  them ;  for  Eusebius  says,  '  the  edicts  of  the  em- 
perors of  Rome  were  sent  to  all  the  Roman  provinces,  even 
to  Britain,  commanding  the  churches  of  the  Christians  to  be 
levelled  with  the  ground,  and  the  Bibles  to  be  given  up  and 
burnt.'  This  was  the  last  persecution,  when  Diocletian 
boasted  that  he  had  annihilated  Christianity,  and  proclaimed 
the  extirpation  by  exulting  inscriptions — Nomine  Cltris- 
tianorum,  deleto  qui  templa  evertebant ;  and,  Siipcrstitione 
Christi  ubique  deleta.  But  the  flame  was  not  extinguished  ; 
it  was  again  to  break  forth,  f jr  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  had 
spoken  it.  Diocletian  had  now  become  hateful  ;  soon  after 
which  he  abdicated  the  throne,  and  Constant  ine  the  Great 
assumes  the  imperial  sway  of  the  Roman  empire." 

To  these  remarks  we  would  add  some  further  ones  of 
Mede,  and  likewise  give,  at  length,  some  passages  refei-ring 
to  this  subject,  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers 
who  were  living  during  the  period  we  are  speaking  of 

Basil,  speaking  of  the  passage  before  alluded  to,  o?  Have 
ye  not  houses  to  eat  and  to  drink  in  ?  &c.,  says,  that  we  ought 
not  to  dishonour  sacred  places  or  things  bj'  the  mixture  of 
things  of  common  use ;  and  in  answer  to  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  Eucharist  may  be  celebrated  in  a  common  house 
says,  that  as  the  word  doth  not  allow  that  any  common  vessel 
or  utensil  shall  be  brought  into  places  that  are  sacred,  so  like- 
wise doth  it  forbid  that  the  holy  mysteries  should  be  cele- 
brated in  a  common  house  ;  for  neither  would  the  Old  Testa- 
ment permit  any  such  thing  to  be  done,  nor  our  Lord,  who 
said,  "There  is  here  one  greater  than  the  temple  ;"  nor  the 
apostle,  saying,  "Have  ye  not  houses  to  eat  and  to  drink 
in,"  &c.  Whence  we  may  learn,  that  we  ought  not  to  take 
our  common  supper  in  the  church,  nor  should  we  dishonour 
the  Lord's  supper  by  eating  it  in  a  private  house.  But  if 
one  be  necessitated  tocommimicate  in  private,  let  them  choose 
out  the  most  clean  and  decent  room  for  such  a  purpose^  and 
withal  see  that  he  do  it  in  the  fittest  and  most  seasonable 
time.  St.  Chrysostom  says,  on  the  same  subject,  "  Behold 
a  further  change,  that  not  the  poor  only,  but  also  the  church 
itself  is  injured.  For,  as  hereby  thou  makest  the  Lord's 
supper  a  private  supper,  so  thou  dealest  no  better  with  the 
place,  in  that  thou  usest  the  church  as  a  private  and  ordinary 
house."  So  again,  Theodoret,  "  If  ye  come  together  to  feast 
it,  do  this  in  your  own  houses,  for  to  do  thus  in  the  church 
is  a  manifest  contempt,  a  plain  dishonour  done  to  the  church. 
For  how  can  it  but  seem  a  thing  wholly  indecorous  and 
absurd  for  you  to  fare  deliciously  in  the  temple  of  God, 
where  the  Lord  himself  is  present,  who  hath  prepared  for  ug 
a  common  table,  when  at  the  same  time  those  Christians  that 
are  poor  are  hungry,  and  out  of  countenance  by  reason  of 
their  poverty  ?"  The  author  of  the  commentaries  upon  the 
epistles,  alluding  to  the  same  text,  says,  "  Ye  despise  the 
church  of  God,  making  it  a  place  for  common  feasts  and 
banquetings,"  and  in  the  same  track  follow  Theophylact  and 
CEcumenius. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  earliest  churches,  and 
more  especially  to  the  Hyperoon,  Mede  says,  "  For  the  first  it 
is  not  to  be  imagined  they  were  such  goodly  and  stately  struc- 
tures as  the  church  had  after  the  empire  became  Christian, 
and  we  now,  by  God's  blessing,  enjoy  ;  but  such  as  the  state 
and  condition  of  the  times  would  permit ,  at  the  first  some 
capable  and  convenient  room  within  the  walls  or  dwelling  of 
some  pious  disciple,  dedicated  by  the  religious  bounty  of  the 
owner  to  the  use  of  the  church,  and  that  usually  an  Avajyeov, 
or  Xnepuov,  an  upper  room,such  as  the  Latins  call  Cainaadum, 


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316 


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being,  acc(irdiii<j  to  tlioir  manner  of  building,  as  the  most 
large  and  eapaeious  of  any  other,  so  likewise  the  most  retired 
and  freest  from  dislurbuiice,  and  next  to  heaven,  as  having 
no  other  room  al)ove  it.  i^or  such  uppermost  places  \vc  find 
they  were  wont  then  to  make  choice  of,  even  for  private 
devotions,  as  may  be  gathered  from  what  we  read  of  St. 
Peter,  (Acts  x.  0,)  that  he  went  np  to  the  housetop  to  pray  ; 
for  so  ddjfia  signilies  exusu  Jlellenistarum,  and  is  accordingly 
here  rendered  by  the  vulgar  Latin,  in  superiora. 

"  Such  an  Ilyperijon  as  we  speak  of,  was  that  remembered 
by  the  name  of  Ccenaculum  Sioii,  where,  after  our  Saviour 
was  ascended,  the  apostles  and  disciples  assembled  together 
daily  in  prayer  and  supplication,  and  where,  being  thus 
assembled,  the  Holy  Ghost  came  down  upon  them  in  cloven 
tongues  of  fire  at  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  Concerning  which 
there  hath  been  a  tradition  in  the  church,  that  this  was  the 
same  room  wherein  our  blessed  Saviour,  the  nigiit  before  his 
passion,  celebrated  the  Passover  with  his  di>ci[)les,  and  insti- 
tuted the  mystical  Sup|)er  of  liis  Body  and  IJlood  for  the 
sacred  rite  of  the  gospel  ;  the  same  place  where,  on  the  day 
of  his  resurrection,  he  came  and  stood  in  the  midst  of  his 
disciples,  the  doors  being  shut,  and,  having  showed  them 
his  hands  and  his  feet,  said  ' /"rare  ie  vnlo  you,''  &c;  the 
place  where,  eight  days,  or  the  Sunday  after,  he  appeared  in 
the  same  manner  again  unto  them,  being  together,  to  satisfy 
the  inci-eduiily  of  Thomas,  who  the  first  time  was  not  with 
the  rest ;  the  ])lace  where  James  the  brother  of  our  Lord 
was  created  by  the  apostles,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  place 
where  the  seven  deacons  were  elected  and  ordained  ;  the 
place  where  the  apostles  and  elders  of  the  church  at  J  erusalem 
held  that  council,  and  jiattern  of  all  conncils,  for  decision  of 
that  question — whether  the  Gentiles  which  believed  were  to 
be  circumcised  or  not ;  and  for  certain,  the.  place  of  this 
Ccenaculum  was  afterwards  enclosed  with  a  goodly  church, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  church  of  Sion,  upon  the  top  of 
which  it  stood  ;  insomuch  that  St.  Jerome,  in  his  £pitaphio 
FauUc,  made  bold  toap])ly  that  of  the  Psalm  to  it, 'Her  founda- 
tions arc  upon  the  holy  hills;  the  Lord  lovcth  the  gates  of  Sion 
more  than  all  the  dwellings  of  Jacob.'  How  soon  this  erec- 
tion was  made,  I  know  not ;  but  I  believe  it  was  much  more 
ancient  than  those  other  chtn'ches  erected  in  other  places  of 
that  city  by  Constantine  and  his  mother,  because  neither 
Eusebius,  Socrates,  Theodoret,  nor  Sozomen,  make  any 
mention  of  tiie  foundation  thereof,  as  they  do  of  the  rest. 
It  is  called  b\'  S.  Cyril,  who  was  bishop  of  the  place,  tlie 
vpper  church  of  the  ajmntUs  ;  and  says  he,  '  The  Holy  Ghost 
descended  upon  the  apostles  in  the  likeness  of  fiery  tongues, 
here  in  Jerusalem,  in  llie  upper  church  of  the  apostles.^ 

"  If  this  tradition  be  true,  it  should  seem  by  it  that  this 
Coenaculiim,  from  the  time  our  blessed  Saviour  fust  hallowed 
it  by  the  celebr.ation  of  his  mystical  Supper,  was  thenceforth 
devoted  to  be  a  place  of  prayer  and  holy  assemblies.  This 
is  the  more  easy  to  be  believed,  if  the  house  were  the  posses- 
sion of  some  disciple  at  least,  if  not  kindred  also  to  onr 
Saviour  according  to  the  flesh,  which  both  reason  persuades, 
and  tradition  likewise  confirmeth  it  to  have  been. 

"And  if  this  were  so,  why  may  not  I  think  that  this 
Ccenaculum  Sion,  or  upper  room  of  Sion,  was  that  o'lKog 
whereof  we  read,  concerning  the  first  Christian  society  at 
Jerusalem,  that  '  they  continued  daily  in  the  Temple,  and, 
breaking  bread  (kot'  oIkov)  in  the  house,  ate  their  meat  with 
gladness  and  singleness  of  heart?'  the  meaning  1)eing,  that 
when  they  had  performed  their  devotions  daily  in  the  temj)le 
at  the  accustomed  times  of  prayer  there,  they  used  to  resort 
immediately  to  the  Canaculum,  and  there  having  celebrated 
the  mystical  banquet  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  afterwards  took 
their  ordinary  and  necessary  repast  with  gladness  and  single- 


ness of  heart.  For  so  Kar^  oIkov  may  be  rendered  ;  for 
iv  oiKG),  and  not  domalim  or  per  donios,  house  hij  house,  as 
we  translate  it,  and  so  both  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  render 
it,  and  the  New  Testament  elsewhere  uses  it." 

It  would  seem  from  this  last  passage,  that  Mede  sees  no 
difiiculty  in  reconciling  the  attendance  of  the  apostles  on  the 
j)ublic  service  of  the  Jewish  Temple,  with  the  supposition 
that  they  likewise  celebrated  a  common  worship  in  their  own 
chapels  or  consecrated  places  ;  and  if  we  look  into  the  matter, 
this  double  service  will  not  appear  extraordinary,  for  as  yet 
they  adhered  to  their  Master's  practice  of  worshipping  at  the 
Temple,  while  at  the  same  time  there  were  many  peculiar 
and  distinctive  services  in  their  new  religion,  w'hich  they 
could  not  perform  in  the  Temple.  For  instance,  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Hoh'  E\icharist  was  an  essential  no  less  than  a 
peculiar  rite,  which  they  would  not  have  been  allowed,  even 
supposing  them  willing,  to  have  celebrated  in  the  Tcnqdc  ; 
they  were  necessitated  therefore  to  fulfil  this  command  in 
their  own  places  of  worship.  This  seems  to  have  formed  a 
continuation  and  completion  of  the  Temple  service. 

"Such  as  these,!  suppose,"  continues  Mede,  "  were  the 
places  at  first  set  apart  for  holy  meetings,  much  like  to  our 
private  chapels  now  in  great  men's  houses,  though  not  for  so 
general  a  use. 

"  In  process  of  time,  as  the  multitude  of  believers  increased, 
some  wealthy  and  devout  Christian  gave  his  whole  house  or 
mansion,  either  while  he  lived,  if  he  could  spare  it,  or 
bequeathed  it  at  his  death,  unto  the  saints,  to  be  set  apart 
and  accommodated  for  sacred  assemblies  and  religious  uses. 

"  At  length,  as  the  multitude  of  believers  still  more  in- 
creased, and  the  Church  grew  more  able,  they  built  them 
structures  of  purpose,  partly  in  the  cemeteries  of  martyrs, 
partly  in  other  p)ublic  places;  even  as  the  Jews — whose 
religion  was  no  more  the  empire's  than  theirs — had,  never- 
theless, their  synagogues  in  all  cities  and  places  where  they 
lived  among  the  Gentiles." 

The  following  quot;itions  from  writers  of  the  period  will 
give  some  insight  into  the  general  use  and  nature  of  distinct 
places  of  worship  in  their  daj's.  In  the  second  century, 
Icnatius  speaking  to  the  Magnesians,  says,  in  the  passage 
alluded  to  above,  "  All  of  you  meet  together  for  prayer  in 
one  place,  let  there  be  one  common  prayer,  one  mind,  one 
hope  in  love,  in  the  immaculate  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  than 
which  nothing  is  better.  All  of  you  as  one  man  run  toget  her 
to  the  temple  of  (lod,  as  to  one  altar,  to  one  Jesus  Christ,  the 
High  Priest  of  the  nnbegotten  God." 

In  the  third  ccntmy  Hippolytus,  describing  the  state  of  the 
world  at  the  coming  of  antichrist,  says,  "the  temples  of  God 
shall  be  as  common  and  ordinary  houses  ;  churches  shall  be 
utterly  demolished  everywhere ;  the  Scriptures  shall  be 
despised ;"  thus  showing  the  esteem  in  which  churches  were 
then  held. 

Grcfifory  of  Neoc;esarea,  stirnamed  Thaumaturgus,  who 
lived  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  describing  the  five 
degrees  or  admission  of  penitents  according  to  the  discipline 
of  his  tiiue,  says,  1st.  Weepiny  (the  first  degree  of  penance) 
was  without  the  porch  of  the  oratory,  where  the  mournful 
sinners  stood,  and  begged  of  all  the  faithful  as  they  went  in 
to  pray  for  them.  2d.  Hearing  (the  second  degree)  was 
within  the  Porch,  in  the  place  called  Narthex,  the  place 
where  these  penitent  sinners  (being  now  under  ihc  ferula  or 
censure  of  the  church)  might  stand  near  to  the  catechumens, 
and  hear  the  Scripture  read  and  expounded,  but  were  to  go 
out  before  them.  3d.  Prostration  or  li/inr/  alon;;  on  the 
Church-pavement.  These  prostrate  ones  were  admitted  some 
what  further  into  the  church,  and  went  out  with  the  cate- 
chumens.    4th.     Standinf/  or   staying  with    the  People    or 


Congregation.  These  Consisientes  did  not  go  out  with  the 
Catechumens,  but  after  they  and  the  other  penitents  had  left, 
remained,  and  joined  in  prayer  with  the  faithful.  5th.  Par- 
ticipation of  the  Saa-ameiits."  This  is  a  somewhat  remarkable 
passage,  to  which  we  shall  have  occasion  again  to  refer. 

In  the  rescript  of  Galienus  the  churches  of  the  Christians 
are  mentioned  as  Torrot  OpTjOKEvoLjioi  or  Places  of  Worship. 
Gregory  Nyssen,  speaking  of  the  success  of  Gregory  of 
Neoca»area,  relates,  "  How  that,  becoming  all  things  to  all 
men,  he  had  in  a  short  time  gained  a  great  number  of  converts 
through  the  assistance  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and  that  hereupon 
he  had  a  strong  desire  to  set  upon  the  building  of  a  temple 
or  place  for  sacred  assemblies ;  wherein  he  was  the  more 
encouraged  by  the  general  forwardness  he  observed  among 
the  converts  to  contribute  both  their  moneys  and  their  best 
assistance  to  so  good  a  work.  This  is  that  temple  which  is 
to  bo  seen  even  at  this  day."  Eusebius,  speaking  of  the  long 
peace  which  the  Church  enjoyed  before  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian,  says,  "  How  shall  any  one  be  able  to  express  those 
infinite  multitudes  of  Christians  assembling  in  every  city, 
those  famous  meetings  of  theirs  in  their  oratories  or 
churches?  and  therefore  they,  not  being  content  with  those 
smaller  churches  which  before  they  had,  (those  their  ancient 
edifices  not  being  large  enough  to  receive  so  great  a  number,) 
took  care  to  erect  from  the  very  foundation  fairer  and  more 
spacious  ones  in  every  city." 

Soon  after  this  dreadful  persecution  Constantine  succeeded 
to  the  government,  and  having  been  fully  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  faith,  with  hearty  and  unremitting  zeal 
set  about  its  establishment,  nor  to  any  thing  did  he  give  more 
constant  attention  tlian  to  the  erection  and  adornment  of 
churches.  Before,  however,  entering  upon  a  description  and 
examination  of  these  edifices,  it  may  be  as  well  to  say  a  few 
words  respecting  a  subject  which  has  not  been  agreed  upon 
amongst  the  learned  ;  it  is  this,  whether  the  early  Christians 
made  use  of  heathen  temples  for  the  performance  of  their  pub- 
lic services.  Bingham  enters  into  the  subject  at  some  length, 
from  whom  we  quote  the  following  : — 

"At  first,  when  the  reformation  from  heathenism  was  in  its 
infancy,  no  idol-temples  were  made  use  of  as  churches,  but 
were  either  permitted  to  the  heathen  for  some  time,  or  else 
shut  up  or  demolished.  Till  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Constan- 
tine, A.D.  333,  the  temples  were  in  a  great  measure  tolerated, 
but  in  that  year  he  published  his  laws  commanding  temples, 
altars,  and  images  to  be  destroyed,  which  laws  are  sometimes 
referred  to  in  the  Theodosian  code.  And  pursuant  to  these 
laws,  a  great  many  temples  were  defaced  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  their  revenues  confiscated,  as  appears  not  only  from 
the  Christian  writers,  St.  Jerome  and  Eusebius,  and  others,  but 
also  from  the  complaints  of  the  heathen  writers,  Eunapius, 
Libanius,  and  Julian.  In  some  of  the  following  reigns  also 
the  same  method  was  taken  to  shut  up  or  to  deface  the  tem- 
ples, as  is  evident  from  the  account  which  Ruftin  gives  of  the 
general  destruction  of  them  in  Egypt  by  the  order  of  Valen- 
tinian.  But  in  the  next  reign,  in  the  time  of  Theodosius, 
another  method  was  taken  with  some  of  them.  For  as 
Gothofred  observes,  out  of  the  Chronicon  Alexandrinum  : — 
'  Theodosius  turned  the  famous  temple  of  Heliopolis,  called 
Balanium,  into  a  Christian  church,  {eTroLTjaeavro  eKK?.7jaiav 
Xptariavc^v.)  And  about  the  same  time  Socrates  tells  us, 
'  That  when  Valcnshad  banished  the  two  Macarii,  the  heads 
of  the  Egyptian  monks,  into  a  pagan  island,  they  converted 
all  the  inhabitants,  and  turned  their  temple  into  the  form  of 
a  church.'  The  like  was  done  by  the  famous  temple  of  the 
Dea  Celestis  at  Carthage,  by  Aurelius,  the  bishop,  in  the  time 
of  Honorius,  a.d.  399,  which  the  author  of  the  book,  de 
prcedictionibus,  under  the  name  of  Prosper,  tells,  with  this 


remarkable  circumstance,  '  that  it  had  been  dedicated 
before  by  one  Aurelius,  a  heathen  high-priest,  with  this 
inscription,  Aurelius  poiitifcx  dedicavit,  which  our  author 
says  was  left  in  the  frontispiece,  to  bo  read  by  all  the  people, 
because,  by  God's  providence,  it  was  fulfilled  again  in  Aure- 
lius the  bishop,  for  whom  it  served  as  well  as  the  former 
Aurelius,  when  he  had  once  dedicated  it  to  the  use  and  ser- 
vice of  the  Christian  religion,  and  set  his  chair  in  the  place 
of  the  goddess.  Not  long  after  this,  Honorius  published 
two  laws  in  the  Western  empire,  forbidding  the  destruction 
of  any  more  temples  in  cities,  because  they  might  serve  for 
ornament,  or  public  use,  being  once  purged  of  all  unlawful 
furniture — idols  and  altars,  which  he  ordered  to  be  destroyed 
wherever  they  were  found. 

"  These  laws,  as  Gothofred  rightly  observes,  seem  to  have 
been  published  at  the  instance  of  the  African  fathers,  who,  as 
appears  from  one  of  the  canons  of  the  African  code,  peti- 
tioned the  emperor,  that  such  temples  as  were  in  the  country 
only,  and  private  places  not  serving  for  any  ornament,  might 
be  destroyed.  Arcadius  published  such  another  law  for  the 
Eastern  empire,  which  relates  only  to  the  destruction  of  tem- 
ples in  country-places,  and  not  in  cities,  where  now  there  was 
no  such  danger  of  superstition,  since  they  might  be  converted 
to  a  better  use.  And  upon  this  ground  the  author,  under  the 
name  of  Prosper,  commends  Honorius  for  his  piety  and  devo- 
tion, because  he  gave  all  the  temples,  with  their  adjacent 
places,  to  the  church,  only  requiring  the  idols  to  be  destroyed. 
'Tis  true,  indeed,  after  this  we  find  a  law  of  Theodosius 
Junior  commanding  all  temples  to  be  destroyed  ;  but,  as 
Gothofred  seems  rightly  to  interpret  it,  '•  the  word  destroy- 
ing, in  that  law,  is  to  be  understood  only  of  despoiling  them 
of  their  superstition,  because  it  follows  in  the  same  law, 
that  they  were  to  be  expiated  by  placing  the  sign  of  the 
cross  upon  them,  which  was  a  token  of  their  being  turned 
into  churches.  And  his  observation  may  be  confirmed  fur- 
ther from  what  Evagrius  reports  of  Theodosius — that  he 
turned  the  Tycffium,  or  Temple  of  Fortune  at  Antioch, 
into  a  church  called  by  the  name  of  Ignatius.  The  like  was 
done  by  a  great  temple  at  Tanis  in  Egypt,  as  Valesius  has 
observed  out  of  the  Itinerary  of  Antonius  the  martyr. 

"  Cluver  also,  in  his  description  of  Italy,  takes  notice  of 
a  place  in  the  Jerusalein  Itinerary,  called  Sacraria,  betwixt 
Fulginumand  Spoletum,  near  the  head  of  the  river  Clitumnus, 
which  he  thinks  was  no  other  than  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Clitumnus,  though  another  learned  antiquary  makes  it  some- 
what doubtful  as  to  the  present  church  now  standing  there. 
However,  we  have  seen  instances  enough  of  this  practice, 
and  Bede  tells  us,  that  '  Gregory  the  Great  gave  Austin 
the  monk  instructions  of  the  same  nature  about  the  teniples 
here  among  the  Saxons  in  Britain, — that  if  they  were  well 
built  they  should  not  be  destroyed,  but  only  be  converted 
from  the  worship  of  devils  to  the  service  of  the  true  God.' 
And  so  he  observes  it  was  done  at  Rome,  whore,  not  long 
after,  Boniface  the  Fourth  turned  the  heathen  temple,  called 
the  Pantheon,  into  the  church  of  All  Saints,  in  the  time  of 
the  emperor  Phocas.  Sometimes  the  temples  were  pulled 
do\vn,  and  the  materials  were  given  to  the  church,  out  of 
which  new  edifices  were  erected  for  the  service  of  religion, 
as  Sozomen  and  Ruffin  particularly  observe  of  the  temples  of 
Bacchus  and  Serapis  at  Alexandria.  I  have  already  shown 
out  of  Antonius,  that  the  Roman  halls  or  basilicse  were  like- 
wise turned  into  churches.  The  like  is  reported  of  some 
Jewish  synagogues  by  the  author  of  the  Chronicon  Alexan- 
drinum, who  takes  notice  particularly  of  a  synagogue  of  the 
Samaritans,  in  a  place  called  Gargarida,  which  Zeno  the 
emperor  converted  into  a  large  Christian  church. 

"  And  though  it  is  not  agreed  by  learned  men  whether  the 


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318 


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temples  said  to  be  built  by  Hadrian  were  intended  for  the 
\vorship  of  himself,  or  the  worship  of  Christ ;  for  Casaubon 
and  Pagi  think  he  designed  them  for  himself,  whilst  Huctius 
defends  Lampridius,  his  relation,  who  says,  "  He  designed 
them  for  the  honour  of  Christ ;"  yet  it  is  certain,  that  after 
they  had  been  used  to  other  purposes,  they  were  at  last,  some 
of  them,  turned  into  Christian  churches :  for  Epiphanius 
says,  '  There  was  a  great  temple  at  Tiberias,  called  the 
Iladrianum,  which  the  Jews  made  use  of  for  a  bath;  but 
Josephus  Comes,  the  converted  Jew,  in  the  time  of  Constan- 
tino, turned  it  into  a  church.'  And  the  like  was  done  by 
another  of  them  by  Athanasius  at  Alexandria,  having  before 
been  the  hall  or  place  of  Licinius,  as  the  same  Epiphanius 
informs  us.  So  that  now,  partly  by  the  munificence  of  the 
emperors,  and  partly  by  their  orders  for  converting  heathen 
temples  into  churches,  and  partly  by  the  great  zeal  and  libe- 
rality of  private  Christians  in  times  of  peace,  churches 
became  another  thing  from  what  they  were  in  former  ages,  that 
is,  more  noble  and  stately  edifices,  more  rich  and  beautiful." 

Thus  far  Bingham,  who  seems  to  conclude  from  the  above 
quotations  of  the  early  writers,  that  to  convert  heathen  tem- 
ples into  Christian  churches  was  not  an  uncommon  prac- 
tice :  a  writer,  however,  in  the  Quarterly  Keview,  in  a  cri- 
tique on  the  publications  of  Knight  and  Bunsen,  on  Eccle- 
siastical Antiquities,  arrives  at  a  very  different  conclusion  ; 
and  as  he  has  evidently  given  more  than  ordinary  attention 
to  the  subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  refer  to  his  remarks, 
in  this  place  : — 

"  The  antipathy,"  says  he,  "  borne  by  the  early  Christians 
to  the  fine  arts,  debased  by  the  pollutions  of  heathen  idolatry, 
can  neither  be  denied  nor  concealed ;  and  the  same  causes 
which  prevented  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  ensured  the 
degradation  and  subversion  of  their  proudest  and  most  splendid 
monuments.  Excluding  for  the  present  the  consideration  of 
other  agencies,  the  first  paragraph  in  the  rise  of  Christian 
architecture,  must  narrate  the  fall  of  the  structures  devoted 
to  the  superstition,  which  it  was  the  end  of  the  gospel  to 
obliterate  and  destroy. 

"The  heathen  temples  were  doomed  to  inevitable  ruin. 
Laws  had  been  promulgated  by  Theodosius  for  their  preser- 
vation ;  conducive  to  the  decoration  of  the  city,  they  might 
be  perhaps  rendered  useful  for  the  purposes  of  civil  society. 
Some  may  have  been  thus  respited,  though  not  rescued,  untU 
the  decayed  remains  crumbled  to  the  ground ;  they  were 
never  respected  or  honoured  by  public  opinion,  and  could 
rarely  be  adapted  to  the  objects  pointed  out  by  the  imperial 
law,  without  such  alterations  as  in  most  cases  amounted  to 
destruction.  Others  were  accidentally  preserved  in  desolate 
or  secluded  situations,  in  the  forest  or  the  marsh,  or  the 
mountain-glen,  or  on  the  shore,  whence  the  inhabitants  have 
been  extirpated,  or  chased  away.  Such  are  the  columns  of 
Pajstum  :  the  heavens  are  yet  as  bright  as  when  the  garlands 
hunn-  down  from  the  ruined  architrave  ;  the  sea  as  azure  as 
when  the  waves  were  ploughed  by  the  painted  prows  ;  the 
crushed  herbs  beneath  your  feet,  still  send  up  their  rich 
perfume.  To  the  senses,  the  works  of  art  are  still  as  noble, 
the  works  of  nature  as  sweet  and  gay ;  but  the  whole  scene 
mourns  under  the  curse  inflicted  upon  scofling,  lascivious, 
corrupted  Hellas.  Language,  people,  race — their  very  name 
has  disappeared.  The  wasting  pestilence  still  hovers,  and 
will  ever  hover,  marking  the  vengeance  which  has  fallen  on 
the  deserted  shore. 

"Few  temples  were  ever  adapted  for  the  purposes  of 
Christian  worship  ;  fewest  of  all  in  the  capital  of  the  Chris- 
tian world.  'Of  the  Christian  hierarchy,'  says  Gibbon,  '  the 
bishops  of  Rome  were  commonly  the  most  prudent  and  the 
least  fanatic ;  nor  can  any  positive  charge  be  opposed  to 


the  meritorious  act  of  saving  and  converting  the  majestic 
structure  of  the  Pantheon.'  In  casting  the  account  of  the 
merits  and  demerits  of  the  Christian  hierarchy,  such  a  pon- 
tilf  as  Gregory  the  Great  would  have  been  ill  inclined  to 
accept  the  encomium.  In  the  gergo  of  Gibbon, '  fanaticism' 
is  piety,  and  'prudence'  unbelief.  The  'meritorious  act,' 
thankful  as  wo  may  be  for  the  result,  was  a  single  item,  by 
no  means  influencing  the  general  balance  of  praise  or  dis- 
praise;  it  was  the  solitary  perforinance  of  Boniface  IV'.;  it 
was  an  act  from  which  no  consequences  resulted.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Pantheon,  we  fail  to  detect  any  real  example 
in  Rome,  of  a  temple  which  can  be  said  to  owe  its  preserva- 
tion, in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  to  the  Christian  clergy. 
They  had  no  thought  of  the  kind — they  took  no  pleasure  in 
such  antiquities.  They  sought  no  credit  for  such  care. 
Antiquaries,  with  eager  zeal,  have  collected  about  ten  examples 
in  which  this  preservation  is  asserted.  Even  in  the  cases 
which  arc  least  dubious,  no  further  merit  can  be  claimed  for 
the  hierarchy  than  the  accidental  preservation  of  a  portico, 
a  cella,  or  a  wall,  an  encumbrance  which  it  was  troublesome 
to  remove  —  a  fragment  which  saved  some  expense,  built  up, 
concealed,  marred,  or  deformed  by  the  new  erection  to  which 
it  was  unwillingly  conjoined. 

"  It  could  not  be  otherwise.  In  the  early  Christians,  any 
participation  in  our  modern  worship  of  heathen  art,  would 
have  been  false  and  unnatural.  All  the  opinions,  all  the 
habits,  all  the  feelings,  all  the  conscience,  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians strove  against  the  preservation  of  the  memorials  of 
heathenism.  Neither  beauty  nor  convenience,  if  they  had 
possessed  the  latter  requisite,  would,  save  in  some  few  special 
cases,  like  that  of  the  Pantheon,  plead  for  the  preservation 
of  the  relics  of  classical  antiquity.  They  considered  the 
idols  as  accursed.  No  object  which  had  in  anywise  been 
connected  with  the  worship  of  idols,  or  could  be  supposed  to 
have  been  employed  in  their  service,  was  to  be  used  without 
exorcism.  Thus,  in  the  ritual  of  the  church  of  Durham, 
there  is  a  form  of  prayer  for  hallowing  the  vase  found  in  the 
Roman  encampment,  which  could  not  be  employed  for  any 
Christian  use  until  subjected  to  such  purification.  Nor  was 
this  belief  confined  to  the  rude  Northumbrian  peasant,  or  to 
a  barbarous  age.  Let  us  place  ourselves  before  the  portal 
of  St.  Peter's,  fresh  from  the  workmen's  hands.  Four 
months  have  been  employed  in  removing  the  huge  obelisk  of 
Sesostris  from  the  ruins  of  Nero's  Circus  to  the  front  of  the 
great  Basilica.  Eight  hundred  workmen,  toiling  at  creaking 
winch  and  groaning  capstan,  heave  up  the  mass  ;  whilst  the 
breathless  crowd  watch  the  slow  rising  of  the  gigantic  beam. 
It  stops;  when  the  one  cry,  ^aqua  allefuni,'  which  subjects 
the  individual  who  suggests  the  happy  expedient,  to  the  pain 
of  death,  enables  the  maestro  to  complete  his  task  ;  amidst 
the  thunder  of  the  cannon,  the  'guglia'  stands  firm  and  erect 
upon  its  basement.  But  is  the  work  complete  ?  No  :  the 
trophy  of  the  victory  of  Christianity  over  heathenism  cannot 
yet  be  received  as  such,  until  all  coimection  with  its  former 
slavery  to  the  fiend  has  been  destroyed.  In  solemn  proces- 
sion, the  supreme  pontiff  exorcises  the  magnificent  work,  so 
long  dedicated  to  the  foul  superstition  of  Misraim,  and  devotes 
it  to  the  honour  of  the  Cross,  performing  the  rites  which 
were  deemed  to  expel  the  evil  spirit.  Those  who  may  not 
share  in  the  belief  which  dictated  these  ceremonies,  must, 
nevertheless,  respect  the  sentiments  contained  in  the  simple 
majestic  language,  commemorating  the  consecration  of  the 
spoils  of  heathenism  to  the  service  of  the  Cross.  '  Ecce 
Crux  Domini — Christus  vincit — Christus  regnat — Cliristus 
imperat — Christus  ab  omni  malo  plebem  suam  defendat — 
Vicit  Leo  de  tribu  Juda.' 

"  Thus  did  Pope  Sixtus  record  his  triumph.     Yet  there 


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■was  a  greater  triumph  felt  by  the  zeal  which  taught  the  early 
Christians  to  glory  in  easting  down  the  altars  and  the  high 
l)laces  devoted  to  sin  ;  deeming — we  will  not  presume  to 
judge  whether  rightly  or  wrongly — that  such  a  testimony 
to  the  truth  was  imperatively  enjoined  upon  them.  By  their 
deeds  they  contemned  the  temporizing  policy  of  the  emperors. 
They  sought  the  actual  and  visible  victory  of  literally  erect- 
ing the  temple  of  the  Lord  upon  the  i-uins  of  the  habitation 
of  the  demon.  The  statues  were  broken,  to  be  buried  in  the 
foundations ;  hence  few  sculptures  have  ever  been  found  at 
Rome,  which  did  not,  lilvc  the  Venus  of  the  Medici,  show 
by  their  defacement  and  fractures,  the  aversion  of  which 
they  had  been  the  objects.  Amongst  the  great  congregation 
of  the  faithful,  the  distaste,  the  horrors  excited  by  paganism 
— its  structures,  monuments,  glories,  charms — were  uncon- 
querable and  paramount.  Idols  might  have  been  removed, 
and  the  building  consecrated  by  the  rites,  which,  according 
to  the  primitive  belief,  would  drive  away  tlie  demon  ;  yet  no 
lustration  could  entirely  heal  the  leprosy  of  the  walls.  The 
language  of  the  Virgin  Martyr  was  echoed  in  every 
heart : — 

'  Your  gods,  your  temples,  brothel-houses  rather ; 
Or  wicked  actions  of  the  worst  of  men, 
Pursued  .ind  practised.     Tour  religious  rites ! 
Oil!  call  them  rather  juggling  mysteries, 

The  baits  and  nets  of  hell. 

Tour  Venus  whom  you  worship,  was  a  harlot — 

Flora,  the  foundress  of  the  public  stews, 

And  has  for  that  her  sacrifice. 

Tour  Jupiter,  a  loose  adulterer. 

Incestuous  with  liis  sister.     Read  but  those 

That  have  canonized  them.     You  will  find  them  worse 

Than  in  chaste  language  I  can  speak  them  to  you.' 

"  Whatever  had  been  touched  by  paganism,  seemed,  and 
can  we  say  unjustly  ?  to  be  reeking  with  impurity." 

On  this  suljject  we  incline  towards  the  opinions  of  the 
reviewer,  notwithstanding  the  evidence  adduced  by  Bingham ; 
at  the  same  time  we  do  not  mean  to  deny  the  occasional 
application  of  pagan  temples  to  Christian  uses  under  peculiar 
circumstances,  as  in  the  case  of  Austin  and  the  Saxons  at 
a  later  date,  yet  we  do  think  the  instances  of  such  application 
were  comparatively  few,  and  formed  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule.     For  not  only  were  the  feelings  of  the  early 
Christians  enlisted  against  every  thing  connected  with  the 
worship  of  the  heathen  deities, — or  devils,  as  St.  Paul  calls 
them, — but  the  form  also  of  pagan  temples  was  totally  un- 
suitable for  churches.     Temples  were  little  more  than  cells 
for  the  reception  of  the  idol  and  priests,  the  people  stood 
outside.     The  services  of  the  Christian  church  required  a 
very  different  arrangement ;  here  you  required  accommodation 
for  worshippers  within  the  walls,  as  the  very  name  eKK?.Tjaia, 
assembly,  implies ;  there  is  here  a  communion  or  organized 
congregation.    Christians  came  together  not  merely  to  behold 
as  it  were  a  spectacle,  but  to  pray  together,  and  to  hear  the 
Gospel  read  to  them.     "  The  Christian  temple,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Willis,  "  was  a  heathen  temple  turned  inside  out ;" 
in  the  heathen  temples  the  colonnade  was  outside,  in  the 
Christian  church  it  was  necessary  to  transpose  it  to  the  inside, 
to  obtain  greater  internal  space,  as  we  see  was  the  case  in 
their  later  structures.     Taking  all  this  into  consideration, 
we  think  there  is  some  reason  to  decide  that  the  examples  of 
the  adaptation  of  temples  to  the  purpose  of  Christian  worship, 
formed  but  exceptions.     The  very  term  temple  was  never 
used  by  the  earlier  writers,  when  speaking  of  the  church  ; 
the   terms  were  distinctive  of  the   religion  to  which  they 
belonged,  the  former  when  used,  implying  always  heathen 
temples.     The  term  employed  in  contra-distinction  to  this 
is  EKKXijOia,  which,  from  being  the  name  of  the  assembly,  soon 


came  to  be  applied  to  the  place  in  which  they  met;  this 
word  is  very  common.  Another  appellation  is  Kvpianov, 
Dominicum,  or  Donius  Dei,  which  is  met  wMth  in  Eusebius 
and  two  or  three  councils ;  Domus  Cohanbcc  used  by  Ter- 
tullian,  is  a  similar  term.  Other  terms  found  in  Eusebius, 
Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  others,  are  Ttpoaeviirr]pia  and  oIkoi 
evTTjpioi ;  but  one  very  frequent  in  the  writers  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  though  scarcely  seen  before,  is  Basilicae. 
The  word  temple  was  seldom  or  never  used  in  this  sense 
during  the  first  three  centuries. 

The  earliest  descriptions  of  early  churches,  now  extant, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Eusebius,  who  gives  some- 
what lengthened  accounts  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem, 
and  of  the  church  of  Paulinus  at  Tyre,  which  w^e  proceed  to 
notice.  The  descriptions  are  not  very  lucid  ;  they  show  us 
how  richly  churches  were  adorned,  and  throw  some  little 
light  upon  their  structure  and  arrangement,  although  the 
account  is  in  many  places  confused  ;  still  it  gives  us  some 
idea  of  the  buildings,  and,  by  comparison  of  this  with  other 
accounts,  and  with  the  remains  of  what  are  supposed  to  be 
earlier  churches,  we  are  enabled  to  decide  pretty  nearly  their 
original  form  and  distribution.  He  commences  with  a  des- 
cription of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

The  Empress  Helena,  after  a  long  search,  succeeds  in 
discovering  the  place  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre;  which  had 
been  covered  over  by  the  pagans,  and  polluted  by  their  rites, 
the  place  having  been  dedicated  by  them  to  Venus,  a  statue 
of  which  goddess  was  erected  over  the  Sepulchre.  Constan- 
tine  having  destroyed  all  the  remains  of  heathenism,  and 
having  had  the  place  purified  from  such  abominations, 
proceeds  to  consider  the  erection  of  a  suitable  church  upon 
the  spot,  and  sends  directions  to  Macarius,  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, upon  the  subject,aportionof  which,  as  given  by  Eusebius, 
we  transfer  to  these  pages. 

"  Moreover,  I  would  persuade  you  to  that  which  is  clear 
and  evident,  namely,  that  we  ought  to  take  especial  care  that 
this  place,  which  we  have  purified  and  cleansed  from  super- 
stitious idols,  and  which  God  and  good  men,  from  primitive 
times  accounted  sacred  and  holy,  and  which  was  afterwards 
so  esteemed  for  the  attestation  and  confirmation  it  gave  to 
our  belief  in  Christ's  passion,  should  be  honoured  by  erecting 
a  church  thereat.  It  is  meet  therefore  that  your  wisdom 
should  so  dispose  of  this  work,  and  prudently  provide  all 
things  necessary  thereto,  that  the  beauty  of  the  temple  may 
excel  all  other  churches,  and  the  several  parts  of  it  may 
exceed  the  chief  churches  in  other  cities.  Know  therefore 
that  we  commit  the  care  of  erecting,  building,  and  curiously 
adorning  the  walls  thereof,  to  our  friend  Dracilianus  and  the 
president  of  your  province.  For  out  of  our  gracious  bounty 
we  have  commanded  them  that  they  should  have  recourse 
to  your  wisdom  to  know  what  artificers  and  workmen  shall 
be  necessary  to  the  building  thereof,  and  accordingly  shall 
straightway  provide  them,  and  send  them  thither.  And 
when  you  have  cast  and  contrived  what  marble  pillars,  or 
other  marble  works,  will  be  necessary,  either  to  adorn  it,  or 
make  it  more  durable,  look  that  you  certify  us  by  your 
letters,  that  when  we  understand  what  shall  be  necessary, 
we  may  provide  accordingly.  For  this,  which  is  the  most 
special  place  of 'all  the  world,  ought  to  be  adorned  with  all 
kinds  of  work  of  cost  and  curiosity. 

"  I  would  have  you  certify  me  whether  the  roof  of  the 
sanctuary  should  be  arched,  or  built  in  some  other  form  ;  but 
if  it  be  built  archwise,  it  may  be  conveniently  gilded.  It 
remains  therefore  that  your  holiness  should  speedily  signify 
unto  those  whom  we  have  appointed  to  be  overseers  of  the 
work,  both  what  artificers  and  labourers  will  be  necessary 
and  what  charge  it  will  require ;  and  also  to  certify  us 


not    I 


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320 


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only  concerning  the  pillars  and  other  marble  work,  but  also 
concerning  the  wood-woriv  of  the  roof,  if  you  think  fit  that 
it  should  be  built  in  that  form." 

Then  follows  a  glowing  description  of  the  building  when 
completed,  from  w  hich  \vc  extract  the  following : — 

"  First  of  all,  then,  he  adorned  the  sacred  cave  itself,  as 
the  chief  part  of  the  whole  work,  and  the  hallowed  monu- 
ment of  which  the  angel  radiant  with  light  had  once  declared 
to  all  that  regeneration  which  was  first  manifested  in  the 
Saviour's  person.  This  monument,  therefore,  first  of  all,  as 
the  chief  part  of  the  whole,  the  emperor's  zealous  magnifi- 
cence beautified  with  rare  columns,  and  properly  enriched 
with  the  most  splendid  decorations  of  every  kind.  The  next 
object  of  his  attention  was  a  space  of  ground  of  great  extent, 
and  open  to  the  pure  air  of  heaven.  This  he  adorned  with 
a  pavement  of  finely-polished  stone,  and  enclosed  it  on  three 
sides  with  porticos  of  great  length.  For  at  the  side  opposite 
the  sepulchre,  which  was  the  eastern  side,  the  church  itself 
was  erected,  a  noble  work  rising  to  a  vast  height,  and  of 
great  extent  both  in  length  and  breadth.  The  interior  of  this 
structure  was  floored  with  marble  slabs  of  various  colours, 
whilst  the  external  surfiice  of  the  walls,  which  shone  with 
polished  stones  exactly  fitted  together,  exhibited  a  degree  of 
splendour  in  no  respect  inferior  to  that  of  marble.  With 
regard  to  the  roof,  it  was  covered  on  the  outside  with  lead, 
as  a  protection  against  the  rains  of  winter.  But  the  inner 
part  of  the  roof,  which  was  finished  with  sculptured  fretwork, 
extended  in  a  series  of  connected  compartments,  like  a  vast 
sea,  over  the  whole  church ;  and  being  overlaid  throughout 
with  the  purest  gold,  caused  the  entire  building  to  glitter  as 
it  were  with  rays  of  light. 

"  Besides  this,  were  two  porticos  on  each  side,  with  upper 
nnd  low'cr  ranges  of  pillars  corresponding  in  length  with  the 
church  itself,  and  these  also  had  their  roofs  ornamented  with 
gold.  Of  these  porticos,  those  which  were  exterior  to  the 
church  were  supported  by  columns  of  immense  size,  while 
those  within  these  rested  on  piers  of  stone  beautifully  adorned 
on  the  surface.  Three  gates  placed  exactly  east  were  intended 
to  receive  those  who  entered  the  church. 

"  Opposite  these  gates,  the  crowning  part  of  all  was  the 
hemisphere,  which  rose  to  the  very  summit  of  the  church. 
This  was  encircled  by  twelve  columns,  (according  to  the 
number  of  the  apostles  of  our  Saviour,)  having  their  capi- 
tals embellished  with  silver  bowls  of  great  size,  which 
the  emperor  himself  presented  as  a  splendid  offering  to 
his  God. 

"  In  the  next  place  he  enclosed  the  atrium,  which  occupied 
the  space  leading  to  the  entrances  in  front  of  the  church. 
This  comprehended  first  the  court,  then  the  porticos  on  each 
side,  and  lastly  the  gates  of  the  court.  After  these,  in  the 
midst  of  the  open  market-place,  the  entrance-gates  of  the 
whole  work  which  were  Of  exquisite  w^orkmanship,  afibrded 
to  passers-by,  on  the  outside,  a  view  of  the  interior,  which 
could  not  fail  to  inspire  astonishment. 

"This  temple,  then,  the  emperor  erected  as  a  conspicuous 
monument  of  the  Saviour's  resurrection,  and  embellished 
it  throughout  on  an  imperial  scale  of  magnificence.  He 
further  enriched  it  with  numberless  ofiorings  of  inexpres- 
sible beauty,  consisting  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones 
in  various  forms;  the  skilful  and  elaborate  arrangement 
of  which,  in  regard  to  their  magnitude,  number,  and 
variety,  we  have  not  leisure  at  present  to  describe  par- 
ticularly." 

The  following  is  our  author's  description  of  the  church  of 
Paulinus  at  Tyre,  in  his  letter  to  that  bishop  : — 

'■Thus  then,  embracing  a  much  wider  space,  he  strength- 
ened the  outer  enclosure  with  a  wall  to  compass  the  edifice, 


that  it  might  be  a  most  secure  bulw.ark  to  the  whole  work. 
Then  raising  a  large  and  lofty  vestibule,  he  extended  it 
towards  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  ;  and,  on  entering  the 
gates,  he  has  not  permitted  you  to  enter  immediately,  with 
impure  and  unwashed  feet,  within  the  sanctuary,  but  leaving 
an  extensive  space  between  the  temple  and  the  vestibule,  he 
has  decorated  and  enclosed  it  with  four  surrounding  por- 
ticos, presenting  a  quadrangular  space,  with  pillars  rising 
on  every  side.  Between  those  he  carried  rouml  the  frame- 
latticed  railing,  rising  to  a  proportionate  and  suitable  height ; 
leaving,  however,  the  middle  space  open,  so  that  the  heavens 
can  be  seen,  and  present  the  splendid  sky  irradiated  by  the 
beams  of  the  sun.  Here,  too,  he  has  placed  the  symbols  of 
the  sacred  purification,  by  providing  fountains  built  opposite 
the  temple,  which,  by  the  abundant  effusion  of  its  waters, 
affords  the  means  of  cleansing,  to  those  that  proceed  to  the 
inner  parts  of  the  sanctuary.  And  this  is  the  first  place  that 
receives  those  that  enter,  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  pre- 
sents to  those  that  need  the  first  introduction,  both  a  splen- 
did and  convenient  station. 

"  After  passing  this,  he  has  made  open  entrances  to  the 
temple,  with  many  other  inner  vestibules,  by  placing  again 
three  gates  on  one  side  towards  the  rising  sun.  Of  these  he 
constructed  the  middle  one,  far  exceeding  those  on  each  side 
in  height  and  breadth,  embellishing  it,  at  the  same  time,  with 
exceedingly  splendid  brazen  plates  bound  with  iron,  and  deco- 
rated with  sculpture,  superadding  them,  as  guards  and 
attendants  to  a  queen.  In  the  same  way,  after  disposing 
the  number  of  the  vestibules,  also  with  the  porticos  on  each 
side  of  the  whole  temple,  he  constructed  above  these  difterent 
openings  to  the  building,  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  more 
light,  and  these  lights  or  windows  he  also  decorated  with 
various  kinds  of  ornamental  sculpture. 

"  But  the  royal  temple  itself  ho  has  furnished  with  more 
splendid  and  rich  materials,  applying  a  generous  liberality 
in  his  expenses.  And  here  it  appears  to  me  to  be  super- 
fluous to  describe  the  dimensions,  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  edifice,  the  splendid  elegance,  the  grandeur  that  surpasses 
description,  and  the  dazzling  aspect  of  the  works ;  for  when 
he  had  thus  completed  the  temple,  he  adorned  it  with  lofty 
thrones  in  honour  of  those  who  preside,  and  also  with  seats 
decently  arranged  in  order  throughout  the  whole,  and  at  last 
he  placed  the  holy  altar  in  the  middle.  And  that  this  again 
might  be  inaccessible  to  the  multitude,  he  enclosed  it  with 
frame-lattice  work,  accurately  wrought  with  ingenious  sculp- 
ture, presenting  a  beautiful  appearance  to  the  beholders. 
And  not  even  the  pavement  was  neglected  by  him,  for  this 
too  he  splendidly  adorned  with  marble,  and  then  proceeded 
to  the  rest  and  to  the  parts  outside  the  temple.  He  provided 
spacious  e.xhedrffi  and  oeci  on  each  side,  united  and  attached 
to  the  church,  and  communicating  with  the  entrance  to  the 
middle  of  the  temple." 

Of  the  above  structures,  the  former  is  still  in  existence ; 
not  indeed  the  identical  building,  but,  as  there  seems  reason 
to  believe,  a  building  similar  in  general  form  and  arrange, 
ment.  The  text  of  Eusebius  is  difficult  and  obscure,  and 
conveys  but  an  indefinite  idea  of  the  edifice.  Strange  to  say, 
we  have  a  plan  and  description,  which  may  be  relied  upon  as 
genuine,  in  our  own  isles. 

At  lona  flourished  abbot  Adamnan,  so  distinguished  by 
his  participation  in  the  great  paschal  controversy,  a.  d.  705  ; 
and  he  supplies  the  architectural  antiquary  with  the  know- 
ledge so  much  desired.  We  owe  the  information  to  a  sin- 
gular contingency.  After  a  long  pilgrimage  and  continued 
residence  in  the  Holy  Land,  a  Gaulish  bishop,  named 
Arculphus,  driven  to  the  Hebrides,  became  the  guest  of 
the  Culdec  monastery.    Here  he  related  his  perils,  describing 


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321 


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the  holy  places  he  had  visited ;  and  the  "  Sebellus  de  Locis 
Saudis"  ciiiitaiiis  his  narrative. 

liarely  has  any  work  been  transmitted  with  more  pecu- 
liarity and  authenticity.  Adamnan  wrote  upon  his  tablets, 
t'rom'lho  actual  dictation  of  the  stranger;  the  notes  so  taken 
became  the  book  we  now  possess.  The  Holy  Sepulchre,  as 
nii>;ht  be  anticipated,  was  the  main  object  of  Adaninan's 
curiosity  ;  and  in  addition  to  the  verbal  description,  Arcul- 
phus  drew  a  plan  of  the  buildings  upon  the  tables  with  his 
own  hand.  This  plan  Adanman  copied  in  his  manuscript ; 
he  speaks  of  his  drawing  with  extreme  humility,  calling  it  a 
vile  figuration  ;  but,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  it  with  the 
plan  of  San  Stefano  Rotondo,  it  affords  valuable  information. 
The  church  was  whuUy  of  stone,  of  "  wonderful  rotundity," 
supported  by  twelve  columns  ;  having,  as  it  would  seem,  three 
aisles;  it  was  entered  by  four  doors;  and  the  sepulchre  itself 
was  illuminated  by  twelve  lamps,  burning  day  and  night  in 
honour  of  the  twelve  apostles.  Since  Adamnan  speaks  of 
three  walls,  we  must  suppose  that  the  interior  circle  marks 
the  columns,  and  the  lines  were  probably  staircases,  leading 
to  an  upper  church  or  gallery.  When  Aculphus  saw  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  it  had  been  somewhat  damaged  by  the 
Persians,  and  it  was  subsequentlj'  ruined  by  the  Arabs ; 
yet,  as  the  existing  church  still  retains  the  original  shape, 
we  do  not  doubt  but  that  it  was  rebuilt  upon  the  original 
foundations. 

Other  churches  were  built  by  C-onstantine,  at  Jerusalem, 
AntiocI),  Nicoiuedia,  Marnbre,  Heliopolis,  Rome,  and  Con- 
stantinople, but  few  remain  to  the  present  day,  few,  at  least, 
that  have  not  been  materially  altered.  Perhaps  the  most 
pei'fecl  specimen  remaining  is  the  church  of  S.  Constantia  ; 
the  buiial-place  of  the  daughter  of  Constantine  ;  it  is  circular 
in  plan,  and  divided  by  concentric  rows  of  pillar.s,  from  which 
spring  ai dies  to  support  the  roof.  The  model  from  which  it 
w;is constructed  was  evidently  identical  with  that  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  even  were  it  not  that  structure  itself.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  some,  that  the  form  of  circular  churches  was 
derived  from  that  of  heathen  temples  of  the  same  kind,  such 
as  those  of  Vesta,  or  Minerva  Aledica ;  this,  however,  does 
not  seem  to  be  the  case,  for  although  they  are  both  circular 
in  plan,  they  are  of  entirely  different  construction  and 
arrangement.  The  temple  has  its  columns  on  the  exte- 
rior, sii|)porting  an  entablature,  while  the  church  has  its 
detached  columns  arranged  in  concentric  circles  within,  con- 
nected by  arches  springing  from  the  capitals,  forming  one  or 
more  aisles;  the  arrangement,  it  will  be  acknowledged,  is 
totally  dissimilar,  and  the  mere  outline  cannot  have  much 
weight  in  the  consideration. 

But  some  have  gone  still  further,  and  claimed  the  very  struc- 
tures themselves  for  heathen  temples:  the  building  mentioned 
above  is  supposed  by  such  to  be  an  ancient  temple  of  Bac- 
chus;  but  as  Mr.  Knight,  in  his  beautiful  work  on  this  sub- 
ject, says,  "This  opinion  is  principally  founded  on  the 
luiisaics  with  which  the  ceiling  of  the  aisles  is  adorned,  and 
which  represents  vine-leaves  and  grapes.  But  the  vine  is  a 
Christian  emblem,  and  is  so  frequently  introduced  in  the 
decoration  of  Christian  places  of  worship,  that  little  weight 
can  bo  attached  to  this  circumstance.  The  architecture  of 
this  building  is  in  conformity  with  the  style  of  the  time 
of  Constantino,  and  not  in  conformitv  with  that  of  a  much 
earlier  date."  The  fact  is,  the  circular  is  the  most  natural 
form  for  sepulchral  chapels,  where  the  chief  object  is  a  tomb, 
placed  in  the  centre.  Other  similar  chapels  are  still  in 
existence,  of  which,  probably,  the  most  remarkable,  is  that 
of  S.  Stephen.  Baptisteries  were  likewise  frequently  of  the 
same  form,  as  is  that  of  S.  John  Lateran,  but  more  fre- 
quently octagonal,    and    sometimes    octiigonal    within    and 

41 


circular  without.  All  such  buildings  seem  to  have  been 
simply  baptisteries  or  sepulchral  chapels;  the  form  is  totally 
untitted  for  the  requirements  of  the  Christian  liturgy, 
nor  do  they  seem  to  have  been  emi)loyed  for  such  pur- 
pose, with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  and  this  was  not  purely  circular,  but  had 
parts  of  different  plan  attached  to  it,  something  like  to  the 
Temple  Church,  London.  The  form  is  very  suitable  for  a 
baptistery.     See  Round  Churches. 

The  more  usual  plan  of  Christian  churches  is  that  of  a 
parallelogram,  which  form  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  heathen  courts  of  justice;  but  ere  entering  upon  the 
consideration  of  this  matter,  it  will  be  well  to  give  some 
description  of  the  parts  and  arrangement  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian churches,  as  collected  from  the  descriptions  of  Eusebius 
above  given,  and  from  the  writings  of  other  authors  who 
allude  to  the  subject. 

Prom  such  authorities,  it  would  seem  that  churches  of  this 
period  consisted  not  merely  of  a  building  for  public  service, 
but  also  oi  exhedrcE  or  out-buildings,  employed  for  the  secular 
as  well  as  religious  concerns  of  the  church;  such  as 
schools,  libraries,  houses  of  residence  for  the  clergy,  <Scc.  ; 
the  whole  being  surrounded  and  enclosed  by  an  outer  wall. 
This  arrangement  is  veiy  similar  to  that  of  our  existing 
cathedrals.  That  all  within  this  outer  wall  was  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  church,  and  consecrated  ground,  is  evident 
from  the  fact  of  its  being  acknowledged  as  a  sanctuary  in 
after  times.  The  position  of  the  church  within  this  enclosure, 
was  generally  east  and  west,  having  the  altar  toward  the 
east;  but  this  custom  was  not  always  observed,  as  we  meet 
with  many  exceptions.  That  such  a  custom  did  prevail  in 
spite  of  such  exception.s,  we  have  the  authority  of  several 
writers.  Socrates,  noticing  an  example  of  the  contrary 
practice,  says,  that  the  church  at  Antioch  stood  in  a  different 
position  to  other  churches,  for  that  the  altar  did  not  look 
towards  the  east,  but  to  the  west;  and  a  sindlar observation 
is  made  by  Paulinus  Nolanus,  respecting  one  of  his  own 
churches,  and  he  gives  the  reason  for  his  departure  from  the 
usual  custom,  namely,  that  the  structure  was  made  to  look 
towards  another,  in  memory  of  the  Saint  in  whose  name  the 
latter  was  dedicated.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  direct 
that  churches  should  be  built  toward  the  east,  but  Walafridas 
Strabo  says,  "The  ancients  were  not  nicely  curious  which 
way  their  churches  stood,  but  yet  the  most  usual  custom  was 
for  Christians  to  pray  toward  the  east,  and  therefore  the 
greater  proportion  of  churches  were  built  with  respect  to 
that  custom." 

Allowing  this  custom  to  have  prevailed  then,  we  shall 
have  our  first  or  outer  entrance  in  the  west  wall  of  the 
enclosure,  and  this  is  called  by  Eusebius  the  npo~vXov  fieya 
and  npoTTj  Eiaodrj.  Through  this  vestibule,  admittance  was 
obtained  into  a  large  quadrangle  or  open  area,  surrounded 
by  cloisters,  which  is  called  by  Eusebius,  aidpiov  and  avAT), 
and  by  the  Latins,  atrium;  the  cloisters  being  distinguished 
in  the  former  case  by  the  name  of  oroai,  and  c<jnsisting  of 
a  covered  way, the  roof  supported  l)y  pillars  or  an  open  arcade. 
The  object  of  this  court  seems  to  have  been  to  receive  the  peni- 
tents of  the  first  order,  or  mourners,  who  were  not  permitted 
to  enter  the  main  body  of  the  church;  in  after  times  it  was 
used  for  a  place  of  burial,  but  then  only  for  persons  of 
distinction  ;  kings  thinking  it  a  great  honour  to  be  buried 
within  the  gates.  This  place  was  sometimes  named  imphivivm. 
In  the  centre  of  the  open  area  was  a  fountain  or  large  basin 
of  water,  in  which  it  was  customary  for  the  Christians  to 
wash  their  hands  and  face,  and  perhaps  their  feet,  ere  they 
entered  the  church,  such  practice  being  a  symbol  of  the 
purity  of  heart  which  should  attend  them  there.     Tertulllan 


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speaks  of  the  absuidity  of  going  to  prayer  with  washed 
hands  and  a  polluted  soul.  A  similar  custom  still  prevails 
in  the  Uoniish  church,  borrowed  doubtless  from  primitive 
practice,  although  ditl'ering  in  the  intention  and  object  f)r 
wiiich  it  is  observed.  The  fountain  is  called  indifferently, 
<j>mX7]  </)pfap,  nymplurvm,  cant/iariis,  and  leonlarium,  the 
latter  term  supposed  to  have  been  applied  from  the  spouts 
being  sometimes  in  the  form  of  lions'  heads.  Socrates, 
speaking  of  the  skirmish  between  the  Catholics  and  the 
Macedonian  heretics,  saj's,  "  Such  a  slaughter  was  made,  that 
the  court  (avX.r))  was  filled  with  blood,  insomuch  that  the 
fountain  (rppe.ap)  was  overflowed  therewith,  and  ran  through 
the  adjoining  cloisters  [aroai)  even  into  the  street."  Mxam- 
ples  of  the  atriiim  in  its  primitive  shape  are  yet  preserved 
in  the  ehiirehei  of  San  Clemente,  San  Lorenzo,  San  Paolo, 
San  Georgio  in  \  elabro,  Sta  Maria  iuTrastevere  ;  remodelled 
in  San  (jiovanni  Laterano,  and  Sta  Maria  Maggiore,  and 
rebuilt  in  modern  shape  in  St.  I'eter's.  At  San  Ambrogio, 
Milan,  the  atrium  is  fully  as  large  as  the  nave. 

Entrance  was  obtained  from  the  atrium  into  the  proiinos 
or  itartliex,  through  three  gates,  of  which  the  central  one 
was  frequently  the  largest  and  most  iiriportant.  The  nartliex 
formed  the  first  division  in  the  body  of  the  church,  and  was 
used  as  the  station  for  the  catechumens,  and  such  of  the 
penitents  as  came  under  the  title  aKOvofisvoi,  or  hearers,  so 
Ciilled  from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  allowed  to  listen 
to  the  lessons  and  sermon,  to  which  privilege  also  Jews, 
heathens,  heretics,  and  schismatics  were  admitted,  in  this 
part  of  the  church.  Here  also,  somewhat  in  advance,  stood 
the  stibs/rali,  or  third  class  of  penitents,  so  called  from  the 
custom  of  prostrating  themselves  before  the  bishop,  after 
sermon  was  ended,  to  receive  his  benediction.  There  were 
frequently  more  nartheces  than  one  in  a  church,  that  of  Sta 
Sophia  is  said  to  have  had  no  less  than  four. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  vaoc.  or  nave,  the  principal 
division  of  the  church,  in  which  the  body  of  the  faithfid, 
tliosc  who  were  under  no  censure,  and  in  full  commiuiion 
with  the  church  were  congregated.  This  part  was  separated 
from  the  narthex  by  rails  of  wood,  and  was  entered  by  gates 
which  are  distinguished  by  writers  as  nvXai  KciXai,  or  jiaaiXi- 
KOI,  the  beautiful  or  royal  gates,  so  named  perhaps  from  the 
circumstance  of  kin^s  laying  aside  their  crowns  at  this  place, 
ere  they  proceeded  further  into  the  church.  Leo  Gramnialicus 
notices  it  as  a  flagrant  want  of  reverence  in  the  emperor 
Michael,  that  "when  he  came  to  the  royal  gates,  he  did  not 
lay  aside  his  crown,  as  kings  were  used  to  do." 

It  was  a  practice  with  the  early  Christians  to  separate  the 
sexes  in  public  service,  one  ]iortionof  the  church  being  allotted 
to  the  males,  and  another  to  the  females.  The  author  of  the 
Apostolical  Constitution  speaks  of  this  separation  as  usual 
in  his  time,  for  he  says,  '•  Let  the  doorkeepers  stand  at  the 
gate  of  the  men.  and  the  deaconesses  at  the  gate  of  the 
women  ;"  and  S.  Cyril  says,  "  Lot  men  be  with  men,  and 
women  with  women,  in  the  church."  Socrates  also  remarks 
of  Helena,  that  "she  always  submitted  to  the  laws  of  the 
church  in  this  respect,  praying  with  the  women  in  the 
women's  place."  In  some  cases,  the  women  w-ere  placed  on 
the  north  side  of  the  church,  but  probably  this  was  not  an 
universal  practice  ;  in  the  (ireek  church  the  galleries  were 
reserved  for  the  women.  Besides  this,  there  was  a  further 
subdivision,  distinct  positions  being  allotted  to  virgins, 
widows,  and  matrons.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  the 
virgins,  widows,  and  aged  women  were  placed  in  the  highest 
rank,  and  the  matrons  behind  them,  hi  this  manner  were 
the  communicants  disposed  in  the  nave,  but  besides  them  the 
fourth  or  last  order  of  penitt^nls  were  admitted  into  this  part 
of   the  church ;    they   were   called    Coiiais/enles,   and    were 


allowed  to  remain  during  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist, 
although  not  to  participate. 

At  the  farther  end  of  the  nave,  was  the  choir,  which  was 
divided  from  it  by  a  low  wall  or  wooden  partition  ;  here  were 
located  the  singers,  and  here  also  the  gospel  and  cpistks 
were  read  from  the  ambo,  or  pulpit.  This  was  an  elevated 
desk,  ascended  by  Several  steps,  which  S.  Cyprian  calls 
jmlpitum  and  tribunal  eeclesia;  and  which  was  elsewhere 
called  fiT]fia  j'vuiaTiov.  Bona  cites  Prudentius  to  prove  that 
the  bishops  and  priests  made  their  sermons  from  this  pulpit, 
but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake,  for  the  bishops  anciently 
addressed  the  congregation  from  the  steps  of  the  altar,  as  is 
evident  from  Valesius.  S.  Chrysostom,  it  appears,  did  preach 
from  the  ambo,  but  only  in  order  that  he  might  be  the  more 
audible  to  the  people;  such  was  not  the  usual  custom.  A 
very  perfect  example  of  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
choir  still  remains  in  the  church  of  San  Clemente. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  last  division,  which  answered  to  the 
holy  of  holies  of  the  Jewish  temple,  being  appropriated  to 
the  priests  and  the  celcbratit)n  of  the  most  sacred  offices  of 
the  church.  Eusebius  calls  this  place  ayiaofia ;  and  it  is 
elsewhere  named  oytoi',  or  the  sanctuary.  The  Latins  call 
it  scicra)-iu»>.  The  term  dvaiaarTjpiov.  which  is  more  par- 
ticularly applied  to  the  altar,  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  whole  sanctuary,  as  is  evident  fi-om  the  decrees  of  the 
council  of  Laodicea,  which  fort)id  lay  persons  entering  the 
Svaiaarrjpiov.  A  more  common  appellation  is  that  of  fiTjjia, 
which  is  so  employed  from  the  circumstance  of  this  part  of 
the  church  being  elevated  above  the  nave  by  a  series  of 
steps.  A  further  separation  was  effected  by  means  of  rails, 
or  lattice-work,  named  cancelli ;  whence  our  term  chancel. 
In  his  description  of  the  church  of  Panlinus,  Eusebius  states 
the  office  of  these  cancelli  to  be  the  rendering  the  sanctuary 
inaccessible  to  the  multitude  ;  and  the  council  of  Trullo 
directs,  "that  no  layman  whatsoever  be  permitted  to  enter 
the  place  of  the  altar,  excepting  only  the  emperor,  when  he 
makes  his  oblation  to  the  Creator,  according  to  ancient  cus- 
tom." A  similar  order  of  the  council  of  Laodicea  has  been 
given  above.  From  this  practice,  the  sanctuary  obtained  the 
epithet  advra,  avafiara,  inapproachable.  This  part  of  the 
church  was  usually  of  a  semicircular  plan,  around  the  cir- 
cumference of  which,  in  close  proximity  to  the  wall,  were 
ranged  the  seats  for  the  bishop  and  clergy.  The  throne  of 
the  bishop  w.as  in  the  centre,  immediately  behind  the  altar, 
and  raised  to  a  greater  elevation  than  those  of  the  presbyters, 
which  were  ranged  on  either  side  of  him.  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen  speaks  of  himself,  as  bishop  setting  upon  a  high 
throne,  with  the  presbyters,  on  lower  benches,  on  either  side. 

The  altar  was  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  chancel,  in  front 
of  the  bishop's  throne,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  passage  all  round 
it ;  it  was  named  indifferently  ara,  altare,  ■di'aiaarripiov  and 
ftuiwg  ;  the  latter,  however,  qualified  by  the  addition  of 
avaiiiaKTOv.  The  most  ancient  altars  were  of  wood,  as  we 
learn  from  several  passages  in  the  Fathers:  amongst  others, 
S.  Austin,  speaking  o  an  outrage  by  the  Donatists  against 
a  Catholic  bishop,  says,  "They  beat  him  cruelly  with  clubs, 
and  such  like  weapons,  and  at  last  with  the  broken  pieces  of 
the  wood  of  the  altar."  Optatus,  again,  speaking  of  the 
Donatists,  says,  "  They  brake  the  altars  in  such  pieces  as 
would  afford  them  plenty  of  wood  to  make  new  ;  but  where 
there  was  a  scarcity  of  wood,  they  contented  themselves  with 
scraping  them,  by  way  of  pretended  expiation."  W'hen  stone 
altars  began  to  be  employed,  is  very  uncertain  ;  all  that  can 
be  determined  upon  this  point  is,  that  the  material  was  in 
use  for  such  purpose  in  the  time  of  Gregory  Nyssen,  but 
how  long  before  we  cannot  tell.  Gregory,  speaking  of  the 
sacred  character  of  the  church  and  its  furniture,  says,  "This 


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alUr  whereat  we  stand  is  by  nature  only  common  stone, 
nothing  diflcrent  from  other  stones,  whereof  our  walls  are 
made  and  our  pavements  formed  ;  but  after  it  is  consecrated 
and  dediciited  to  the  service  of  God  it  becomes  a  holy  table, 
an  immaculate  altar  which  may  not  promiscuously  be  touched 
by  all,  but  only  by  the  priests  in  the  time  of  diyinc  ser- 
vice." In  the  next  century,  a  decree  was  passed  at  the 
council  of  Epone,  that  no  altars  should  be  consecrated, 
but  such  as  were  of  stone.  The  Pontificals  speak  of  silver 
altars  dedicated  by  Coustantine.  The  early  wooden  altars 
were  similar  in  shape  to  tables,  but  when  stone  was  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  they  assumed  a  somewhat  difl'erent 
appearance,  consisting  either  of  slabs  supported  by  a  cen- 
tral jiier,  or  of  a  structure  built  up  similar  to  a  sarcophagus, 
or  tomb. 

The  altar  was  covered  bj'  a  canopy,  supported  by  pillars, 
frequently  twelve  in  number,  in  allusion  to  the  number  of 
the  apostles,  and  having  their  capitals  adorned  with  silver 
bowls.  The  canopy  which  was  spherical,  was  surmounted 
with  a  cross  and  the  space  between  the  pillars  hung  with 
veils,  which  served  to  conceal  the  altar.  These  are,  perhaps, 
the  veils  alluded  to  by  Chrysostom,  where,  speaking  of  the 
consecration  of  the  elements,  he  says,  "  When  you  see  the 
veils  withdrawn,  then  think  you  see  heaven  opened,  and  the 
angels  descending  from  above."  Curtains,  however,  were 
used  in  other  parts  of  the  church,  before  the  doors,  and  at 
the  entrance  to  the  sanctuary,  which  were  sometimes  richly 
adorned  with  gold,  as  was  that  given  by  Chosroes  to  the 
church  at  Antioch.  Epijihanius  relates  his  tearing  to  pieces 
a  veil  suspended  before  the  doors  of  the  church,  because  it 
had  a  picture  on  it;  and  Athanasius,  speaking  of  the  enormi- 
ties of  the  Arians,  says,  ''They  took  the  bishop's  throne,  and 
the  seats  of  the  presbyters,  and  the  table  which  was  of  wood, 
and  the  veils  of  the  church,  and  whatever  else  they  could, 
and  carried  them  out  and  burned  them."  Sometimes  a  silver 
dove  was  suspended  over  the  altar.  The  canopy  was  turned 
ciborium,  or  TTVpyog.  In  later  times,  crosses  were  set  upon 
the  altar,  but  the  time  of  their  introduction  is  not  known  : 
Sozomcn  and  Evagrius  are  among  the  first  who  allude  to 
the  practice.  The  altar  was  covered  with  a  linen  cloth,  as 
is  evidenced  by  Optatus,  who,  in  allusion  to  the  extravagant 
pretensions  of  the  Douatists  in  purifying  everything  that 
had  been  touched  by  the  Catholics,  says  "  that  if  anything 
was  polluted,  it  must  be  the  covering,  and  not  the  tables;" 
and  adds,  that  they  pretended  to  wash  these  palls.  Some- 
times such  coverings  were  of  richer  stuff,  for  Palladius  has 
reference  to  some  lloman  ladies,  who  bequeathed  their  silks 
to  make  coverings  for  the  altar.  The  sacred  vessels  were  of 
various  materials.  We  learn  from  Irenseus,  Epiphanius,  and 
Jerome,  that  chalices  were  made  of  glass  in  their  time  ;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  silver  and  gold  were  fjequently 
employed  for  this  purpose  ;  for  it  is  related  of  Laurentius, 
who  was  martyred  in  the  time  of  Valerian,  that  he  would 
not  deliver  up  the  plate  in  which  they  were  used  to  celebrate 
the  sacred  mysteries  ;  and  in  an  inventory  delivered  up  at 
the  same  period,  by  Paul,  bishop  of  Cirta,  we  find  mention 
made  of  two  gold  cups,  six  silver  cups,  and  various  other 
vessels  of  the  same  materials. 

In  many  churches,  besides  the  altar,  was  a  side-table,  in  a 
recess,  on  one  side  of  the  bema,  where  the  offerings  of  bread 
and  wine  were  received,  and  which  is  called  by  various 
names,  TcaparpaTreia,  prolkesis,  paralorium,  oblalioiiarium, 
and  corban.  In  the  recess  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bema, 
was  the  Scenophylacium,  which  was  a  sort  of  vestry  in 
which  the  priests  robed,  and  where  the  deacons  brought  the 
vestments  and  vessels  from  the  Diaconicum,  previous  to 
service.     It  was  likewise  called  the  Diaconicum  Bemads,  to 


distinguish  it  from  the  larger  building  of  the  same  name  and 
uses  outside  tlie  church. 

Under  the  general  term  exhedrce,  are  comprehended  all 
the  buildings  that  were  contained  within  the  outermost  en- 
closure, but  without  the  walls  of  the  church,  properly  so 
called :  these  were  many  in  number  consisting  of  schools, 
residences  for  the  priests,  «S;c. ;  but  we  shall  here  only  take 
notice  of  the  more  important. 

The  Baptistery,  during  the  first  five  centuries,  formed  a 
separate  building  outside  the  church,  as  we  gather  from 
Eusebius,  Paulinus  of  Nola,  and  Gregory  of  Tours.  It  was 
a  large  and  capacious  edifice,  containing  several  apartments, 
some  perhaps  for  the  catechumens,  and  was  not  unfrcquently 
octagonal  in  plan.  It  was  necessary  that  these  buildings 
should  be  somewhat  extensive,  for  the  sacrament  of  baptism 
was  but  seldom  celebrated,  the  two  seasons  set  apart  for  the 
purpose  being  Easter  and  Pentecost;  so  that  a  large  number 
of  persons  were  congregated  together  at  the  same  time ;  and 
there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  there  was  but  one  baptistery 
to  each  cit}',  however  numerous  the  churches  may  have  been. 
In  the  centre  of  this  buUding  was  the  font,  which  was  largo 
enough  for  immersion. 

The  Secretarium,  or  Diaconicum,  was  a  building  in  which 
all  the  property  belonging  to  the  church,  such  as  vestments, 
vessels,  offerings,  &c.,  were  deposited  when  not  in  use,  and 
whence  they  were  carried  into  the  church  when  required. 
It  was  called  diaconicum  from  the  fact  of  the  deacons  having 
charge  of  all  matters  contained  therein. 

Another  outbuilding  was  the  Library,  as  we  learn  from 
Eusebius,  who  tells  us  that  he  was  greatly  indebted  to  that 
founded  by  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  in  procuring 
materials  for  the  compilation  of  his  history;  and  Julius 
Africanus  is  said  to  have  founded  another  at  Ca;sarea.  The 
largest  library  was  probably  that  belonging  to  the  church  of 
Sta  Sophia,  Constantinople,  which  is  said  to  have  contained 
one  hundred  thousand  books,  and  was  burned  down  by  the 
firing  of  the  city  in  a  proper  tumult.  That  Schools  were 
attached  to  the  church,  we  may  know  from  what  Socrates 
says  of  Julian,  "that,  in  his  youth,  he  frequented  the  church, 
where,  in  those  days,  the  schools  were  kept." 

Amongst  the  exhedrre  are  likewise  reckoned  the  mita- 
torium,  gazophylacium  and  pastophoria  but  of  these  we 
know  little  or  nothing. 

As  regards  the  decoration  of  the  interior  of  the  church, 
we  may  gather,  that  the  walls  were  sometimes  coated  with 
marble,  and  most  frequently  adorned  with  inscriptions  of 
passages  of  Scripture,  or  other  religious  writings  appro- 
priately disposed.  Thus  S.  Ambrose  speaks  of  the  text, 
"There  is  a  difference  between  a  wife  and  a  virgin,"  &c., 
being  written  on  the  walls  near  the  virgins'  seats  ;  Paulinus 
mentions  several  passages  applied  to  the  same  purpose,  as  do 
also  Sidonius  and  Apollinaris.  The  roofs  were  enriched  with 
mosaic,  or  what  is  called  lacunary  or  panel-work,  and  in  this 
case  gilding  and  colour  were  employed  ;  in  the  church  of 
Sta  Sophia  is  an  instance  of  the  former  practice,  and  in  that 
of  Constantine  at  Jerusalem,  an  example  of  the  latter,  where 
the  roof  was  panelled,  and  covered  with  gold.  S.  Jerome 
likewise  speaks  of  lacunary  golden  roofs,  walls  adorned  with 
marble,  pillars  with  capitals  of  shining  gold,  gates  inlaid  with 
ivory  and  silver,  and  altars  set  with  precious  stones  and  gold. 
Such  was  the  arrangement  and  decoration  of  an  early  Chris- 
tian church. 

We  have  already  considered  the  question  relative  to  the 
conversion  of  heathen  temples  to  the  purposes  of  Christian 
worship  ;  but  there  is  yet  another  building  in  use  amongst  the 
pagans,  which  lays  claim  to  the  same  honour,  and  with  some 
greater  show  of  probability,  it  is  the  basilica.     The  Roman 


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basilica  was  the  hall  of  public  justice,  the  court  in  which, 
during  the  early  history  of  that  nation,  the  Uings  sat  to  hear 
and  decide  the  causes  of  their  subjects;  it  was,  in  fact,  at 
that  period  a  ro\al  palace  situate  in  the  Forum,  whence  the 
name.  The  word,  however,  is  Greek,  and  was  first  applied 
to  the  portico  in  the  Athenian  Ceramicus  immediately 
beneath  the  Pnyx  ;  the  custom,  as  well  as  the  building,  was 
borrowed  by  the  Romans.  Such  edifices  varied  in  form  in 
dillerent  instances,  but  not  to  any  very  jireat  extent,  the 
same  disposition  seems  to  have  been  universally  observed  and 
was  as  follows  : — 

The  plan  was  an  oblimg,  terminated  at  one,  or  sometirnes 
both  ends,  with  a  semi-circle ;  the  semi-circle  was  occasionally 
omitted,  and  sometimes  there  were  two  or  three  of  different 
dimensions.  Internally  the  breadth  was  divided  into  three — 
rarely  into  live — by  two  or  four  rows  of  columns  running 
down  the  length  of  the  church  ;  at  the  extreme  end  was  the 
semi-circular  apse,  in  the  midst  of  which  was  the  seat  of  the 
praitor,  whence  he  administered  justice  ;  this  was  the  tri- 
bunal. On  either  side  of  the  prietor,  but  lower  down,  were 
the  benches  for  his  assessors,  the  eentumviri,  and  other 
officers,  and  all  these  were  separated  from  the  other  part  of 
the  building  by  an  enclosure  of  lattice-work,  to  which  was 
given  the  name  of  cancelli.  Outside  of  this  screen  was 
a  place  allnttod  to  the  notaries  and  advocates,  the  remainder 
of  the  building  being  occupied  by  the  people. 

We  have  here  a  three-aisled  structure,  the  divisions  being 
formed  by  two  central  rows  of  columns  and  two  outer  walls, 
the  columns  frequently  supporting  agallery  in  theouter  divi- 
sions. The  central  portion  was  generally  lighted  from  win- 
dows or  openings  in  a  wall  raised  above  the  columns,  thus 
forming  a  sort  of  clere-story.  This  roof  was  invariably  of 
wood,  and  did  not  always  cover  the  whole  building.  For  a 
further  description  see  Basilica. 

Some  writers  suppose  that  several  such  buildings  were 
delivered  by  Const;intinc  into  the  hands  of  the  Christians, 
and  were  employed  by  them  as  churches,  or  places  of  public 
worship.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  assert,  that  they  were  the  pro- 
totype of  the  succeeding  churches,  not  only  in  form  but  in 
the  division  and  disposition  of  the  parts.  The  writer  we  have 
had  occasion  to  quote  in  a  previous  part  of  this  article  speaks 
thus : — 

"  Had  the  basilica,  such  as  we  have  described  it,  been 
planned  for  the  express  reception  of  a  Christian  congregation, 
it  scarcely  could  have  received  a  more  convenient  or  appro- 
priate form — none  more  happily  combining  mngnilicence  with 
utility — none  more  consonant  to  the  ideas  which  then  pre- 
vailed. The  general  shape  of  the  church  as  prescribed  by 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  was  to  be  an  oblong  like  unto  a 
ship,  that  is,  to  the  vessel  of  the  ark.  Does  not  the  outline 
of  the  ground-plot  of  the  basilica  entirely  meet  the  sugges- 
tion? and  the  terms  nave,  nef  or  vaisseau,  applied  to  the 
main  portion  of  the  edifice,  show  how  enduringly  the  idea 
prevailed  in  subsequent  ages.  The  apse  in  which  the  prwtor 
administered  justice,  surrounded  by  tlie  cenlumviri  and  other 
judges  ofli-red  a  dignified  tribunal  for  the  bisho]')  and  his 
clergy;  the  dark  chambers  below  suggested  the  subterraneous 
chapel,  in  which  might  be  deposited  the  lemains  of  saint  or 
martyr.  The  enclosures,  the  cancelli  for  the  notaries  and 
advocates,  might  receive  the  singers  of  the  choir.  The 
lengthened  aisles  would  furnish  space  for  the  congregation 
of  the  faithful:  the  galleries  seclude  the  women;  and  the 
porch  fronting  some  of  the  basilicas,  or  the  uncovered  por- 
tion which,  if  separated  from  the  rest  by  a  wall,  would  con- 
stitute a  court,  was  prepared  for  those  who  had  been  sepa- 
r.ated  from  the  rest  of  the  congregation  by  their  sins,  or  were 
not  yet  allowed  to  participate  in  the  sacraments.     Hence  we 


find  from  one  of  those  incidental  notices  which  often  are 
more  instructive  than  the  set  nanative  of  history,  that  the 
basilica  had  been  given  up,  bodily,  for  the  purpose  of  Chris- 
tian worship.  A  poet,  but  also  a  rhetor,  addressing  an 
emperor,  tells  him  that  these  structures,  heretofore  wont  to 
be  tilled  up  with  men  of  business,  were  now  thronged  with 
votaries  praying  for  his  safety;  'Basilica  olim  neffotiis 
plena,  7nuic  votis  pro  tua  salute  susceplis.'  This  occupation 
of  the  Roman  basiliwe  was,  nevertheless,  only  transitory. 
They  did  not  become  the  abiding-places  of  the  faith.  Why  was 
this  privilege  denied  them  ?  In  situation  they  were  most  con- 
venient, placed  in  the  centre  of  business  and  population  ; 
their  plan  and  form  so  convenient  as  to  invite  the  purposes 
of  worship.  Unpolluted  by  the  idol  or  sacrifice,  they  were 
free  from  the  recollections  rendering  the  heathen  temple 
odious.  W'ith  the  smallest  proportionate  expense  or  labour, 
the  basiliciB  of  the  Forum  might  have  been  rendered  the 
most  stately  and  dignified  of  sanctuaries.  Yet  they  fell  ! 
Only  one  example  can  be  found  of  a  secular  basilica  actually 
converted  into  a  Christian  church — and  that  example,  memo- 
rable as  it  is,  does  not  exist  in  Rome.  As  if  for  the  purpose 
ofcoustantly  demonstrating  to  mankind  the  visil)le  tiiuniph  of 
the  spiritual  kingdom,  every  stage  in  the  early  development 
of  the  empire  of  Christianity  seemed  destined  to  ellace  the 
honours  of  heathen  sovereignty.  The  Christian  basilica, 
though  entirely  modelled  upon  the  heathen  basilica,  and  con- 
struitted  with  the  spoils  of  the  basilica,  was  therefore  fated  to 
be  its  ruin  and  destruction. 

"  A  single  cause  suffices — a  cause  of  which  we  now  can 
searcely  appreciate  the  potency.  Veneration  for  tiie  graves 
of  the  martyrs,  as  an  almost  irresistible  motive,  attracted  the 
Christian  basilica  away  equally  from  the  precinct  of  the  secu- 
lar basilica  as  from  the  site  of  the  heathen  temple.  By 
determining  the  locality  assigned  to  the  Christian  edifice,  this 
feeling  necessarily  determined  the  neglect,  ruin,  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  proud  monuments  of  senators  and  Ca-sars.  The 
demolition  of  earlier  structures,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
materials,  had  already  been  long  practised.  Thus  the  interior 
of  the  Coliseum  displ.iys  the  friezes  and  fragments,  mixed 
up  in  contusion,  amidst  the  masonry  of  the  beautiful  yet 
appalling  circuit  of  its  walls.  These,  perhaps,  may  have 
resulted  from  the  removal  of  other  buildings  previou^!y 
existing  on  the  site  ;  but  under  Constantine  similar  demo- 
litions proceeded,  as  it  should  seem,  equally  from  the  desire 
of  sparing  expense,  and  the  increasing  inability  to  execute 
works  of  art.  The  splendid  Forum  of  Trajan,  which  had 
excited  Constantine's  admiration,  fell  at  his  command,  and 
furnished  by  its  spoils  the  decorations  c>f  the  arch  of  the  first 
Christian  emperor.  Abandoned  for  more  hallowed  ground, 
the  civil  basilicas  were  destroyed,  and  the  columns  which 
supported  them  transported  to  the  new  sites,  where  they 
arose  in  lengthened  perspective  and  barbaric  splendour. 
By  their  very  aspect,  such  of  the  Christian  churches  as 
retain  their  original  features,  show  the  haste  and  unskilful- 
noss  with  w  hich  they  are  reared  ;  one  capital  cut  through  and 
deprived  of  the  lower  range  of  the  acanthus,  to  fit  it  into  the 
required  space  ;  another  projecting  over  the  shaft ;  a  third 
shrinking  within  ;  a  fourth,  the  leaves  blocked,  and  prepared 
for  the  touch — never  to  be  given — of  the  chisel  that  was  to 
have  imparted  Corinthian  elegance; — the  columns  them- 
selves of  unequal  circumference  or  unequal  height,  deprived 
of  their  due  proportions,  or  rudely  stilted  to  attain  the  neces- 
sary elevation.  The  richest  materials  arc  mixed  with  others 
of  inferior  quality  ;  pavonazzo  and  verd  antique,  the  prndiicts 
of  the  quarries  of  Sycne  or  of  I'aros,  and  the  liiuiiely  Tiaves- 
tiiie,  are  intermingled  witluiut  choice  or  discrimination." 

This  writer  is  of  opinion  that  the  heathen  basilicas  were 


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not  actual  ly  converted  into  Christian  temples ;  there  are  many, 
however,  who  hold  the  contrary,  amongst  whom  is  Mr.  Hope, 
who  cites,  as  examples  of  such  adaptation,  the  Scssorian  basi- 
lica, and  that  in  the  palace  of  the  Lateran,  which  he  says 
were  given  to  the  church  by  Constantine.  The  strongest 
argument  on  this  side,  is,  we  think,  the  triumphant  decla- 
ration of  Ausouius,  that  the  ancient  halls  of  justice  were 
filled  with  Christian  worshippers ;  the  above-mentioned 
reviewer  alludes  to  this  passage  in  the  following  words  :  — 

"  We  have  already  seen  that  no  one  of  the  Christian 
basilica;  at  Rome,  resulted  from  any  adaptation  of  the  civil 
structures  of  heathenism  to  religious  purposes.  The  columns 
fell,  to  rise  in  new  localities.  Rome  furnishes  no  example 
of  a  basilica  preserved  by  its  application  to  Christian  worship. 
No  confirmation  is  given  in  the  ancient  capital  to  the  orator's 
assertions,  e.\ulting,  in  the  presence  of  Gratian,  at  the  crowds 
which  filled  the  ancient  halls  of  justice,  then,  as  he  boasts, 
resounding  with  hymn  and  praise;  yet  we  can  point  out  one 
city  in  which  his  assertions  are  not  a  rhetorical  phrase,  but 
a  truth.  Do  we  seek  for  the  verification  of  the  words  of  the 
poet-rhetor, '  Basilica,  olim  ncgolus  plena,  nunc  votis  pro  tua 
salute  susceptis?'  Ilcro  we  find  tliat  which  at  Rome  we 
search  for  in  vain.  Here  alone  can  we  behold  the  one 
example  of  a  basilica  consecrated  as  a  Christian  church,  in 
■which  you  enter,  and  see  the  Corinthian  capitals  just  display- 
ing their  graceful  foliage,  mutilated  and  }-et  distinct — through 
the  rude  wall  which  encircles  them — whilst  the  shaft  of 
another,  displaced  and  broken,  lies  in  gigantic  bulk  before 
the  (lortal  of  the  edifice.  This  indeed  is  the  very  city  in 
which  the  poet-rhetor  was  speaking — for  he  is  Ausonius — 
and  the  city  is  Treves.  The  ancient  capital  of  the  Roman 
empire  beyond  the  Alps,  furnished  the  model  for  the  struc- 
tures, which,  far  more  than  those  of  Rome  herself,  assisted  in 
the  development  of  Christian  architecture." 

We  cannot  think  this  a  satisfactorv  method  of  getting  over 
the  difliculty  ;  Ausonius  seems  to  sjieak  of  such  facts  as  well 
and  universally  known  ;  he  is  describing  the  general  eifcct 
of  Christianity,  and  glorying  in  its  success ;  his  are  sweeping 
assertions,  not  a[)plic;ible  to  merely  individual  instances,  but 
to  general  custom.  Besides,  if  the  Christians  at  Treves 
converted  basilicas  into  churches,  why  should  they  not  do 
the  same  elsewhere  ?  and  especially  in  the  metropolis,  where 
there  was  a  larger  proportion  of  such  buildings,  and  greater 
need  of  churches. 

While  saying  this,  we  do  not  mean  to  deny  that  there 
was  a  strong  repugnance  amongst  the  early  Christians  to 
everything  that  had  been  connected  with  paganism,  and 
that  the  application  of  the  basilica  was  rather  a  matter  of 
necessity  than  of  choice.  When  Constantine  legalized 
Christianity,  the  Christians  numbered  somewhat  considerably, 
and  no  doubt  increased  rapidly  upon  that  event ;  many  who 
previously  favoured  that  religion,  but  were  fearful  of  the 
consequences  of  an  avowal,  now  openly  professing  it. 
Churches  were  needed  more  than  ever,  and  they  had  not 
skill  wherewith  to  erect  them  ;  what  could  be  done  ?  where 
were  churches  to  be  found,  while  new  ones  were  building? 
were  tliere  any  existing  buildings  that  could  be  adapted  to 
such  a  purpose  1  The  pagan  temples  were  not  fitted  for 
such  uses,  even  had  there  been  no  repugnance  to  their 
origin  ;  but  the  basilicas  would  answer  the  purpose  well,  as 
far  as  their  construction  was  concerned,  nor  were  there  equal 
objections  to  them  on  the  score  of  their  previous  employment. 
What  more  likely  than  that  they  should  be  used  at  least  for 
a  time,  until  new  structures  could  be  erected  1 

The  counter-argument  arising  from  the  absence  of  any 
examples  of  such  adaptation  of  the  civil  basilica,  may  be 
accounted  for  without  much  difficult}' :  they  were  destroyed. 


to  afford  materials  for  new  structures  in  other  sites.  The 
principal  cause  of  their  destruction  or  removal,  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  veneration  of  the  Christians  for  the  graves 
of  the  martyrs.     On  this  subject,  Mr.  Knight  says  : — 

"  From  the  custom  which  had  originated  in  the  catacombs 
— from  the  habit  which  the  primitive  Christians  had  acquired 
of  visiting  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  ;  it  became  a  matter  of 
necessity  to  associate  the  church  with  the  tomb,  and  to  pro- 
vide a  place  of  worship  below  ground,  as  well  as  above. 
This,  in  several  instances,  was  accomplished  at  Rome  by 
placing  the  church  immediately  above  a  part  of  the  cata- 
combs, as  at  San  Lorenzo  and  Santa  Agnese;  or,  as  at  St. 
Peter's,  by  placing  the  altar  immediately  above  the  spot  to 
which  the  mortal  remains  of  the  apostles  had  been  removed. 

"  The  practice  of  associating  the  churches  with  the  graves 
of  martyrs,  was  the  cause  of  their  being  frequently  placed 
in  situations  which  had  little  reference  to  public  convenience; 
namely,  without  the  walls  of  the  cities  to  which  they  be- 
longed ;  for,  as  executions  usually  took  place  without  the 
walls,  and  as  the  martyrs  were  often  buried,  or  supposed  to 
have  been  buried,  where  they  were  put  to  death,  the  wish 
of  that  ago  could  not  be  accomplished  without  frequently 
placing  the  churches  in  remote  and  insulated  situations. 
Thus  it  was  that  Constantine  placed  the  church  of  St.  Peter 
adjacent  to  the  circus  of  Nero,  though  the  city  of  Rome  was, 
at  that  time,  at  some  distance  from  the  Vatican  Hill.  Thco- 
dosius,  for  similar  reasons,  placed  the  church  of  St.  Paul  at 
an  equal  distance  from  the  city  on  the  opposite  side.  At 
that  time,  a  liability,  which  afterwards  exposed  insulated 
churches  and  their  frequenters  to  much  peril,  did  not  exist. 
At  that  time,  the  interior  of  the  empire  was  still  inviolate, 
and  those  who  built  the  churches  never  imagined  that  the 
day  might  come,  when  their  descendants  could  not  go  out  of 
the  walls  without  being  liable  to  attacks,  and  when  the 
churches  themselves  would  be  exposed  to  insult  and  injury. 
Little  did  Constantine  imagine,  that  men  of  a  newer  religion 
than  his  own  would  ever  reach  and  deface  the  cathedral 
which  he  had  planted  within  sight  of  the  metropolis  of  the 
world." 

The  existence  of  such  a  feeling  amongst  the  early  Cliris- 
tians,  coupled  with  the  circumstance  of  the  tombs  of  martyrs 
being  usually  without  the  walls,  and  the  prevalent  custom  of 
employing  the  materials  of  old  buildings  for  the  construction 
of  new,  will  account,  as  we  think,  satisfactorily  for  the  want 
of  more  tangible  evidence  of  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
basilica  to  Christian  uses. 

While  we  contend  thus  far,  we  do  not  wish  to  ally  our- 
selves with  those  who  maintain,  that  the  arrangement  of 
churches  was  derived  from  that  of  the  civil  basilica  :  there 
is  no  doubt  a  similarity  of  distribution  and  a  certain  analogy 
between  the  purposes  which  each  division  in  cither  building 
served  ;  still,  there  are  strong  grounds  for  believing  that 
such  disposition  in  the  churches  arose  from  the  natural 
requirements  of  the  religion,  rather  than  from  any  extra- 
neous influence.  The  description  of  the  several  orders  of 
penitents,  and  of  their  positions  in  the  church,  as  above 
given,  is  sufficient  proof  of  such  being  the  case,  for  that  was 
written  during  times  of  persecution,  before  Constantine  had 
ascended  the  throne ;  the  division  into  parts,  therefore, 
was  determined  long  ere  any  basilicas  were  given  up  for 
Christian  worship.  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  the 
form  of  later  churches  was  derived  from  that  of  the  basilica; 
for  it  must  needs  be,  that  either  some  existing  form  was 
copied,  or  an  entirely  new  idea  originated.  That  the  latter 
was  the  case  is  very  improbable,  from  the  nature  of  things, 
almost  all  novelties  having  emanated,  in  some  degree  or  other, 
from  things  previously  existing  :   but,  besides  this,  such  an 


ECU 


326 


ECH 


oecuirence  was  more  especially  improbable  at  the  period 
alluded  to,  when  art  was  falling  to  decay,  and  its  influence 
was  not  sliong  enough  even  to  retain  previous  acquirements, 
much  less  to  originate  new.  The  main  features  in  the 
churches  erected  iuimediately  after  the  establishment  of 
Christianity,  with  the  exception  of  Constantine's  circular 
buildings,  were  those  of  the  civil  basilica  :  there  were  some 
few  alterations  and  additions,  it  is  true,  to  adapt  the  form  to 
the  requirements  of  the  church;  but  these  were  at  first  not 
very  considerable,  although  extended  farther  in  after  times. 
Of  these  were  the  atrium  and  out-buildings;  and,  in  later 
times,  transepts.  With  regard  to  the  latter,  it  has  been 
argued  by  some,  that  they  are  to  be  found  in  the  civil  struc- 
tures ;  at  least,  in  the  internal  arrangement ;  but  this  we 
think  almost  too  nice  a  similarity.  Tiiere  was,  indeed,  a 
cross-passage  at  the  end  of  the  nave,  so  to  speak,  but  we  can 
scarcely  set  it  down  as  the  prototype  of  the  transept.  The 
cross-form  originated  in  Christian  symbolism  ;  nor  does  it 
appear  even  in  ciniiches  of  the  earliest  date.  Tlie  Apostolical 
Constitutions  allude  to  ehuiclics  as  being  in  the  form  of  a 
ship,  and  such  seems  to  have  been  the  actual  shape  of  the 
first  buildings.  The  cross-plan  was  a  gradual  development. 
At  first,  we  find  the  cross  a  prominent  feature  in  the  inter- 
nal decoration,  as  at  St.  Clement's,  where  the  paving  of  the 
nave  is  arranired  in  that  form;  and  afterwards  forming  an 
essential  olliec  in  the  construction,  as  in  the  Byzantine 
ehurelies.  and  the  later  basilicas.  We  are  of  opinion,  then, 
that,  at  the  onset,  civil  basilicas  were  employed  for  Christian 
worship,  though  rather  as  a  matter  of  necessity  than  choice; 
that  the  division  and  disposition  of  parts  observable  in  the 
early  churches  was  not  derived  from  the  basilica;  but  that 
their  foim  and  construction  was  so  derived  ;  and  that  hence 
was  developed  the  form  of  churches  in  after  ages. 

As  regards  the  styles  of  architecture  employed,  the  earliest 
constructions  can  scarcely  be  said  to  belong  to  any  stjle  ; 
they  were  composed  of  the  ruins  of  heathen  structures,  pro- 
miscuously heaped  together ;  columns  from  one  building, 
entablature  from  another;  or  even  one  column  from  one 
building,  and  the  next  from  a  second  ;  and  not  unfrequently 
the  shaft  or  base  of  one  column  with  the  capital  of  another  : 
columns  of  ditTerent  heights  and  proportions  were  huddled 
into  the  same  row,  and  the  difierence  of  level  made  up  either 
by  stilting  or  cutting  short.  The  Byzantine  churches,  with 
their  square  plans  and  spherical  roofs,  are  the  first  buildings 
which  can  be  said  to  possess  any  style,  and  these  were  chiefly 
conlined  to  Asia  Minor,  having  little  influence  in  Italy  until 
the  sixth  century.  (See,  Bvzantine  Architecturk.) 
Shortly  alter  this,  the  Lombards  established  themselves  in 
Italy  ;  and  although  they  brought  with  them  no  architecture 
of  their  own,  they  gave  a  somewhat  novel  character  to  the 
buildings  erected  by  them,  the  difierence  being  principallly  in 
detail.  This  style  prevailed  in  the  north  of  Italy  up  to  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  at  the  commencement  of  which 
some  marked  alterations  were  introduced.  (See,  Lombaudic 
ARfiiiThxruuE.)  To  this  succeeded  tliivt  most  perfect  form 
of  Ecclesiastical  Architecture,  pre-eminently  termed  the 
Christian  style,  which  has  prevailed,  with  sonic  interruptions, 
ever  since  ;  we  need  swircely  add,  we  allude  to  the  Gothic, 
or  pointed,  which  fiir  its  solemn  grandeur,  as  well  as  for 
it.s  perfect  construction,  is,  of  all,  the  most  appropriate  for 
a  Christian  temfde. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  conclusion  of  this  inter- 
esting subject,  and  for  any  further  information  must  refer 
to  such  articles  as  Cncucii,  Cathedral,  Gornic,  and  Saxon 
Architecture,  &c. 

ECHINUS  (from  ettvof,  a  word  denoting  the  prickly 
cover  of  a  chcsnut)  a  convex  moulding  in  the  form  of  a  conic 


section,  generally  carved  into  ornaments  representing  trun- 
cated spheroids,  or  eggs,  with  the  upper  ends  cut  off.  the 
upperpartof  the  axis  projecting,  and  the  lower  part  receding. 
Each  truncated  spheroid  is  surrounded  with  a  border,  of  an 
elliptic  figure,  in  close  contact,  showing  something  more  than 
a  semi-ellipsis,  the  shorter  axis  being  horizontal. 

The  pnjccting  edge  of  the  border  is  in  the  surface  of  the 
moulding,  previously  wrought,  as  is  also  the  curvature  oT 
the  upper  j)art  of  the  spheroid.  Every  two  adjacent  borders 
contain  a  space  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  bonier  at  the 
top,  and  gradually  receding  towards  the  bottom.  In  each 
recess,  or  space,  is  an  anchor,  or  tongue  ;  the  front  edge  of 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  original 
m(julding,  and  is  in  a  vertical  line  cutting  the  snrface  of 
the  moulding  at  right  angles. 

In  Grecian  architecture,  the  front  of  each  border,  and  also 
the  front  of  each  tongue,  or  anchor,  is  wrought  to  an  angle, 
the  section  of  which  inclines  equally  to  the  surfiice.  The 
bottom  of  the  spaces  on  each  side  of  the  tongue,  on  the 
under  side,  is  nearly  in  the  same  surface  as  the  recess  on 
the  sides  of  the  eggs. 

In  Koman  architecture,  the  general  contour  is  the  segment 
or  quarter  of  a  circle,  and  the  fronts  of  the  surrounding  Ijor- 
ders  are  not  brought  to  an  angle,  but  remain  as  part  of  the 
moulding,  either  jilain  or  with  a  hollow  sunk  between  the 
edges,  leaving  a  fillet  next  to  each  edge. 

Its  situation  in  an  order,  is  in  the  entablature  or  cajiital, 
but  never  in  the  base. 

In  the  original  Doric  order,  the  ovolo,  which  crowns  the 
cornice,  and  that  of  the  capital,  are  never  carved.  In  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthi.in  entablatures,  it  may  either  be  carved  or 
not,  but  in  the  antiques  it  is  generally  carved.  The  ovolo 
in  the  capitals  of  these  orders,  is,  however,  always  carved 
into  the  ornaments  we  are  describing.  The  French  call  this 
moulding,  qjiart  de  rond ;  the  English,  qiiarler-round,  or 
bouUirKj ;  the  Itali.ans,  ovolo ;  the  Latins,  ovum,  from  its 
being  usually  carved  with  the  figures  of  eggs ;  and  the 
French,  for  the  same  reason,  sometimes  call  it  an/. 

ECHO,  (from  the  Greek,  Tjxog,  soiiiid,  of  the  verb,  rjxeu, 
I  sound.)  the  reverberation  of  sound,  occasioned  by  the 
particular  construction  of  a  vault  or  wall,  the  section  of 
which  is  most  commonly  of  an  elliptical  or  parabolical  figure. 
The  method  of  making  artificial  echoes,  is  taught  by  the 
Jesuit  Blancani,  in  his  JSchomeiria,  at  the  end  of  his  Vniok 
On  the  Sphere. 

We  are  infiirmed  by  Vitruvius,  that  in  various  parts  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  there  were  br.azen  vessels,  ingeniously 
arrant;ed  under  the  seats  of  the  theatres,  to  render  the  sound 
of  the  actors'  voices  more  clear,  and  make  a  kind  of  echo; 
by  which  means  the  prodigious  multitude  of  persons  pre- 
sent  at  their  spectacles  were  enabled  to  hear  with  ease  and 
pleasure. 

The  distribution  of  sound  in  public  edifices,  so  that  the 
echoes  mav  be  most  advantageously  brought  to  strengthen 
the  original  sound,  is  a  suliject  practically  deserving  much 
attention.  In  Sir  J.  Ilerschel's  Treatise  on  Sound,  the 
reader  will  find  some  sensible  observations  on  the  errors  of 
architects  in  this  respect.  The  inattention  of  the  latter  to 
the  effect  of  the  reverberation  of  sound,  was  curiously 
exemplified  in  the  cathedral  of  Girgenti,  where  the  con- 
fessional was  placed  in  a  focus  conjugate  to  another  and 
unenclosed  part  of  the  church  ;  by  which  unlucky  error  the 
echo  was  instrumental  in  informing  a  husband  of  the  infi- 
delity of  his  spouse.  In  many  of  our  public  buildings, 
thousrh  professedly  erected  lor  purposes  where  the  proper 
distribution  of  sound  is  of  paramount  importance,  it  is  no 
uncommon  occurrence,  that  one  part  of  the  audience  pos- 


sesses  a  monopoly,  while  the  remainder  witness  the  ceremony 
or  performance  in  dumb  show. 

Sounds  are  reflected  by  certain  configurations  of  bodies, 
like  the  reflection  of  light  from  polished  surfaces;  so  that  if 
a  person  situated  before  one  of  these  bodies  utter  a  word,  he 
will  in  a  short  time  after  iiearthe  echo,  or  repetition  of  the 
sound.  The  vibratory  motion  of  the  air,  which  constitutes 
sound,  is  reflected  by  hard  bodies,  and,  in  certain  cases,  even 
by  fluids.  Thus  the  sides  of  a  hill,  houses,  rocks,  banks  of 
earth,  the  large  trunks  of  trees,  the  surface  of  water,  espe- 
cially at  the  bottom  <jf  a  well,  and  sometimes  even  the  clouds, 
have  been  found  ca[)able  of  reflecting  sounds.  The  confi- 
guration t>f  the  surface  of  these  bodies,  is  much  more  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  the  echo  than  their  substance. 
A  smooth  surface  reflects  sounds  much  better  than  a  rough 
one.  A  convex  surface  is  a  very  bad  reflector  of  sound  ;  a  Mat 
one  reflects  very  well ;  but  a  small  degree  of  concavity,  par- 
ticularly wiicn  the  sounding  body  is  in  or  near  the  focus  of 
concavity,  renders  the  surface  a  much  better  reflector,  and  the 
echo  is  heard  considerably  louder. 

Thus,  in  an  elliptical  apartment,  if  the  sounding  body  be 
placed  in  one  focus,  the  sound  will  be  hoard  much  louder  by 
a  person  situated  in  the  other  focus  of  the  ellipsis,  that  in 
any  other  part  of  the  room.  In  this  case,  the  effect  is  so 
powerful,  that  even  when  the  middle  part  of  the  room 
is  wanting,  the  sound  expressed  in  one  focus  will  be  heard 
by  a  person  situated  in  the  other,  but  hardly  at  all  by  those 
who  stand  in  the  intermediate  space. 

Without  attempting  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  the 
vibrating  air  impinges  upon,  and  is  sent  back  by,  the  reflect- 
ing body,  which  woidd  lead  us  too  far  into  the  science  of 
acoustics,  we  shall  briefly  notice  the  following  ascertained 
facts. 

If  a  person  standing  before  a  high  wall,  a  bank,  a  rock, 
(fcc,  at  a  certain  distance,  and  uttering  a  word  with  a  pretty 
strong  voice,  or  producing  by  a  hammer,  stone,  &c.,  any 
short,  sharp  sound,  hear  a  repetition  of  that  word  or  sound, 
he  will  jind  that  the  time  elapsed  between  his  uttering  the 
word,  or  striking  with  the  hammer,  and  hearing  of  the  echo, 
is  equal  to  the  time  that  a  sound  is  known  to  employ  in  going 
through  an  extension  of  twice  the  distance  between  him  and 
the  reflecting  wall,  rock,  &c. ;  for  the  vibratory  motion  of  the 
air  must  proceed  from  the  sounding  person  to  the  wall,  &c., 
and  back  again  from  the  latter  to  the  former.  Now,  sound 
is  known  to  travel  at  the  rate  of  about  1,125  feet  in  a 
second  of  time  ;  therefore,  if  the  person  who  expresses  the 
word,  or  any  sound  whatever,  stand  at  the  distance  of  1,125 
feet  fronr  the  echoing  wall,  &c.,  two  seconds  of  time  must 
elapse  between  his  uttering  the  sound  and  his  hearing  the 
echo.  If  the  distance  be  equal  to  4,500  feet,  then  eight 
seconds  of  time  must  elapse  between  the  uttering  of  the 
sound,  and  the  arrival  of  the  echo ;  and  so  on.  But  the  same 
original  sound  and  the  echo  may  be  heard  by  persons  at 
difl'erent  distances,  both  from  the  original  sounding-place,  and 
from  the  reflecting  body.  The  effect,  however,  will  not  be 
exactly  uniform,  for  those  who  are  nearer  to  the  reflecting 
body,  will  hear  the  echo  sooner  than  persons  more  remote. 
A  situation  may  be  easily  found,  from  which  they  will  hear 
both  the  original  sound  and  the  echo  at  the  same  instant,  and 
as  both  sounds  coalesce,  they  will  only  appear  as  one  loud 
sound,  without  the  echo. 

But  though  several  persons,  in  different  situations,  may 
hear  the  echo  of  the  same  sound,  yet  the  echo  will  be  heard 
better  in  one  particular  direction  than  in  any  other ;  now  if 
two  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  the  middle  of  a  reflecting 
surface,  one  to  the  place  from  which  the  original  sound  pro- 
ceeds, and  the  other  to  the  above-mentioned  best  direction, 


those  two  lines  will  be  found  to  make  equal  angles  with  the 
surface.  Hence  it  appears,  that  in  the  reflection  of  sound, 
the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection. 
Therefore,  if  a  person  wishes  to  hear  the  echo  of  his  own 
voice  in  the  best  possible  manner,  he  must  stand  in  a  direc- 
tion perpendicular  to  the  reflecting  surface.  And  this  shows, 
that  though  sound  proceeds  from  an  original  sounding  body, 
or  from  a  reflecting  surface,  in  every  direction  ;  yet  a  greater 
quantity  of  it  proceeds  in  some  particular  direction  than  in 
any  other,  which  is  probably  owing  to  the  original  impulse 
being  given  to  the  air  more  forcibly  in  one  direction  than 
in  another,  or  from  want  of  perfect  freedom  in  the  aerial 
fluid. 

Several  phenomena  may  be  easily  explained  upon  the 
above-mentioned  property  of  sound  :  for  instance,  several 
reflecting  surfaces  are  freqiiently  so  situated  with  respect  to 
distance  and  direction,  that  a  sound  proceeding  from  a  certain 
point  is  reflected  by  one  surface  first,  then  by  a  second,  soon 
after  by  a  third,  and  so  on,  but  by  all  in  one  direction;  in 
which  case  a  multiplied  tautological  echo  is  produced  ;  that  is 
to  say,  the  same  word  :s  heard  repeated  several  times  sucees 
sivel}'  in  the  same  tone  and  accent ;  the  expressicin  of  one 
Ho!  will  appear  like  a  peal  of  laughter;  a  musical  instru- 
ment, properly  played,  will  produce  an  agreeable  repeti- 
tion of  as  many  instruments  of  the  same  sort,  imitating  each 
other. 

According  to  the  various  distances  of  the  speaker,  a  reflect- 
ing object  will  return  the  echo  of  several,  or  of  a  few  sylla- 
bles, for  all  the  syllables  must  be  uttered  before  the  echo  of 
the  first  syllable  reaches  the  ear;  otherwise  it  will  make 
a  confusion.  The  farther  the  reflecting  object  is,  the  greater 
number  of  syllables  will  the  echo  repeat ;  but  the  soinid  will 
be  enfeebled  nearly  in  the  same  proportion,  till  at  last  the 
syllables  cannot  be  heard  distinctly.  When  the  reflecting 
object  is  too  near,  the  repetition  of  the  sound  arrives  at  the 
ear  whilst  the  perception  of  the  original  sound  still  continues, 
in  which  case,  an  indistinct  sounding  noise  is  heard.  This 
effect  may  especially  be  observed  in  empty  rooms,  passages, 
&c.,  because,  in  such  places,  several  reflections  from  the  wall 
to  the  hearer,  as  also  from  one  wall  to  the  other,  and  then  to 
the  hearer,  clash  with  each  other,  and  increase  the  indistinct- 
ness. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  easily  conceived,  that 
with  respect  to  echoes,  a  vast  variety  of  eflects  may  be  pro 
duced,  by  varying  the  form,  the  distance,  and  the  number  of 
reflecting  surfaces  ;  and  hence  we  hear  of  various  surprising 
echoes  being  met  with  at  different  places. 

In  Woodstock  Park,  near  Oxford,  there  is  a  famous  echo, 
which  repeats  seventeen  syllables  in  the  daytime,  and  twenty 
at  night,  when  the  air  is  somewhat  more  dense.  On  the  north 
side  of  Shipley  Church,  in  Sussex,  there  is  another  remark- 
able echo,  which,  in  favourable  circumstances,  repeats  twenty- 
one  syllables.  At  Rosneath,  near  Glasgow,  in  Scotland,  is 
an  echo,  that  repeats  three  times,  completely  and  distinctly, 
a  tune  played  with  a  trumpet. 

Whispering-places,  are  those  where  a  whisper,  or  other 
small  noise,  is  conveyed  from  one  part  to  another,  at  a  great 
distance.  They  depend  upon  this  principle,  that  the  voice, 
being  applied  to  one  end  of  an  arch,  easily  passes  by  a  repe- 
tition of  reflections  to  the  other. 

Hence  sound  is  conveyed  from  one  side  of  a  whispering- 
gallery  to  the  opposite  one,  without  being  perceived  by  those 
who  stand  in  the  middle.  The  form  of  a  whispering-gallery 
is  that  of  a  sphere,  or  the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The  principle 
of  whispering  being  that  of  continued  reflection.  If  a  person 
whisper  softly  against  a  wall,  the  rays  which  proceed  from  his 
mouth  issue  in  all  directions  against  the  wall ;  we  shall  only 


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328 


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tjike  the  rays  which  emanate  from  the  whisperer's  mouth 
(which  we  shall  suppose  to  be  a  point)  in  a  horizontal  plane, 
then  it  is  evident,  that  they  will  proceed  to  the  right  and  to 
the  left,  and  each  particle  of  sound,  as  we  may  call  it,  for 
want  of  a  more  specific  name,  will  cut  ofl' equal  segments  of 
the  circle  which  f<irins  the  section  of  the  wall  ;  or,  in  other 
woi'ds,  will  pass  along  equal  chords;  and  there  will  be  an 
infinite  number  of  such  reflections;  each  particle  describing 
chords  ditlercnt  from  those  described  by  another,  and  an  in- 
definite number  of  these  will  divide  the  semi-circumference 
into  parts  all  equal  to  each  other,  in  the  same  system  of 
chords ;  therefore,  all  the  describing  particles  of  sound  passing 
along  the  equal  chords,  will  meet  upon  the  other  extremity 
of  the  diameter  opposite  the  whisperer,  and  thus  form  a  loud 
whispering  noise.  It  is  evident,  that  polished  surfaces  are  the 
most  favourable  for  this  purpose.  Accordingly,  all  the 
contrivance  requisite  in  whispering-places  is,  that  near  the 
person  who  whispers,  there  may  be  a  smooth  arclied  wall, 
either  cylindric  or  eylindroidic  ;  though  a,  body  with  circular 
sections  will  do,  but  not  so  well. 

The  most  considerable  whispering  place  in  England,  is 
the  whispering  gallery  in  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London,  where  the  ticking  of  a  watch  may  be  heard  from 
side  to  side,  and  a  very  easy  whisper  be  sent  all  round  the 
dome.  The  famous  whispering-gallery  in  Gloucester  Cathe- 
dral, is  no  other  than  a  gallery  above  the  east  end  of  the 
choir,  leading  from  one  side  thereof  to  the  other.  It  consists 
of  five  angles,  and  si.\  sides,  the  middlemost  of  which  is  a 
naked  window ;  yet  two  whisperers  hear  each  other  at  the 
distance  of  twenty-five  yards. 

EClIOMETliY,  the  art  of  constructing  vaults  to  produce 
echoes. 

ECPHORA,  or  Ecphoran  (from  ««,  on/,  and  (pepo),  I  bear,) 
the  projccture,  or  distance  between  the  extremity  of  a  mem- 
ber, or  moulding,  and  the  naked  of  the  column,  or  other  part 
it  projects  from. 

Some  authors,  however,  account  the  ecphora,  or  projecture, 
from  the  axis  of  the  column,  and  define  it  to  be  a  right  line 
intercepted  between  the  axis  and  the  outermost  surface  of  a 
member,  or  moulding.  The  word  is  used  by  Vitruvius,  in 
Chapter  III.,  book  iii.,  in  the  explanation  of  columns  and 
their  ornaments.     See  Pjiojecture. 

ECTYPE  (from  the  Greek)  :  apxETvnov,  denotes  the 
original,  or  model ;  evrvnov,  the  copy  or  image,  moulded  or 
struck  in  creux  ;  and  eicrvTrov,  the  image  in  relieoo,  or  em- 
bossed. 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE,  a  celebrated  building 
erected  upon  a  cluster  of  very  dangerous  rocks,  situated  in 
the  English  Channel,  in  latitude  50°  3'  N.,  and  longitude 
40"  21'  W.  These  rocks  are  about  fourteen  miles  from 
Plymouth  Sound,  and,  lying  nearly  in  the  track  of  vessels 
going  up  or  down  channel,  have  been  the  cause  of  many 
shipwrecks.  To  guard  against  these  disasters,  it  was  deemed 
necessary  to  erect  a  lighthouse  ;  but  to  effect  this  in  a  com- 
plete and  permanent  manner,  so  as  to  resist  storms  and  afford 
light,  was  a  task  of  extreme  difiiculty. 

The  Eddystone  rocks  are  so  peculiarly  exposed  to  the 
swell  of  the  ocean  from  the  south  and  west,  that  the  heavy 
seas  break  upon  them  with  uncontrolled  fury.  Sometimes, 
after  a  storm,  when  the  sea  is  apparently  quite  smooth,  and 
its  surface  unrulHcd  by  the  slightest  breeze,  the  ground-swell, 
or  undercurrent,  meets  the  slope  of  the  rocks,  and  the  sea 
beats  tremendously  upon  them,  and  even  rises  above  the 
light-house,  overtopping  it  for  the  moment,  as  with  a  canopy 
of  frothy  wave.  Notwithstanding  this  awful  swell,  Mr. 
Ilenry  Winstanley  undertook,  in  the  year  169G,  to  build  a 
light-house  on   the  principal   rock,  for  the  rest  are  under 


water ;  and  in  1700  he  completed  it.  So  confident  was  this 
ingenious  mechanic  of  the  stability  of  his  edifice,  that  he 
declared  his  wish  to  be  in  it  during  the  most  tremendous 
storm  that  could  arise.  Tliis  wi.--h  he  unfortunately  obtained, 
for  he  perished  in  it,  during  the  dreadful  storm  which  de- 
stroyed it,  November  27,  1703.  Another  light-house,  of  a 
difierent  construction,  was  erected  of  wood,  on  this  rock, 
by  Mr.  John  IJudyerd,  in  1709;  which  being  consumed  by 
fire  in  1755,  a  third,  of  stone,  was  begun  by  the  justly  cele- 
brated Mr.  John  Smeaton,  April  2,  1757,  and  finished 
August  24,  1759,  which  has  hitherto  withstood  the  attacks 
of  the  most  violent  storms.  The  following  account  of  this 
building,  taken  from  Mr.  Smcaton's  "  Narrative,"  must  be 
read  with  interest,  as  a  noble  instance  of  the  triumph  of 
skill,  science,  and  perseverance  over  obstacles  of  the  most 
formidable  character:  — 

Mr.  Smeaton  begins  his  account  wilh  a  general  description 
of  the  Eddystone  rocks,  the  course  of  the  tides,  their  situa- 
tion, component  matter,  and  the  proper  season  for  visiting 
them.  lie  then  takes  an  ample  view-  of  Mr.  Winstanley "s 
edifice,  to  whom  he  ascribes  great  praise  for  having  under- 
t.aken  and  achieved  what  had  been  generally  deemed  imprac- 
ticable ;  and  after  deploring  that  gentleman's  disaster,  goes 
on  to  describe  the  second  lighthouse,  built  by  Mr.  Tludv  erd, 
as  a  most  complete  edifice  of  the  kind,  being  of  timber,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  details  the  best  methoils  of  fixing  iron 
chains,  and  securing  timber-work  to  rocks,  which  we  shall 
give  in  his  own  words. 

"As  nothing  would  stand  upon  the  sloping  surface  of  the 
rock  Avithout  artificial  means  to  stay  it,  Mr.  Rudyerd  judi- 
ciously concluded,  that  if  the  rock  were  reduced  to  level  bear- 
ings, the  heavy  bodies  to  be  pl.aced  upon  it,  would  then  have 
no  tendency  to  slide;  and  this  would  be  the  case,  even 
though  but  imperfectly  executed;  fin-  the  sliding  tendency 
being  taken  away  fiom  those  jiarts  that  were  reduced  to  a 
level,  the  whole  would  be  much  moi-e  securely  retained  b)- 
the  iron  bolts  or  branches,  than  if,  for  the  retention  of  the 
whole,  they  had  depended  entirely  upon  the  iron-work  ;  ;is 
manifestly  appears  to  have  been  the  ca*c  with  the  building 
of  Mr.  Winstanley.  According  to  Mr.  Kndyerd's  print,  the 
inclined  surface  of  the  rock  was  intended  to  have  been 
reduced  to  a  set  of  regular  steps,  which  would  have  been 
attended  with  the  same  good  effect,  as  if  the  whole  could 
have  been  reduced  to  one  level ;  but  in  reality,  from  the 
hardness  of  the  rock,  the  shortness  and  uncertainty  of  the 
intervals  in  which  this  part  of  the  work  must  have  been  per- 
formed ;  and  the  great  tendency  of  the  lamin.x  whereof  the 
rock  is  composed  to  rise  in  spawls,  according  to  the  inclined 
surface,  when  worked  upon  by  tools,  urged  with  sufficient 
force  to  make  an  impression  ;  this  part  of  the  work,  that  is, 
the  stepping  of  the  rock,  had  been  but  imperfectly  performed, 
though  in  a  degree  that  sufficed. 

"The  holes  made  to  receive  the  iron  branches,  appear  to 
have  been  drilled  into  the  rock  by  jumpers,  making  holes 
of  about  2j-  inches  diameter;  the  extremities  of  the  two 
holes  forming  the  breadth  (or  the  branch,  at  the  surface  of 
the  rock,  were  about  7J-  inches ;  and  these  holes  were 
directed  so  that  at  their  bottoms  they  should  be  separated 
somewhat  better  than  an  inch  more,  that  is,  so  as  to  be 
full  84^  inches.  In  the  intermediate  space,  a  third  hole  was 
bored  between  the  two  former ;  and  then  if  the  three  holes 
were  broken  into  one,  by  squ,are-faced  pummels,  this  would 
make  the  holes  sufficiently  smooth  and  regular.  By  this 
means  he  obtained  holes  of  a  dove-tail  shape,  being  2|  inches 
wide,  1^  broad  at  top,  8^  at  bottom,  and  15  and  10  inches 
deep;  and  as  these  could  not  be  made  all  alike,  every  branch 
was  forged  to  fit  its  respective  hole.     The  main  pieces  of 


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329 


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each  branch,  were  about  4-J-  inches  broad  at  the  surface  of  the 
rock,  and  O.V  at  the  bottom;  and  this  being  first  put  down 
into  the  lioie,  the  space  left  for  a  key  would  be  3  inches  at 
top,  and  2  inches  at  bottom,  which  would  admit  it  to  be 
driven  in  so  as  to  render  the  whole  firm,  and  the  main  branch 
fixed  like  a  dove-tail  or  lewis. 

'•The  holes  being  each  finished,  and  fitted  with  their 
respective  branches,  and  cleared  of  water,  a  considerable 
quantity  of  melted  tallow  was  poured  into  each  hole  :  the 
branch  and  key  being  then  heated  to  about  a  blue  heat,  and 
put  down  into  the  tallow,  and  the  key  firmly  driven,  all  the 
space  unfdled  by  the  iron,  would  become  full  of  tallow,  and 
the  overplus  made  to  run  over  :  when  this  was  done,  all 
remaining  hot,  a  quantity  of  coarse  pewter,  being  made  red- 
hot  in  a  ladle,  and  run  into  the  chinks,  as  being  the  heaviest 
body,  would  drive  out  the  superfiuous  melted  tallow  :  and  so 
ellectually  had  this  operation  succeeded,  that  in  those 
branches  which  were  cut  out  in  1750,  and  had  remained 
fast,  the  whole  cavity  had  continued  so  thoroughly  full,  that 
not  only  the  pewter,  but  even,  in  general,  the  tallow,  remained 
apparently  fresh:  and  when  the  pewter  was  melted  from  the 
irons,  the  scale  appeared  upon  the  iron,  as  if  it  had  come 
from  the  smith's  forge,  without  the  least  rust  upon  it. 

"  All  the  iron  branches,  which  are  shown,  as  I  found 
them,  in  Plate  I,  having  been  fixed  in  the  manner  above- 
mentioned,  tliey  next  proceeded  to  lay  a  course  of  squared 
oak  balks,  lengthwise  upon  the  lowest  step,  and  of  a  size  to 
ivu'.'li  up  to  the  level  of  the  step  above.  Then  a  set  of  short 
balks  were  laid  crosswise  of  the  former,  and  upon  the  next 
step  compounded ly,  so  as  to  make  good  up  to  the  surface  of 
tlie  third  step.  The  third  stratum  was  therefnre  again  laid 
lengthwise,  and  the  fourth  crosswise,  &c.,  till  a  basement  of 
solid  wood  was  raised,  two  complete  courses  higher  than  the 
highest  part  of  the  rock ;  the  whole  being  fitted  together, 
and  to  the  rock,  as  close  as  possible,  and  the  balks,  in  all 
their  intersections  with  each  other,  trenailed  together.  They 
were  also  fitted  to  the  iron  branches  where  they  happened 
to  fall  in  ;  for  the  branches  do  not  seem  to  have  been  placed 
with  any  complete  regularity  or  order,  but  rather  where  the 
strength  and  firmness  of  the  rock  pointed  out  the  properest 
places  for  fixing  them ;  they  were,  hovsever,  to  appearance 
disposed  so  as  to  form  a  double  circle,  one  about  a  foot  within 
the  circumference  of  the  basement,  and  the  other  about  three 
feet  within  the  former;  besides  which,  there  were  two  large 
branches  fixed  near  the  centre,  for  taking  hold  of  the  two 
sides  of  a  large  upright  piece  of  timber,  which  was  called  the 
mast;  by  which  two  branches  it  was  strongly  fixed  down; 
and  being  set  perpendicular,  it  served  as  a  centre  for  guiding 
all  the  rest  of  the  succeeding  work. 

"  The  branches  were  perforated,  in  their  respective  upper 
parts,  some  with  three,  and  some  with  four  holes  ;  so  that, 
iu  every  pair  (collectively  called  a  Lranch)  there  would  beat 
a  medium  seven  holes  ;  and  as  there  were  at  least  thirty -six 
original  branches,  there  would  be  252  holes,  which  were 
about  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  and,  conse- 
quenlly,  #^  capable  of  receiving  as  many  large-bearded 
spikes,  or  jag-bolts,  which  being  driven  through  the  branches 
into  the  solid  timber,  would  undoubtedly  hold  the  whole 
mass  firmly  down;  and  the  great  multiplicity  of  trenails  in 
the  intersections,  would  confine  all  the  strata  closely  and 
compactly  together. 

'•  1  cannot  omit  here  to  remark,  that  though  the  instrument 
we  now  call  the  lewis,  is  of  an  old  date,  yet,  so  far  as  appears, 
this  particular  application  of  that  idea,  which  Mr.  Rudyerd 
employed  in  fixing  his  iron  branches  firmly  to  the  rock,  was 
made  use  of  for  the  first  time  in  this  work:  for  though 
Mr.  Winstanley  mentions  his  having  made  twelve  holes,  and 
42 


fixed  twelve  great  irons  in  the  rock,  in  his  first  year's  work, 
yet  he  gives  no  intimation  of  any  particular  mode  of  fixing 
them,  but  the  common  way  with  lead  ;  and  the  stump  of  one 
of  the  great  irons  of  Mr.  Winstanlcy's,  that  was  cut  out  in 
the  course  of  the  work  of  the  summer  of  175G,  was  fixed  in 
that  manner  ;  but  we  remarked,  that  the  low  end  of  this  bar 
or  stanchion,  was  a  little  club-ended,  and  that  the  hole  was 
somewhat  under-cut;  so  that,  when  the  lead  was  poured  in, 
the  whole  together  would  make  a  sort  of  dovetail  engrafl- 
ment :  however,  when  these  irons,  by  great  agitations,  became 
loose,  and  the  lead  yielded  in  a  certain  degree,  they  would 
be  liable  to  be  drawn  out ;  as  the  orifice  by  which  they 
entered  must  have  been  large  enough  to  receive  the  iron  club. 
Mr.  Rudyerd's  method,  therefore,  of  keying  and  securing, 
must  be  considered  as  a  material  accession  to  the  practical 
part  of  engineery  ;  as  it  furnishes  a  secure  method  of  fixing 
ring-bolts  and  eye-bolts,  stanchions,  &c.,  not  only  into  rocks 
of  any  known  hardness  ;  but  into  piers,  moles,  &c.,  that  have 
already  been  constructed,  for  the  safe  mooring  of  ihips :  or 
fixing  additional  works,  whether  of  stone  or  wood. 

"  In  this  way,  by  building  stratum  super  stratum,  of  solid 
squared  oak  timber,  which  was  of  the  best  quality,  Mr.  I.'ud- 
yerd  was  enabled  to  make  a  solid  basement  of  what  hciyht 
he  thought  proper  :  but  in  addition  to  the  above  methods,  he 
judiciously  laid  hold  of  the  great  principle  of  engineery,  that 
weight  is  themost  naturally  and  effectually  resisted  by  weight. 
He  considered,  that  all  his  joints  being  pervious  to  watir, 
and  that  though  a  great  part  of  the  ground-joint  of  the  whole 
mass  was  in  contact  with  the  rock,  yet  many  parts  of  it 
could  not  be  accurately  so  ;  and  therefore,  that  whatever 
parts  of  the  ground-joint  were  not  in  perfect  contact,  so  as 
to  exclude  the  water  therefrom,  though  the  separation  was 
only  by  the  thickness  of  a  piece  of  post-paper,  yet  if  cajiable 
of  receiving  water  in  a  fluid  state,  the  action  of  a  wave  upon 
it  edgewise,  would,  upon  the  principles  of  hydrostatics, 
produce  an  equal  effect  towards  lifting  it  upwards,  as  if  it 
acted  immediately  upon  so  much  area  of  the  bottom  as  was 
not  in  close  contact. 

"The  more  effectually  therefore  to  counteract  every 
tendency  of  the  seas  to  move  the  building  in  any  direction, 
he  determined  to  interpose  strata  of  Cornish  moor-stone 
between  those  of  wood  ;  and  accordingly  having  raised  his 
foundation  solid,  two  courses  above  the  top  of  the  rock,  he 
then  put  on  five  courses,  of  one  foot  thick  each,  of  the  moor- 
stone.  These  courses  were  as  well  jointed  as  the  workmen 
of  the  country  could  do  it,  to  introduce  as  much  weight  as 
possible  into  the  space  to  contain  them  :  they  were,  however, 
laid  without  any  cement ;  but  it  appears  that  iron  cramps 
were  used,  to  retain  the  stones  of  each  course  together,  and 
also  upright  ones  to  confine  down  the  outside  stones. 

"  When  five  feet  of  moor-stone  were  laid  on,  which, 
according  to  the  dimensions,  would  weigh  120  tons  ;  he  then 
interposed  a  couple  of  courses  of  solid  timber,  as  before  ;  the 
use  of  which  was  plainly  for  the  more  effectual  and  ready 
fastening  of  the  outside  uprights  to  the  solid,  by  nieans  of 
jag-bolts,  or  screw-bolts  ;  and  that  these  bolts  might  the 
more  eflectually  hold  in  the  wood,  in  every  part  of  the  circle 
(which  could  not  be  the  case  with  timbers  lying  parallel  to 
each  other,  because  in  two  points  of  the  circle,  opposite 
to  each  other,  the  timbers  would  present  their  ends  towards 
the  bolt)  he  encompassed  those  two  courses  with  circular, 
or  what  are  technically  called  compass  timbers,  properly 
scarfed  together,  and  breaking  joint  one  course  upon  the 
other.  We  must  not,  however,  suppose,  that  these  courses 
were  composed  wholly  of  circular  timbers  to  the  centre,  but 
that  the  circles  of  compass  timbers  on  the  outside,  were 
filled  up  with  parallel  pieces  within  ;   and  that  the  compass 


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330 


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timbers  were,  in  the  most  favourable  points,  jag-bolted  to 
tlu'  intorior  parallel  pieces. 

'■■  Tlic  two  upjiennost  courses,  after  clearing  the  rock,  and 
before  the  live  moor-stonc  courses  came  on,  were  furnished 
with  compass  timbers,  as  well  as  some  others  below. 

"The  two  courses  of  wood  above  the  moor-stone  courses 
terminated  the  etitire  solid  of  the  basement;  for  a  well-hole 
was  bi'gnn  to  be  left  u]ion  these  courses  for  stairs  in  the 
ci-ntre,  of  G  foet  9  inches  in  the  square ;  and  hereupon  was 
fixed  the  entry  door,  or  rather,  one  course  lower,  making 
a  step  up,  jnst  within  the  door;  in  consequence  of  this,  the 
entire  solid  terminated  aljout  9  feet  above  the  higher  side  of 
the  ba^e,  and  19  feet  above  the  lower  side  thereof 

"In  Mr.  Winstaiiley's  house,  the  entry  was  from  the  rock 
into  an  internal  staircase,  formed  in  the  casing  upon  the 
south-east  side  ;  he  therefore  needed  only  a  few  external 
steps.  But  Mr.  Rudyerd's  entry  door,  being  full  eight  feet 
above  the  highest  part  of  the  rock,  woidd  consetjuently  need 
a  ladder.  This  he  made  of  iron,  of  great  strength ;  and 
being  open,  whenever  the  seas  broke  upon  this  side  of  the 
house,  they  readily  found  their  passage  through,  without 
making  any  violent  agitation  upon  it. 

"  The  two  cotnpass  courses  terminating  the  entire  solid, 
having  been  established,  as  already  mentioned,  he  again 
proceeded  with  five  mo<irstone  courses;  nearly  the  same  as 
the  former  ;  allowing  for  the  necessary  difference  resulting 
from  there  ikiw  being  a  central  well-hole  for  the  stairs,  and 
a  passage  from  the  entry  door,  as  described,  to  the  well-hole: 
this  passage  was  2  feet  11  inches  wide,  and,  as  it  appears, 
took  up  the  whole  height  of  the  five  courses.  The  weight 
of  these  five  courses,  according  to  the  dimensions,  amounted 
to  80  tons. 

"  He  then  again  proceeded  with  two  compass  courses, 
covering  the  door-hend  and  passage,  so  as  now  to  leave  no 
other  vacuity  than  the  well-hole  ;  and  upon  these  he  laid 
four  moor-stone  courses,  the  weight  of  which  amounted  to 
sixty-seven  tons.  He  then  proceeded  with  two  compass 
courses,  and  after  that,  with  beds  of  timber,  cross  and  cross, 
and  compa>s  courses  interposing  ;  and,  last  of  all,  with  one 
compass  course,  upon  which  he  laid  a  floor  over  all,  of  oak 
plank  three  inches  thick,  which  made  the  floor  of  the  store- 
room. 

"  The  height  of  this  floor  above  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
was  near  18  feet;  above  the  foot  of  the  mast,  3.3  feet ;  above 
the  rock  on  the  higher  side,  27  feet;  and  above  tlie  foot  of 
the  building  on  the  lower  side,  37  feet.  In  all  this  height, 
no  cavity  of  any  kind  was  intended  for  any  purpose  of 
depositing  stores,  <Sie.  From  the  rock  to  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  all  was  solid,  as  we  liave  shown  ;  but  as  the  building 
increased  in  height,  and  conse(iuently  was  more  out  of  the 
heavy  stroke  of  the  sea,  a  less  degree  of  strength  and  solidity 
would  be  equivalent  to  the  former,  and  therefore  admit  of 
the  convenience  of  a  staircase  within  the  building,  with  a 
passaL'c  into  it:  whieli  last,  being  made  upon  the  east  .side, 
would  be  withdrawn  from  the  heavy  shock  of  the  seas  from 
the  south-west  quarter,  and  the  rock  being  there  highest, 
the  ascent  bv  the  iron  stair  u[Hm  the  outside,  would  be  the 
least ;  the  whole  therefore,  to  the  height  of  the  store-room 
floor,  as  above-mentioned,  having  been  made  with  all  possible 
solidity,  was  denominated  the  solid. 

"The  height  of  ^Ir.  IJudyerd's  store-room  floor  was  fixed 
as  hij;h  as  the  floor  of  Mr.  Winstanlcy's  state-room,  which 
was  over  his  store-room  ;  and  as  many  were  doubtless  still 
living  who  had  seen  and  examined  Mr.  Winstaiiley's  light- 
house, during  the  four  years  that  it  stood  in  a  finished 
state  ;  and  as  in  that  time  there  would  be  an  opportunity  of 
knowing,   from    experience,   to   what    height    the  unbroken 


water  of  the  waves  mounted  in  bad  wenther,  we  may  very 
well  suppose  that  Mr.  Kudyerd  regulated  the  height  (>f  his 
solid  from  that  information. 

"  We  have  already  seen,  that  the  two  compass  courses  of 
wood,  which  capped  the  first  bed  of  moor-stone,  and  termi- 
nated the  entire  solid,  were  forcibly  screwed  down  by  ten  large 
iron  bars,  or  bolts,  to  the  beds  of  timber  below  the  moor-stone, 
and  these  by  the  trenails  and  branches  to  the  rock.  We  must 
suppose  this  precaution  to  have  been  taken  to  prevent  any  de- 
rangement from  the  heavy  strokes  of  the  sea  in  storm:;  and 
hard  gales,  which  were  liable  to  happen  in  the  very  finest  part 
of  the  season,  before  there  was  any  proper  opportunity  of  con- 
necting  the  upper  part  of  the  work  with  the  lower,  by  means  of 
the  upright  timbers  that  were  to  form  the  out>ide  case;  be- 
cause, till  the  work  was  brought  to  that  height,  there  could  be 
no  proper  means  of  beginning  to  fix  them;  and  as  we  do  not 
find  any  traces  or  mention  of  binding  the  upper  courses  with 
the  lower,  after  the  staircase  was  set  forward,  we  must  sup- 
pose that  the  outside  casing  had  been  then  begun  from  the 
rock,  and  carried  on  progressively,  so  as  to  become  a  bond  of 
the  upright  kind  ;  for,  all  such  timbers  as  were  high  enough 
having  been  screwed  fast  to  the  compass  courses,  would  be 
thereby  secured  to  the  lower  courses  ;  otherwise,  from  what 
1  have  myself  experienced  of  the  situation,  I  should  have 
expected,  that  whenever  the  two  courses  of  compass  timber 
were  put  upon  the  second  bed  of  moor-stone,  if  a  hard  gale 
should  have  come  on  at  south-west,  it  would  not  only  have 
lifted  up  and  carried  away  the  timber  beds,  but  possibly 
would  have  deranged  the  moor-stone  courses,  notwithstand- 
ing the  upright  cramps  to  the  outside  stones. 

"  The  solid  being  in  this  manner  completed,  the  upper 
part  of  the  building,  comprehending  four  rooms,  one  above 
another,  was  chiefly  formed  by  the  outside  upright  timbers; 
having  one  kirb  or  circle  of  compass  timber  at  each  floor,  to 
which  the  upright  timbers  were  screwed  and  connected,  and 
upon  which  the  floor  timbers  were  rested.  The  uprights 
were  also  jag-bolted  and  trenailed  to  one  another,  and.  in 
this  manner,  the  work  was  carried  on  to  the  height  of  34  feet 
above  the  store-room  floor,  and  there  terminated  by  a  plank- 
ing of  three  inches  thick,  which  composed  the  roof  of  the 
main  column,  as  well  as  served  for  the  floor  of  the  lantern, 
and  of  the  balcony  round  it. 

"Thus  the  main  column  of  this  building  consisted  of 
one  simple  figure,  being  an  elegant  frustum  of  a  cone,  un- 
broken by  any  projecting  ornament,  or  anything  whereon 
the  violence  of  the  storms  could  lay  hold  ;  behig,  exclusive 
of  its  sloping  foundation,  22  feet  8  inches  upon  its  largest 
circular  base,  61  feet  high  above  that  circular  base,  and 
14  feet  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top  ;  so  that  the  circular 
base  was  somewhat  greater  than  one-third  of  the  total  height, 
and  the  diameter  at  top  was  somewhat  less  than  two-thirds 
of  the  base  at  the  greatest  circle. 

"The  junction  of  the  upright  timbers  upon  each  other 
was  by  means  of  scorfi,  as  they  are  feclinieally  called  in 
ship-building  and  carpentry;  that  is,  the  joining  of  timbers 
end  to  end  by  over-lapping.  The  timbers  were  of  difl'erent 
lengths,  from  10  to  20  feet,  and  so  suited,  that  no  two  join- 
ings or  scarfs  of  the  uprights  might  fall  together.  The 
number  of  uprights  composing  the  circle  was  the  same  fnmi 
top  to  bottom  ;  and  their  nnmlier  being  sevcnt3--one,  the 
breadth  at  the  bottom  would  be  1  foot  nearly  ;  their  thickness 
there  was  9  inches  ;  and,  as  they  diminished  in  breadth 
towards  the  top,  they  also  diminished  in  thickness.  The 
whole  of  the  outside  seams  were  well  caulked  with  oakum, 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  ships ;  and  the  whole  payed  over 
with  pitch;  consequently,  upon  a  near  view,  the  seams  run- 
ning straight  from  top  to  bottom  in  some  measure  resembled 


I 


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the  flutings  of  columns;  which,  in  so  simple  a  figure,  could 
not  fail  to  catch  the  attention  of  the  beholder,  and  prove  an 
agreeable  engagement  of  the  eye. 

"  The  whole  of  the  building  was,  indeed,  a  piece  of  ship- 
wrightry  :  for  it  is  plain,  from  the  preceding  account,  that 
the  interposed  beds  of  moor-stone  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  frame  of  the  building,  it  being  entire  and  complete  ex- 
clusive thereof:  the  beds  of  moor-stone  could  therefore  only 
bo  considered  in  the  nature  of  ballast,  and  amounted,  from 
what  has  been  before  stated,  in  the  whole,  to  the  weight  of 
above  two  hundred  and  seventy  tons. 

"  All  the  windows,  shutters,  and  doors,  were  composed  of 
double  plank,  cross  and  cross,  and  clinked  together ;  which 
falling  into  a  rebate  when  shut,  their  outside  formed  a  part 
of  the  general  surface,  like  the  port-holes  in  a  ship's  side  ; 
without  making  any  unevenness  or  projection  in  the  surface. 
There  were,  however,  two  projecting  parts  terminating  this 
frustrum  ;  one  at  the  top,  and  the  other  at  the  joining  with 
the  rock  ;  tiv  utility  of  which  seems  to  render  them  indis- 
pensable. They  had  each  a  projection  of  about  9  inches. 
The  top  projection,  which  is  in  the  nature  of  a  cornice,  con- 
sisted of  a  simple  bevel,  and  the  use  of  it  was  very  great ; 
for  in  times  of  storms  and  hard  gales  of  wind,  when,  accord- 
ing to  the  accounts  of  Mr.  Winstanley's  building,  the  broken 
sea  rises  to  a  far  greater  height  than  the  whole  structure,  it 
would  be  likely  to  break  the  windows  of  the  lantern,  unless 
there  was  something  to  throw  it  off,  as  their  use  does  not 
admit  of  any  defence  by  shutters.  Therefore  Mr.  Rudyerd 
applied  this  simple  cornice,  judging  it  sufficient  to  have  the 
ett'ect  of  throwing  oft'  the  sea  in  times  of  storms  ;  and  j'et 
not  so  much  projection  as  that  the  sea,  at  the  height  of  71  feet 
above  the  foot  of  the  building,  could  have  power  enough  to 
derange  it. 

"  The  bottom  projection,  which  has  been  called  the  kani, 
and  which  fills  up  the  angle  formed  between  the  uprights 
and  the  slojiing  surface  of  the  rock,  so  as  to  guard  the  foot 
of  the  uprights  from  that  violence  of  action  which  the  waves 
naturally  e.xert  when  driven  into  a  corner,  was  certainly  a 
very  useful  application  ;  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  was 
not  there  upon  the  first  completion. 

"  Upon  the  flat  room  of  the  main  column,  as  a  platform, 
Mr.  Rudyerd  fixed  his  lantern,  which  was  an  octagon  of 
10  feet  C  inches  diameter  externally.  The  mean  height  of 
the  window-frames  of  the  lantern  above  the  balcony  floor, 
was  nearly  9  feet ;  so  that  the  elevation  of  the  centre  of  the 
light  above  the  highest  side  of  the  base  was  70  feet ;  that 
is,  lower  than  the  centre  of  Mr.  Winstanley's  second  lantern 
by  7  feet ;  but  higher  than  that  of  his  first  by  24  feet.  The 
width  of  i[r.  Rudyerd's  lantern  was,  however,  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  Mr.  Winstanley's  second  ;  but,  instead  of 
the  towering  ornaments  of  iron  work,  and  a  vane  that  rose 
above  the  top  of  the  cupola  no  less  than  21  feet,  Mr.  Rud- 
yerd judiciously  contented  himself  with  finishing  his  building 
with  a  round  ball,  of  2  feet  3  inches  diameter,  which  termi- 
nated at  3  feet  above  the  top  of  his  cupola.  The  whole 
height  of  Mr.  Rudyerd's  lantern,  including  the  ball,  was 
no  more  than  21  feet  above  his  balcony  floor ;  whereas 
that  of  Mr.  Winstanley's  including  the  iron  ornaments,  was 
above  40. 

"  The  whole  height,  then,  of  Mr.  Rudyerd's  lighthouse, 
from  the  lowest  side  to  the  top  of  the  ball,  was  92  feet,  upon 
a  base  of  23  feet  4  inches,  taken  at  a  medium  between  the 
highest  and  lowest  part  of  the  rock  that  it  covered. 

"  I  have  endeavoured  to  describe  this  building  with  all 
possible  minuteness,  because  it  affijrds  a  great  and  very  useful 
lesson  to  future  engineers.  We  are  sure  that  a  building  such 
as  Mr.  Winstanley's  was  not  capable  of  resisting  the  utmost 


fury  of  the  sea,  because,  in  four  years  after  its  completion,  it 
was  totally  demolished  thereby  :  but  Mr.  Rudyerd's  building 
having  sustained  the  repeated  attacks  of  that  element,  in  all 
its  fury,  for  upwards  of  forty-six  years  after  its  completion  ; 
and  then  being  destroyed,  not  by  water,  but  by  fire  ;  we 
must  conclude,  it  was  of  a  construction  capable  of  withstand- 
ing the  gi-eatest  violence  of  the  sea  in  that  situation.  And 
by  withstanding  it  there,  this  light-house  proves  the  prac- 
ticability of  a  similar  erection  in  any  like  exposure  ui  the 
know'n  world. 

"  I  have  seen  a  paper  in  the  hands  of  one  of  the  present 
proprietors,  upon  which  wore  put  down  the  quantities  of 
materials  said  to  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of 
this  building  :  viz.,  500  tons  of  stone,  1,200  tons  of  timber, 
80  tons  of  iron,  and  35  tons  of  lead ;  and  of  trenails,  screws, 
and  rack- bolts,  2,500  each." 

Mr.  Smeaton  then  proceeds  to  detail  the  means  by  which 
the  erection  of  the  new  lighthouse  fell  into  his  hands,  his 
several  interviews  with  the  proprietors,  and  various  other  pre- 
liminary occurrences,  among  which  the  following  remarks  on 
the  difierence  in  structure  of  stone  and  wood,  and  on  the  bond 
of  the  stones  to  the  rock  and  to  each  other,  are  particularly 
worthy  of  notice. 

"  In  reflecting  upon  the  late  structure,  it  appeared  most 
evidently,  that  had  it  not  been  for  the  moor-stone  courses, 
inlaid  into  the  frame  of  the  building,  and  acting  therein  like 
the  ballast  of  a  ship,  it  had  long  ago  been  overset,  notwith- 
standing all  the  branches  and  iron-work  contrived  to  retain 
it  :  and  that,  in  reality,  the  violent  agitation,  rocking,  or 
vibration,  which  the  late  building  was  described  to  be  subject 
to,  must  have  been  owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  base  on 
which  it  rested  ;  and  which,  the  quantity  of  vibration  it  had 
been  constantly  subject  to,  had  rendered,  in  regard  to  its 
seat,  in  some  degree  rounding,  like  the  rockers  of  a  cradle. 
It  seemed  therefore  a  primary  point  of  improvement,  to  pro- 
cure, if  possible,  an  enlargement  of  the  base,  which,  from 
the  models  before  me,  appeared  to  be  practicable.  It  also 
seemed  equally  desirable,  not  to  increase  the  size  of  the  pre- 
sent building  in  its  waist;  by  which  I  mc^n  that  part  of  the 
building  between  the  top  of  the  rock  and  the  top  of  the  solid. 
If  therefore  I  still  kept  strictly  to  the  conical  form,  a  neces- 
sary consequence  would  be,  that  the  diameter  of  every  part 
being  proportionably  increased  by  an  enlargement  of  the 
base,  the  action  of  the  sea  upon  ^e  building  would  be  greater 
in  the  same  proportion  ;  but  as  the  strength  increases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increased  weight  of  the  materials,  the  total 
absolute  strength  to  resist  that  action  of  the  sea,  would  be 
greater  by  a  proportional  enlargement  of  every  part,  but 
would  require  a  greater  quantity  of  materials  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  if  we  could  enlarge  the  base,  and  at  the  same  time 
rather  diminish  than  increase  the  size  of  the  waist  and  upper 
works;  as  great  a  strength  and  stiffness  would  arise  from 
a  larger  base,  accompanied  with  a  less  resistance  to  the  acting 
power,  though  consisting  of  a  less  quantity  of  materials,  as 
if  a  similar  conical  figure  had  been  preserved. 

"  On  this  occasion,  the  natural  figure  of  the  waist  or  bole 
of  a  large  spreading  oak,  presented  itself  to  my  imagination. 
Let  us  for  a  moment  consider  this  tree  :  suppose  at  12  or  15 
feet  above  its  base,  it  branches  out  in  every  direction,  and 
forms  a  large  bushy  top,  as  we  often  observe.  This  top,  w  hen 
full  of  leaves,  is  subject  to  a  very  great  impulse  from  the  agi- 
tation of  violent  winds;  yet,  partly  by  its  elasticity,  and  partly 
by  the  natural  strength  arising  from  its  figure,  it  resists  them 
all,  even  for  ages,  till  the  gradual  decay  of  the  material  dimi- 
nishes the  coherence  of  the  parts,  and  they  sufl(jr  piecemeal 
by  the  violence  ;  but  it  is  very  rare  that  we  hear  of  such  a 
tree  being  torn  up  by  the  roots.    Let  us  now  consider  its  par- 


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332 


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ticular  figure. — Connected  with  its  roots,  which  lie  hid  below 
cround,  it  rises  from  the  surface  thereof  with  a  large  swell- 
ing base,  which  at  the  height  of  one  diameter  is  generally 
reduced  by  an  elegant  curve,  concave  to  the  eye,  to  a  dia- 
meter less  by  at  least  one-third,  and  sometimes  to  half  of  its 
original  base.  From  thence  its  taper  diminishing  more  slowly, 
its  sides,  by  degrees,  come  into  a  perpendicular,  and  for  some 
height  form  a  cylinder.  After  that,  a  preparation  of  more  cir- 
cumference becomes  necessary,  for  the  strong  insertion  and 
establishment  of  the  principal  boughs,  which  produces  a 
swelling  of  its  diameter.  Now,  wc  can  hardly  doubt  but  that 
every  section  of  tlie  tree  is  nearly  of  an  equal  strength  in 
proportion  to  what  it  has  to  resist :  and  were  wc  to  lop  oil' 
its  principal  bought,  and  expose  it  in  that  state  to  a  rapid  cur- 
rent of  water,  we  should  find  it  as  much  capable  of  resisting 
the  action  of  the  licavicr  (luid,  when  divested  of  the  greatest 
part  of  its  clothing,  as  it  was  that  of  the  lighter,  when  all  its 
spreading  ornaments  were  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  wind: 
and  hence  we  may  derive  an  idea  of  what  the  proper  shape 
of  a  column  of  the  greatest  stability  ought  to  be,  to  resist  the 
action  of  external  violence,  when  the  quantity  of  matter  is 
given  whereof  it  is  to  be  composed. 

"  in  Plate  V.  FUjure  1,  is  a  sketch,  representing  the  idea 
which  I  formed  of  this  subject.  It  is  farther  observable,  iu 
the  insertions  of  the  boughs  of  trees  into  the  bole,  or  of  the 
branches  into  the  boughs,  (which  is  generally  at  an  oblique 
angle)  that  those  insertions  are  made  by  a  swelling  curve,  of 
the  sanie  nature  as  that  wherewith  the  tree  rises  out  of  the 
ground  ;  and  that  the  greatest  rake  or  sweep  of  this  curve  is 
that  which  fills  up  the  obtuse  angle  ;  while  the  acute  angle 
is  filled  up  with  a  much  quicker  curve,  or  sweep  of  a  less 
radius  :  and  Figure  2,  of  the  same  Plate,  represents  my  con- 
ception of  this  matter.  In  this  view  of  the  subject,  I  imme- 
diately rough-turned  a  piece  of  wood,  with  a  small  degree  of 
tapering  above ;  and  leaving  matter  enough  below,  I  fitted  it 
to  the  oblique  surface  of  a  lilock  of  wood,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  sloping  surfice  of  the  Eddystone  rock  ;  and  soon 
found,  that  by  reconciling  curves,  I  could  adopt  every  part  of 
the  base  upon  the  rock  to  the  regularly  turned  tapering  body, 
and  so  as  to  make  a  figure  not  ungraceful ;  and  at  the  same 
time  carrying  the  idea  of  great  firmness  aud  solidity. 

"  The  next  thing  was  to  consider  how  the  blocks  of  stone 
could  be  bonded  to  the  rock,  and  to  one  another,  in  so  firm 
a  manner,  as  that,  not  only  thfe  whole  together,  btit  every  indi- 
vidual piece,  when  connected  with  w  hat  preceded,  should  be 
proof  against  the  greatest  violence  of  the  sea. 

"  Cramping,  as  generally  performed,  amounts  to  no  more 
than  a  bond  upon  the  upper  surface  of  a  course  of  stone, 
without  having  any  direct  power  to  hold  a  stone  down,  in 
case  of  its  being  lifted  upward  by  an  action  greater  than  its 
own  weight ;  as  might  be  expected  frequently  to  happen  at 
the  Eddystone,  whenever  the  mortar  of  the  ground-bed  it  was 
set  upon  was  washed  out  of  the  joint,  when  attacked  by  the 
sea  before  it  had  time  to  harden ;  and  though  upright  cramps, 
to  confine  the  stones  down  to  the  course  below,  might  in  some 
degree  answer  this  end,  yet,  as  this  must  bo  done  to  each 
individual  stone,  the  quantity  of  iron,  and  the  great  trouble 
and  loss  of  time  that  would  necessarily  attend  this  method, 
•would  in  reality  render  it  impracticable ;  for  it  appeared,  that 
Mr.Winstanley  had  found  the  fixing  twelve  great  irons,  and 
Mr.  Rudyerd  thirty-five,  attended  with  such  a  consumption  of 
time  (which  arose,  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  difticulty 
of  getting  and  keeping  the  holes  dry,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
pouring  in  of  melted  lead)  that  any  method  which  required 
still  much  more,  in  putting  the  work  together  upon  the  rock, 
•would  inevitably,  and  to  a  very  great  degree,  procrastinate 
the  completion  of  the  building.     It  therefore  seemed  of  the 


utmost  consequence  to  avoid  this,  even  by  any  quantity  of 
time  and  moderate  expense,  that  might  be  necessary  fur  its 
jierformance  on  shore  ;  provided  it  prevented  hinderance  of 
business  upon  the  rock  ;  because  of  time  upon  the  rock,  there 
was  likely  to  be  a  great  scarcity,  but  on  the  shore  a  very 
sufficient  plenty.  This  made  me  turn  my  thoughts  to  what 
could  be  done  in  the  way  of  dovetailing.  In  speaking  how- 
ever, of  this  as  a  tcrnt  of  art,  I  must  observe,  that  it  had  been 
principally  applied  to  works  of  carpentry  ;  its  application  in 
the  masonry  way  had  been  but  very  slight  and  sparing  ;  for 
in  regard  to  the  small  pieces  of  stone  that  had  been  let  in 
with  a  double  dovetail,  across  the  joint  of  larger  pieces,  and 
generally  to  save  iron,  it  was  a  kind  of  work  even  more 
objectionable  than  cramping ;  for  though  it  would  not  require 
melted  lead,  yet  being  onh'  a  superficial  bond,  and  consisting 
of  far  more  brittle  materials  than  iron,  it  was  not  likely  to 
answer  our  end  at  all.  Somewhat  more  to  my  purpose,  I  had 
occasionall}'  observed,  in  many  places  in  the  streets  of  Lon- 
don, that,  in  fixing  the  kirbs  of  the  walking-paths,  the  long 
pieces,  or  stretchers,  were  retained  between  two  headers,  or 
bond  pieces;  whose  heads  being  cut  dovetail-wise,  adapted 
themselves  to,  and  confined  in,  the  strcchers ;  which  expe- 
dient, though  chiefly  intended  to  save  iron  and  lead,  never- 
theless appeared  to  me  capable  of  more  firmness  tluan  any 
superficial  fastening  could  be  ;  as  the  tye  was  as  good  at  the 
bottom  as  at  the  top,  which  was  the  very  thing  I  wanted  ;  and 
therefore  if  the  tail  of  the  header  was  made  to  have  an  ade- 
quate bond  with  the  interior  parts,  the  work  would  in  itself 
be  perfect.  What  I  mean  will  be  rendered  obvious  by  the 
inspection  oi  F'ujure  3,  in  Plate  V.  Something  of  this  kind 
I  also  remembered  to  have  seen  in  Belidor's  description  of 
the  stone  floor  of  the  great  sluice  at  Clierbourg,  where  the 
tails  of  the  upright  headers  are  cut  into  dovetails,  for  their 
insertion  into  the  niass  of  rough  masonry  below.  From  these 
beginnings  I  was  readil}'  led  to  think,  that  if  the  blocks  them- 
selves were,  both  inside  and  out,  all  formed  into  large  dove- 
tails, they  might  be  maniiged  so  as  mutually  to  lock  one  an- 
other together ;  being  primarily  engrafted  into  the  rock  :  and 
in  the  round  and  entire  courses,  above  the  top  of  the  rock, 
they  might  all  proceed  from,  and  be  locked  to,  one  large 
centre  stone.  After  some  trials  in  the  rough,  1  produced  a 
complete  design,  of  which  Figure  5,  Plate  V.,  is  the  exact 
copy  ;  the  dotted  lines  representing  the  course  next  above  or 
below,  which  in  the  original  was  drawn  from  the  same  centre, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  paper  ;  so  that  looking  on  each  side 
separatelv,  each  course  was  seen  distinctly  ;  or,  looking 
through  the  paper,  the  relation  of  the  two  courses,  showing 
how  they  mutually  broke  joint  upon  one  another,  was  clearly 
pointed  out:  and  this  method  of  representation  was  pursued 
throughout ;  but  not  being  practicable  in  copper  plate  work, 
I  am  under  the  necessity  of  introducing  the  method  by  doited 
lines,  though  attended  with  some  degree  of  confusion  of  the 
main   design. 

"  It  is  obvious,  that  in  this  method  of  dovetailing,  while 
the  slope  of  the  rock  was  making  good  ;  by  cutting  the  steps 
(formed  by  Mr.  Rudyerd)  also  into  dovetails,  it  might  be 
said,  that  the  foundation-stones  of  every  course  were  engrafted 
into,  or  rather  rooted  in,  the  rock  ;  which  would  not  only 
keep  all  the  stones  in  one  course  together,  but  prevent  the 
courses  themselves  (as  one  stone)  from  moving  or  sliding 
upon  each  other.  But  after  losing  hold  of  the  rock,  by  getting 
above  it ;  then,  though  every  stone  in  the  same  course  would 
be  bonded  in  the  strongest  manner  with  every  other,  and 
might  be  considered  as  consisting  of  a  single  stone,  which 
would  weigh  a  considerable  number  of  tons,  and  would  bo 
farther  retained  to  the  floor  below  by  the  cement,  so  that, 
when  completed,  the  sea  would  have  no  action  upon  it  but 


EDD 


333 


EDD 


(•dge\v..ys;  yet,  as  a  force,  if  sufficiently  great,  might  move 
it,  iiolwillistundiiig  its  weight,  and  the  small  hold  of  the  sea 
upon  it,  and  break  the  cement  before  time  had  given  it  that 
hardness  which  it  might  bo  expected  to  acquire  afterwards  ; 
I  had  formed  more  expedients  than  one  for  lixing  the  courses 
to  one  another,  so  as  absolutely  to  prevent  their  shifting ; 
but  I  shall  not  trouble  my  reader  with  a  recital  of  those  ex- 
pedients at  present,  as  thoy  will  more  properly  come  in 
along  with  the  reasons  of  my  choice,  in  the  detail  of  the 
actual  proceedings." 

Mr.  Smeaton  made  his  first  voyage  to  the  Eddystone  on 
the  2d  of  April,  175G,  but  was  prevented  from  landing  by 
the  weather;  but  on  the  5th  of  the  same  month  he  was  more 
successful,  and  staid  upon  the  rock  about  two  hours  and  a 
half,  during  which  time  he  observed,  "such  traces  of  the 
situations  of  the  irons  fixed  by  Mr.  Winstanley,  as  that  it 
would  not  be  difficult  to  make  out  his  plan,  and  the  position 
of  the  cdilice ;  from  whence  it  appeared  very  pi-obable  that 
!Mr.  Winstanley's  building  was  overset  all  together;  and 
that  it  had  tojn  up  a  portion  of  the  rock  itself  with  it,  as  far 
as  the  irons  had  been  fastened  in  it."'  He  also  "  perceived 
that  Mr.  Kudyerd's  iron  branches,  as  then  called,  were  much 
smaller  and  shorter  than  he  had  described  them  to  be  at  the 
bottom  of  his  print ;  that  many  of  them  were  loose,  and  some 
broken  and  bent :  and  that,  in  i-egard  to  the  steps,  described 
to  be  cut  upon  the  rock,  there  were  only  five  of  them,  of 
wliich  tiie  traces  were  remaining  :  so  that  there  was  but  one 
Hut  or  tread  of  a  step  above  the  centre  of  the  house  ;  and  the 
u|:i})er  part  of  the  surface  of  the  rock  above  that,  was  a  sloping 
plain,  as  it  had  been  at  fii-st.  Three  steps,  of  the  five  now 
remaining,  seemed  to  have  been  but  faintly  cut,  and  the 
upiierniost  but  one  was  so  imperfect,  that  he  supposed  a  largo 
spawl  or  splinter  had  come  from  it;  and  this  appeared  the 
more  probable,  as  the  uppermost  step  was  so  shaken,  that 
auiither  large  spawl  might  have  been  easily  raised  from  it,  by 
a  sliglit  action  of  a  wedge.  Above  the  uppermost  step  the 
rock  seemed  to  be  of  a  softer  nature,  was  cracked  in  many 
places,  and  j^robably  had  received  some  damage  from  the  fire. 
None  of  the  steps  appeareil  to  have  been  cut  with  much 
regularity,  cither  as  to  level  or  square ;  but  to  have  all  the 
marks  of  hurry  upon  them.  In  the  centre  of  the  house  a 
slight  footing  was  cut  for  the  mast,  suitable  to  a  square  of 
18  inches,  with  large  iron  branches,  answerable  to  two  of  its 
sides,  and  a  small  hole  bored  in  the  centre,  of  about  l.|^inch 
diameter,  being  6  inches  deep.  By  consulting  Plate  I.,  many 
of  tbe  above  matters  will  be  made  apparent  to  the  eye. 

"  I  then,"  says  Mr.  Sineaton,  "  proceeded  to  try  the  degree 
in  which  the  rock  was  workable,  and  fiJund  that  from  a  flat 
surface,  indift'erently  taken,  I  could,  with  a  jjick,  sink  a  hollow 
at  the  rate  of  five  cubic  inches  per  minute  ;  and  could  cut  or 
drill  a  hole  with  a  jumper  of  1;^  inch  diameter,  at  the  rate 
of  one  inch  deep  in  five  minutes.  I  also  tried  a  method  of 
forcing  two  holes  into  one,  by  a  square  flat-faced  bruiser,  or 
pummel ;  so  that,  if  there  should  be  occasion,  I  might  bo  able 
to  make  a  continued  groove ;  or  let  in  an  iron  branch,  in  the 
manner  of  Mr.  Rudyerd,  and  I  had  the  satisfaction  to  find 
that  the  whole  succeeded  to  my  wishes." 

In  the  choice  of  materials,  Mr.  Smeaton  was  determined 
in  favour  of  moor-stone  or  granite,  for  the  outside  work,  and 
Portland  stone  for  the  inside.  The  latter  was  not  eligible 
for  the  outer  surface,  on  account  of  its  liability  to  be  destroyed 
by  a  marine  insect ;  and  the  moor-stone  was  too  hard  and 
expensive  in  the  working  to  admit  of  its  being  used  through- 
out the  building. 

By  the  15th  of  !May,  Mr.  Smeaton  had  made  ten  voyages 
of  observation  to  the  Eddystone,  and  then  returned  to  Lon- 
don, where  having  settled  with  the  proprietors,  he  received 


his  commission  to  proceed  on  the  work,  lie  then  went  back 
to  Plymouth,  and,  on  the  3d  of  August,  landed  with  the  first 
company  of  workmen  on  the  rock,  where  he  began  to  fix  the 
centre  and  lines  of  the  work.  After  describing  the  difficulties 
under  which  he  laboured  from  the  uncertainty  of  the  weather, 
and  the  necessity  in  which  the  workmen  were  placed,  of 
returning  to  shore  every  tide,  till  a  vessel  fit  for  their  recep- 
tion could  be  properly  moored  off  the  rock,  Mr.  S.  observes 
upon  his  preference  of  the  use  of  picks  and  wedges  for 
operating  upon  the  rock,  that  "  it  might  seem,  at  first  sight, 
that  a  greater  dispatch  would  have  been  by  the  use  of  gun- 
powder, in  blasting  the  rock,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  usual 
in  mines,  and  in  procuring  limestone  from  the  marble  rocks 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Plymouth  :  but  though  this  is  a  very 
ready  method  of  working  hard  and  close  rocks,  in  proportion 
to  the  dispatch  that  could  be  made  by  picks  and  wedges; 
yet,  as  a  rock  always  yields  to  gunpowder  in  the  weakest 
part,  and  it  is  not  always  easy  to  know  which  part  is  weakest ; 
it  might  often  have  happened,  if  that  method  had  been 
pursued,  that,  instead  of  forming  a  dovetail  recess,  such  as 
was  required,  the  very  points  of  confinement  would  have 
been  lost.  Besides,  the  great  and  sudden  concussion  of  gun- 
powder might  possibly  loosen  some  parts  that  it  was  more 
suitable  to  the  general  scheme  should  remain  fast.  For 
these  reasons,  I  had  previously  determined  to  make  no  use 
of  gunpowder  for  this  purpose. 

"On  the  7th  of  September,"  says  Mr.  Smeaton,  "I  sent 
to  Portland  the  draughts  for  the  six  foundation  courses,  that 
were  to  be  employed  in  bringing  the  rock  to  a  level  ;  which, 
with  the  draughts  for  eight  that  I  had  before  dispatched, 
completed  the  order  for  the  whole  quantity  of  Portland  stone 
to  be  used  in  the  solid  up  to  the  entry  door;  being  all  that 
we  could  expect  to  set  in  place  the  next  season.  The  rock 
was  not  indeed  yet  ready  for  completing  the  exact  moulds 
for  those  stones  that  were  to  fit  into  the  dovetails  made 
in  it ;  but,  by  ordering  the  stones  large  enough,  and  being 
scappelled  something  near  their  proper  form,  it  would  prevent 
loss  of  time  in  waiting  to  get  the  true  figure  from  the  rock, 
as  well  as  unnecessary  waste. 

"  Nothing  happened  to  prevent  the  companies  from  work- 
ing every  tide  from  the  27th  of  August,  till  the  14th  of 
September,  in  which  time  they  had  worked  one  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  hours  upon  the  rock.  In  this  interval,  having 
procured  a  carpenter  to  be  applied  to  that  purpose,  I  began 
to  make  the  moulds  for  the  exact  cutting  of  the  stones  to 
their  intended  shapes.  This  was  done  by  laying  down,  in 
chalk-lines  upon  the  floor  of  a  chamber,  the  proposed  size 
and  figure  of  each  stone,  being  a  portion  of  the  plan  at  large 
of  the  intended  course ;  and  the  carpenter  having  prepared 
a  ciuantity  of  battens,  or  slips  of  deal  board,  about  three 
inches  broad,  and  one  inch  thick,  shot  straight  upon  the  edges 
by  a  plane ;  those  battens  being  cut  to  lengths,  and  their 
edges  adapted  to  the  lines  upon  the  floor,  and  properly  fitted 
together,  became  the  exact  representatives  of  the  pieces  of 
stone  whose  figure  was  to  be  marked  from  them,  when  their 
beds  were  wrought  to  the  intended  parallel  distance. 

"  It  is  obvious  that  there  was  no  necessity  for  making 
moulds  for  a  whole  course  after  the  work  became  regular ; 
as  was  the  seventh  course,  after  the  six  foundation  courses 
brought  the  rock  to  a  level ;  it  was  sufficient  to  make  one 
mould  to  each  circle  of  stones,  beginning  with  the  centre 
stone;  but  as  the  six  fnundation  courses  were  adapted  to 
the  particular  irregularities  of  the  rock,  and  consequently 
could  not  be  strictly  regular,  it  was  necessary  that  a  separate 
mould  should  be  made  for  every  separate  stone  composing 
that  part  of  the  work. 

"  During  this  interval,  I  visited  the  rock,  and  on  arriving 


E  L)  D 


334 


EDD 


there  the  8th  of  September,  was  informed  by  Mr.  Jessop, 
that  the  preceding  evening,  there  being  a  very  strong  tide, 
and  no  wind,  a  West-Indiaman,  homeward  bound,  and  a 
man-of-war's  tender,  were  in  great  danger  of  driving  upon 
the  north-east  rock;  but  that  ho  timely  perceiving  their 
danger,  though  they  themselves  were-not  aware  of  it,  ordered 
out  the  seamen  and  hands,  who  towed  them  off. 

"  On  this  visit,  I  staid  two  days ;  for  as  the  working  com- 
pany had  begun  to  take  down  the  upper  part  of  the  rock,  it 
was  necessary  to  concert,  and  put  in  practice,  the  proper 
means  of  doing  that,  without  damage  to  what  was  destined 
to  remain.  1  have  already  mentioned  my  resolution  of  not 
using  gunpowder  ;  yet  it  was  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  dis- 
patch, to  employ  some  means  more  expeditious  than  the 
slow  way  of  crumbling  off  the  matter  by  the  blunt  points  of 
picks,  it  has  been  already  noticed,  ihat  the  lamime  com- 
posing the  rock  were  parallel  to  thi>  inclined  surface  ;  and  it 
was  very  probable  that  the  chasm  into  which  Mr.  Winstan- 
ley's  chain  had  been  so  fast  janibed,  that  it  never  could  be 
disengaged,  extended  farther  into  the  rock  than  the  visible 
disunion  of  the  parts  :  this  made  mo  resolve  to  try  a  method 
sometimes  used  in  this  country,  for  the  division  of  hard 
stones,  called  the  key  and  feather,  in  order  to  cross-cut  this 
upper  stratum  of  the  rock.  The  construction  and  operation 
of  the  key  and  feather  is  as  follows: — Aright  line  is  marked 
upon  thcsurface  of  the  rock  or  stone  to  be  cut,  in  the  direc- 
tion in  whidi  it  is  intended  to  be  divided.  Holes  are  then 
drilled  by  a  jumper,  at  the  distance  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
and  about  one  inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter,  to  the  depth 
of  about  eight  or  nine  inches;  the  distances,  however,  of  the 
holes,  and  their  diameters,  as  well  as  their  depth,  are  to  be 
greater  or  less,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  stone,  in  the 
estimation  of  the  artist  directing  the  work.  The  above 
dimensions  were  what  we  used  on  this  occasion.  The  key 
is  a  long  tapering  wedge,  of  somewhat  less  breadth  than  the 
diameter  of  the  holes,  and  so  as  to  go  easily  into  them ;  the 
length  being  three  or  four  inches  more  than  the  depth  of  the 
holes.  The  feathers  are  pieces  of  iron,  also  of  a  wedge-like 
shape ;  the  side  to  be  applied  to  the  key  being  flat,  but  the 
other  side  a  segment  of  a  circle,  answerable  to  that  of  the 
holes;  so  that  the  two  flat  sides  of  two  feathers  being 
applied  to  the  two  flat  sides  of  the  key,  and  the  thick  end 
of  the  feathers  to  the  thin  end  of  the  key,  they  all  together 
compose  a  cylindric,  or  rather  oval  kind  of  body  ;  which  in 
this  position  of  parts  is  too  big  to  go  into  the  holes  by  at 
least  one-eighth  of  an  inch;  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  a 
diameter  passing  through  the  three  parts;  but,  in  the  other 
direction,  is  no  broader  than  to  go  with  ease  into  the  holes. 
A  key  and  a  pair  of  feathers  is  made  use  of  in  each  hole ; 
and  the  feathers  being  iirst  dropped  in,  with  the  thick  ends 
downward,  the  keys  are  then  entered  between  them  ;  the 
flat  sides  of  all  the  keys  and  the  feathers  being  set  parallel  to 
that  line  in  which  the  holes  are  disposed  ;  the  keys  arc  then 
driven  by  a  sledge-hammer,  proceeding  from  one  to  another, 
and  being  forced  gradually,  as  in  splitting  of  moor-stone,  the 
strongest  stones  are  unable  to  resist  their  joint  eflbrt ;  and  the 
stonc^is  split  according  to  the  direction  of  the  origiiuil  line, 
as  etfectually,  and  much  more  regularly  and  certainly,  than 
could  be  done  with  gunpowder,  and  without  any  concussion 
of  the  parts.  Had  o\u-  rock  been  entirely  solid,  this  way  of 
working  might  not  have  been  applicable,  on  account  of  the 
crack's  going  too  deep ;  but  here,  when  it  arrived  at  the  joint 
where  the  chain  was  lodged,  the  split  part  became  entirely 
disengaged  from  the  rest';  and  in  this  way  we  were  enabled 
to  bring  ofl'thc  quantity  of  several  cubic  feet  at  a  time:  and 
thus  the  chain  was  released,  after  a  confinement  of  above 
fifty  years.     The  impossibility  of  disengaging  it  before  now 


appeared  very  evident ;  for  the  pressure  had  been  so  great 
by  the  rock's  closing  upon  it,  as  before  suggested,  that  the 
links  in  their  intersections  were  pressed  into  each  other,  as 
completely  as  if  they  had  been  made  of  lead ;  though  the 
bolt-iron  composing  thee  hain  had  been  at  least  five-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter. 

"On  Thursday,  the  16th,  I  again  went  off  to  the  rock, 
and  found  the  work  in  the  following  situation.  The  lowest 
new  step  (the  most  diflicult  to  work  upon,  because  the  lowest) 
with  its  dovetails  quite  completed.  The  second  step  rough- 
bedded,  and  all  its  dovetails  scappelled  out.  The  third  step 
(being  the  lowest  in  Mr.  Rudycrd's  work)  sniooth-beddcd, 
and  all  the  dovetails  roughed  out.  The  fourth  in  the  like 
state.  The  fifth  rough-bedded,  and  dovetails  scappelled  out : 
and  the  sixth  smooth-bedded,  and  all  the  dovetails  roughed 
out.  Lastly,  the  top  of  the  rock,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
bulk  whereof  h.ad  been  previously  taken  down  by  the  key- 
and-feather  method,  as  low  as  it  could  be  done  witli  propriety, 
was  now  to  be  reduced  to  a  level  with  the  upper  surface  of 
the  sixth  step  ;  the  top  of  that  step  being  necessarily  to  form 
a  part  of  the  bed  for  the  seventh,  or  first  regular  course  ;  so 
that  what  now  remained,  was  to  bring  the  top  of  the  rock  to 
a  regular  floor  by  picks:  and  from  what  now  appeared,  (as 
all  the  upper  parts,  that  had  been  damaged  by  the  fire,  were 
cut  oft',)  the  new  building  was  likely  to  rest  upon  a  basis 
even  more  solid  than  the  former  had  done. 

"On  Thursday,  the  30th,  1  traced  the  outlines  upon  the 
upper  part  of  the  rock  for  the  border  of  the  seventh  course, 
all  within  whieh  was  to  be  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
sixth,  and  all  without  to  be  left  standing,  as  a  border  for 
defence  of  the  ground-joint  of  the  work  with  the  rock  ;  and 
measuring  the  height  of  the  top  step  above  the  bed  of  the 
first,  I  found  it  to  be  eight  feet  four  inches :  which  would  now 
be  the  difference  of  level  between  the  west  or  lowest  side  of 
the  new  building,  and  the  east  or  highest." 

The  setting  in  of  the  equinoctial  winds  prevented  much 
fivrther  progress  in  the  work  for  this  season;  but  on  the  7th 
of  November,  the  weather  being  somewhat  moderate,  Mr. 
Smeaton  went  ofl'  in  the  Eddystone  boat,  with  battens,  and 
the  carpenter,  to  mould  off  the  dovetails  from  the  rock, 
when  he  found  "  four  or  five  of  the  dovetails  in  the  upper 
step  wanting  some  amendment,  that  would  employ  as  many 
men  at  each,  for  about  four  or  five  hours.  The  greatest  part 
of  the  top  of  the  rock  was  now  brought  to  a  regular  floor, 
but  some  part  of  the  north-east  side  wanted  bringing  down 
to  a  level."  And  here  the  operations  for  the  year  ended  ; 
for,  on  the  loth  of  the  month,  the  workmen  left  the  rock, 
having  been  able  to  make  only  thirty-eight  hours  and  a  half 
since  the  2nd  of  October. 

'Mr.  Smeaton  occupies  the  interval  between  this  period  and 
the  next  working  season  with  describing  the  regulations  of 
his  mason's  yard,  the  size  of  the  stones,  &c.,  among  which 
the  following  remarks  may  be  useful  to  the  reader. 

"  From  the  beginning  1  always  laid  it  down  as  a  funda- 
mental maxim,  that  on  account  of  the  precariousncss  of 
weatlier  to  suit  our  purposes,  (and  without  its  being  favour- 
able, I  think  it  has  already  sufficiently  appeared,  that  nothing 
is  to  be  done  upon  the  Eddystone,)  if  we  could  save  <inc 
hour's  work  upon  llie  rock,  by  that  of  a  week  in  our  work- 
yard,  this  would  always  prove  a  valuable  purchase ;  and  that 
therefore  everything  ought  to  be  done  by  way  of  prepara- 
tion, which  could  tend  to  the  putting  our  work  together  with 
expedition  and  certainty,  in  the  ultimate  fixing  of  it  in  its 
proper  place  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  it  was  necessary  to  make 
use  of  as  large  and  heavy  pieces  of  stone  as,  in  such  a  situa- 
tion as  the  Eddystone,  were  likely  to  be  c:\pablc  of  being 
managed  without  running  too  great  a  risk. 


EDD 


335 


EDD 


"  The  common  rim  of  modern  building*,  even  of  the 
largest  size,  are  composed  of  pieces  in  general  not  exceeding 
five  or  six  hundred-weight,  except  where  columns,  archi- 
traves, cornices,  and  other  parts  are  to  be  formed,  that  indis- 
pensably require  large  single  pieces  ;  because  stones  of  this 
size  and  bulk  are  capable  of  being  handled  without  the  use 
of  tackles,  or  purchases,  unless  where  they  are  to  be  raised 
perpendicularly  :  yet  it  appeai-ed  to  me,  that  this  choice  of 
general  mngnitude  resulted  only  from  the  workmen's  not 
having  commonly  attained  all  that  expcrtiicssin  the  manage- 
nieut  of  the  mechanic  powers  that  they  might  have  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  they  avoid,  wherever  they  can,  the  neces- 
sity of  employing  them.  This  arises  not  from  the  real  nature 
of  the  thing,  when  properly  understood  ;  for  a  stone  of  a  ton 
weight  is,  when  hoisted  by  a  proper  tackle,  and  power  of 
labmn-ers,  as  soon  and  as  easily  set  in  its  place,  as  one  of  a 
quarter  of  that  weight;  and,  in  reality,  needs  much  less  hew- 
ing than  is  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  four  stones  to 
fill  up  the  same  space  ;  nor  need  this  reasoning  stojj  at  stones 
of  a  ton  weight,  but  it  might  proceed  even  to  as  large  sizes 
as  are  said  to  be  found  in  the  ruins  of  Balbec,  if  there  were 
not  inconveniences  of  other  kinds  to  set  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  question,  as  well  as  the  want  of  quarries  in  this  king- 
dom to  produce  stones  of  that  magnitude. 

"  The  size  of  the  stones  that  could  be  used  in  the  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse  seemed  limited  by  the  practicability  of  land- 
ing them  upon  the  rock  :  for  as  nothing  but  small  vessels,  that 
were  easily  manageable,  could  possibly  deliver  their  cargoes 
alongside  of  the  rock,  with  any  reasonable  prospect  of  safety  ; 
so  no  small  vessels  could  deliver  very  large  stones,  because  the 
sudden  rising  and  filling  of  the  vessels  in  the  gut  amounted 
frequently  to  the  difference  of  three  or  four  feet,  even  in 
moderate  weather,  when  it  was  very  practicable  for  a  vessel 
to  lie  there ;  so  that  in  case,  after  a  stone  was  raised  from 
the  floor  of  the  vessel,  her  gunnel  should  take  a  swing,  so  as 
to  hitch  under  the  stone,  one  of  such  a  magnitude  as  we  are 
now  supposing,  on  the  vessel's  rising,  must  iufiillibly  sink 
her  ;  and  hence  it  appeared,  that  much  of  the  safety  in  deli- 
vering the  cargoes  would  depend  upon  having  the  single 
pieces  not  to  exceed  such  weight  as  could  be  expeditiously 
hoisted,  and  got  out  of  the  way  of  the  vessel,  by  a  moderate 
number  of  hands,  and  by  sudi  sort  of  tackles  as  could  be 
removed  from  the  rock  to  the  store-vessel  each  tide :  and  on 
a  full  view  of  the  whole  matter,  it  appeared  to  me  very  prac- 
ticable to  land  such  pieces  of  stone  upon  the  rock,  as  in 
general  did  not  much  exceed  a  ton-weight ;  though  occa- 
sionally particular  pieces  might  amount  to  two  tons. 

"The  general  size  of  our  building  stones  being  thus 
determined  upon  at  a  ton-weight,  those  would  have  been  Air 
too  heavy  to  be  expeditiously  transferred  and  managed,  even 
in  the  work-yard,  unless  our  machinery  rendered  that  easy, 
which  would  otherwise  be  difficult,  without  too  great  an 
expense  of  labour :  and  as  the  moving  and  transferring  the 
pieces  of  stone  in  the  work-yard  would  be  greatly  increased 
in  quantity,  by  the  very  mode  of  attaining  a  certainty  in 
putting  the  work  together  upon  the  rock  ;  this  consideration 
made  it  still  the  more  necessary  to  be  able  to  load  upon  a 
carriage,  and  move  the  different  pieces  from  one  part  of  the 
yard  to  the  other,  with  as  much  facility  (comparatively  speak- 
ing) as  if  they  had  been  so  many  bricks:  for,  that  we  might 
arrive  at  perfect  certainty  in  putting  the  work  ultimately 
together  in  its  place  upon  the  rook,  it  did  not  appear  to  be 
enough,  that  the  stones  should  all  be  hewn  as  exactly  as  pos- 
sible to  moulds  that  fitted  each  other;  but  it  was  farther 
necessary,  that  the  stones  in  every  course  should  be  tried 
together  in  their  real  situation  in  respect  to  each  other,  and 
so  exactly  marked,  that  every  stone,  af>er  the  course  was 


taken  asunder,  could  be  replaced  in  the  identical  position  in 
which  it  lay  upon  the  platform,  within  the  fortieth  part  of  an 
inch.  Nor  was  this  alone  sufliiicnt ;  for  every  course  must 
not  only  be  tried  singly  together  upon  the  platform,  and 
marked,  but  it  must  have  the  course  next  above  it  put  upon 
it,  and  marked  in  the  same  manner,  that  every  two  conti- 
guous courses  might  fit  each  other  on  the  outside,  and  prevent 
an  irregularity  in  the  outline:  and  this  indeed,  in  cflJect, 
amounted  to  the  platforming  of  every  course  twice:  so  that, 
in  this  way  of  working,  every  stone  must  be  no  less  than  six 
times  upon  the  carriage  : — 1st.  Wheti  brought  into  the  yard 
from  the  ship,  to  carry  it  to  the  place  of  deposition,  till 
wanted  to  be  worked- — 2ndly.  When  taken  up  and  carriud 
to  the  shed  to  be  worked. — Srdly.  After  being  wrought,  to 
be  returned  to  its  place  of  deposition.— 4thly.  When  taken 
up  to  be  carried  to  the  platform. — 5thly.  When  finished  on 
the  platform,  to  be  returned  to  its  place  of  deposition. — Gthlv. 
When  taken  up  to  be  carried  to  the  jetty,  to  be  loaded  on 
board  a  vessel  to  go  to  sea. 

"It  might,  at  first  sight,  appear  superfluous  to  try  the 
courses  together  upon  each  other,  as  the  under  and  upper 
sides  of  all  the  courses  were  planes  :  and,  in  case  the  work 
could  ha^-e  been  put  together  upon  the  rock  in  the  same  way 
that  common  masonry  generally  is  done,  it  would  have  been 
so  :  that  is,  if  we  could  have  begun  our  conr.ses  by  setting 
the  outside  pieces  first,  then  it  would  have  been  very  practi- 
cable to  have  regulated  the  inside  pieces  thereto;  but  as  our 
hope  of  expedition  depended  upon  certainty  in  every  part  of 
our  progress,  this  required  us  to  bo  in  a  condition  to  resist 
a  storm  at  every  step  :  the  outside  stones  therefore,  uncon- 
nected with  the  inner  ones,  would  have  scarce  any  fastening 
besides  their  own  weight,  and  wcmld  he  subject  to  the  most 
immediate  and  greatest  shock  of  the  sea;  and,  after  com- 
jileting  the  outward  circle,  the  inner  space  would  be  liable  to 
become  a  receptacle  (or  water  :  the  necessity  therefore  of  fix- 
ing the  centre  stone  first,  as  least  exposed  to  the  stroke  of  the 
sea,  and  of  having  sure  means  of  attaching  all  the  rest  to  it, 
and  to  one  another,  rendered  it  indispensable  that  the  whole 
of  the  two  courses  should  be  tried  together ;  that  if  any 
defect  appeared  at  the  outside,  by  an  accumulation  of 
errors  from  the  centre,  it  might  be  rectified  upon  the  plat- 
form. 

"  The  moor-stone,  though  very  hard  with  respect  to  its 
component  parts,  yet  being  of  a  friable  nature,  is  extremely 
difficult  to  work  to  an  arris  (or  sharp  corner,)  or  even  to  be 
preserved,  when  so  wrought  by  great  labour  and  patience : 
that  is,  with  sharp  tools,  and  small  blows ;  it  therefore  soon 
appeared  to  me,  that  we  s'hould  make  very  rough  and  coarse 
work  of  it,  if  the  finishing  of  the  pieces  were  left  to  the 
workmen  of  the  country  where  produced  :  for,  though  care- 
fully wrought  there  in  their  place,  yet  in  loading  and  unload- 
ing from  their  carriages,  and  again  putting  on  board,  and 
unloading  from  the  vessels,  the  arrises  would  be  very  subject 
to  damage.  Therefore,  to  have  as  much  done  in  the  country 
as  possible,  and  to  save  weight  in  carriage  (leaving  the  finish- 
ing part  to  be  done  at  home)  rough  moulds  were  sent  for  each 
size  and  species  of  stone,  which  were  to  be  worked  by  them 
to  a  given  parallel  thickness,  and  with  length  and  breadth 
enough,  when  so  bedded,  (as  it  is  called)  to  be  cut  round  all 
the  sides  to  the  true  figure  of  the  finishing  mould  :  but  they 
were  to  reduce  them  as  near  the  size  as  they  could  safely  do 
it  by  the  hammer ;  and,  that  they  might  not  leave  an  unne- 
cessary waste,  they  were  to  be  paid  no  more  for  either  stone 
or  can-iage,  than  what  the  mould  measured  upon  the  thick- 
ness given  ;  and  if  they  were  wanting  of  substance  suflScient 
to  make  the  figure  complete,  it  should  be  at  our  option  to 
reject  them  when  they  came  home." 


EDD 


33G 


EDD 


Our  aiitlior  next  proceeds  to  detail  his  experiments  on 
cements  ;  but  as  they  constitute  no  part  of  the  building  pro- 
cess, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  Cement  and  Mor- 
tar, where  the  subject  is  duly  considered. 

On  the  5th  of  June,  1757,  the  operations  on  the  rock  were 
recommenced,  and  by  the  lOlh  all  the  preliminary  matters 
were  settled  ;  so  that  "on  Saturday,  the  lllh  of  June,  the 
first  course  of  stone  was  put  on  board  the  Eddystone  boat, 
(sec  Plate  III.  Fiinire  1,)  with  all  the  necessary  stores,  tools, 
and  utensils.  \Vc  landed  at  eight  on  Sunday  morning,  the 
12th  of  June,  and  before  noon  had  got  the  fn'st  stone  into  its 
place,  being  that  upon  which  the  date  of  the  year  1757  is 
inscribed,  in  deep  characters ;  and  the  tide  coming  upon  us, 
wc  secured  it  with  chains  to  the  old  stanchions,  and  then 
quitted  the  rock  till  the  evening  tide,  when  it  was  fitted, 
bedded  in  mortar,  trenailed  down,  and  completely  fixed  ;  and 
all  the  outward  joints  coated  over  with  plaster-of-paris,  to 
j)revent  the  immediate  wash  of  the  sea  upon  the  mortar. 
This  stone,  according  to  its  dimensions,  weighed  two  tons  and 
a  quarter.  The  weather  serving  at  intervals,  it  was  in  the 
evening  of  Monday,  the  18th,  that  the  first  course,  consisting 
of  four  stones,  was  finished  ;  and  which,  as  they  all  presented 
some  part  of  their  faces  to  the  sea,  were  all  of  moor-stone. 

"The  next  day,  Tuesday  the  14th,  the  second  course  {see 
Plate  III.  Figure  2,)  arrived  ;  and  some  of  it  was  imme- 
diately landed,  proceeded  with,  and  in  part  set  the  same  tide  : 
the  loose  pieces  being  chained  together  by  strong  chains, 
made  on  purpose  for  this  use,  and  those  ultimately  to  the  stan- 
cheons,  or  to  lewises  in  the  holes  of  the  work  Course  I.  that 
had  already  been  fixed.  The  sea  was  uncommonly  siuooth 
when  we  got  upon  the  rock,  this  evening's  tide,  but  while  we 
were  proceeding  with  our  work,  within  the  space  of  an  hour 
and  a  half,  the  wind  sprung  up  at  north-east,  and  blew  so 
fresh,  that  the  Weston,  lying  to  deliver  the  remainder  of  her 
cargo,  had  some  difiiculty  in  getting  out  of  the  gut;  and,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  transport  buoy,  to  which  she  had  a  fasten- 
ing by  a  rope,  it  would  probably  have  proved  impracticable 
to  have  got  her  out  again.  And  we  soon  saw  it  was  necessary 
to  get  everything  in  the  best  posture  time  and  circumstances 
would  admit,  in  order  to  quit  the  rock  with  safety  to  our- 
selves, and  security  to  what  we  must  necessarily  leave 
behind  us. 

"  The  pieces  that  were  fixed  and  trenailed  down,  were 
supposed  to  be  proof  against  whatever  might  happen  ;  but 
the  loose  pieces,  and  those  that  were  simply  lowered  down 
into  their  dovetail  recesses,  were  considered  as  needing  some 
additional  security,  to  prevent  their  being  carried  away  by 
the  violence  of  the  sea.  Of  the  thirteen  pieces  of  which 
Course  11.  consisted,  five  only  were  landed :  No.  1  was 
completely  set ;  No.  2  and  3  were  lowered  into  their  places, 
and  secured  by  chains ;  and  No.  4  and  5,  which  lay  at  the 
top  of  the  rock,  were  chained  together,  and  also  to  the  slide- 
ladder,  which  was  very  strongly  lashed  down  to  the  eye-bolts, 
purposely  fixed  on  the  rock  for  that  intent. 

"  In  tlie  evening  (of  June  15,)  we  made  a  short  tide  upon 
the  rock,  and  had  the  satisfaction  to  find  that  no  material 
damage  had  happened  to  anything;  we  therefore  proceeded 
with  our  work,  and  completely  fixed  No.  2  of  Course  II. 
On  the  morning  of  Friday  the  17th  wc  again  landed  for  a 
short  time  ;  and,  nothwithstanding  we  did  not  meet  with  any- 
thing amiss  on  our  return  to  the  rock  on  Wednesday  even- 
ing, after  the  hard  gale  of  wind,  yet  this  morning  we  found 
a  part,  of  the  rock  in  the  border  of  our  work,  that  secured 
a  corner  of  No.  3,  was  gone  :  we  therefore,  to  secure  that 
stone  to  its  neighbour,  applied  an  iron  cramp,  of  which  wc 
had  some  in  readiness  in  case  of  accident.  Wc  were  prevented 
landing  in  the  evening,  by  a  fresh  wind  and  rain  at  north- 


west, but  landed  again  on  Saturday  morning's  tide,  the  18th. 
However,  we  had  not  been  long  there  before  a  great  swell 
arose  fiom  the  south-west ;  and  though  there  had  been  no 
wind  apparently  to  occasion  it,  yet  it  came  upon  us  so  fast, 
that  we  were  obliged  to  quit  the  rock  before  we  could  get 
our  work  into  so  satisfactoiy  a  posture  of  defence  as  I  wished. 
It  was,  however,  as  follows:  No.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  were 
completely  fixed  as  intended;  No.  6  and  7,  were  fitted,  and 
lowered  upon  their  mortar-beds  ;  No.  8,  was  simply  got  into 
its  place,  with  a  weight  of  lead  of  five  hundred  weight  upon 
it ;  which,  in  all  such  trials  as  had  hitherto  been  made 
thereof,  had  lain  quietly.  Not  having  time  to  get  the  stone, 
No.  9,  into  its  place,  we  chained  it  upon  tiie  top  of  the  rock 
to  the  slide-ladder,  as  we  had  done  before  on  Tuesday.  In 
this  condition  we  left  the  rock,  having  staid  till  we  were  all 
wet  from  head  to  foot. 

"  The  storm  continued  till  Tuesday  morning  :  about  noon 
of  that  day,"  says  Mr.  Smeaton,  "  the  wind  and  sea  having 
become  still  more  moderate,  I  judged  it  practicable  to  row 
ahead  against  it,  so  as  to  get  to  the  westward  of  the  rock, 
and  reconnoitre  our  damages  :  accordingly,  taking  four  oars 
in  the  light  yawl,  it  being  then  near  low  water,  1  observed, 
when  the  sea  fell  away  from  the  rocks,  (every  sea  then 
breaking  bodily  over  it,)  that  No.  9,  and  the  slide-ladder  to 
which  it  was  chained,  were  both  gone ;  that  the  two  pieces 
of  moor-stone,  No.  5  and  6,  which  had  only  been  let  down 
upon  their  mortar-beds,  without  farther  fastening,  were  also 
gone  ;  that  No.  3  had  broke  its  cram]i,  and  was  gone  ;  and 
that  the  five  hundred  weight  of  lead,  that  had  been  laid  upon 
the  most  projecting  part  of  the  piece.  No.  8,  had,  by  the  force 
of  the  sea  acting  edgewise  upon  it,  been  driven  to  the  cast- 
ward,  till  it  was  stopped  by  the  rise  of  the  third  step,  against 
which  it  seemed  abutted  ;  so  that  having  thereby  qviitted  the 
piece,  No.  8,  upon  which  it  was  laid,  that  was  gone  also  : 
we  therefore,  as  it  appeared,  had  lost  five  pieces  of  stone  ; 
the  loss  of  which  was,  in  the  first  instance,  alleviated  by 
finding  that  the  first  course  appeared  so  thoroughly  united 
with  the  rock,  that  its  surface  began  to  look  black,  with  dark- 
coloured  moss  fixing  upon  it,  and  giving  it  the  same  hue  as 
the  rock  itself:  also,  that  our  shears  and  windlass  were  all 
standing,  without  the  least  derangement. 

"  I  did  not  wait  for  the  subsiding  of  the  winds  and  seas, 
so  as  to  enable  us  to  land,  and  look  out  whether  or  no  W'o 
could  recover  any  of  the  lost  pieces  ;  I  immediately  made  for 
Plymouth  in  the  light  yawl,  and  landed  at  Mill  Bay,  at  five 
o'clock  on  Tuesday  evening,  the  21st;  and,  having  collected 
the  moulds  of  the  stones  we  had  lost,  and  chosen  proper  spare 
blocks,  I  set  a  couple  of  men  to  work  upon  each  piece  of 
stone,  day  and  night,  till  finished.  This  disaster,  though  it 
furnished  a  few  reflections,  yet  they  were  not  of  the  uniilcasant 
kind  ;  for,  as  every  part  of  the  stonework  that  was  completed 
accoiding  to  its  original  intention,  appeared  to  have  remained 
fixed,  it  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  the  method  chosen ; 
and  at  the  same  lime  shewed  the  preference  of  wedging  to 
cramping,  as  the  cramp  had  failed  :  and  also  the  utility  of 
trenails,  as  a  security  till  the  mortar  was  bect>me  hard. 

"  At  four  o'clock  on  Monday  morning  the  27th,  the 
weather  serving,  I  went  out  with  Kichardson  and  company, 
in  the  Eddystone  boat ;  we  got  to  the  buss  at  ten,  and  found 
the  Weston  at  the  transport  buoy,  but  could  not  land  till  the 
afternoon's  tide,  being  a  complete  week  since  we  had  been 
last  upon  the  rock.  We  first  replaced  the  ladder,  and  after 
wards  jirocceded,  without  more  than  usual  interruptions,  till 
the  30th  in  the  evening,  \v  hen  wo  closed  and  completed  the 
Course  No.  II.,  and  began  upon  Giursc  III.  The  execution 
of  these  two  courses  had  taken  us  up  from  the  12th  to  the 
30th  inclusive,  and   though  they  consisted  of  no  more  than 


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seventeen  pieces  of  stone  in  the  whole,  yet  I  found  myself  no 
ways  disheartened ;  for,  in  establishing  these  two  courses, 
1  considered  the  most  difficult  and  arduous  part  of  the  work 
to  be  already  accomplished,  as  these  two  courses  brought  us 
up  to  the  same  level  where  my  predecessor  Mr.  Rudyerd 
had  begun. 

"  Friday,  July  the  1st,  we  were  able  to  land.  I  observed, 
that  during  the  last  tide,  tlie  swell  had  washed  some  of  the 
pointing  out  of  the  exterior  joints,  and  also  some  of  the 
grouting  out  of  the  upright  joints;  but  as  a  heavy  sea  seemed 
likely  to  come  on  with  the  tide  of  flood,  I  judged  it  to  be  to 
no  purpose  to  repair  the  cement  wliile  a  violent  swell  con- 
tinued;  I  therefore  employed  the  company  in  cutting  ofl'the 
iron  stancheons  belonging  to  the  former  building,  as  tliey  now 
began  to  be  in  our  way,  and  as  the  hold  we  gut  of  them 
ceased  to  be  of  use,  in  proportion  in  we  got  more  fastening 
from  the  lewis  holes  of  our  own  work. 

"  The  weather  having  become  more  favourable,  on  Sunday 
morning,  the  3d  of  July,  1  went  on  board,  accompanied  by- 
Mr.  Jessop  and  his  party,  to  whom,  as  they  had  never  had 
the  opportunity  of  setting  a  stone,  it  behoved  me  to  attend. 
We,  however,  not  only  met  with  a  repulse  this  day,  but  could 
not  make  any  farther  attempt  to  go  out  till  Ttiesday,  the 
5th;  and  then  the  wind,  though  gentle,  being  contrary,  had 
not  the  company  ou  board  the  buss  come  with  their  two 
yawls  and  towed  us  thither,  in  all  probability  the  day  would 
have  been  spent  iu  fruitless  attempts.  Our  difficulty  was 
con->ideral>ly  increased  by  the  coming  on  of  so  thick  a  fog, 
that,  all  our  eflijrts  united,  we  had  much  ado  to  regain  the 
buss.  Kichardson  told  me  tliey  had  had  such  bad  weather, 
that  the  sliile-ladder  had  again  broke  its  lashings  and  driven 
away  ;  that  they  had,  however,  got  all  the  irons  cut  nlf  close  to 
the  rock  ;  but  that  the  last  tide,  though  there  was  only  a  breeze 
at  south-west,  I  he  swell  was  so  great,  and  came  on  so  suddenly, 
as  to  put  them  in  great  danger  of  being  washed  otf  from  the 
top  of  the  rock,  before  they  could  quit  it. 

"  At  two  o'clock  this  day  we  landed,  and  Jessop's  company 
set  six  pieces  of  stone,  and  effectually  repaired  the  cement; 
and  next  day  a  proportionable  dispatch  was  made,  though  the 
wciither  was  not  very  mild. 

"Oil  Monday,  the  11th,  I  again  went  out;  Course  III. 
consisting  of  twenty-five  pieces,  was  closed  on  the  following 
day,  and  Course  IV.  begun. 

"  Thursday,  the  14th  of  July,  the  company  pursued  thework 
of  Course  IV.;  and  now,  both  companies  being  fully  instructed 
in  the  method  of  setting  the  basement  courses,  I  returned  to 
Plymouth  ;  from  whence  I  proposed  to  visit  each  company  as 
often  as  should  seem  expedient,  but  always  once  in  each 
company's  turn,  if  wind  and  weather  should  permit. 

"Gmtrary  winds,  ground-swells,  and  heavy  seas  for  several 
days,  interrupted  the  regularity  of  our  proceedings;  however, 
taking  such  opportunities  as  we  could,  the  Course  IV.,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-three  pieces  of  stone,  was  closed  in  the 
morning's  tide  of  the  31st  of  July,  (see  Plate  III.)  ;  and  in 
the  evening's  tide  five  pieces  of  Course  V.  were  set.  Our 
work  went  on  regularly  for  some  days  together;  and,  visit- 
ing the  Work  upon  the  5th  of  August,  I  found  the  Course  V. 
Containing  twenty-six  pieces,  closed  in.  (see  Plate  111.);  Imt 
that  liy  some  inadvertency  in  proceeding  with  the  intai-ior 
part,  the  masons  had  been  obliged  to  set  two  of  the  outside 
pieces  so  as  to  be  farther  out  than  they  should  have  been 
by  an  inch  each.  However,  as  I  found  the  work  was  sound 
.and  firm,  I  thought  it  better  to  cut  oil'  the  superfluous  stone 
from  the  outside,  than  to  disturb  the  work  by  the  violence 
that  must  have  been  used  in  unsetting  the  pieces;  I  there- 
fore determined  to  let  them  stand  as  they  were,  till  the 
cement  was    become   so  hard    as  to  support  the  edges  of 


the  stone  while  the  faces  were  working  afresh  ;  and  which, 
from  the  mortar  of  our  first  and  second  course,  we  found  was 
likely  to  be  the  case  before  the  close  of  the  season.  One  of 
the  dovetails  had  also  given  way  in  driving  a  trenail,  owing 
to  a  flaw  in  the  stone ;  for  the  remedying  whereof  we  applied 
a  cramp. 

"The  8th  of  August,  at  noon,  the  weather  being  exceeding 
fine,  with  a  low  neap  tide,  I  took  the  opportunity  of  drawing 
a  meridian  line  upon  the  platform  of  Course  VI.  the  sea 
never  going  over  the  work  during  the  whole  tide,  which  was 
the  first  time  it  had  not  w.ashed  over  all,  since  we  began  to 
build  :  we  therefore  took  this  favourable  opportunity  of  care- 
fully making  good  all  our  pointings  and  grout ings,  wherever 
the  water  had  washed  during  the  bad  weather  that  had 
succeeded  the  last  departure  of  the  Eddystone  boat;  and 
which  was  the  case  with  it,  in  places  where  it  had  not  hiid 
time  to  set  before  a  rough  tide  came  on  ;  but  I  observed,  with 
much  satisfaction,  that  whatever,  not  only  of  the  original 
work,  but  of  the  repaired  pointing,  had  once  stood  a  rough 
tide  without  giving  waj-,  the  same  place  never  after  failed. 
I  also  observed,  that  as  in  mending  the  pointings  we  had  in 
some  places  made  trial  of  Dutch  tarras  as  well  as  puzzolana, 
interchangeably,  the  puzzolana,  for  hard  service,  was  evidently 
superior  to  the  tarras :  and  some  jsarticular  joints  had  proved 
so  difficult,  that  I  was  obliged  to  try  other  expedients;  the 
best  of  which  was  to  chop  oakum  very  small,  and  beat  it  up 
along  with  the  mortar.  This  was  our  last  resource,  and  it 
never  failed  us. 

"Upon  the  11th,  I  again  went  out  in  the  vessel  that  con- 
tained the  remaining  pieces  of  Course  VI. :  those  I  saw  fixed ; 
and  that  course,  consisting  of  thirty-two  pieces,  closed  in  the 
same  evening.  (See  Plate  Ul.)  'Ihis  completing  our  six  base- 
ment courses,  brought  our  work  upon  the  same  level  to 
which  we  had,  the  preceding  .season,  reduced  the  top  of  the 
rock  ;  and  upon  this,  as  a  common  base,  the  rest  of  the  struc- 
ture was  to  be  raised  by  regular  entire  courses.  The  time 
this  part  of  the  work  (consisting  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  pieces  of  stone)  had  taken  up,  was  from  the  r2th  of 
June  to  the  11th  of  August  inclusive,  being  a  space  of  sixty- 
one  days.  We  now  considered  our  greatest  difficulties  to  be 
successfully  surmounted,  as  every  succeeding  course  had 
given  us  more  and  more  time,  as  well  as  more  and  more 
room  ;  and  this  will  appear  from  our  proceedings ;  for  it  has 
already  been  noticed,  that  the  two  first  courses,  consisting  of 
nineteen  pieces  of  stone  only,  had  cost  us  seventeen  days. 

"  Having  now  got  the  work  to  this  desirable  situation,  I 
apprehend  it  will  be  agreeable  to  my  reader  to  be  more  par- 
ticularly acquainted  with  the  method  in  which  the  stones 
were  set  and  fixed.  I  have  intimated,  that  when  each  separate 
piece,  of  which  a  course  was  to  consist,  was  separately 
wrought,  they  were  all  to  be  brought  to  their  exact  places  with 
respect  to  each  other,  upon  the  platform  in  the  work-yard,  and 
so  marked,  that,  after  being  numbered  and  taken  to  pieces, 
they  could  again  be  restored  to  the  same  relative  position. 
This  was  done  upon  the  complete  circular  courses  by  drawing 
lines  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  passing  through 
the  middle  of  each  set  of  stones;  and  likewise  concentric  cir- 
cles through  the  middle  of  each  tier  or  circle  of  stones,  so  as 
to  indicate  to  the  eye  their  relative  position  to  each  other: 
but  to  render  the  marks  not  easily  delible,  where  those  lines 
crossed  the  joints,  a  nick  was  cut  and  sunk  into  the  surface 
of  the  two  adjacent  stones ;  for  doing  which,  a  piece  of  thin 
plate-iron  was  employed,  with  sand,  upon  the  princijjle  that 
stones  are  sawn  ;  so  that  not  only  the  sight,  but  feeling,  could 
be  employed  in  bringing  them  together  again  exactly  ;  for 
the  same  or  a  similar  plate  being  applied  to  the  nick,  the 
least  irregularity  of  its  position  would  be  discoverable.    In  a 


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siriiiliir  iiiiuiiuT  the  stones  of  the  base  courses  were  marked 
by  lines  drawn  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  steps,  and  others 
perpeiidieiilar  to  the  same,  the  crossings  being  sawn  in,  as 
before  described.  There  was,  however,  a  nicety  in  this  part 
of  the  work,  that  required  particular  attention,  and  that  was 
in  forming  a  provision  for  setting  the  four  radical  stones, 
that  occujiy  the  four  radical  dovetails  into  which  each  step 
was  formed,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  several  figures  of 
rUite  III.  Those  stones  were  forined,  from  the  work  of  the 
rock's  being  actually  moulded  oft',  and  from  the  manner, 
already  de-ciibed,  of  bringing  those  moulds  to  agree  after 
they  were  brought  home  from  the  rock,  those  stones  were 
laiil  upon  the  platform  thereby,  and  then  marked  with  lines 
upon  their  own  suljstance,  in  the  manner  just  mentioned  :  and 
as  the  distances  of  each  of  those  stones  were  then  a-icertained 
by  gauge-rods  of  white  fir-wood,  while  upon  the  platform  ;  it 
must  be  expected,  as  each  step  was  reduced  to  a  level  plain, 
as  the  platform  was,  that  when  laid  upon  the  rock  in  their 
due  positions  and  distances,  by  the  gauge-rods,  they  would 
nearly  fit  tlie  dovetails  that  had  been  cut  in  the  rock  to 
receive  them  ;  and  where  there  was  the  least  want  of  fitness, 
as  might  jiossibly  happen  with  bodies  of  so  rigid  a  nature, 
either  the  slone  or  the  rock  was  cut,  till  each  stone  would 
come  into  its  exact  relative  position,  and  then  all  the  rest 
would  follow  one  another  by  their  marks,  iii  the  same  manner 
as  they  had  done  upon  the  platform. 

"  It  is  necessary  to  be  noticed,  that  the  waist  of  each  piece 
of  stone  had  two  grooves  cut,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of 
the  course,  of  an  inch  in  depth,  and  three  inches  in  width  : 
applicable  to  those  grooves  were  prepared  a  number  of  oak 
wedges,  somewhat  less  than  three  inches  in  breadth,  than  one 
inch  thick  at  the  head,  nearly  three-eighths  thick  at  the  point, 
and  six  inches  long.  The  disposition  of  these  grooves  is 
shown  in  the  courses  of  Plate  III.  where  the  little  black 
parallelogram  figures,  placed  along  the  lines  describing  the 
joints  of  the  courses,  represent  the  tops  of  the  grooves,  and 
their  place  on  the  right  hand  or  left  of  the  joint  line  show  in 
which  stone  the  groove  is  cut.  It  is  also  to  be  noted,  that 
where  the  flank  side  of  a  stone  was  not  more  in  length  than 
a  foot,  or  tbnrteen  inches,  one  groove  was  generally  deemed 
sufticient ;  but  those  of  eighteen  inches  or  upwards  had, 
generally,  in  themselves  or  the  adjoining  stone,  a  couple  of 
grooves. 

"  The  mortar  was  prepared  for  use  by  being  beat  in  a  very 
strong  wooden  bucket,  made  for  the  pm-|iose;  each  mortar- 
beater  had  his  own  bucket,  which  he  placed  upon  any  level  part 
of  the  work,  and  with  a  kind  of  rammer,  or  wooden  pestle, 
first  beat  the  lime  alone,  about  a  quarter  of  a  peck  at  a  time, 
to  which,  when  formed  into  a  complete,  but  rather  thin  paste, 
with  se;i-water,  he  tiien  gradually  adiled  the  other  ingredient, 
keeping  it  constantly  in  a  degree  of  toughness  by  continuance 
of  beating.  When  a  stone  had  been  fitted  and  ready  for 
setting,  he  whose  mortar  had  been  longest  in  beating  came 
first,  and  the  rest  in  order:  the  mason  took  the  mortar  out  of 
the  bucket ;  and,  if  any  was  spareil,  he  still  kept  on  beating; 
if  the  whole  was  exhausted,  he  began  upon  a  fresh  batch. 
The  stones  were  first  tiled,  and  heaved  into  and  out  of  tiieir 
recesses,  l)y  a  light  movable  triangle,  which  being  furnished 
with  a  light  double  tackle,  the  greatest  inmi  her  of  all  the  pieces 
could  he  purchased  by  the  simple  application  of  the  hand  ; 
and  this  made  our  stones  to  be  readily  manageable  by  sucii 
machinery  as  could  commodiously  be  moved  and  carried  back- 
ward and  forward  in  the  yawls  every  tide.  To  the  first  stone, 
and  some  few  others,  we  took  the  great  t.aekle,  that  we 
might  hoist  and  lower  them  with  certainty  and  case;  but 
there  were  not  in  the  whole  above  a  dozen  stones  that 
required  it. 


"The  stone  to  be  set  being  hung  in  the  tackle,  and  its  bed 
of  mortar  spread,  was  then  lowered  into  its  place,  and  beat 
down  with  a  heavy  wooden  maul,  and  levelled  with  a  spirit 
level:  and  the  stone  being  brought  accurately  to  its  marks,  it 
was  then  considered  as  set  in  its  place.  The  business  now 
was  to  retain  it  exactly  in  that  position,  notwithstanding  the 
utmost  violence  of  the  sea  might  come  upon  it  before  the 
mortar  was  hard  enough  to  resist  it.  The  carpenter  now 
dropped  into  each  groove  two  of  the  wedges  already  described, 
one  upon  its  head,  and  the  other  with  its  point  downward,  so 
that  the  two  wedges  in  each  groove  would  then  lie  heads  and 
points.  With  a  bar  of  iron  of  about  two  inches  and  a  half 
broad,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  two  feet  and  a 
half  long,  the  ends  being  square,  he  could  easily  (as  with  a 
rammer)  drive  down  one  wedge  upon  the  other,  very  gently 
,  at  first,  so  that  the  opposite  pairs  of  wedges  being  equally 
tightened,  they  would  equally  resist  each  other,  and  the  stone 
would  therefore  keep  its  place  ;  and  in  this  manner  those 
wedges  oiigl't  be  driven  even  more  tight  than  there  was 
occasion  for  ;  as  the  wood  being  dry,  it  would  by  swelling 
become  tighter ;  and  it  was  possible  that  by  too  much  driving, 
and  the  swelling  of  the  wedges,  the  stones  might  be  broken  ; 
and  farther,  that  a  moderate  fastening  might  be  effectual,  a 
couple  of  wedges  were  also,  in  like  maimer,  pitched  at  the 
top  of  each  groove,  the  dormant  wedge,  or  that  with  the  point 
upward,  being  held  in  the  hand,  while  the  drift  wedge,  or 
that  with  its  point  downward,  was  driven  with  a  hammer;  the 
whole  of  what  remained  above  the  upper  surface  of  the  stone 
was  then  cut  off  with  a  saw  or  chisel ;  and  generally  a  couple 
of  thin  wedges  were  driven  ver}'  moderately  at  the  bnttend  of 
the  stone  ;  whose  tendency  being  to  force  it  out  of  its  dove- 
tail, they  would,  by  moderate  driving,  only  tend  to  preserve 
the  whole  mass  steady  together  ;  in  opposition  to  the  violent 
agitation  that  might  arise  from  the  sea. 

"  After  a  stone  was  thus  fixed,  we  never,  in  fact,  had  an 
instance  of  its  having  been  stirred  by  any  action  of  the  sea 
whatever;  but,  considering  the  unmeasured  violence  thereof, 
the  farther  security  by  trenails  will  not  seem  altogether 
unnecessary,  when  we  reflect,  that  after  a  stone  was  thus 
fixed  in  its  place  by  wedges,  a  great  sea  coming  upon  it, 
(often  in  less  than  half  an  hour)  was  capable  of  washing  out 
all  the  mortar  from  the  bed  underneath  it,  notwithstanding 
every  defence  we  could  give  it  by  plaster  or  otherwise  ;  and 
that  when  the  bed  of  mortar  was  destroyed,  the  sea  acting 
edgewise  upon  the  joint,  would  exert  the  same  power  to  lift  it 
up,  that  the  same  sea  would  exert  to  overset  it,  in  case  its 
broad  base  was  turned  upright  to  oppose  it ;  and  as  the 
wedges  only  fixed  and  secured  the  several  pieces  of  which 
each  course  consisted,  to  each  other,  and  had  no  tendency  to 
keep  the  whole  course  from  lifting  together,  in  case  the  whole 
should  lose  its  mortar  bed  ;  it  seemed  therefore  highly  neces- 
sary to  have  some  means  of  preventing  the  lifting  the  whole 
of  a  course  together,  till  the  solidity  and  continuity  of  the 
mortar  should  totally  take  away  that  tendency.  Adverting 
now  to  what  was  said,  that  a  couple  of  holes,  to  receive  oak 
trenails  of  one  inch  and  three  quarters  in  diameter,  were 
bored  in  the  work-yard  through  the  external  or  projecting  end 
of  every  piece  of  stone  :  we  must  now  suppose  these  stones 
set  in  their  places,  and  fixed  by  wedges ;  then  one  of  the  tin- 
ners, with  a  jumper,  began  to  continue  the  hole  into  the 
stone  of  the  course  below,  and  bored  it  to  about  eight  or  nine 
inches  deep  :  but  this  hole  was  bored  of  a  less  size,  by  one- 
eighth  of  an  incli  in  diameter,  than  the  hole  through  the 
stone  above  ;  in  consequence,  the  trenails,  having  been  pre- 
viously dressed  with  a  plane  till  they  would  drive  somewhat 
freely  through  the  upper  hole,  would  drive  stiflly  into  the 
under  one,  and  generally  would  become  so  fast  as  to  drive  no 


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fiirtlier  before  ihcir  leading  end  ijotdown  to  the  bottom;  and 
if  so,  they  were  sufficiently  fist:  but  as  they  sonietiinos 
happened  to  drive  more  freely  than  at  others,  the  following 
method  was  used  to  render  them  fist,  for  a  certainty,  when 
they  got  to  the  bottom.  The  leading  end  of  every  trenail 
was  split  with  a  saw,  for  about  aeouple  of  inches,  and  into  this 
split  was  introduced  a  wedge,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
less  in  breadth  than  the  diameter  of  tlie  trenail  ;  it  was  a  full 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  head,  and  sharpened  to 
an  edge  ;  when  therefore  the  head  of  the  wedge  touched  the 
bottom  of  the  hole,  the  trenail  being  forcibly  driven  thereupon, 
would  enter  upon  it,  till  the  whole  substance  was  jambcd  so 
fast,  that  the  trenail  would  drive  no  farther;  and  as  the  wood 
would  afterwards  swell  in  the  hole,  and  fill  the  little  irre- 
gularities of  boring  by  the  jumper,  it  became  so  fast,  that,  as 
it  seems,  they  could  sooner  be  pulled  in  two  than  the  trenails 
be  drawn  out  again.  The  trenail  (originally  made  somewhat 
too  long)  being  then  cut  of?  even  with  the  top  of  the  stone, 
its  upper  cud  was  wedged  cross  and  cross.  There  being 
generally  two  trenails  to  each  piece  of  stone,  no  assignable 
power,  less  than  what  would  by  main  stress  pull  these  tre- 
nails in  two,  could  lift  one  of  these  stones  from  their  beds 
when  so  fixed,  exclusive  of  their  natural  weight,  as  all  agita- 
tion was  prevented  by  the  lateral  wedges.  The  stone  being 
thus  fixed,  a  proper  quantity  of  the  beat  mortar  was  liquefied, 
and  the  joints  having  been  carefully  pointed  up  to  the  upper 
surface,  the  grout  so  prepared  was  run  in  with  iron  ladles, 
and  was  brought  to  such  a  consistency  as  to  occupy  every 
void  space  ;  and  though  a  considerable  part  of  this  was  water, 
yet  that  being  absorbed  by  the  dry  stones,  and  the  more  con- 
sistent parts  settled  to  the  bottom,  the  vacuity  being  at  the 
top,  this  was  repeatedly  refilled  till  all  remained  solid  :  the 
top  was  then  pointed,  and,  when  necessary,  defended  by  a 
coat  of  plaster. 

"The  several  courses,  represented  in  Plate  III.  are  shown 
as  they  would  appear,  when  completed  with  the  whole  of 
their  wedges  and  trenails  :  and  besides  these,  there  being  also 
generally  two  lewis  holes  upon  the  upper  surface  of  each 
stone,  those  served  as  temporary  fixtures  for  the  work  of  the 
succeeding  course. 

"It  was  the  same  evening's  tide,  of  the  11th  of  August, 
that  the  basement  was  completed  and  the  centre  stone  of 
Course  VII.  was  landed.  Of  the  preceding  courses,  each  was 
begun  by  the  stones  that  engrafted  in  the  dovetail  recesses 
cut  in  the  rock  ;  these  stones,  therefore,  being  immovable 
by  any  assignable  force  acting  horizontally,  rendered  those 
so  likewise  that  depended  upon  them ;  but  having  now 
brought  the  whole  upon  a  level,  we  could  not  have  this 
advantage  any  longer ;  it  therefore  became  necessary  to 
attain  a  simihir  advantage  by  artificial  means.  For  this 
purpose,  the  upper  surface  of  Course  VI.,  [Plate  III. 
Figure  6,)  had  a  hole  of  one  foot  square  cut  through  the 
stone  that  occupied  the  centre ;  and  also  eight  depressions,  of 
one  foot  square,  sunk  into  that  course  six  inches  deep,  which 
were  disposed  at  regular  distances  round  the  centre  :  these 
cavities  were  for  the  reception  of  eight  cubes  of  marble,  in 
masonry  called  joggles.  As  a  preparation  for  setting  the 
centre  stone  of  Course  VII.,  a  parallelepiped  (which,  for 
shortness  sake,  I  will  call  the  plug)  of  strong  hard  marble 
from  the  rocks  near  Ply  mouth,  of  one  foot  square  and  twenty- 
two  inches  in  length,  was  set  with  mortar  in  the  central 
cavity,  and  therein  firmly  fixed  with  thin  wedges.  Ci,>urse 
VI.  being  thirteen  inches  in  height,  this  marble  plug,  which 
reached  through,  would  rise  nine  inches  above  it;  upon  this, 
the  centre  stone  (see  Plate  IV.  Course  VII.)  having  a  hole 
through  its  centre  of  a  fjot  square,  was  introduced  upon  the 
prominence  of  the  plug,  and,  being  bedded  in  mortar,  was  in 


like  manner  wedged  (with  wedges  on  each  side  of  the  plug) 
and  every  remaining  cavity  filled  with  grout.  By  this  nutans, 
no  force  of  the  sea,  acting  horizontally  upon  the  centre  stone, 
less  than  what  was  capable  of  cutting  the  marble  plug  in  two, 
was  able  to  move  it  from  its  place  :  and  to  prevent  the  stone 
more  effectually  from  being  lifted,  in  case  its  bed  of  mortar 
happened  to  be  destroyed,  it  was  fixed  down  in  the  manner 
above  described,  by  four  trenails ;  which  being  placed  near 
to  the  corners  of  the  large  square  of  that  stone,  they  not 
only  efleetually  prevented  the  stone  from  lifting,  but  aided  the 
centre  plug  in  preventing  the  stone  from  moving  angularly, 
or  twisting,  which  it  might  otherwise  have  done,  notwith- 
standing its  weight,  which  was  two  tons  nearlj'. 

"  After  setting  the  first  centre  stone  of  Course  VII.  we 
immediately  proceeded  to  set  the  four  stones  that  surround 
it,  and  which  were  united  thereto,  by  four  dovetails,  project- 
ing from  the  four  sides  of  the  centre  stone.  These  stones 
being  fixed  in  their  dovetails  by  a  pair  of  wedges  on  each 
side  at  bottom  and  top,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  and 
held  down  by  a  couple  of  trenails  to  each  surrounding  stone, 
and  still  farther  steadied  by  joint  wedges  at  the  head  of  the 
dovetails,  and  also  in  the  mitre,  or  diagonal  joints  between 
each  surrounding  piece  ;  the  whole  formed  a  circular  kind  of 
stone  of  ten  feet  diameter,  and  above  seven  tons  weight :  and 
which  being  held  down  by  a  centre  plug  and  twelve  trenails, 
became  in  effect  one  single  stone  ;  whose  circumference  was 
sufficient  to  admit  of  eight  dovetail  recesses  to  be  formed 
therein,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  retaining  in  their  places  a 
circle  of  eight  pieces  of  stone,  of  about  twelve  hundred 
weight  each,  in  the  same  manner,  and  upon  the  same 
principle,  that  the  radical  pieces  of  stone  were  engrafted  into 
the  dovetail  recesses  of  the  rock  ;  and  which  being  in  like 
manner  wedged  and  trenailed,  we  proceeded  with  circular 
tiers  of  stone,  in  the  manner  shown  in  Plate  IV.  Figure  1. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked,  that  the  mode  of  applying  the 
wedges  and  trenails  being  sufficiently  explained  in  the  seve- 
ral figures  of  Plate  III.  and  also  in  Plate  IV.  Figure  1,  to 
avoid  a  repetition  of  small  work,  theseveral  succeeding  figures 
simply  show  the  general  shapes  and  disposition  of  the  diffe- 
rent pieces  composing  a  course,  and  other  incidental  larger 
matters  wholly  omitting  the  particular  application  of  the 
wedges  and  trenails  ;  yet  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  they  were 
everywhere  equally  applied,  till  we  got  to  the  top  of  the 
solid. 

"  My  much  esteemed  master  and  friend,  Mr.  Weston,  who 
came  from  London  to  be  witness  of  our  proceedings,  arrived 
at  Plymouth  during  this  interval.  I  went  off  with  him  early 
on  Wednesday  morning,  the  17th,  attended  by  Mr.  Jessop  and 
his  company,  and  landed  upon  the  rock  at  ten  :  Kichardson 
and  company  were  then  about  to  begin  to  set  the  fifth  tier, 
or  circle  of  stone,  which  was  to  contain  the  eight  cubes 
before  described.  These  cubes  were  so  disposed  upon  the 
surface  of  Course  VI.  that  the  cavities  cut  on  the  under  side 
of  Course  VII.  to  take  the  upper  half  of  each  cube,  should 
constantly  fall  in  the  broad  part  of  the  stones  of  the  fifth 
circle  ;  which  will  appear  plain  by  considering  the  dotted 
lines  relative  to  Course  VII.  upon  the  surface  of  Course  VI. 
(see  Plate  III.  Figure  6.)  There  could  consequently  be  no 
application  of  wedges  in  the  upper  course,  to  the  fastening  of 
the  circle  of  stones,  (No.  5,)  upon  their  respective  cubes : 
when  therefore  the  stone  respectively  came  upon  them,  we 
put  as  much  mort.ar  upon  the  top  of  the  cube  as  would  in 
part  make  good  the  joint  between  it  and  its  cavity,  but  not 
enough  quite  to  fill  it ;  because,  if  too  full,  there  was  no 
ready  way  for  the  superfluous  mortar  to  escape  ;  but  a  hole, 
of  the  size  of  those  for  the  trenails,  being  previously  bored 
through  each  of  these  pieces,  answerable  to  the  middle  of 


E  1>  D 


340 


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each  cube ;  when  the  stone  was  set,  wedged  and  trenailed, 
then  it  was  vfi-y  firacticable,  by  dressing  a  trenail  so  as  to 
become  a  larn-iud,  to  drive  as  much  mortar  down  the  hole 
as  would  completely  fill  every  vacancy  between  the  stone  and 
its  cube:  insomuch  that  we  soon  perceived,  that  if  this  was 
attempted  before  the  stone  was  completely  trenailed  down,  it 
would  very  easily  raise  the  stone  from  its  bed,  as  might 
indeed  be  expected  from  the  principle  of  hydrostatics:  but, 
being  done  after  such  com|iletion,  it  brought  the  whole  to  the 
most  solid  bearing  that  could  bo  wished ;  and,  when  the 
cement  was  hardened,  answered  the  end  (juite  as  elTectually 
as  if  they  had  been  wedged. 

"  It  may  here  be  very  properly  said,  that  since  those  cubes 
could  be  of  little  use  in  keeping  the  work  firmly  together, 
before  the  mortar  was  hardened  ;  and  after  that  had  taken 
place,  they  could  be  of  no  use;  boca\ise  the  number  of  one 
hundred  and  eight  trenails,  of  which  one  of  these  courses 
Consisted  when  complete,  being  supposed  sufficient  to  keep  it 
from  lifiing  and  moving  out  of  its  j)lacc  ;  as  the  mortar 
hardened,  and  every  additional  course  was  an  addition  of  its 
own  weight  upon  the  former,  if  those  cubes  could  have  been 
dispensed  with  in  the  first  instance,  they  might  have  been 
so  ever  after.  This  reasoning  1  can  very  well  admit  to  be 
true ;  yet,  when  we  have  to  do  with,  and  to  endeavour  to 
control,  those  powers  of  nature  that  are  subject  to  no  calcu- 
lation, 1  trust  it  will  be  deemed  prudent  not  to  omit,  in  such 
a  case,  anything  that  can  without  ditlicnity  be  applied,  and 
that  would  be  iikely  to  add  to  the  security.  It  may  farther 
be  remarked,  that  as  this  building  was  intended  to  be  a  mass 
of  sluue,  held  together  by  the  natural  and  artificial  union  of 
its  pai'ts,  it  would  have  been  out  of  character,  that,  when 
completed,  it  should  be  beholden  to  certain  parts  of  wood  for 
its  consolidation. 

"  1  have  mentioned,  that  I  originally  conceived  more  than 
one  way  of  preventing  the  courses  from  siiifting  place  upon 
one  another.  My  first  conoeptions  were  to  form  a  rise  (or  a 
depression)  of  three  inches,  bounded  by  a  circle  somewhat 
about  the  diameter  of  that  in  which  the  joggles  are  placed  ; 
which  step,  or  depression,  would  have  formed  a  socket, 
whereby  the  courses  would  have  l)een  mutually  engrafted, 
not  much  different  from  what  nature  has  pointed  out  in  the 
basaltine  columns  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  ;  but,  considering 
how  much  unnecessary  trouble  and  intricacy  would  be  hereby 
introduced,  by  one  part  of  the  bed  of  the  same  stone  being 
liable  to  be  three  inches  higher  than  the  other,  I  judged  that 
the  end  would  bo  very  sufficiently  answered  by  the  much 
more  plain,  easy,  and  simple  method  of  joggles  ;  especially 
as,  for  this  purpose,  the  firmest  and  toughest  kind  of  stone 
might  be  chosen,  and  the  number  multiplied  at  pleasure. 
One  plug  in  the  middle,  of  a  foot  S(iuare,  and  eight  joggles 
of  a  foot  cube  each,  of  the  hardest  marble,  disposed  in  the 
manner  described,  seemed  to  me,  along  with  the  additional 
strength  and  security  arising  from  the  trenails,  as  also  from 
the  infinite  number  of  little  indentures  upon  the  surface  of 
the  courses,  as  well  as  the;  lewis  holes,  each  being  filled  with 
an  exuberance  of  mortar,  wliicli,  when  hard,  would  in  etfect 
become  a  steady  pin  ;  from  the  cohesi(jn  of  the  mortar  as  :i 
solid,  promising  to  be  no  less  than  that  of  the  stone,  together 
with  the  incumbent  weight  of  every  i)art  of  the  building 
above  ;  every  joint,  thus  separately  considered,  seemed,  in 
point  of  firmness,  so  satisfactory  to  my  mind,  that  if  the 
whole  of  this  proved  too  little,  it  was  out  of  my  power  to 
conceive  what  would  be  enough. 

"  In  the  morning  and  evening's  tide  of  the  17th,  we  set 
the  whole  of  the  fifth  tier,  and  eonsecjuently  the  whole  of  the 
eight  cubes  were  then  inlaid.  The  morning  of  tho  ISlh  we 
again  landed,  and  in  this  morning  and  evening's  tide,  though 


rough,  we  had  got  set  five  pieces  of  Circle  VI.  and  had 
landed  the  remaining  three  ;  as  also  one  of  the  largest  pieces 
of  moor-stone  for  the  east  side  (see  Plate  IV.  Fiyiire  1.)  This 
evening's  tide  we  worked  with  links,  and  it  began  to  blow  so 
fresh  that  we  had  much  ado  to  keep  them  in,  being  obliged 
to  make  a  fire  of  them  upon  the  surface  of  the  work.  We 
were  under  the  necessity,  at  last,  to  quit  the  rock  with  some 
precipitation,  and  were  very  glad  to  get  into  our  yawls; 
things  being  left  in  the  following  posture  :  Two  of  the  pieces, 
Tier  G,  were  simply  dropped  into  their  places,  on  the  n(U-th- 
west  side,  while  the  third  piece,  being  about  a  ton,  and  the 
piece  of  moor-stone  near  upon  two  tons,  were  chainexl  toge- 
ther, and  to  the  work  of  Course  VII.  that  was  already  set; 
these  two  loose  pieces  being  upon  the  top  of  that  course, 
near  the  east  side  ;  the  triangles  we  lashed  down  upon  the 
floor  of  the  work,  as  we  had  practised  several  times  before. 
The  sea  became  so  rough  in  the  niglit,  that  the  Weston,  at 
the  transport  buoy,  was  obliged  to  slip  and  make  for  a 
harbour.  The  bad  weather  continued  to  increase  till  the 
28th,  when  there  was  a  violent  storm  at  south-west. 

"Tho  29th,  I  perceived  with  my  telescope,  from  the  Hoa, 
the  buss  to  ride  safe,  but  could  not  see  the  shears,  or  indeed 
anything  else  upon  the  rock  distinctly,  except  the  breaker.s. 
The  day  following  V)eing  more  clear,  and  the  sea  somewhat 
subsided,  1  immediately  went  on  board  the  Eddystone  boat 
to  reconnoitre.  The  wind  being  north-west,  1  passed  the 
rock  several  times  under  sail,  but  there  was  no  possibility 
of  landing.  1  observed,  that  not  only  all  the  work  which 
had  been  completely  set  was  entire,  but  that  the  two  stones 
mentioned  to  have  been  simply  lowered  into  their  places,  also 
remained  therein,  and  that  the  five  hundred  weight  still 
rested  upon  the  stone  whereon  it  was  left.  The  west  face  of 
the  building  had  got  so  complete  a  coat  of  sea-weed,  that  it 
was  only  distinguishable  from  the  rock  by  its  form  ;  but  the 
shears  and  triangles  were  entirely  gone;  the  two  pieces  c^f 
stone,  that  had  been  chained  together  and  to  the  work,  were 
also  gone ;  the  windlass  frame  broken  and  much  damaged, 
and  the  roll  gone;  the  fender  piles  and  the  transport  buoy, 
however,  remained  in  their  places. 

"  It  was  the  3rd  of  September  before  the  company  could 
make  a  landing  to  do  anything  upon  the  rock  ;  so  that,  since 
the  18th  nit.,  there  had  been  an  interval  of  fifteen  days,  in 
which  we  had  been  totally  interrupted  by  bad  weather,  in 
the  very  prime  part  of  the  season.  However,  everything 
having  been  expedited  on  shore,  to  get  refitted  for  work,  this 
day  I  went  out  therewith,  and  began  to  set  up  our  new 
shears,  windlass,  &c.,  and  with  the  shears  got  up  the  piece 
of  Portland,  of  Circle  (>,  which  was  set,  as  also  the  others 
that  had  been  left  loose  in  their  dovetails;  but  the  tide  of 
flood  coming  on,  had  deepened  the  water  too  much  before  we 
could  try  to  get  up  the  other. 

"  September  tho  .'Jth,  the  seventh  circle  was  finished  and  the 
eighth  begun  ;  and  this  day  the  wind  being  variable,  from 
north-east  to  north-west,  and  very  moderate,  was  very  re- 
markable, as  being  the  first  time  of  the  people  having  worked 
till  thev  were  obliged  to  quit  the  rock  for  refreshment :  and 
now  everything  being  reinstated,  it  was  some  lime  before  we 
met  with  anything  but  the  ordinary  interruptions. 

"The  fineness  of  the  season  continued  to  favour  the  expe- 
diting of  our  works,  insomuch  that  Course  VIII.,  which  was 
begun  upon  the  8th,  was  executed  in  five  days,  being  entirely 
completed  on  the  loth,  at  the  same  hour.  Everything  went 
regularly  on  till  tho  "iOth  ;  so  that,  in  return  for  our  conti- 
nued interruption  from  the  stormy  weather  for  fifteen  day.s, 
our  works  had  an  uninterrupted  progression  fiir  eighteen 
days,  when  Course  IX.  was  advanced  to  the  fifth  circle." 

A  series  of  land-swells  from    the  south-west   prevented 


EDD 


341 


EDD 


further  proceedings  (ill  the  30th  September,  when  Course 
IX.  was  coinplotecl,  '•  and  the  masons  proceeded  to  rectify 
the  face  of  the  work,  where  it  was  in  any  degree  wanting 
thereof,  that  there  might  be  no  need  hereafter  to  disturb  any 
part  of  the  coat  of  weed,  whicii  was  ]il\cly  to  fix  upon  it 
during  the  winter."  This  ended  the  operations  for  the 
year   1*57. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  1758,  Mr.  Smcaton  examined  the 
work,  and  found  it  perfectly  entire,  except  a  small  spawl, 
which  had  been  washed  from  the  rock  itself;  the  whole  did 
not  seem  to  have  sullcred  a  diminution  of  so  much  as  a  grain 
of  sand  since  the  time  he  left  it  on  the  1st  of  October  of  the 
preceding  year  :  on  the  contrary,  the  cement,  and  even  the 
grouted  part,  appeared  to  be  as  perfectly  hard  as  the  Port- 
land stone  itself;  the  whole  having  become  one  solid  mass, 
entirelv  covered  with  the  same  coat  of  sea-weed  as  the  rock, 
the  lop  of  the  work  excepted.  This  was  washed  so  clean 
and  \\  liite.  that  the  lines  upon  it  appeared  more  distinct  than 
when  they  were  in  the  work-yard  ;  the  cube-holes  and  lewis- 
holes,  however,  from  their  being  constantly  filled  with  water, 
were  grown  over  with  green  weed,  like  the  outside.  The 
fender  piles  were  indeed  all  gone,  but  this  was  a  trifling 
disaster,  as  they  could  soon  be  renewed. 

The  tenth  course  was  set  on  the  5th  of  July,  the  eleventh 
on  the  18th,  the  twelfth  on  the  24th,  the  thirteenth  on  the  5th 
of  August,  and  on  the  8th  of  that  month  the  fourteenth, 
which  completed  the  fundamental  solid. 

Fiom  the  top  of  this  course  begins  that  part  of  the  build- 
ing, also  called  the  solid,  which  includes  the  passage  from 
the  entry  door  to  the  well-hole  of  the  stairs  as  described 
Plate  IV.  Figures  2,  3,  4,  frt)m  which  a  more  adequate  idea 
can  tie  obtained  than  any  words  could  convey. 

Mr.  Smeaton  then  proceeds  to  describe  his  method  of 
regulating  the  superstructure  :  As  "  for  the  sake  of  the 
well-hole,  we  must  necessarily  lose  our  centre-stone,  the  four 
stones,  which  in  the  former  courses  were  united  to  it  by 
dovetails,  were,  as  now  prepared,  to  be  united  to  each  other 
by  h<x>k-scarf-joints,  so  as  to  compose,  in  effect,  one  stone  : 
and  as,  in  consequence,  we  had  also  lost  our  centre  cubes,  it 
became  expedient,  that  the  work  might  have  a  uniform 
texture  and  strength,  that  those  four  sttmes,  making  a  com- 
plete circle  for  the  staircase,  should  be  provided  with  cubes, 
to  prevent  their  being  shifted  by  any  shock  applied  hori- 
zontally, (see  Figure  A,)  as  well  as  with  the  trenails  to  hinder 
them  from  lifting.  B3'  this  means  the  principle  of  consoli- 
dation would  be  effectually  preserved:  but  as  the  top  of  the 
fourteenth,  or  entry-door  course,  was  twelve  feet  above  the 
top  of  the  rock,  that  is,  twent)'  feet  four  inches  above  the 
base  of  the  first  course,  the  stroke  of  the  sea  must  here 
become  less  violent,  and  therefore  a  less  degree  of  resistance 
would  be  equally  sufficient.  And  as  the  large  cubes  would 
too  much  cut  the  work,  which  was  here  of  considerably  less 
area  ;  and  as  several  cubes  would  be  requisite  for  the  well- 
hole  stones,  I  had  determined,  above  the  entry -door  course, 
to  increase  the  number  of  cubes  from  eight  to  sixteen,  and 
to  diminish  their  size  from  twelve  to  six  inches  ;  but  still  to 
bo  of  solid  gray  marble,  and  two  of  them  to  be  introduced 
into  each  of  the  four  well-hole  stones. 

"Upon  the  9th  of  August,  I  marked  out  the  entry  and 
staircase  ;  and  having  unloaded  the  Eddystono  boat,  which 
was  loaded  with  the  first  pieces  of  Course  XV.,  we  imme- 
diately proceeded  with  it;  and  from  this  time  were  blessed 
with  such  an  uninterrupted  continuance  of  fine  weather,  that 
upon  the  20th  of  August,  Course  XVIII.  was  completed, 
which, reunites  the  building  into  a  complete  circle,  Viy  cover- 
ing the  passage  to  the  staircase  :  the  external  face  of  the 
stone  of  that  course,  which  makes  the  cover  or  head  of  the 


entry-door  having  the  figures  1758,  denoting  the  year  in 
which  this  part  <,if  the  work  was  accomplished,  cut  in  deep 
characters  upon  it. 

"  On  the  24th  of  August,  the  fine  weather,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  works,  were  interrupted.  Course  XX.  being  then 
in  hand  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  24th  of  September,  that, 
with  every  possible  exertion,  Course  XXIV.  w;is  finished, 
which  completed  the  solid,  and  composed  the  floor  of  the 
store-room. 

"The  25th  and  26th  of  September,  Course  XXV.,  being 
the  first  course  of  the  superstructure,  was  successfully  com- 
pleted in  its  place  ;  but,  as  the  mode  of  construction  now 
became  entirely  diflferent  from  the  former,  it  is  necessary  to 
give  an  account  thereof,  as  also  of  the  reasons  for  the  change. 
The  building  was  carried  up  solid,  as  high  as  there  was  any 
reason  to  suppose  it  exposed  to  the  heavy  stroke  of  the  sea  ; 
that  is,  to  thirty-five  feet  four  inches  above  its  base,  and 
twenty-seven  feet  above  the  top  of  the  rock,  or  common 
spring-tide  high-water  mark.  At  this  height,  as  it  was 
reduced  to  sixteen  feet  eight  inches  in  diameter,  it  became 
necessary  to  make  the  best  use  of  this  space,  and  make  all 
the  room  and  convenience  therein  that  was  possible,  con- 
sistent with  the  still  necessary  strength.  The  rooms  being 
made  of  twelve  feet  four  inches  diameter,  this  would  leave 
twenty-six  inches  for  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  These 
being  made  with  single  blocks  in  the  thickness  so  that 
sixteen  pieces  might  compose  the  circle,  would,  from  its 
figure,  compose  a  stout  wall  ;  yet  moor-stone,  as  has  been 
observed,  being  a  tender  kind  of  stone,  in  respect  to  the 
union  of  its  component  parts,  any  method  of  dovetailing  the 
blocks  together,  at  this  thickness,  appeared  to  me  imprac- 
ticable to  any  good  purpose.  What  seemed  to  be  the  most 
effectual  method  of  bonding  the  work  together,  was  that  of 
cramping  with  iron,  which  would  confine  each  single  piece 
to  its  neighbouring  piece  in  the  same  circle  :  and  if  to  this 
be  added,  that  every  piece  should,  at  each  end  of  it,  lay 
hold  of  an  inlaid  piece,  or  jf'ggle  in  the  same  nature  as  the 
cubes,  then  not  only  all  the  pieces  in  the  same  course  would 
be  united  to  each  other  by  the  cramps,  but  steadied  from 
moving  upon  the  under  course  by  the  joggles,  and  of  conse- 
quence would  be  fastened  at  thirty-two  points  :  for  in  each 
course  there  being  sixteen  joggle-stones,  as  each  end  of 
each  principal  piece,  at  its  base,  took  hold  of  half  a  joggle, 
there  would  be  thirty-two  points  of  confinement  in  the  circle 
above  ;  that  is,  the  joggles  being  made  to  occupy  the  middle 
of  the  upper  bed  of  each  block,  in  that  situation  they  would 
cross  the  joints  of  the  course  above.  These  joggles,  as  well 
as  the  rest,  were  of  sawn  marble,  and  made  eight  inches 
long,  four  inches  broad,  and  three  inches  thick  :  each  end  of 
each  block,  therefore,  would  occupy  four  inches  in  length, 
four  in  breadth,  and  one  inch  and  a  half  in  the  height  of 
each  joggle;  and  this  I  judged  quite  sufficient  to  keep 
every  course  in  its  place,  at  the  height  that  this  kind  of  work 
was  begun,  and  so  as  to  constitute  a  piece  of  solid  masonry. 
There  was,  however,  another  matter,  that  it  seemed  quite 
material  also  to  attend  to ;  and  that  was,  to  render  the  habit, 
able  rooms  contained  within  those  shells  of  walls,  perfectly- 
dry  and  comfortable  in  all  weathers  ;  and  this  seemed  to 
merit  very  particular  attention  ;  for  the  seas  that  are  said  to 
rise  up  againsit,  and  in  a  manner  to  bury  the  house,  in  time 
of  storm,  would  make  effectual  trial  of  every  joint. 

"The  level  joints  being  pressed  together  by  the  incumbent 
weijiht  of  the  building,  would  keep  firm  and  sound  that 
Cohesion  of  parts  produced  by  the  mortar;  so  that  once 
beins;  made  water-tight,  there  was  no  doubt  that  tliey  would 
so  remain  :  but  v  ith  respect  to  the  upright  joints,  the  least 
degree  of  shrinking,  either  of  the  stone  or  tif  the  mortar 


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342 


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be'.weon,  teiulcd  to  open  the  joint,  so  that  it  might  always 
remain  leaky,  in  a  greater  or  a  less  degree  ;  for  we  know  of 
no  degree  of  separation  of  parts,  however  minute,  short 
of  absolute  contact,  which  will  stop  or  prevent  the  percohv 
tion  of  water.  For  this  purpose  I  conceived  that  if  flat 
stones  were  introduced  into  each  upright  joint,  so  as  to  be 
lodged  partly  in  one  stone,  and  partly  in  its  neighbour, 
(much  upon  the  same  idea  that  Dutch  laths  were  formerly 
introduced  into  the  joints  of  chamber  floors,  to  hinder  the 
passage  of  wet,)  the  water  might  be  prevented  from  making 
its  way  through  the  upright  joints  of  the  walls. 

"  The  manner  in  wliiih  it  was  executed  was  as  follows  : 
(see  Plate  IV.  Figure  C.)  At  each  end  of  each  stone, 
answerable  to  the  middle- between  the  inside  of  the  wall  and 
the  outside,  was  sunk  a  groove,  two  inches  and  a  half  wide 
and  three  deep,  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  :  when, 
therefiire,  two  contiguous  pieces  of  stone  were  jint  together 
in  their  place-;,  the  two  grooves  being  ap|)lied  to  each  other, 
they  would  form  a  rhomb  of  six  inches  in  length  and  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  breadth,  whi<h  in  this  state  would  be 
an  unoccupied  cavity  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  each 
course;  the  rest  of  the  joint,  where  the  surfaces  of  the  two 
stones  applied  to  each  other,  was  made  good  with  mortar  in 
the  ordinarv  way,  and  brought  together  by  the  gentle  blows 
of  a  beetle.  For  the  groove  mentioned,  a  solid  rhomb  was 
prepared,  of  aljout  two  inches  thick  by  live  inches  broad, 
and  in  length  a  little  less  than  the  depth  of  the  cavity,  which 
generally  was  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  ;  and  for  the  sake 
of  the  firnmess  of  those  slender  pieces  of  stone,  I  made 
choice  of  the  flat  paving-stones  from  Purbeck,  which  is  a 
laminated  marlde  of  great  strength  and  solidity.  The  joint- 
stones  (which  was  the  name  we  gave  those  rhombs)  thus 
prepared,  would  readily  go  down  the  cavities  ;  but,  to  fix 
them  solid,  a  quantity  of  well-tempered  mortar  was  prepared, 
made  more  soft  than  ordinary,  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
water ;  a  competent  quantity  being  put  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  hole,  the  joint-stone  was  put  down  upon  it,  and,  by 
the  simple  pressure  of  the  hand,  was  forced  down  to  the 
bottom,  causing  the  semifluid  mortar  to  rise  up  to  the  top, 
and  completely  fill  the  cavity ;  and,  when  forced  down  in 
the  way  described,  having  in  this  state  a  small  quantity  of 
superfluous  moisture  about  it,  a  few  very  gentle  blows,  or 
raps,  were  given  upon  the  top  of  it  by  the  handle  of  a 
mason's  trowel,  which  producing  a  small  degree  of  agitation, 
while  the  dry  stones  were  iibsorbing  the  moisture,  contributed 
(like  the  beating  of  mortar)  to  bring  all  the  parts  into  their 
iiKJst  friendly  state  of  contact,  and,  in  consequence,  to  their 
fu'mest  state  of  union  ;  and  tins  happened  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes,  so  that  no  farther  agitation  could  be  of  any 
service. 

"As  the  cramps,  that  were  to  bind  the  contiguous  pieces 
to!Tcther,  must  cross  the  joints  upon  their  upper  surface,  they 
were  of  cotirse  to  be  applied  after  the  joint-stones  were 
settled  in  their  places.  Precaution  was  therefore  necessary 
not  to  ajiply  too  much  exertion  in  forcing  down  the  joint- 
stones  :  for,  however  gentle  the  operation  may  appear, 
according  as  it  has  been  described,  yet  it  was  found  advisable 
not  to  put  in  the  joint  stones  till  an  additional  jiiece  had 
been  got  down  upon  its  joggles,  and  plain-jninled  at  each 
side  of  the  two  pieces,  whose  joint-stone  was  to  be  put  in  ; 
for,  by  this  means,  they  were  the  united  ellbits  of  all  the 
joggles,  and  adhesion  of  the  beds  of  two  stones  on  each  side 
of  that  where  the  efllirt  was  applied.  Without  any  atten- 
tion to  this,  the  lateral  force  arising  from  merely  pressing 
down  a  joint-stone  was  capable  of  breaking  the  adhesion  of 
the  joint  where  it  was  applied. 

"  The  cramping  was  applied  the  last  thing.     The  top  or 


flat  bars  of  the  cramps  were  about  thirteen  inches  long,  two 
inches  broad,  -and  five-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  were 
turned  down  at  each  end  about  three  inches  in  length; 
forming  a  cylinder  of  one  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Jumper-holes  were  previously  bored  when  upon 
the  [ilatform,  and  the  cramps  fitted  to  their  places  ;  the  sur- 
fiice  of  the  stone  under  each  cramp  being  sunk  three-fiiurths 
of  an  inch,  so  that  the  two  stones  together  woidd  completely 
receive,  or  rather  bury,  the  cramps:  the  joint-stones,  as  said 
above,  being  made  so  much  shorter  than  the  height  of  the 
course,  as  not  to  interrupt  the  bedding  of  the  cramp.  The 
places  fiir  the  cramps  being  properly  fitted  and  cleared,  (as 
we  now  were  not  liable  to  be  driven  off  the  work  in  a 
moment,  as  had  formerly  been  the  case.)  we  took  the  oppf>r- 
tunity,  whenever  time  allowed  it,  of  fixing  the  cramps  of 
a  whole  course  together.  There  was  no  danger  of  the 
cramps  not  fitting;  as,  besides  that  all  the  cramps  were 
forged  to  fit  a  guage-bar  having  a  couple  of  holes  at  the 
assigned  distance,  they  were  also  fitted  and  marked  to  their 
particular  places  at  M\\\  Bay,  while  upon  the  platform. 
Every  cramp  being  now  ultimately  tried  to  its  place,  it  was 
then  put  into  a  kettle  of  lead,  made  red  hot ;  and  the  cramp 
contiimed  there  till  it  was  also  reddish.  About  a  spoonful 
of  oil  was  poured  into  the  two  cramp-holes,  and  the  cramp 
being  put  into  its  place,  the  ebullition  of  the  oil  caused  by 
the  heat  of  the  iron  quickly  gave  a  complete  oily  sinface, 
not  only  to  the  whole  cramp,  but  to  the  whole  unoccupied 
cavity  in  the  stone  ;  then  the  hot  lead  being  poured  upon  it, 
the  unctuous  matter  caused  the  metal  to  run  into  and  occupy 
the  most  minute  cavity  unfilled,  and  completely  to  cover  each 
cramp  ;  and  they  became  by  this  means  defended  from  the 
salts  of  the  sea,  even  had  they  I'emained  uncovered,  upon 
Mr.  Kudyerd's  piinciple.  Mr.  Kudyerd  had  used  coarse 
pewter.  The  lead  we  used  was  slag  lead,  which  is  harder 
and  stiller  than  fine  lead  :  and,  as  we  used  no  cramps,  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  building,  till  above  the  store-room  floor, 
I  judged  pewter,  merely  for  the  sake  of  stiflliess,  there  to  be 
uimecessary.  By  cramping,  in  general,  a  whole  course  toge- 
ther, the  contraction  of  the  iron  in  cooling  would  greatly  add 
to  the  tightness  wherewith  every  stone  was  bound  to  its 
fellow.  Thus  according  to  this  mode  of  fixing,  (liesides  tlie 
union  of  the  parts  by  the  mortar  itself,)  to  resist  all  violence 
and  derangement  whilst  it  was  doing,  and  before  the  indura- 
tion of  the  mortar,  every  course  was  retained  in  its  place  by 
sixteen  joggles,  and  each  single  stone  by  two  half-joggles 
at  its  lower  bed  ;  they  were  farther  steadied  to  each  other  liy 
the  joint-stones,  and  lastly  by  the  cramps,  which  completely 
prevented  a  separation  ;  and  this  method  proved  so  eflee- 
tual,  that  we  were  not  only  free  from  all  derangement  of 
the  stones  when  in  their  places,  but  I  did  not  find  a  leaky 
joint,  except  one,  in  the  \\hole  building.  B3'  a  due  consider- 
ation of  J'lale  IV.,  with  the  particular  references  to  it,  the 
whole  of  this  process  v>\\\  become  perfectly  intelligible. 

"On  Saturday,  the  30th  of  Sc|)tember,  Course  XXVilf. 
was  completely  set;  and,  being  the  first  course  upi'U  which 
was  rested  the  vaulted  floor,  which  made  the  ceiling  of  the 
store-room  and  floor  of  the  upper  store-room  ;  and,  as  here 
again  occurred  a  diflerenee  in  the  mode  of  fixture,  in  this,  as 
in  all  like  cases,  1  attended  the  performance  of  the  work  : 
and  that  was  the  leading-in  of  the  fir-t  circular  chain,  that 
was  lodged  in  a  groove  cut  round  the  middle  of  the  upper 
surface  of  tliis  course,  which  this  day  was  satisfactorily  per- 
f  irmed  ;  and  the  next  day,  Sunday,  October  the  1st.  Course 
XXIX.  was  set,  and  its  circular  chain  leadcd-in  also  ;  which 
operation,  with  the  reason  thereof,  it  will  be  proper  here  to 
describe  :  The  ordinarv  way  of  fixing  the  several  courses 
by    joggles   and   juint-stones,  and    also  the  bonding  them 


EDD 


343 


EDD 


tiigi'thcr  by  cramps,  has  already  been  described  ;  but  those 
courses,  upon  which  the  floors  rested  and  depended,  seemed 
to  demand  every  possihie  security.  It  will  he  seen,  in  the 
general  section,' Plate  11.  that  each  floor  designedly  rested 
upon  two  courses:  it  will  alsc^  appear,  by  inspection,  that  the 
circumferenee  of  the  floors  was  not  made  to  rest  upon  the 
slopiiii;  al)utnicnts  of  an  arch,  in  lines  tending  toward  the 
centre  of  the  spliere,  of  which  the  under  side  of  the  floor 
was  a  portion,  but  it  rested  upon  a  triple  ledge  going  circu- 
larly round  the  two  supporting  courses.  In  consequence  of 
this,  had  each  floor  been  composed  of  a  single  stone,  this 
lying  upon  the  horizontal  bearings  furnished  by  these  ledges, 
would,  while  it  remained  entire,  have  no  lateral  pressure  or 
tendency  t<>  thrust  out  the  sides  of  the  encompassing  walls  : 
and  that  in  eflect,  the  several  pieces,  of  whicli  the  floors  were 
really  composed,  might  have  the  same  property  as  whole 
stones,  the  centre-stone  was  made  large  enough  to  admit  of 
an  opening,  from  floor  to  floor,  or  man-hole,  to  be  made 
through  it ;  and  being  furnished  with  dovetails  on  its  four 
sides  like  those  of  the  entire  solid,  it  became  the  means  by 
which  all  the  stones  in  each  floor  were  connected  together; 
and  consequently,  the  whole  would  lie  upon  the  ledges  like  a 
single  stone,  without  any  tendency  to  spread  the  walls.  But 
if,  by  the  accident  of  a  heavy  body  falling,  or  otherwise,  any 
of  those  stones  should  be  broken,  though  this  might  not 
destroy  its  use  as  a  floor,  or  its  properties  as  an  arch ;  yet 
the  parts  would  then  exert  their  lateral  pressure  against  the 
walls :  and  therefore,  as  a  security  against  this,  it  became 
necessary  that  the  circle  of  the  enclosing  walls  should  be 
bound  together,  and  the  building,  as  it  were,  hooped. 

"  This  would  he  in  a  great  measure  brought  about  by  the 
cramps  tying  the  neighbouring  stones  together,  as  already 
described,  for  the  ordinary  courses;  but  yet  this  was  no 
absolute  security,  because  the  outside  stones  might  break  and 
separate,  between  cramp  and  cramp  :  and  I  suppose,  it  was 
for  reasons  of  this  kind,  that  Sir  Christopher  "\Vrcn,  in  the 
construction  of  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's,  did  not  choose  to 
depend  upon  cramping  the  stones  together,  of  the  course 
that  served  as  a  common  base  to  the  inside  dome,  and  the 
cone  for  supporting  the  lantern;  but  chose  to  surround  the 
whole  with  Continued  chains  of  iron.  Upon  this  principle, 
an  endless  chain  was  provided  for  each  of  the  two  floor 
courses ;  see  Plate  IV.  Figure  7.  The  bars  composing  the 
links  being  one  inch  and  a  quarter  square,  that  the  most  iron 
miglit  be  included  in  a  given  space,  the  corners  only  were  a 
little  canted  off;  and  tlie  double  parts  being  brought  near 
together,  the  whole  was  comprehended  in  a  groove,  of  some- 
what less  than  four  inches  wide,  and  as  much  in  d?'pth ; 
into  which  the  chains  being  introduced  and  brouffht  to  a 
stretch,  the  rest  of  the  cavity  was  filled  with  lead,  of  which 
each  took  about  eleven  hundred  weight,  in  the  following 
method.  The  chains  were  oiled  all  over  before  they  came 
from  the  shore;  and  the  circumference  of  the  groove  was 
divided  into  four  parts  by  stops,  or  dams  of  clay,  to  prevent 
the  lead  from  flowing  farther  than  one  quarter  at  a  time.  A 
couple  of  iron  kettles  were  provided,  capable  of  melting  com- 
modiously,  when  full,  six  hundred  weight  of  lead  each  ;  and 
that  quantity  was  brought  in  each  to  a  full  red ;  that  is, 
somewhat  hotter  than  we  used  for  the  cramps,  as  the  iron  of 
the  chain,  as  well  as  the  stone,  were  cold.  The  whol? 
quantity  of  lead  being  brought  to  a  heat  that  we  judged 
proper,  and  the  quarter-groove  being  supplied  with  oil  suffi- 
cient to  besmear  the  whole  surface,  two  persons,  with  each  a 
ladle,  as  briskly  as  they  could,  poured  the  melted  metal  into 
the  same  quarter  of  the  groove  ;  and,  as  soon  as  it  was  full, 
and  the  lead  began  to  set,  one  of  the  clay  dams  was  removed 
and  the  melted  hot  metal  was  poured  upon  the  end  of  the 


former  mass,  till  it  was  perceived  to  re-melt  and  unite  with 
the  fresh  metal.  This  done,  the  dam  at  the  other  end  of  the 
first-run  mass  was  taken  down,  to  prevent  its  cooling  more 
than  was  necessary,  and  the  third  quarter  was  treated  like 
the  former ;  the  end  of  the  mass  rendered  solid  by  cooling, 
being  re-melted  by  the  fresh  hot  metal :  lastly,  both  the 
remaining  dams  being  taken  down,  and  the  metal  at  each  end 
having  a  considerable  heat,  it  was  found  practicable  to  dis- 
solve both  the  ends  of  the  former  masses  :  first  applying 
both  ladles  to  that  which  had  had  the  greater  time  to  cikiI,  and 
afterwards  to  the  less  :  by  this  means  the  whole  was  brought 
to  a  solid  consistence,  and  the  chain  entirely  buried  in  the 
lead.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked,  that  to  preserve  proper 
impressions  in  the  lead,  for  the  joggles  of  the  course  above, 
those  impressions  were  made  by  confining  down  bricks  in 
proper  places,  which,  when  removed,  the  proper  marble 
joggles  were  set  with  mortar  in  their  places. 

'•  Monday,  October  2,  we  proceeded  to  set  up  the  centre, 
composed  of  sixteen  ribs,  (see  Plate  Vlll.  Figure  3,)  for 
putting  the  floor  together  upon  ;  but  the  weather  continued 
broken  till  Saturday,  the  7th,  on  which  day  the  luldystone 
boat  came  out,  having  on  board  the  roof,  or  platform,  for 
covering  the  building,  and  protecting  it  from  the  entrance  of 
the  d.ownfall  spray ;  together  with  the  doors,  iron  w^ork,  and 
timber  for  fitting  up  the  same  for  habitation.  This  afternoon 
we  landed,  and  went  on  with  the  setting  of  the  outward 
circle  of  floor-stones,  made  the  holes  in  the  wall  for  fixing  the 
hinges  of  the  entry  and  store-room  doors.  In  particular,  I 
caused  the  middle  stone  to  be  laid  upon  the  centre,  by  way  of 
weight,  to  keep  it  steady.  Three  of  the  four  stones  that 
were  to  connect  with  the  centre-stone  were  laid  upon  the  top 
of  the  wall,  on  the  northeast  side  :  and  the  fourth  I  caused 
to  be  hoisted  and  suspended  upon  the  triangle,  in  the  posture 
that  is  shown  Plate  VI.  at  stage  second.  So  that  the  triangle, 
which  was  all  of  it  completely  within  the  area  of  the  top  of 
the  building,  would  be  kept  down  by  the  weight  of  this  stone, 
which  was  between  seven  and  eight  hundred  weight.  The 
other  three  that  lay  upon  the  wall,  I  caused  to  be  carefully 
drawn  within  the  circumferenee  thereof,  so  that  there  might 
not  be  the  least  projecting  part  for  the  water  to  strike  against 
in  flying  upwards  ;  which  I  judged  quite  necessary,  though 
the  walls  were  then  upwards  of  forty-three  feet  above  the 
foundation-stone,  and  near  thirty -five  feet  above  the  top  of 
the  rock." 

The  weather  now  set  in  so  bad,  that  no  farther  operations 
of  consequence  took  place  that  season.  On  the  1 0th  of 
October,  Mr.  Smeaton  was  mortified  with  a  copy  of  a  reso- 
lution of  the  Trinity-Board,  declining  his  proposal  of  exhibit- 
ing a  light  that  winter  upon  the  foundation  of  the  building. 

"  During  my  stay  in  London,  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1759,  I  received  regular  accounts  of  the  proceedings  at  Mill 
Bay,  which  were  carried  on  with  all  the  dispatdi  I  could 
wish;  but  the  weather  having  continued  unfavourable  to 
visiting  the  works  at  the  Eddystone  during  the  winter,  I  got 
no  report  thereon  till  I  received  Mr.  Jessop's  letter,  dated  the 
27th  of  ^lareh,  wherein  he  informed  me  that  on  the  21st  of 
that  month,  being  the  first  opportunity  he  could  catch  after 
the  violent  storm  wdiich  had  happened  on  the  9th  preceding, 
they  found  not  only  the  solid,  but  the  hollow  work  perfectly 
sound  and  firm;  all  the  mortar  having  become  quite  hard; 
and,  in  short,  every  part  of  the  work  in  the  situation  in  which 
it  was  left  by  the  workmen  in  October  :  the  only  derange- 
ment was,  that  the  sea  had  carried  away  the  south  fender 
pile  from  the  rock  ;  and  also,  from  the  top  of  the  wall,  one  of 
the  three  stones  that  I  had  taken  care  to  draw  within  the 
verge  of  the  circumference  of  the  wall,  as  mentioned.  They 
had  found  the  fourteen  pieces  of  stone  set  in  the  circum- 


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344 


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ference  of  the  floor,  stuck  quite  finn  to  the  wall,  though  two 
of  the  pieces  requisite  to  complete  the  circle  were  left  unset ; 
and  that,  fuuling  the  centre  itself  quite  tight  and  firm  under- 
neath them,  they  had  lowered  down  the  stone  suspended  on 
the  triangle  upon  it,  and  removed  from  tho  wall  the  other 
two  remaining  stones  to  lie  upon  the  centre;  and  lastly,  that 
they  took  down  the  triangle,  and  stowed  it  away  in  the  well- 
hole  for  the  stairs:  but,  on  farther  search,  ni'thing  of  the 
buoy  that  was  left  upon  the  mooring  chains  was  to  be  seen. 

"Thursday,  the  5tli  of  July,  I  landed  on  the  rock  with  the 
men  ;  they  proceeded  to  set  up  the  shears  and  windlass, 
whrie  I  inspected  the  work  ;  and  foiuid  everything  perfectly 
sound  and  firm,  without  the  least  perceivable  alteration  since 
we  left  it;  except  that  the  cement  used  the  first  Year,  now 
in  appearance  approached  the  hardness  of  the  moor-stone  ; 
and  that  used  the  last  year,  of  the  full  hanlncss  of  Portland. 
We  now  proceeded  to  set  the  Hoor.  'J"he  two  remaining 
pieces  of  the  outmost  circle,  which  were  left  uncompleted 
last  year,  were  soon  set  ;  and  we  proceeded  to  haul  up  the 
stones  for  the  next  circle  (No  4.)  fi-oiii  the  store-room. 

The  work  now  proceeded  so  ra[)idly,  that  the  second  and 
third  stories  were  completed  in  thirteen  days.  On  the  8th  of 
August,  Course  XLV.  or  the  Cove  Course,  was  eumpletcd 
with  its  two  chains  ;  and  the  next  day,  th(!  ellijitical  eenire 
for  the  balcony  floor  wa-i  set ;  and  by  the  Kith,  the  interior 
area  of  the  balcony  floor  was  completed,  the  centre  was 
struck,  and  the  outer  circle  of  stones  which  finished  the  cap 
of  the  main  column,  being  parts  of  the  corona,  or  cornice, 
was  begun  upon.      See  Plate  II.  and  Plote  IV.  Figure  9. 

'■  Friday,  August  the  17th,  the  last  pieces  of  the  corona 
were  set,  and  tlierewith  the  main  column  was  completed.  I 
now  examined  the  perpemlicularity  of  the  whole  building,  by 
letting  fall  a  plumb  line  from  the  centre  of  the  man-hi)le  in 
the  balcony  floor  to  the  centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  well-hole, 
being  forty-nine  feet  and  a  half;  aTid  found  it  to  fall  a  small 
matter  to  the  eastward  of  the  centre  of  the  well-hole;  as 
near  as  I  could  determine  it,  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an 
inch.  I  then  measured  the  perpendicular  heights  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  building,  and  found  them  a^  follows  : 

Ft.    In. 

"  The  six  foundation  courses  to  the  top    of  the 

rock 8     4-| 

"  The  eight  courses  to  the  entry  door     .     .     .     .   13     Oi 

"  The  ten  courses  of  the  well-hole  to  the  store-room 

floor 15     2-i 

"  The  height  of  thefjur  rooms  to  the  balcony  floor  34     4^ 

"  Height  of  the  main  column,  containing  fortv-  )  ,^r.     n 
SIX  courses \ 


"  We  proceeded  this  day  to  setup  and  lead-in  the  balcony 
rails,  and  completed  them  ;  and  having  brought  out  a  tem- 
porary cover  for  the  man-hole  of  the  balcony  floor,  I  this  day 
applied  it  to  use,  as  follows  :  a  short  tub,  of  about  a  foot 
high,  was  made  without  a  bottom,  and  the  smaller  end  of  it 
being  sized  as  near  as  possible  to  the  man-holes  of  the  floors, 
it  was  driven  into  that  of  the  balcony  ;  and,  by  the  time  it  was 
driven  about  four  inches,  the  compliancy  of  the  wood  to  the 
stone  rendered  it  quite  tight  ;  then  the  rest  of  its  height, 
forming  a  border,  and  standing  about  eight  inches  above  the 
floor,  would  prevent  water  from  dripping  into  the  rooms 
through  tho  upper  man-hole,  or  hatchway  ;  and  having  also 
provided  anotlier  tub,  about  nine  inches  deep,  iiaving  a  strong 
bottom  in  it,  and  so  much  more  in  diameter  than  the  other, 
that  it  would,  when  inverted,  cover  it  ;  this  being  applied  as 
a  cover,  would  in  the  greatest  stress  of  weather  defend  the 
liuilding  fiom  the  entry  of  water  at  the  top." 


On  the  18th  of  the  same  month,  the  first  course  of  the 
lantern  was  begun  ;  on  the  24th,  the  last  stone,  being  that 
which  makes  the  door-head  of  the  lantern,  was  set  ;  and  on 
Sunday  evening,  the  2Cth,  the  whole  of  the  masonry  was 
completed. 

Stress  of  weather  prevented  the  landing  of  the  frame- 
work till  Saturday,  the  loth  of  September  ;  on  which  dav, 
"  between  three  and  four  in  the  morning,  the  Weston  was  got 
into  the  gut,  and  delivered  of  her  cargo,  consisting  of  tho 
pillars,  saslies,  and  frame-work  of  the  lantern.  I  gave  my 
jiriiicifial  attention  to  the  establishing  the  frame  of  the  lantern 
U]ion  a  bed  of  lead,  and  the  screwing  of  it  carefully  together; 
seeing  that  every  joint  was  filled,  and  screw  covered  with 
white-lead  and  oil,  ground  up  thick  for  paint  ;  and  every 
crevice  so  fidl  that  the  bringing  the  screws  home  made  the 
white-lead  matter  to  ooze  from  every  juncture  ;  thereby  to 
exclude  all  wet  and  moisture,  and  so  as  to  prevent  the  iron- 
work from  rusting. 

"Sunday,  September  the  Kith,  was  remarkablj'  fine  ;  so 
that  by  the  evening  the  whole  frame  of  the  lantern  was 
screwed  together,  and  its  groundsill  was  rested  upon  a  bed  of 
lead  ;  which  was  done  in  the  following  maimer  :  The  whole 
frame  being  screwed  together,  was  laiscd  fiom  its  bcaiing 
u])on  the  stone  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch,  by  a  competent 
luimber  of  iron  wedges  ;  and  adjusted  by  them  to  an  exact 
perpendicular.  Both  the  stone  and  the  iron  were  taken  care 
to  be  oiled  before  they  were  applied  to  each  other  ;  and  one 
of  the  eight  sides,  having  its  wedges  withdrawn,  was  ruu 
with  hot  lead  ;  and  making  a  place  for  it  to  overflow,  as 
much  could  lie  used  as  would  competently  heat  b(}ththe  iron 
and  stone,  to  bring  them  to  a  close  bcariijg  with  the  had  ; 
then  on  the  leads  cooling,  as  the  frame  became  sujiportcd  oi. 
one  side  by  the  lead,  the  wedges  of  a  second  side  were  with- 
drawn, and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  successively 
till  the  whole  rested  upon  a  solid  basement  of  lead.  It  was 
not  supposed  that  the  succeeding  mass  could  be  sufficiently 
heated  to  re-melt  the  ends  of  the  parts  already  leaded,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  chains  :  but  being  heated  so  as  to  bring  them 
to  a  close  contact,  this  I  judged  suflicient,  as  the  lead  so 
applied  had  no  other  intent  but  to  be.ar  weight,  and  give  the 
frame  of  the  lantern  one  solid  uniform  bearing. 

"  Jlonday,  the  17th.  This  morning  was  also  exceedingly 
fine  ;  and  the  Weston  being  in  sight,  which  was  appointed  to 
bring  out  the  cupola,  we  began  to  set  up  our  sliears  and 
t.'ickle  fi)r  hoisting  it.  This  perhaps  may  be  accounted  one 
of  tho  most  diflicult  and  hazardous  operations  of  the  whole 
undertaking  ;  not  so  much  on  account  of  its  weight,  being 
only  about  eleven  htnidreil,  as  on  .account  of  the  great  height  to 
which  it  was  to  be  hoisted,  clear  of  the  building  ;  and  so  as, 
if  possible,  to  avoid  such  blows  as  might  bruise  it.  It  w.as 
also  required  to  be  hoisted  to  a  considerable  height  above  the 
balcony  floor  ;  which,  though  the  largest  base  we  had  for 
the  siiears  to  stand  upon,  was  yet  but  fourteen  feet  within 
the  rails  ;  and  therefore  narrow,  in  proportii'U  to  their 
height.  The  maimer  in  which  this  was  managed,  will,  in  a 
great  measure,  appear  by  the  representation  thereof,  in  /'late 
VI.  (see  the  uppermost  stage) ;  but  is  more  minutely  exi)lained 
in  the  technical  detail  of  that  Plate.  As  the  legs  of  the 
shears  that  had  been  used  upon  the  rock  would  have  been  in 
the  way  of  the  cupola  they  were  now  removed,  as  being  done 
with  there,  and  were  used  as  a  part  of  this  machinery.  About 
noon  the  whole  of  our  tackle  was  in  readiness  ;  and  in  the 
afternoon  the  Weston  was  brought  into  the  gut  ;  and  in 
less  than  half  an  hour  her  troublesome  cargo  was  placed  upon 
the  top  of  the  lantern,  without  the  least  damage. 

"Tuesday,  September  the  18th,  in  the  morning,  the  wind 
was    at    soiith-cast,  with  intervals  of  thick   fog  ;    however, 


TR  1D  TDi' Y"  S  T  O  "N  E     1.  jr.  iTr     no 


i']..\ri:.i. 


Orcvn   h,  X  J  .V,r/,,U« 


K^n  '  {,.,.};  Thr 


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345 


EDD 


betwei'ii  those  I  had  the  satisfaction,  with  my  telescope,  to 
perceive  the  Eddystone  boat,  on  board  of  which  I  expected 
the  l)all  to  be.  The  wind  and  tide  were  both  unfavourable 
to  the  vessel's  getting  soon  near  us  ;  therefore  being  desirous 
tu  get  the  ball  screwed  on,  before  the  shears  and  tackle  were 
taken  down,  one  of  the  yawls  was  dispatched  to  bring  it 
away.  This  being  done,  and  the  ball  fixed,  the  shears  and 
tackle  were  taken  down.  Ijy  this  time  the  joiners  had  set 
up  and  completed  the  three  cabin  bedsteads,  (tor  their  plan 
and  position  between  the  windows,  see  Plate  IV.  Figure  8.) 

■'  On  Friday,  the  ^Ist,  all  the  copper  sash-frames  were  got 
completely  fixed  in,  and  ready  for  receiving  the  glass. 

'■  On  Sunday  Morning,  the  2;}d,  the  yawl  landed  two 
glaziers  and  a  coppersmith,  with  their  utensils  and  materials; 
the  former  began  to  glaze  the  lantern,  and  the  latter  to  fit 
and  put  up  the  funnels.  This  day,  with  my  assistant,  the 
ma.>on,  1  liegan  to  fix  twenty-four  iron  cramps ;  that  is 
three  to  each  rib  of  the  roof,  and  which  were  obliged  to  be 
fixed  after  the  roof  was  together  ;  and  being  fixed  inside,  and 
surrounding  the  ribs,  served  to  key  home  the  plates  of  the 
cupola  to  the  ribs.  For  this  purpose  small  wood  wedges 
Were  used,  as  being  more  supple,  elastic,  and  compliant,  than 
wedges  of  metal,  and  therefore  more  suitable  to  this  par- 
ticular purpose.  This  day  also  the  Eddystone  boat  brought 
out  and  landed  a  plmnber,  with  his  utensils  and  materials. 
The  mo>t  considei  able  work  for  the  plumber  was  the  covering 
the  whole  balcony  floor  with  thick  plates  of  lead  ;  and  which 
extended  from  the  top  of  the  plinth,  or  first  course  of  the 
basement  of  the  lantern,  quite  down  to  the  drip  of  the 
corona.  They  were  fitted  ou  separately,  in  sixteen  pieces, 
and  soldered  together,  in  place,  with  strong  ribbed  joints  ; 
anil,  to  prevent  the  sea  from  laying  hold  of  them  at  the  drip, 
and  beating  them  up.  they  were  turned  under  about  one  inch 
and  a  half;  and  being  near  half  an  inch  thick,  I  judged  them 
sullieiently  stubborn  to  prevent  being  unripped. 

"Tliur.sday  the  2~th,  the  lead-work  upon  the  balcony  and 
corona  being  now  entirely  finished,  and  the  cupola  completely 
keyed  home  to  the  ribs  ;  the  straps  and  bolts  were  applied 
at  each  angle  of  the  lantern,  for  screwing  it  down  to  the 
Hk)or  of  the  balcony. 

"  Friday,  September  the  30th,  the  joiners  finished  their 
work,  which  consisted  of  the  following  articles.  Three 
cabin  beds,  to  hold  one  man  each,  with  three  drawers  and 
two  lockeis  in  each,  to  hold  his  separate  property,  which 
were  fixed  in  the  upper  room,  or  chamber.  (See  plan 
thereof,  Plate  IV.,  Figure  8.)  In  the  kitchen,  besides  the 
lire-piace  and  sink,  were  two  settles  with  lockers,  a  dresser 
with  drawers,  two  cupboards,  and  one  platter  case.  [Figure  7, 
of  the  same  Plate,  shows  how  these  were  disposed.)  In  the 
lantern  a  seat  was  fixed,  to  encompass  it  all  round,  the  door- 
way excepted,  serving  equally  to  sit  upon,  or  stand  to  snuff 
the  candles  ;  and  to  enable  a  person  to  look  through  the 
lowest  tier  of  glass  panes  at  distant  objects,  without  having 
occasion  to  goon  the  outside  of  the  lantern  into  the  balcony. 
Besides  the  above,  the  joiners  had  fixed  the  ten  window- 
frame.s,  with  their  sashes  ;  all  which  were  bedded  in  putty, 
au.J  falling  into  rebates  cut  for  them  in  the  original  formation 
of  the  stone,  they  could  be  at  any  time  removed,  and  replaced 
at  pleasure,  as  they  were  fastened  in  only  with  wooden  pins, 
driven  into  holes  bored  in  the  stone." 

On  Michaelmas-day.  the  glazing  of  the  lantern  was  com- 
pleted ;  on  the  1st  of  October,  the  copper  funnel  was  finished 
and  tried  by  lighting  a  fire  in  the  stove. 

'•  The  tackle  was  also  fixed  for  raising  and  lowering  the 
chandeliers  ;  and  those  being  hung,  there  was  now  nothing 
to  hinder  our  making  trial  by  lighting  the  candles,  while  it 
was  davlight,  to  see  that  everything,  regarding  the    li"ht, 

44 


operated  in  a  proper  manner.  Accordingly,  this  afternoon, 
we  put  up  twenty-finir  candles  into  their  proper  places,  and 
continued  them  burning  for  three  hours  ;  during  which  time 
we  had  a  very  ctlectual  trial  ;  for  it  had  blown  a  hard  ga'e 
of  wind  at  -south-east  all  day,  which  still  continued  ;  and, 
keeping  a  fire  at  the  same  time  in  the  kitchen,  they  both 
operated  together  without  the  least  interference  ;  not  any 
degree  of  smoke  apjiearing  in  the  lantern,  or  any  of  the 
rooms  :  and,  by  opening  the  vent-holes  at  the  bott<nn  of 
the  lantern,  it  (xiuld  be  kept  as  cool  as  we  pleased  ;  whereas, 
in  the  late  lighthouse,  this  used  to  be  complained  of  as  being 
so  hot,  especially  in  summer,  as  to  give  much  Ironbli-  by  the 
running  of  the  candles. 

"  Wednesday,  October  the  Sd,  we  began  to  fix  the  con- 
ductor for  lightning.  As  the  copper  funnel  reached  through 
the  ball,  and  from  thence  came  down  to  the  kitchen  floor, 
above  forty  feet,  (see  Plate  II.)  I  considered  this  a-^  con- 
taining so  mrich  metal,  that,  if  struck  with  iighlning.  it  wouM 
thus  far  be  sufficient  conveyance;  then  joining  the  kitchen 
grate  to  the  leaden  sink,  by  a  metal  conveyance,  the  sink 
pipe  of  lead  would  convey  it  to  the  outside.  From  the 
sink  pipe  downwards,  which  being  on  the  n(nth-east  sidi'. 
was  consequently  the  lea-t  subject  to  the  stroke  of  the  sea. 
we  continued  the  electrical  communication  by  means  of  a 
strap  of  lead,  about  one  inch  and  a  half  broad  and  three- 
eighths  thick,  fixed  on  the  outside  by  being  nailed  to  oaken 
plugs,  driven  into  twojumper  holes  in  the  .solid  of  each  ciiur-^e; 
the  prijminent  angles  of  the  strap  being  chamfereil  nfl"  it  was 
bedded  and  brought  to  a  smooth  surface  with  putty.  At  the 
foot  of  the  leaden  strap,  an  eye-bolt  of  iron  was  driven  into 
the  rock  ;  and  to  this  was  fixed  an  iron  chain,  long  enough 
to  reach  at  all  times  into  the  water;  its  lower  end  being  !eft 
loose  to  play  therein,  and  give  w.ay  to  the  stroke  of  the 
waves:  by  this  means  an  electrical  communication  was  made 
from  the  top  of  the  ball  to  the  sea." 

Everything  being  now  completed,  notice  was  sent  to  the 
Trinity  House,  and,  on  Tuesday  evening,  the  Kith  of 
October,  1759,  the  lights  were  first  exhibited,  amidst  the 
fury  of  a  violent  storm. 

Tliis  excellent  building  exhibited  no  other  light  than  what 
was  produced  by  twenty-four  candles,  which  was  not  always 
sufficient,  till  1809,  when  Mr.  Kobinson,  surveyor  of  lii^ht- 
houses  to  the  corporation  of  the  Trinity  nouse,superseded  these 
candles  by  the  same  number  of  Argand  lamps,  each  accurately 
fixed  in  the  focus  of  a  large  parabolic  reflector  of  richly  plated 
copper,  arranged  on  circular  frames  ;  and  consequently  giving 
light  in  every  direction.  The  improved  brightness  of  the 
light,  by  this  exchange,  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  expec- 
tation of  all  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Plymouth. 

TECHNICAL  REFEKESCKS  TO  THE  PLATES. 

"  Plate  I. — A  plan  and  perspective  elevation  of  the 
FJdi/stone  Bock;  as  seen  from  the  west ;  showing  also  the 
theodolite. 

"The  representation  is  .as  I  found  the  rock;  Figure  1 
being  the  plan,  and  Figure  2  the  upright  view.  The  same 
letters  refer  to  the  same  parts  in  l)oth ;  the  cross  lines  upon 
the  plan  answer  to  the  cardinal  points,  east,  west,  north,  and 
south,  according  to  the  true  meridian. 

"  L  is  the  landing-place,  and  c  the  summit  of  the  rock  ; 
the  general  declivity  being  towards  the  south-west ;  the  grain 
of  the  laminated  moor-stone  that  composes  it  being  nearly 
parallel  thereto.  It  has,  however,  consider.able  irregularities ; 
for  upon  the  line  a  b  the  rock  makes  a  sudden  drop  of  four 
and  a  half  or  five  feet ;  and,  by  overhanging  to  the  westward, 
when  there  is  a  ground-swell  at  south-west,  the  sudden  check 
aiuses  the  sea  to  fly  in  an  astonishing  manner,  even  in 
moderate  weather. 


EDD 


340 


EDD 


"The  surface  of  the  rock  is  shown,  as  supposed  to  have 
been  for  ages  past  ;  except  where  it  is  visiljly  altered  by 
man's  hand,  chiefly  witliin  the  circular  area  of  the  late  build- 
ing. The  flut  treads  of  the  steps  cut  by  Rudyerd  arc 
marked  d  ;  the  upright  faces  of  the  steps  f  ;  and  E  denotes 
the  spawled  parts,  p;iral!el  to  the  grain  of  the  rock. 

^'-  a  h  c  d  e  f  g  h  show  the  remains  of  the  cavities  of  eight 
of  the  twelve  great  irons  fixed  by  Winstanley  ;  of  which  the 
stump  of  one  only,  viz.,  that  at  e,  remained  fur  my  inspection  ; 
it  was  run  in  with  lead,  and  had  continued  fast,  till  in 
planting  a  dovetail  there  it  was  cut  out,  and  found  club- 
ended.  Which  of  the  other  holes,  that  are  left  unmarked, 
made  up  the  remaining  four,  I  could  not  make  out  ;  as 
doubtless  several  of  them  appertained  to  the  additional  work 
that  he  fixed  in  the  fourth  year. 

'■^'Figure  3.  A  pair  of  Kudyerd's  iron  branches,  to  a  scale 
three  times  larger  than  that  of  the  jdan;  wherein  a  b  is  the 
main  branch,  or  dovetail  part;  c  d  the  key,  driven  h.ard  in, 
but  without  touching  the  bottom;  their  depth  in  the  rock  is 
denoted  by  supposing  the  line  e  f  its  surface.  The  holes  in 
the  branches  served  to  fasten  the  timbers,  by  large  bearded 
spike-bolts.  Of  those  branches  I  traced  thirty-six  original 
pairs,  of  diflerent  sizes ;  and  two  more  modern  :  their  places 
are  shown  in  the  upright,  Fir/ure  2,  by  inspection  ;  and  like- 
wise in  the  plan,  Fic/iire  1,  at  1,2, 3,  4,  5,  and  (5,  7,8, 9, 10,  &c. 
forming  a  double  circle  ;  also  two  pair  of  them  at  k,  to  fix 
the  mast,  on  two  sides,  to  the  centre.  The  irons  that  remained 
in  the  rock,  are  distinguished  in  the  plan  by  being  hatched 
with  slant  lines,  the  empty  holes  or  cavities  by  being  black. 
Those  th.at  remained  wliole,  whether  fast  or  loose,  are  dis- 
tinguished in  Figure  2,  by  their  shapes. 

"  X.  The  place  of  the  cave  on  the  e.ast  side. 

"  R.  A  strong  ring-bolt,  put  into  the  rock  on  the  recom- 
mencement of  the  building  in  1757,  for  fastening  the  western 
guy-chain  of  the  shears. 

"  Figure  2,  r  s  t  v  w.  The  three-legged  stool,  steadied 
with  cross-braces.  Upon  the  middle  of  the  upper  round 
plank  r  ,« was  screwed  down  the  theodolite  t,  to  whose  index 
was  screwed  the  long  horizontal  rule  t  s,  divided  into  feet, 
inches,  and  parts,  upon  one  edge,  tending  to  the  centre. 
Upon  any  marked  point  of  the  rock  to  be  ascertained,  sup- 
pose X,  the  rod  x  y  was  set  upright  by  a  spirit-level,  and  was 
preserved  in  an  upright  position  by  two  small  slips  of  deal, 
applied  as  shores  or  struts,  in  two  dilTerent  directions.  The 
divided  edge  of  the  rule  being  brought  against  the  upright 
rod,  was  shoved  up  by  a  short  staff,  lield  in  the  hand  tight 
against  the  rod,  till  a  spirit-level  l.iid  \ipon  the  top  of  the  rule 
showed  it  to  be  level,  in  this  position  the  index  would  show 
the  degree  and  minute  of  the  circle  ;  the  upright  rod  would 
mark  the  distance  from  the  centre  upon  the  rule ;  and  the 
rule  would  mark  upon  the  rod,  how  much  the  intersection 
was  above  its  bottom  at  x. 

"  Phite  II.  No  1. — South  elevation  of  the  stone  lighthouse 
completed  upon  the  Eddgstone  in  1759. 

"  A.  The  landing-place. 

"  B.  The  cave  in  the  east  side  of  the  rock. 

"  c.  The  steps  cut  to  mount  the  rock  to  the  entry-door. 

"  D.  An  iron  rod,  serving  as  a  rail  to  hold  by,  in  passing 
to  the  foot  of  the  ladder,  occasionally  put  out  from  the  entry- 
door  at  E. 

"  No.  2. — Section  of  the  Eddijstone  lighthouse  vpon  the 
east  and  west  line,  as  relative  to  No.  1,  supposing  it  the  low- 
water  of  a  spring-tide. 

"In  the  section  of  the  rock,  a  d  shows  the  upright  face  or 
drop,  marked  with  the  same  letters  as  No.  1,  and  the  line 
li  c  shows  the  general  direction  of  the  grain  and  slope  of  the 
rock  to  the  south-westward. 


"The  dotted  line  a  b  shows  the  level  of  the  base  of  the 
first  stone.  The  black  line  c  d  is  the  base  of  the  stone  in 
the  first  course  that  is  intersected  by  the  east  and  west  line  ; 
and  c/  1  is  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  first  course,  and  bed  of 
the  second  ;  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  0,  mark  relatively  the  tops  of  the 
six  courses  that  bring  the  artificial  part  of  the  fiundatiun 
upon  a  level  with  the  reduced  top  of  the  natural  rock  ;  e  0  /J 
being  the  first  entire  course,  marked  VII.  as  being  the  seventh 
above  the  ground-joint. 

"/  The  foot  of  the  temporary  ladder  ;  and  there  is  shown 
the  manner  in  which  the  ground-joint  of  the  stone-work  was 
sunk  into  the  rock,  all  round,  at  least  three  inches. 

"  /*.  The  fir.st  marble  plug,  or  central  joggle,  that  went 
through  the  sixth  course,  and  reached  halt-way  through  the 
seventh  ;  and  so  in  succession  to  the  top  of  Course  XIV. 

"  ik.  The  place  of  the  marble  cubic  joggles  inlaid  between 
each  two  courses,  which  were  in  an  octagon  disposition  round 
the  centre. 

"  /.  Smaller  cubes  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  course. 

"  Course  XIV.  terminates  the  entire  solid  ;  as  upon  it  is 
pitched  the  entry  and  well-hole  for  the  stairs.  The  temporary 
ladder, /^r,  to  the  entry -door  d,  is  only  put  out  when  wanted; 
and  then  is  lashed  by  eye-bolts  to  the  stone  ;  at  other  times, 
having  a  joint  in  the  middle,  it  folds,  and  is  laid  along  in  the 
entry. 

"  Above  the  top  of  the  entire  solid,  the  centre  stone  being 
omitted  to  give  space  for  the  well,  the  cubic  joggles  were  of 
double  the  number,  and  half  the  size.  Course  XXIV.  ter- 
minated that  part  of  the  building  called  the  solid:  and  here 
the  habitable  of  the  building  began,  whereof  e  is  the  lower 
store-room. 

"  F.  The  store-room  door. 

"  G.  The  upper  store-room. 

"  n.  The  kitchen. 

"  I.  The  fire-place,  from  which  the  smoke  ascends  through 
the  floors  and  lantern,  through  a  copper  funnel,  and  through 
the  ball. 

"k.  The  bed-room. 

"  L.  The  stone-basement  of  the  lantern. 

"  M.  The  lantern  door  into  the  balcony. 

"  N.  The  cupola. 

"  The  ascent  from  room  to  room  is  by  the  perforations 
through  the  middle  or  key-stone  of  every  floor  ;  and  the 
detached  figures  show  the  means,  by  inclined  step-ladders, 
removable  at  pleasure. 

"Plate  III. — Plans  of  the  rock  after  being  cut,  and  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  stone-building.  Showing  the  six  foun- 
dation courses. 

"Figure  1.  Plan  of  the  rock,  as  prepared  for  the  stone- 
work, somewhat  extended,  to  show  how  it  applies  to  Plate  1. 
The  line  a  b  shows  also  here  the  place  where  the  surface 
drops,  as  specified,  Plate  II.  No.  2. 

"  In  this  figure,  Course  I.  appears  in  its  place,  as  fixed 
with  its  trenails  and  wedges.  The  part  darker  shaded,  and 
marked  d  d,  was  not  reduced  to  a  dovetail  on  account  of 
fissures,  but  was  sunk  two  inches  lower  than  the  rest  of 
Course  11.  The  stones  laid  therein  would  therefore  be 
encompassed  by  a  border,  and  held  flist  in  every  direction. 
The  letters  E.  W.  N.  S.  in  all  the  figures,  denote  the  cardinal 
points  ;  the  same  letters,  in  every  figure,  denoting  the  same 
pai'ts. 

"  The  part  of  the  rock  marked  c,  rises  above  the  rest  by 
an  ascent,  or  step,  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches,  according  to 
the  line  d  pg  k;  which,  lying  somewhat  without  the  general 
contour  of  the  building,  and  aflbrding  a  firm  abutment,  the 
advantage  was  taken;  and  the  work  of  the  first  and  second 
course  carried  against  it,  as  shown  at  o. 


E  D  DXSTO^^  J<: 


H  O  U  §  3E  . 


I'LSTK  II  N°l 


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^/i^  'by  R  TTut-w. 


Ormm  byPMchalson. 


EDD 


347 


EDD 


"  1.  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6.  The  level  platforms,  or  steps,  for 
the  dillerciU  courses,  whose  upper  sides  are  even  with  these 
numbers  in  Plate  11.  No.  2  being  upon  the  level  of  Rud- 
yerd's  lowest  step. 

"  X.  A  piece  of  stone  engrafted  into  the  rock,  serving  as  a 
bridge  to  cross  a  chasm,  opened  by  cutting  down  the  top  of 
the  rock  to  that  level,  into  the  cave.  Of  tliis  stone  is  formed 
a  part  of  the  border  lliat  oniircles  the  work. 

Figure  3  shows  how  the  buttress,  g,  was  terminated  in  the 
second  course.  It  also  shows  the  places  of  the  trenails  and 
wedges;  which  in  all  these  figures  are  shown  in  the  same 
manner.  The  dotted  lines  everywhere  refer  to  the  course 
that  is  to  come  on ;  and  shows  how  it  will  break  joint  upon 
the  course  supposed  laid. 

" Fiijine  3  shows  how  the  space  ii  i  k,  in  Fi;i>ire  2,  is 
filled  up  in  Figure  3,  being  confuied  in  by  the  rise  of  the 
stop  L  at  II  I,  and  the  cramps  a  b  ;  the  ground  proving  here 
irregularly  shattered  by  cutting  the  steps  for  the  former 
lighthouse. 

"Figure  4  shows  the  structure  of  Course  IV\,  where,  in 
this,  as  all  the  others,  the  stones  lighter-coloured  denote  the 
Portland,  the  darker  the  moor-stone. 

''■Figure  5.  The  position  of  three  joggle-holes,  y,  between 
this  course  and  the  next  above. 

'■^Figure  G  shows  Course  VI.  complete,  which  brings  the 
whole  work  to  a  level  w'ith  the  reduced  rock :  it  shows  the 
joggle-holes  for  the  eight  cubes  ;  and  the  central  plug-joggle, 
fixed  in  place  at  o,  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  centre  stone 
of  Course  Vil. 

'^  Plate  IV. — Plans  of  all  the  different  courses  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  to  the  top  of  the  balcony  floor  inclusive. 

"Figure  1.  The  proper  plan  of  Course  Vll.  relative  to  the 
section,  Plate  II.  No.  2.  As  being  the  first  entire  course,  the 
trenails  and  wedges  arc  shown  ;  but  afterwards  omitted  in 
the  draughts,  to  prevent  crowding  the  figures.  The  black 
lines  and  dotted  lines  show  the  joints  of  the  alternate  courses. 
The  centre-stones,  and  the  four  stones  surrounding,  were 
alternately  of  the  same  size  to  the  top  of  Course  XlV. 

"a.  The  centre  plug,  fust  set. 

"  b  b.  The  square  part  of  the  centre  stone ;  from  each  of 
whose  four  sides  a  dovetail  projects,  and  thereon  are  fixed 
the  four  stones  c  c,  by  joint-wedges  and  trenails,  as  per 
figure  ;  which  five  stones  united  make  one  stone,  sufficiently 
large  to  receive  eight  smaller  dovetail  stones  dd;  and  whose 
projecting  parts  form  dovetails  to  receive  another  circle,  or 
order  of  stones,  fixed  like  the  former.  The  cubic  joggles  are 
shown  at  e  e. 

'■  Figure  2.  The  plan  of  Course  XlV.  ending  the  funda- 
mental solid,  and  on  which  the  entry  and  well-hole  are  begun. 
It  also  shows  the  diniiuution  from  Course  Vll.  Upon  this 
figure  is  shown  the  distribution  of  the  smaller  cubic  joggles, 
which  take  place  upon  the  entire  solid.  The  entry  here 
appears  to  have  a  small  inclination  with  the  E.  and  W.  line, 
which  was  not  noticed  in  the  section,  Plate  II.  No.  2,  to  avoid 
ambiguities. 

"Figure  3.  The  plan  of  Course  XV.  being  the  first  of  the 
entry-door  and  well-courses. 

''Figure  4.  The  plan  of  Course  XVllI.  showing  the  work 
of  the  entry  closed  in,  and  the  solid  re-united.  Also  the 
manner  of  hook-jointing  the  four  stones  round  the  centre  to 
each  other  ;  which,  in  the  courses  below  the  entry-door,  were 
united  by  dovetails  to  the  centre-stone.  Joint  wedges  were 
applied  in  the  hook,  as  per  figure.  Thus  the  arrangement,  in 
circles  from  the  centre,  was  again  complete.  In  the  entry- 
courses,  as  every  piece  had  at  least  one  cubic  joggle  and  two 
trenails,  the  work  was  secure  against  all  ordinary  attacks  of 
the  sea:   the  weakness  being  on  the  east  side;   but  when 


capped  and  bonded  together  by  this  18th  Course,  the  whole 
was  again  considered  as  one  entire  stone,  out  of  which  the 
cavity  had  been  cut. 

"Figure  5  shows  Course  XXIII.  ready  for  putting  on  the 
cap-course  of  the  solid. 

"Figure  6.  The  cap-course,  making  the  store-room  floor, 
in  its  finished  state  ;  the  first  course  of  the  habitable  part  of 
the  building,  viz.  Course  XXV.  being  upon  it ;  and  show- 
ing the  store-room  door,  with  its  joggles,  joint-stones,  and 
cramps. 

"The  detached  figure,  relative  to  it,  shows  a  part  of  the 
top  of  the  wall  of  Course  XXV.  to  a  triple  scale ;  wherein 
h  h  i  i  denote  one  of  the  pieces  of  stone,  whereof  sixteen 
complete  the  circle  :  /  shows  one  of  the  joggles  used  in  this 
part  of  the  building;  being  slices  of  marble  the  size  of  a 
common  brick,  let  half  its  thickness  into  the  middle  of  the 
stone;  so  that  the  next  course  above,  breaking  joint  upon 
the  middle  of  this,  according  to  the  dotted  line  g g,  half  the 
joggle's  length  will  take  one  of  the  upper  stones,  whose  joint 
comes  upon  it,  and  the  other  half  joggle  the  other:  by 
which  means  every  stone  is  fixed  to  its  place,  as  it  were,  by 
two  steady  pins,  one  at  each  extreme.  The  black  lines,  /*  i, 
showing  the  joint  at  each  end  of  this  stone :  the  small 
lozenge  figures,  k  and  /,  show  the  shape  of  grooves,  cut  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  each  end  of  each  stone,  and  which, 
when  two  are  joined  together,  form  that  figure :  k  denotes 
the  lozenge  empty,  or  unfilled,  and  I  the  lozenge  filled  with 
a  joint  stone. 

"  TO  n.  The  shape  of  one  of  the  cramps,  in  upright ;  and 
o^  as  seen  upon  the  fl.at.  The  holes  in  the  stones  at  q  r  are 
bored,  to  receive  the  round  shanks  of  the  cramp,  and  the 
rectangular  cavities  q  r  are  sunk,  to  bury  the  fiat  of  the 
cramp  o  pi- 

"Figure  7.  The  plan  of  the  kitchen  floor,  and  the  upper 
bed  of  Course  XXIX.  that  encircles  it :  showing  one  of  the 
endless  chains ;  of  which,  as  appears  in  the  section,  Plate  II. 
No.  2,  there  are  two  to  each  floor.  The  detached  figure 
shows  an  enlargement  of  the  chain  and  groove  that  con- 
tains it. 

"In  the  principal  figure,  the  dotted  lines  at  s  show  the 
place  of  the  fire-grate. 

"  /  t.  The  sink. 

"v  V.  The  dresser. 

"w  w.  The  settle. 

"».  A  place  for  a  claw  table,  leaving  a  v.acancy  to  the 
window  between  each. 

"  Figure  8.  The  plan  of  the  bedchamber,  taken  upon  the 
top  of  Course  XLllI.  which  gives  the  horizontal  sections  of 
the  windows. 

"■'y  y  y.  The  places  of  the  three  cabin  beds  for  the  light- 
keepers. 

"  z.  The  hole  in  the  floor  for  the  copper  funnel  from  the 
kitchen. 

"a.  The  pkaoe  of  the  clock. 

'■  In  the  detached  figure,  b  b  shows  how  the  cramps  are 
disposed  in  the  reduced  jambs  of  the  windows. 

"  c.  The  plan  of  the  rebate,  to  receive  the  shutters,  or 
ports  of  the  windows,  whereof  the  uprights  are  seen  in 
Plate  II. 

"d.  The  sill  of  the  clear  opening;  against  the  solid  of 
w  hieh  the  window  frame  e/and  sashes  are  lodged  ;  the  whole 
of  which  go  in  together,  and  are  held  in  by  wooden  pins,  two 
above  and  two  below,  as  shown  a.tg  g:  the  holes  being  bored 
in  the  solid  stone.  If  those  pins  are  cut  off,  the  whole  can 
be  drawn  out  and  renewed,  without  injury  to  the  stone-work. 
The  joint  of  the  wood  frame  with  the  stone-work  is  secured 
against  wet  by  white-lead  and  oil. 


EDD 


348 


EDD 


'■^  Fiqiivc  9.  The  plan  of  the  cap  of  the  main  coliinin.  being 
in  Plate  II.  No.  2,  the  40lh  Course,  and  composes  the  Ijuleimy 
floor. 

"hh.  The  man-hole  in  the  centre,  correspondent  to  the 
otiier  floors. 

"j.    1'he  fiiiinil  iiolc  acconlant  uilh  z  in  the  last  fignre. 

"The  dotted  lines  k  k  trace  out  the  octagon  base  of  the 
lantern. 

"The  place  of  the  under  rail  of  the  balcony  is  shown  by 
•  he  dotted  lines  m  m  m ;  and  n  n  n  denote  sections  of  the 
studs  upon  which  those  rails  arc  supported,  correspondent  to 
the  uprights  of  I'lati:  II. 

'■'■Plate  V. —  Oriri'uial  ideas,  hints,  and  sketche.t,  from 
whence  the  yeiterul  form  of  the  present,  liuihling  was  taken. 

"  Fi<jiire  1.  The  liole  of  a  S)ireading  oali  ;  its  side-branches 
being  lopjied  oil'  rising  out  of  the  ground  with  a  sweeji ;  its 
taper  diniini'-hiiig  till  the  sides  licconie  j)crpcndieular ;  and  on 
the  inseitiou  of  the  great  boughs,  again  swells  and  overhangs. 

"  Piyure  2.  The  manner  in  which  the  smaller  boughs  and 
branches  are  oliliipiely  inserted  into  the  greater,  with  the 
reconciling  curves  that  form  the  union. 

"  Fiijare  3.  A  specimen  of  paving  to  be  found  in  the 
walking  paths  of  London  streets;  being  a  mode  of  dove- 
tailing in  stone. 

•' /'/V/i/re  4.  A  sample  of  stone  dovetailing  in  the  upright, 
taken  from  Belidor's  Arrhit.  Hi/draul. 

"  Fiijure  5.  A  copy  of  the  first  complete  design  made  out 
for  the  .solid  courses  of  the  Eddystono.  The  only  material 
alteration  afterwards  was  to  diminish  the  size  and  weight  of 
the  outward  circle  of  stones. 

"Plate  \'{. — A  view  of  the  rock  on  the  east  side;  and  of 
the  work  advanced  to  Course  XV.  the  first  of  the  entry-courses  ; 
showing  the  manner  of  tcDiding  and  Itoisting  the  stones,  (L'C.  in 
every  after-stage  of  the  building. 

"■Figure  1.  The  boat  Weston  in  the  gut,  delivering  her 
cargo. 

"p.  Q.  The  two  fender  piles,  to  prevent  her  rubbing 
against  the  rock. 

'x.    The  cave,  here  seen  in  front. 

"d.  The  giilley,  through  which  a  momentary  cascade 
makes  its  way  ;  and  which  was  proposed  to  be  stopped. 

"e  V  o.  The  shears;  from  the  head  of  which  are  suspen- 
ded the  main  tackle-blocks  A  u,  whose '  tackle-fall,  after 
going  to  the  snatch-block  E,  passes  to  the  windlass,  or  jack- 
roll,  whose  frame  being  of  iron,  is  fastened  to  the  rock  as 
per  figure. 

"  The  enlarged  detached  figure  a  shows  the  frame  and  roll 
frontwise,  as  seen  from  the  snatch-block. 

"4.   The  side-view  thereof,  the  roll  being  seen  endwise. 

"f.  The  manner  of  coupling  the  back-stay  to  the  upright 
staneheons;  and  d  shows,  by  a  figure  still  more  enlarged, 
the  upper  end  of  the  staneheons  for  receiving  the  gudgeons 
of  the  roll. 

While  the  stone  is  hoisting,  the  man  represented  at  i  is 
hcaviug-in  the  taekle-ftll  of  the  runner  and  tackle  ii  k  :  for, 
till  the  stones  are  cleared  of  the  boat,  the  shears  lay  out  con- 
siderably, and  the  out-hawler  guy-rope,  l  m,  is  slack.  This 
crosses  the  gut,  and  is  fixed  by  a  ring-bolt  to  one  of  the 
rocks  of  the  south  reef.  Hy  such  time,  thereli^)re.  as  the  stone 
is  hoisted  by  the  main  tackle  to  the  height  of  the  entry-door, 
the  shears  arc  got  into  the  perpendicular;  aud  then  by 
casing  the  out-hawler  guy-tackle,  l  n,  the  stone  comes  into 
the  entry  door. 

"The  runner  and  tackle  ii  k  is  hooked  to  the  guy-chain,  o, 
which  crosses  the  work,  and  jiasses  down  to  the  ring  on  the 
west  side  of  the  rock  ;  marked  n  in  Plate  I. 

"In  the  detached  Figure  2,  the  anchor-like  piece  of  iron, 


by  which  the  main  tackle-blocks  are  hung,  is  shown  to  an 
enlarged  scale  at  e  f  g  h.  This  anchor  being  suspended  upon 
a  round  bolt  at  c,  that  passes  tlirough  the  tops  of  the  two 
shear  legs,  swings  freely  between  them,  and  always  putting 
itself  in  a  perpeiiiliciilar  position,  and  jiroducing  fair  bearings 
upon  them,  without  any  uiuiatural  strain  or  twist,  enables 
them  to  support  the  greatest  weight  po.ssiblc. 

"  In  like  manner  the  two  arms  of  the  anchor  g  h,  having 
the  two  guy-tackles  hooked  to  them,  the  action  of  those 
tackles  is  upon  the  suspending  bolt,  and  the  feet  of  the  shears 
turning  freely  upon  eye-bolts  fixed  in  the  rock,  they  are  at 
liberty  to  conform  themselves  to  the  position  wanted  ;  so 
that  the  stress  upon  the  legs  is  always  endwise. 

"After  the  building  was  raised  to  the  height  shown 
Figure  1,  the  work  was  hoisted  through  the  well-hole,  till  it 
arrived  at  the  top  of  the  solid,  by  means  of  the  triangle  and 
twelve-fold  blocks  wherewith  the  work  was  set;  and  are 
shown  as  standing  upon  the  wall  at  the  first  vaulted  floor  by 
the  letters  ;  k  I  m,  being  the  fourth  stage  :  but  after  that  was 
completed  (the  man-hole  being  too  small,  and  the  height  too 
great,  without  losing  time)  a  jack-roll  was  established,  as 
shown  at  the  third  stage  in  the  lower  store-room  at  q:  and 
a  pair  of  movable  shears,  the  figure  whereof  is  shown  at  the 
fifth  stage,  as  upon  the  wall,  at  the  kitchen-floor;  which, 
instead  of  guy-ropes,  had  a  back  leg,  longer  than  the  rest, 
whose  bottom  or  foot  cut  with  a  notch,  ste[iped  upon  the 
internal  angle  of  the  opposite  wall;  and  was  long  enough  to 
sutler  them  to  lean  over  sulliciently  for  the  stone  at  p  to  clear 
the  wall.  The  shears  themselves  were  prevented  from  falling 
over  by  a  lufl-tackle,  shown  upon  the  back  leg.  whose  lower 
block  hooked  upon  a  lewis,  in  that  stone  the  back  leg  stepped 
upon;  by  which  it  was  brought  tight  and  steady.  \Vh<'n  the 
stone  was  to  be  landed,  this  tackle  being  a  little  slacked,  till 
the  notch  could  be  disengaged,  and  then  set  upon,  the  back 
leg  would,  by  going  over  the  wall,  suffer  the  shears  to  come 
to  the  perpendicular,  or  beyond  it. 

"  The  stones,  now  become  in  general  less  weighty,  a  com- 
mon tackle  was  employed  at  the  shear-head,  which  would  go 
down  to  the  entry  door,  and  there  met  the  stones  hoisted  by 
the  great  shears  :  the  tackle-fall  of  the  movable  shears,  lieing 
taken  to  the  jack-roll  tj,  the  stones  were  got  to  the  top  of  the 
building,  in  the  same  time  tlicy  were  raised  from  the  boat  to 
the  entry-door. 

"  The  detached  figm-e  k  is  the  plan  of  the  movable 
shears ;  where  the  check,  or  safety  rope,  n,  is  shown  at  the 
foot  of  the  back  leg. 

"  In  this  manner  all  the  heavy  materials  were  got  up  ;  the 
movable  shears  rising  with  the  work,  till  the  cupola  was  to 
be  set  upon  tiie  lantern. 

"The  sixth  stage  shows  the  apparatus  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  great  shears  being  now  done  with,  were  taken 
down  and  put  through  the  windows  of  the  uppermost  room, 
and  there,  being  well  steadied,  served  as  booms.  The 
detached  figure  s  being  the  plan  of  this  stage,  shows  their 
particular  disposition  ;  wherein  o  p  show  the  places  or  feet; 
of  the  legs  of  the  shears  used  for  this  particular  purpose  ; 
also  marked  with  the  same  letters  in  the  relative  upright. 
In  this,  the  rope  q  r  shows  a  side-stay  to  the  leg  or  ;  and  .« t 
is  the  stay  of  the  leg  p  t,  each  fastened  to  q  s,  the  extremes 
of  the  booms. 

"  Erom  each  end  of  the  cross-tree  at  the  head  of  the 
shear-poles  proceeded  the  ropes  w  .r,  g  x,  which,  joining  in 
one  guy-rope  at  .t,  proceeds  over  a  pulley  in  the  end  of  the 
temporary  timber  at  z :  from  thence,  with  the  inteiinediation 
tif  a  tackle,  1,  2,  it  proceeds  to,  and  fixes  at  the  extreme  end 
of  the  boom  3;  and  as  the  weight  to  be  hoisted  will  prin- 
cipally lay  upon  this  guy,  the  stay,  or  shroud  rope,  3,  4,  is 


l,IIGIllTHOT,^;R', 


i'i..vir.i 


F^.  S. 


Drawn  btf  V  NirhoUon 


"     Sn^  ^4y.  R  TTuw. 


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t 


LKGHT  H(D)1U§jK 

. / / '/;•//■ ../ ■Ill,- /,'"./,• . m Ihf  lui.'/ si,/.-  </////"/ V//,- irnrA-  ,i,hiuimU> lUiirsrW.  hriny  the lirsl  .-/'Ih,-  Jiiilr v  n>i,/:v. -s, 
slinim,)thew,iimer-,,/IjniihrK/njuUhi,sUuyt/uslt'n/-siv.ine^i'erysUi</» 


PLATE.V]. 


TnnM  n  T/i^ir 


I'hiii  and  ,/.-scrifjliorio/'t/ie.  Work  V'l'-'J  """'  -^f'"  fl""  "M  '/-r  fnrniUire  and  aUti.ul.t 


vL.iTE  rii 


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EDD 


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passed  from  thence  through  the  window  of  the  room  beUjw, 
and  is  there  fixed. 

"  It  is  now  phiin,  that  by  the  tackle  1,  2,  the  shears  can  be 
let  iio  over  as  far  as  necessary,  and  brought  back  into  the 
perpendicular  ;  but  to  counteract  this  main  guy,  and  keep  all 
steady,  the  rope  5,  0, 7,  with  a  small  tackle  upon  it,  performs 
the  office  of  an  out-hawler  guy,  fixing  to  the  same  ring  in 
the  roelis,  as  that  of  the  main  shears  had  before  done.  This 
apparatus  enabled  the  cupola  to  be  hoisted  and  set  on  whole 
without  a  bruise. 

"  Plate  VII. — Plan  and  description  of  the  work-yard  at 
Mill-Hay,  with  it>:  furniture  and  ntenxih. 

''  Fif/iire  1.  The  general  plan  of  Mill-I>ay,  wherein  the 
dotted  lino  a  b  c  shows  the  line  of  low-water  spring  tides. 

"  d  e.  The  channel  dug  from  low  water  to  convey  vessels 
to  the  head  of  the  jetty  fff. 

"  A  i  k  I.     The  area  of  the  work-yard. 

"  Since  the  removal  of  this  work,  has  been  built  l  the 
long  room. 

"  A  c.     The  marine  barracks. 

"  D  D.     New  streets  of  Stonehouse. 

"Figure  2.  Plan  of  the  work-yard  and  jetty,  a  b  c  d,  the 
line  terminating  the  head  of  the  channel.  Now  any  vessel 
lying  against  the  two  large  piles  b  c,  on  which  a  pair  of 
shears  being  erected,  can  be  unloaded  of  her  cargo  of  stone, 
and  delivered  upon  a  wheel-carriage ;  that  passing  along  the 
jetty  to  the  turn-rail  e,  the  carriage  is  there  turned  round  till 
it  becomes  fair  with  the  rail-road  e  f  ;  and  passing  along  it,  en- 
ters the  work-yard,  whdsc  boundary  is  marked  by  g  g  g  o. 

"  At  T  is  another  turn-rail,  which  enables  the  carriage  to 
go  on  with  its  burden  ;  either  in  the  straight  line,  or  to  turn 
there  and  go  along  the  rail-road  in  the  middle  of  the  yard, 
and  arriving  at  any  destined  point,  suppose  ii,  it  is  there  met 
by  a  roll-carriage;  for  which,  planks  being  temporarily  laid, 
as  at  I,  the  burden  (being  transferred  on  small  rollers)  will 
be  easily  moved  thereon  to  the  extremity  of  the  yard  side- 
ways ;  and  thus  stones  can  be  deposited,  as  at  k  k  (shown 
edgewise  upward)  upon  any  point  of  the  area  of  the  yard, 
and  returned  by  the  same  means. 

"  The  area  bounded  by  the  line  g  q,  and  the  dotted  line  l  l, 
is  the  Portland  workshed. 

"  M  denotes  one  of  the  bankers ;  to  which,  from  the  wheel- 
carriage  (supposed  on  the  rail-road  opposite)  strong  joists 
being  laid,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  pieces  of  stone 
are  brought  on  small  rolls ;  the  bankers  having  notches  sunk 
therein,  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  joists. 

"  In  like  manner,  the  area  n  o  was  the  shed  for  the  moor- 
stone  workers. 

"  The  square  area  p  q  denotes  the  extent  of  a  roof,  sup- 
ported by  four  posts,  covering  the  platform  ;  whereof  a  b 
represents  the  platings  of  rough  stone  walls  ;  c  d  one  of  its 
principal  floor  timbers,  G  by  12  ;  these  being  covered  with 
three-inch  planks,  and  brought  to  a  true  level,  made  a  stout 
floor,  upon  which  the  courses  were  brought  together. 

"  R.     The  cabin  for  the  foreman  of  the  yard. 

"  s.     A  small  store-room  for  tools  and  iron-work. 

"  Q  w.     The  store-shed  for  Watchet  lime  and  puzzolana. 

"  V  X.  The  shed  for  bucking  or  beating  the  larger  parts  of 
the  puzzolana  upon  w  y,  the  bank  with  three  cast>iron  beds 
upon  it. 

^^  Figure  Z.  Supposed  a  detached  figure,  being  the  ground- 
plan  of  the  turn-rail  at  t  {Figure  2)  to  an  enlarged  scale, 
wherein  a  b  is  a  dormant  circle  of  wood  well  supported  ;  of 
which  0  marks  the  centre  pin  fixed  in  the  transverse  beam 
D  D  :  B  E  being  connected  studs. 

"ff.  Portionsof  the  rails,  whereon  the  wheels  move,  which 
are  kept  in  place  by  the  fillets /y;  nailed  on  each  side. 


"  G  o.  The  sleepers  for  supporting  the  rails  at  about  a 
yard's  distance  middle  and  middle  ;  as  is  also  shown  near  e, 
in  Figure  2. 

"  Figured.  The  plan  of  the  movable  turn-vail,  and  Figure 
r>  the  relative  upright;  shewing  also  the  section  of  the  dor- 
mant circle.  The  three  last  figures  having  a  mutual  refer- 
ence, the  same  parts  are  marked  with  the  same  letters:  and 
furthermore,  in  Figure  4  and  5. 

"  u  I.  The  rail  part  of  the  turn-rail,  correspondent  to 
those  parts  marked  f  f.  Figure  3,  in  width  and  height.  The 
rail  parts,  n  i,  are  strongly  fi'anied  upon  the  cross  beam  k  k, 
and  connected  by  the  pieces  l  l.  The  whole  being  poised, 
with  its  burden,  upon  the  pin  c,  but  without  absobitely 
touching  the  dormant  circle  a  b  while  turning  ;  for  l}earing 
only  upon  the  flat  shoulder  of  the  pin,  it  turns  easily  ;  but, 
when  it  is  bringing  on,  or  wheeling  oil',  the  eipulibrium  upon 
the  pin  being  destroyed,  the  ends,  n,  i,  are  then  supported 
upon  the  dormant  circle,  and  the  wheels  will  move  steady. 

"  Figure  7  shows  the  plan,  and  Figure  8  the  upright  view 
of  the  wheel-carriage,  to  the  same  scale  as  that  of  Figures 
3.  4,  and  5.  Also  Figure  9,  and  Figure  10,  give  the  upright 
views  of  the  roll-carriage  in  two  directions,  to  the  same 
scale  ;  which  show  distinctly  the  manner  of  supporting  the 
axis  of  the  rolls  on  iron  fiames  ;  and  how  the  iron  frames 
are  kept  upright  bj'  four  pair  of  cross  bars. 

"Figure  11.  The  upiight  of  the  cai)stan-roll,  axis,  and 
middle  pare  of  the  bar  to  the  same  scale.  At  1,2,  is  shown 
the  capstan  in  full,  to  the  scale  of  the  yard  ;  and  3,  4,  and  5. 
mark  the  direction  of  the  rope,  which,  from  a  snatch-block 
at  5,  ascends  to  the  upper  block  of  the  main  tackle,  sus- 
pended from  the  top  of  the  shears,  as  per  Figure  G,  wherein 
the  in-hauler  guy-tackle  is  marked  7,  being  a  runner  and 
tackle  ;  and  the  out-hauler,  marked  8,  are  simple  blocks. 
The  guy-rope,  7,  G,  was  attached  to  a  ring-bolt,  passing 
through  a  large  rough  stone,  rammed  into  the  ground  ;  its 
place  being  shown  at  6,  {Figure  2,)  the  out-hauler  guy  8,  9, 
being  secured  in  the  same  manner. 

"  The  marble  rooks,  marked  10,  go  round  the  point  of 
the  bay. 

"Figure  12.  The  elevation  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
jetty-head  in  front,  with  the  shears  upon  it,  to  an  enlarged 
scale  ;  more  particularly  to  show  the  smaller  parts. 

"  A,  B.  The  front  pair  of  piles,  to  which  the  cross-beam 
c  D  is  bolted,  and,  in  like  manner,  to  each  pair  of  piles. 

"  E,  E.     The  ends  of  the  longitudinal  half  balks. 

"  F  F.     The  cross  joists. 

"  G,  G.  Tlie  ends  of  the  flat  rails  that  the  wheels  of  the 
carriage  run  upon. 

"  H  II.  A  single  cross  timber,  serving  as  a  stop  to  the  car- 
riage at  the  end. 

"i.     The  snatch-block. 

"  iV.  B.  The  scantlings  ai'c  marked,  because  this  jetty  or 
scaffold,  erected  as  slight  as  possible  for  a  temporary  purpose, 
sustained  the  whole  tonnage  of  the  Eddystone  matter,  in  and 
out,  without  derangement. 

"  The  detached  Figure  13,  gives  a  part  of  the  top  of  one 
of  the  shear  legs,  showing  how  they  were  plated  on  each 
side  to  support  the  bolt  of  the  anchor  from  bending,  and 
thereby  from  splitting  the  poles. 

"  Figure  14.  The  enlarged  figure  of  the  runner  and  tackle 
(marked  7,  in  Figure  6.) 

"  K.     The  runner-block  of  one  large  single  pulley. 

"l  m.  The  tackle-block.s,  of  three  pulleys  each,  making  a 
purchase  of  twelve,  equivalent  to  the  great  blocks. 

"Figure  15.  An  upright  diagonal  view  of  the  main-tackle 
blocks ;  having  six  pulleys  each  upon  two  pins  ;  the  larger 
tier  being  ten,  and  the  lesser  eight  inches  diameter.     This 


EDD 


350 


EDD 


figure  distinctly  shows  tlie  method  of  salvagec  strapping ; 
being  double,  that  the  pins  being  readily  knocked  out,  they 
could  be  rrc(|Ueiitly  greased  without  trouble. 

"  N.  B.  The  shears,  blocks,  and  tackles,  used  at  Mill  I!ay, 
were  nearly  the  same  as  at  the  rock  ;  and  one  jiair  of  main 
tackle  blocks  at  each  place,  with  the  same  pulleys,  went 
through  the  whole  service  ;  but  the  pins  were  renew'ed  each 
season,  and  sometimes  oftciier,  being  of  wood,  on  account  of 
the  salt-water  ;  but  were  frequently  greased.  The  main 
tackle-fall  at  each  place  was  no  larger  a  rope  than  of  three 
inches  circumference  ;  being  a  white  rope,  remarkably  soft 
laid,  hauser-fashion;  and  which  is  of  nuiterial  consequence. 

'■'■  Piute  VIII. — Descriptions  of  siqyplemenlal  matters, 
having  reference  to  the  Eddyslone  bnilding. 

"  Figure  1.  An  upright  iVont  view  of  the  great  tackle,  or 
purchase-blocks  of  twenty  sheaves,  or  pulleys. 

"  Figure  2.  A  side  view  of  the  same  blocks,  referring  to 
Figure  1.  The  advantage  of  this  construction  is,  that  the 
tackle-fall,  or  running-rope,  may  be  reeved  through  the 
twenty  sheaves,  with(jut  a  cross  or  interference  ;  so  that 
the  standing  ['art,  or  beginning,  may  be  in  the  middle  of  the 
upper  block  :  and  the  ending,  hauling  part,  or  fall,  u|)on 
the  middle  pulley  of  the  same  block.  The  weight  therefore 
being  suspended  by  twenty  ropes  instead  of  six,  as  in  common 
triple-blocks  the  tackle-tall,  as  relative  to  a  given  weight, 
may  be  lesser  or  of  fewer  yarns  in  the  same  proportion  ; 
which  renders  the  whole  much  more  flexible  and  pliant,  and 
wliich,  together  with  the  advantage  derived  from  the  mode 
of  reeving,  occasions  their  rising  and  falling  nearly  upon  a 
parallel.  Beginning  in  the  middle,  the  greater  sheaves  are 
reeved  as  fir  as  can  be  on  them  ;  from  thence  going  to  the 
first  of  the  smaller  sheaves,  and  reeving  the  whole  of  them 
throughout,  you  then  go  to  the  first  of  the  greater  sheaves, 
bcf  ire  left  unreevcd,  ending  upon  the  middle  sheave  of  the 
u[)per  block  ;  and  thus  arises  a  diminution  of  the  friction 
from  the  more  equal  distribution  thereof. 

"  Figure  S.  An  upright  section  of  the  store-room,  to 
an  enlarged  scale ;  in  it  is  shown  the  centre  whereon 
the  upper  store-room  floor  was  turned  ;  and  in  like  manner 
the  rest. 

"  Figure  4.  The  plan  relative  thereto,  the  letters  being 
common  to  both. 

"  a  b,  c  il.  Two  of  the  sixteen  ribs,  formed  to  the  circle 
of  the  vaults  of  the  floors.  These  ribs  are  connected  at  their 
ends  by  two  wooden  r'lng-^,  e  f  g  h  i  k  ;  the  former  supported 
by  four  posts,  three  of  which  arc  shown  in  their  places,  and 
the  latter  by  eight;  of  which  oidy  one  is  shown  on  the  right 
hand,  and  one  on  the  left,  to  avoid  confusion.  The  rings  are 
each  made  to  take  asunder,  that  after  striking  the  centre 
they  might  be  got  out  of  the  room. 

"  At  /  I,  in  m,  two  of  the  ribs  are  supposed  taken  out, 
to  show  their  bearings  upon  the  rings ;  they  were  open 
centres,  that  it  might  be  seen  underneath  when  the  joints 
were  fair. 

'•  Figure  7,  of  Plate  IV.,  shows  how  the  sixteen  radii  of 
stones  would  apply  to  the  sixteen  ribs.  In  this  plan. 
Figure  4,  a  shows  the  well  hole,  and  b  b  the  cross  timbers 
for  supporting  the  four  middle  posts,  whoso  places  are  marked 
out  by  dotted  little  squares. 

"  Figure  5.  An  elevation,  and  Figure  G,  the  relative  plan 
of  a  di.il  stone,  taken  professedly  from  the  general  figure  of 
the  Edilystono  lighthouse  ;  being  the  design  of  the  late 
James,  Duke  of  Queensberry,  and  by  him  erected  at  Ames- 
bmy,  Wilts,  with  a  dial  upon  it,  by  Mr.  liamsden.  The 
drawing,  of  which  this  is  a  copy,  was  given  me  by  the  Duke  ; 
and  is  placed  here  as  an  instance,  that  the  Eddystone  colunm 
may  be  applied  to  some  uses  of  architecture. 


"  Figure  7.  One  of  the  silver  medals  given  to  the  seamen 
as  a  token  of  the  service. 

'•  Figure  8.  The  tool  wherewith  the  stones  were  got  >ip 
from  the  bottom  of  the  gut. 

"  A.     One  of  the  stones  with  two  trenail  holes. 

"Suppose  this  stone  lying  flat  in  the  bottom  of  the  gut, 
the  side  a  uppermost.  The  tool  has  a  pole  or  stafl'.  h  l>,  about 
twelve  feet  long,  suflicient  to  reach  the  bottom.  This  single 
prong,  c,  is  forged  to  a  very  single  taper,  such  as  to  be  thrust 
eight  or  nine  inches  into  a  trenail  hole,  (all  of  them  being 
bored  to  a  gauge)  it  can  be  driven  by  the  pole,  till  fast ; 
observing  that  the  aim  e  corresponds  to  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  stone.  The  water  is  generally  so  clear  as  to  see  to 
the  bottom  ;  and,  in  case  of  any  ruflle  by  the  wind,  can  be 
in  a  great  measure  freed  from  agitation,  by  looking  through 
a  speaking  trumpet,  whose  mouth  is  put  down  eight  or  ten 
inches  into  the  water.  The  rope  d  e  f  being  then  set  upon 
by  the  main  tackle,  instead  of  its  drawing  out,  the  length  of 
the  arm  g  causes  the  prong  to  jamb  the  faster  in  the  hole  ; 
and  the  stafl^  being  quitted  by  the  hand,  with  a  cord  to  hinder 
its  flying  off  too  fiir,  the  whole  assumes  the  position  of  the 
figure ;  and,  w  hen  bro\ight  above  water,  is  low'ered  into 
a  yawl. 

"  Figure  9.  A  section  of  one  of  the  mortar  buckets,  and 
in  it  the  beater. 

'■^Figure  10.  One  of  the  internal  faces'of  the  lantern's 
glass  frames,  and  therein  the  cross  bars  of  iron,  as  they  were 
actually  fixed.  Besides  the  flat  at  each  end  of  each  bar, 
distinguished  by  a  darker  shade,  and  through  which  the 
screws  passed  ;  each  end  was  also  cranked  about  an  inch,  so 
as  to  set  the  transverse  part  of  the  bars  clear  of  the  copper 
sash-frame  ;  and  they  were  cleared  of  each  other  at  their 
intersection,  by  one  of  them  being  made  straight,  the  other 
curved  in  that  part.  All  the  panes  being  taller  than  the 
candles,  the  chandelier  rings  are  so  hung,  that  when  the 
candles  are  at  rest,  dispensing  their  light,  that  of  one  chan- 
delier passes  through  the  range  of  panes  a,  and  that  of  the 
other  through  the  range  b  ;  and  when  the  candles  are  snufled, 
one  of  the  rings  of  lights  being  seen  through  the  range  c, 
the  other  mounts  to  d,  and  vice  versa. 

"  Figure  II.  The  chain  of  triangles  from  the  Eddystone 
to  the  flag-staff  of  the  garrison  of  Plymouth,  for  ascertaining 
their  distance  trigonometrically. 

^^  Figure  12.  An  enlargem.ent  of  the  work  within  the 
headlands  of  the  Sound. 

"  The  whole  country  about  Plymouth  Sound  being  very 
uneven,  I  could  not  readily  obtain  a  base  better,  than  by 
very  carefully  measuring  the  two  lines  b  o,  n  w,  taking  the 
intercepted  angle  w  b  q  ;  whence  the  right  line  w  o  was 
obtained,  making  a  base  of  1871  feet,  and  which  1  cannot 
suppose  to  err  more  than  half  a  foot.  Again,  the  nearest 
place  from  whence  the  two  beacons,  w,  o,  could  be  commo- 
diously  seen  for  the  purpose,  was  the  point  s  ;  and  all  the 
three  angles  of  the  triangle  w  s  g,  being  likewise  carefully 
taken,  1  conclude  the  angle  w  s  o  =  10°  23',  taken  true  to 
a  minute  ;  that  is,  to  ggjd  part  of  the  whole  angle.  The 
line  s  w  could  therefore  be  determined  within  -g-gjd  part ; 
which  being  considered  as  a  new  base  of  larger  extent,  may 
be  esteemed  true  within  g^th  j>art  of  the  whole.  From 
this,  and  the  angles  taken  as  marked  upon  the  scheme,  the 
lines  w  p,  w  m,  and  w  e,  were  successively  determined  ;  and 
finally  f  e,  the  distance  of  the  flag-stafl"from  the  Eddystone, 
came  out  very  near,  but  somewhat  less,  than  fom-tecn  miles. 
But  the  interior  harbour  of  Plymouth,  called  Sutton  Pool, 
being  about  three  furlongs  farther  from  the  Eddystone,  than 
the  flag-stafl',  the  whole  distance  may  be  esteemed  fourteen 
I  miles  and  a  quarter  from  Plymouth  harbour." 


x,:[D:r['i:':rcovg:(!;, 


PT^ATK.Vni 


ru,.2. 


\V-\  If 


,  Mwr  _.     //   v 

!  FGW     -     //-•    S" 

KWE  _   /»»    v/ 

,  XPB    —  .1?    .T« 


EGY 


351 


EGY 


Thus  was  completed  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse,  which 
must  over  he  cuusidered  a  masterpiece  of  its  idnd.  The 
merit  of  utility  is  not  its  only  characteristic;  but  in  beauty, 
as  well  as  in  strength  and  originality,  it  deserves  the  highest 
atndiration.  And  when  we  remember  the  extraordinary 
dilKculties  by  which  a  work  Hke  this  must  have  been 
surrounded,  we  must  own,  that  had  its  contractor  left  no 
other  memento  of  his  genius,  the  Eddystone  alone  would  be 
sufticient  to  immortalize  the  name  of  Smeaton. 

EDGE,  the  intersection  of  the  two  planes  or  surfaces  of  a 
soliil,  which  is  consequently  either  straight  or  curved  accord- 
ing to  the  direction  of  tiie  surfaces.      See  Arris. 

Edok  is  also  that  side  of  a  rectangular  prismatic  body, 
whicii  contains  tiie  length  and  thickness,  but  in  this  sense  of 
the  term,  the  l)ody  to  wliich  it  appiii-s  is  generally  understood 
to  be  very  thin;  thus  we  say,  "the  edge  of  a  door,''  the 
"  edge  of  a  board,"  meanins;  the  narrow  side. 

Edge  of  a  Tool,  the  meeting  of  the  surfaces  when 
ground  to  a  very  acute  angle. 

Edge-Tools,  all  those  which  chip  or  shave  in  tlie  operation 
of  working. 

ED(j1NG,  in  carpentry,  the  reducing  of  the  edge  of  ribs 
or  rafters,  whether  externally  or  internally,  so  as  to  range  in 
a  plane,  or  in  any  curved  surface  required  ;  backing  is  a  par- 
ticular Ciise  of  edging,  and  only  applies  to  the  outer  edges  of 
ribs  or  rafters,  but  edging,  or  langins,  is  a  general  term,  and 
applies  indili'erently,  either  to  the  backing  or  internal  surface. 
See  /he  term.i  Backing  and  Rangi.ng. 

EDIFICE,  (  from  the  Latin,  w  lijicium, )  a  building  con- 
structed either  for  use  or  ornament.  The  word  is  not  usually 
applied  to  a  mean  or  inferior  building,  but  to  temples, 
churches,  or  elegant  mansions,  and  to  other  great  structures. 
See  BuiLuixo,  11ol-se,  Temple,  izc. 

EDILE,  (  Latin,  wdi/is,  from  ades,  a  building,)  an  officer 
in  ancient  Home,  whose  business  was  to  superintend  build- 
ings of  all  kinds,  more  especially  those  of  a  public  character, 
as  temples,  aqueducts,  bridges,  &c. 

EFFIGY,  a  re[iresentation  or  likeness  of  anything,  the 
term  being  particularly  ap|)lied  to  sculptured  representations 
of  human  ligures.  Such  effigies  were  very  common  on  tombs 
erected  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth  centuiies,  and 
were  of  various  matt-rials,  stone,  marble,  alabaster,  and  even 
of  the  precious  metals. 

EGGS,  ornaments  in  the  form  of  oblong  spheroids  having 
their  greater  axis  inclined,  projecting  at  the  top  and  receding 
at  the  bottom,  but  each  axis  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
surface  of  the  ovolo.  In  straight  mouldings,  all  the  axes  will 
be  in  the  same  plane ;  but  in  annular  mouldings  or  those 
generated  round  an  axis,  all  the  axes  of  the  spheroids  will  be 
in  the  surface  of  a  cone,  whose  vertex  will  be  downwards, 
and  will  terminate  in  the  apex.  The  eggs  are  most  generally- 
truncated,  or  have  their  upper  part  cut  oft'  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  horizon.     See  Echinus. 

EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTUHE.  The  character  of  the 
Egyptians,  as  developed  in  early  history,  would  naturally^ 
lead  us  to  suppose,  that  an  inquiry  into  their  style  and  man- 
ner of  building  would  form  a  subject  for  interesting  study, 
not  only  to  the  antiquary,  but  also  to  all  such  as  take  any 
interest  in  general  history  ;  and  such  doubtless  is  the  case.  The 
history  of  the  place  attaches  an  unusual  interest  to  evervthing 
connected  with  it.  Of  the  early  history  of  Egypt,  like  that 
of  the  otlier  primreval  nations  we  know  but  little  for  certain, 
all  narrative  dating  back  beyond  a  certain  period,  having  an 
air  of  mystery  about  it,  which  it  is  not  easy  to  penetrate, 
and  this  fact  is  more  especially  true,  as  regards  the  origin  of 
nations.  If  we  believe  the  records  of  the  Egyptian  priests, 
as  handed  down  to  us  by  Herodotus,  !Manetho,  Eratosthenes, 


and  others,  we  shall  have  to  carry  back  the  date  of  its  origm 
far  beyond  the  period  generally  assigned  as  the  commence- 
ment of  history.  Manetho  gives  us  a  scries  of  dynasties 
upon  dynasties,  which,  if  successive,  reach  beyond  the  bounds 
of  time ;  to  obviate  which  difficulty,  it  has  been  suggested,  that 
they  were  not  all  successive,  but  several  contemporaneous, 
reigning  over  different  parts  of  the  country;  but,  indeed,  the 
■whole  matter  would  seem  to  be  fabulous,  for  in  the  same 
place  is  related  the  gigantic  stature  of  several  kings,  their 
wonderful  exploits,  and  other  circumstances  characteristic  of 
mystical  and  confused  tradition.  The  first  king  alluded  to  by 
historians  is  Menes  or  Men,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
above  2,000  years  B.C.,  about  the  time  of  the  foundation  of 
Assyiia  bv  Kimrod,  and  of  the  reign  of  the  Chinese  emperor 
Yao,  with  whom  the  historical  period  of  China  begins.  It  is 
doubtful  which  of  these  nations  came  first  into  existence  ;  we 
arc  inclined  to  give  the  preference  to  the  Assyrians,  but  which- 
ever takes  the  lead,  there  was  probably  but  little  ditferenco 
between  them  in  point  of  time.  It  is  certain  that  Egypt  stood 
out  pre-eminent  in  civilization,  and  that,  too,  at  a  very  early 
period  ;  its  success  in  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  and  in  the  pur- 
suit of  science,  w.as  greater  than  that  of  any  contemporaneous 
people,  as  is  evident  from  their  remains  to  be  seen  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  At  the  close  of  Manetho's  sixteenth  dynasty,  the 
irruption  of  the  Hyksos,  or  shepherds,  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place;  his  seventeenth  dynasty  consisting  of  shepherd- 
kings,  from  which  period  it  is  alleged  that  the  erection  of  the 
existing  edifices  must  commence,  all  the  previously  existing 
buildings  having  been  destroyed  by  the  shepherds.  As 
a  proof  of  this,  is  adduced  the  circumstance,  that  at  Carnac, 
and  other  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  Thebes,  sculptures 
and  painted  stones,  of  good  workmanship,  are  to  be  found, 
used  as  mere  materials  in  the  body  of  the  walls. 

Besides  the  ancient  authors  already  mentioned,  we  have 
Stnabo  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  who  have  given  some  account 
of  Egypt  and  its  buildings,  and  to  these  we  shall  have 
to  refer  occasionally  as  we  proceed. 

In  turning  to  modern  writers  on  this  subject,  we  shall  find 
but  few  who  enter  fully  into  the  subject  previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  little  or  nothing  having 
been  known  of  Egyptian  buildings  unless  it  were  of  the 
Pyr.amids,  until  the  French  expedition,  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century  ;  no  satisfactory  delineations  of  the  temples,  or 
their  deUiils,  had  been  taken,  but  only  such  sketches  as  were 
calculated  to  convey  some  general  ideaof  their  characteristic 
massiveness.  To  Denon,  and  the  contiibutors  to  the  great 
French  work  on  this  subject,  we  are  principally  indebted  for 
our  present  information.  Pococke  and  Norden  have  treated 
somewhat  largely  on  their  researches  in  this  country,  but 
their  remarks  are  too  general  and  too  loose  to  be  of  much 
service.  Denon  had  advantages  unattainable  by  any  of  his 
predecessors  ;  independent  of  his  own  high  qualifications,  his 
efforts  were  seconded  by  the  able  assistance  of  men  of  talent, 
sent  out  for  the  purpose,  themselves  well  fitted  for  the  task. 
Besidesthese,  wemay  mention  Belzoniand  Champollion  ;  and, 
amongst  our  own  countrymen,  Savary  and  Wilkinson. 

According  to  Manetho's  account,  the  temples  to  which  the 
remains  described  by  Denon  belong,  were  erected  by  the  first 
dynasties  of  the  Pharaohs,  or  about  2,200  before  Christ : 
these  first  structures,  however,  were  destroyed  by  the  inva^ 
ding  shepherds,  as  before  noticed.  ITiese  usurpers  were,  in 
turn,  driven  out  by  the  Pharaohs,  who  were  restored  to  their 
throne  about  2,000  years  b.c,  and  thereupon  set  about 
rebuilding  the  temples,  the  remains  of  which  are  seen  at 
this  day. 

The  character  of  Egyptian  architecture  is  that  of  massy 
grandeur  and  severe  simplicity,  as  exhibited  in  the  simple, 


EGY 


EGY 


\vol!-clL'finod  outline,  and  in  the  colossal  dimensions  of  their 
loiiiples,  and  the  ininionsc  blocks  of  nuitorial  employed  in 
their  construction.  The  great  object  of  the  builders  seerns 
to  have  been,  that  the  strength  and  durability  portrayed  in 
the  prodigious  magnitude  of  their  structures  should  serve  to 
typil'y  their  own  greatness.  They  did  not  consider,  when 
tliey  were  erecting  their  temples,  that  they  were  building 
them  for  an  age,  but  for  eternity  ;  nor,  comparatively  speaking, 
were  they  deceived  in  the  estimate  of  their  works  ;  for  now, 
after  the  lapse  of  three  or  four  thousands  of  years,  we  have 
some  portions  which  are  likely  to  last  as  many  more  centuries, 
unless  wantonly  destntyed  by  the  hand  of  man.  Had,  indeed, 
the  buildings  only  to  contend  with  the  ravages  of  time,  we 
siiould  have  many  a  structure  perfect,  where  it  is  now  a 
heap  of  ruins  ;  had  it  not  been  for  the  reckless  destruction  of 
these  wonderful  monuments  by  Cambyses,  it  is  questionable 
whether  they  would  not  all  have  been  entire  at  the  present 
day,  and  certainly  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  than 
nuuiy  modern  buildings  which  have  not  numbered  as  many 
ten  years  as  the  former  liave  centuries.  Even  now,  the 
carving,  and,  in  some  instances,  paintings,  to  be  seen  in  the 
ruins,  are  as  fresh  and  bright  as  if  only  just  executed. 

The  immense  size  of  the  stones  employed,  and  the  mecha- 
nical art  necessary  for  transporting  them  from  the  quarry, 
and  afterwards  raising  them  to  the  required  elevation  in  the 
temples,  when  building,  cause  these  sacred  structures  to 
ap]>ear  like  works  of  superhuman  labour.  In  every  degree, 
they  exhibited  a  solemn  majesty  of  style,  and  imposing 
grandeur  ;  while  austere  simplicity,  combined  with  order, 
uniformity,  and  regularity,  pervade  the  whole  design. 

This,  with  the  solidity  and  massiveness  of  the  parts,  and  the 
prodigiousdiraensionsof  the  stones,  imparted  an  air  of  the  most 
impressive  and  awful  sublimity  on  the  mind  of  the  beholder. 

Belzoni,  who  visited  Egypt,  observes,  in  his  enthusiastic 
manner,  when  entering  this  magnificent  temple — "  I  was 
lost  in  a  mass  of  colossal  objects,  every  one  of  which  was 
more  than  sufficient  of  itself  to  attract  my  attention  ;  I 
seemed  alone  in  the  midst  of  all  that  is  most  sacred  in  the 
world  ;  a  forest  of  enormous  columns,  adorned  all  round 
with  beautiful  figures,  and  various  ornaments,  from  top  to 
bottom  ;  the  graceful  shape  of  the  lotus,  which  forms  the 
bell-.shapcd  capitals,  and  which  is  so  well-proportioned  to 
the  columns  ;  the  friezes,  also  adorned  in  every  part  with 
symbolical  figures  in  low  relief,  representing  battles,  pro- 
cessions, triumphs,  priests,  and  sacrifices  ;  all  relating  to 
the  ancient  history  of  the  country.  The  walls  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, usually  formed  of  red  porphyry  granite  ;  the  high 
portal,  seen  at  a  disttince  from  the  openings  of  this  vast 
lal)yrinlh  of  sacred  edifices  on  each  side  of  ine,  had  such  an 
elll'ct  upon  my  soul  as  to  separate  me  in  imagination  from 
the  rest  of  mortals,  exalt  me  on  high  above  all,  and  cause  me 
to  forget  entirely  the  trifles  and  follies  of  life  !"  "  It  further 
appears,"  he  says,  on  entering  the  city  of  Thebes,  "  like 
entering  a  city  of  giants,  who,  after  a  long  conflict,  were  all 
destroyed,  leaving  ruins  of  their  various  temples  as  the  only 
proof  of  their  former  existence."  Champollion  exclaims  of 
Carnac,  "  These  porticos  must  be  the  work  of  men  one 
hundred  feet  in  height ;"  and  Denon  adds,  "  Such  struc- 
tures appear  like  dreams,  or  the  works  of  giants  !" 

Of  the  impression  made  upon  the  mind  of  Denon  by  these 
stupendous  structures  wo  have  sufficient  evidence  in  his 
ttork  on  the  subject ;  the  few  following  passages  have  been 
selected  from  a  multitude  of  a  similar  kind. 

Of  the  portico  of  Ilermopolis,  he  says,  "This  was  the  fir^t 
monument  which  gave  me  an  idea  of  the  ancient  Egyptian 
architccuure,  the  first  stones  tlmt  I  had  seen  which  had 
preserved  their  original  distinction  without  being  altered  or 


deformed,  and  had  remained  there  for  four  thousand  years  ; 
here  1  fancied  I  saw  engraven  on  every  stone  the  words 
Posterity — Eternity.  It  gave  an  idea  of  the  Immense  range 
and  high  perfection  to  which  the  arts  had  arrived  in  this 
country.  If  a  peasant  should  be  drawn  out  from  his  mud- 
cottage,  and  placed  before  such  an  edifice  as  this,  would  he 
not  believe  that  there  must  exist  a  wide  difference  between 
.himself  and  the  beings  who  were  able  to  construct  it,  and, 
without  any  idea  of  architecture,  would  he  not  say,  'This  is 
the  work  of  a  god  ;  a  man  could  not  dare  to  do  it,  or 
inhabit  it.' " 

This  is  his  first  impression,  nor  is  his  admiration  less 
apparent  at  the  close  of  his  researches  ;  novelty  maj'  excite 
wonder  and  interest,  but  merit  alone  can  maintain  them. 
At  a  later  period,  the  description  of  Tentyra  calls  forth  the 
following  remarks  : — 

"Nothing  is  more  simple  and  better  put  together  than 
the  few  lines  which  compose  this  architecture.  The  Egyp- 
tians borrowing  nothing  from  the  styles  of  other  nations, 
have  here  added  no  foreign  ornament,  no  superfluity  of 
materials  :  order  and  simplicity  arc  the  principles  v.hich 
the)-  have  followed  and  they  have  carried  them  to  sublimity. 
At  this  point  they  have  stopjicd,  and  have  attached  so  much 
importance  to  preserving  the  unity  of  design,  that  though 
they  have  loaded  the  walls  of  these  edifices  with  bas-rclief<, 
inscriptions,  historical  and  scientific  representations,  none  of 
these  rich  additions  intersects  a  single  line  of  the  general 
plan,  all  of  which  are  religiously  preserved  unbroken  ;  the 
sumptuous  decorations  which  appear  to  the  eye  when  close 
to  the  building,  all  vanish  at  a  short  distance,  and  leave  full 
to  view  the  grand  elements  of  architectural  composition 
which  are  dictated  by  sound  reason.  It  never  rains  in  this 
climate,  all  that  is  wanted  therefore  is  a  covering  of  plat- 
bands to  give  shade,  but  beyond  this  neither  roof  nor  pen- 
diment  are  added  ;  the  plain-slope  is  the  principle  of  solidity ; 
they  have  therefore  adopted  this  form  for  every  main  sup- 
porter, doubtless  with  the  idea  that  stability  is  the  first 
impression  that  architecture  should  give,  and  is  an  essential 
constituent  of  this  art.  With  these  people  the  idea  of  the 
immortality  of  the  Deity  is  presented  by  the  eternity  of  his 
temple  ;  these  ornaments,  which  are  always  rational,  alwavs 
consistent,  always  significant,  demonstrate  a  steadiness  of 
principle,  a  taste  founded  upon  truth  and  a  deep  train 
of  reasoning;  and  if  we  even  had  not  a  full  conviction  of 
the  eminent  height  to  which  they  had  attained  in  the  abstract 
sciences,  their  architecture  alone,  in  the  state  in  which  we 
now  find  it,  would  give  the  observer  of  the  present  day  a 
high  opinion  of  the  antiquity  of  this  nation,  of  its  cultivation, 
and  the  impressive  gravity  of  its  character." 

Of  Carnac  he  at  last  exclaims — "  One  is  fatigued  to 
describe,  and  to  read,  and  to  think,  of  such  a  coiueption ; 
aficT  having  seen  it,  one  can  hardly  credit  the  reality  of  the 
existence  of  so  many  structures  collected  in  one  spot,  of  their 
size,  of  the  determined  resolution  (cunatance  vlislinee)  which 
exacted  their  erection,  and  of  the  incalculable  expense  of 
such  ma^jnificeucc." 

Of  the  jesthetic  character  of  Egyptian  architecture,  our 
author  observes  : — "  These  monuments,  (Tentyra,)  which 
imprinted  on  the  mind  the  respect  due  to  a  sanctuary  of 
the  divinity,  were  the  open  volumes  in  which  science  was 
unfolded,  morality  dictated,  and  the  useful  arts  promulgated  ; 
everything  spoke,  every  object  was  animated  with  the  same 
mind.  The  opening  of  the  doors,  the  angles  the  most  private 
recess,  still  presented  a  lesson,  a  precc)jt  of  admirable  har- 
mony, and  the  lightest  ornament  on  the  gravest  feature  of 
the  architecture,  revealed  under  living. images  the  abstract 
truths  of  astronomy." 


EGY 


353 


EGY 


"  Paintiiii;  aildi'd  a  further  charm  to  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture, and  produced  at  the  same  time  an  agreeable  richness, 
which  did  not  injure  cither  the  general  simplicity  or  the 
gravity  of  the  wliole.  To  all  appearance,  painting  in  Egypt 
was  tiien  oidy  an  auxiliary  ornanunt,  and  not  a  particular 
art ;  the  sculpture  was  emblematical,  and,  if  1  may  so  call 
it.  architectural. 

"  Architecture  was  therefore  the  great  art,  or  that  which 
was  dictated  by  utility,  and  we  may  from  this  circumstance 
alone  infer  the  priority,  or  at  least  the  superior  excellence,  of 
the  Egyptian  over  the  Indian  art,  since  the  former,  borrowing 
nothing  from  the  latter,  has  become  the  basis  of  all  that  is 
the  subject  of  admiration  in  modern  art,  and  what  we  have 
considered  as  exclusively  belonging  to  architecture,  the  three 
Greek  orders,  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  We  should 
therefore  be  cautious  of  entertaining  the  false  idea  which  is 
so  prevalent,  that  the  Egyptian  aichitecture  is  the  infancy 
of  this  art,  since  it  is,  in  fact,  the  complete  type." 

Siu'h  is  the  universal  and  oft-repeated  admiration  of 
modern  travellers  :  had  such  expressions  been  used  liy  an 
ancii-nt  author,  and  the  buildings  now  demolished,  we  should 
have  been  apt  to  treat  the  matter  as  purely  fabulous,  but  now 
they  are  undoubted  realities,  and  stand  as  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  history.  Such  structures  could  doubtless  have  been 
erected  solely  under  a  despotic  government,  and  probably,  for 
the  most  part,  by  captives  or  slaves,  and  not  by  free  Egyptians, 
as  we  read  of  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  Moses  being  tasked 
in  this  manner;  the  manual  labour  employed  on  such  struc- 
tures must  have  been  enormous.  It  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  wonder  how  such  immense  masses  of  material  were 
transported  t'rom  the  quarries,  and  fi.xed  so  accurately  in  their 
respective  places;  even  in  the  present  day,  with  all  the 
advantages  of  machinery  and  steam-power  which  we  possess, 
the  erection  of  such  structures  as  those  of  Egypt  would  be 
considered  no  light  undertaking.  Notwithstamling  the  vast 
magnitude  of  these  erections,  they  were  remarkable  not  only 
for  their  size,  h\it  no  less  for  their  enri<'hnient ;  ornamentation 
of  various  kinds  was  lavishly  distributed  over  the  whole 
surface.  It  is  true,  the  b\iildings  appear  to  greatest  advan- 
tage when  exhibited  as  a  whole,  yet  each  minute  portion  will 
bear,  nay,  require,  minute  examination  ;  a  close  inspection 
reveals  the  most  elaborate  enrichment,  while  a  distant  view 
exhibits  the  noble  outline  and  the  grander  features  of  archi- 
tectural composition. 

No  two  styles  would  at  first  sight  appear  more  dissimilar, 
more  antagonistic,  than  the  Egyptian  and  Gothic,  the  one 
ponderous  and  massive,  the  other  light  and  elegant;  the  one 
(lat,  of  low  proportions,  and  presenting  a  great  extent  of 
unbroken  horizontal  lines,  the  other  slender,  lofty,  and  aspir- 
ing. What  contrarieties  do  they  present !  and  yet  we  shall 
find  that  they  have  many  characteristics  in  common,  not 
indeed  in  their  architectural  features,  but  in  the  aesthetic 
pi'inciples  followed  out  in  their  construction  and  decoration. 
The  temples  of  the  Egyptians  were  but  the  embodiment  of 
their  religion  ;  their  massive  proportionstypified  thegreatness, 
asthecontinuityoftheouilineand  repetition  of  parts  illustrated 
the  eternity  and  immutability  of  their  deity.  Their  objects 
of  worship  inspired  feelings  of  profound  awe,  so  likewise 
did  their  temples.  Nor  were  their  decorations  merely  the 
result  of  caprice,  but  of  studied  design  ;  every  detail  was  sub- 
servient to  some  great  end,  and  suggested  by  some  urgent 
reason  ;  they  all  have  a  symbolical  meaning,  illustrative  of 
the  Divine  attributes,  ami  consist,  in  short,  of  a  series  of 
religious  dogmas  and  precepts,  embodied  as  it  were  in  forms. 
They  were,  as  is  said  of  the  pictorial  and  carved  enrichment 
of  Gothic  edifices,  the  books  of  the  unlearned,  each  object 
speaking  more  intelligibly  and  more  impressively  to  the  eye 

45 


and  mind  of  the  beholder,  than   would  whole  volumes  of 
written  precepts. 

"  The  matei-ialisrn  of  Egyptian  worship,"  says  a  writer  on 
this  subject,  "  rendered  all  these  details  essential ;  it  fixed  the 
imagination  on  ]ihysical  nature,  and  obliged  the  ecclesiastics  to 
seek  those  forms  best  calculated  to  express  the  dogmas  of 
their  religion.  And  in  contemplating  their  architecture,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  be  struck  with  the  manifest  intlueiice 
religion  has  had  in  its  creation-."  In  allusion  to  an<ither 
similarity  as  regards  the  circumstances  connected  with  the 
erection  of  Egyptian  and  Gotliic  edifices,  he  says,  "The 
priests,  who  were  the  great  depositories  of  all  knowledge,  were 
the  exclusive  designers  of  their  religious  edifices  ;  they  alone 
directed  the  taste  of  the  architect  and  the  sculptor;  and  they 
employed  architectural  grandeur,  with  all  its  accessories,  to 
influence  the  minds  of  those  people  whose  actions  they 
wished  to  govern  ;  nor  can  I  inuigine  anything  better  suited 
to  inspire  religious  awe,  and  a  profound  reverence  for  the 
divinity,  as  well  as  his  earthly  agents  amongst  an  idolatrous 
people,  than  this  style  of  architecture."  In  passing,  we  may 
remark  upon  another  affinity  between  the  tM'o  styles,  which 
approaches  more  nearly  to  an  architectural  characteristic,  and 
that  is,  the  practice  of  copying  nature,  all  the  decorative 
details  of  Egyptian,  as  of  Gothic  architecture,  being  the  most 
beautiful  imitations  of  the  natural  productions  of  their 
country — the  lotus,  palm,  reed,  piapyrus,  &:c. 

Having  thus  given  a  descriptii^n  of  the  general  character 
of  this  style  of  architecture,  it  will  be  as  well  to  proceed  at 
once  to  the  consideration  of  the  buildings  more  in  detail,  as 
regards  plan,  distribution,  and  arrangement  of  parts,  method 
of  construction,  and  such  like;  in  doing  which  we  shall  take 
as  an  illustration  the  temple  at  Edfou,  or  Apollinopolis 
Magna,  one  of  the  largest  in  Egypt. 

The  size  of  this  temple  is  much  moiecomprehensive,  and  its 
arrangement  much  more  complicated  than  that  of  Grecian 
structures,  for  whereas  the  latter  consisted  of  a  single  cell  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  with  external  columns,  the  former  was  com- 
posed of  several  courts,  one  within  and  beyond  the  other,  and 
having  columns  for  the  most  part  within  the  walls.  The  entrance 
to  the  whole  building  was  throtigh  a  door  placed  lietween.  and 
somewhat  in  advance  of  two  enormous  pyramidal  towers, 
termed  propyla;a,  which  rose  considerably  above  the  general 
mass  of  the  building,  and  were  covered  on  the  sides  with  sculp- 
tured figures  of  colossal  size.  The  plan  of  each  pyramid  in  this 
case  measures  104  feet  in  length  and  37  feet  in  width  at  the 
base,  the  dimensions  diminishing  gradually  to  the  summit, 
where  they  are  84  feet  by  20  feet,  the  heihgt  being  about  150 
feet.  Each  mole  is  finished  by  a  projecting  cornice,  and  is  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  bold  torus  moulding.  They  may  be 
considered  as  solid  structures,  for  although  they  contain  cham- 
bers with  their  approaches,  still  these  bear  so  small  a  propor- 
tion to  the  entire  mass,  that  they  amount  to  no  more  than 
small  voids  or  cavities.  The  colossal  entrance  between  the 
pyramids  is  crowned  with  a  cornice,  and  finished  at  the  angles 
with  a  torus-moulding  similar  to  the  propyla-a,  and  was 
probably  furnished  with  folding  doors,  as  the  notches  for 
hinges  are  still  visible.  This  door-way  gave  admission  into 
a  peristyle  court  having  twelve  columns  on  either  side,  and 
four  on  either  side  of  the  entrance  at  a  little  distance  fiom 
the  propvlcea.  The  pillars  at  the  sides  are  placed  at  some 
distance  from  a  wall,  which  ctmimences  at  the  moles  and  sur- 
rounds the  entire  temple,  and  the  space  between  this  wall  and 
the  columns  is  roofed  over,  so  as  to  form  a  covered-way  or 
piazza,  which  leads  on  either  side  to  the  doors  of  the.  stair- 
cases in  the  propyla>a,  and  is  continued  in  a  similar  m.anner  ra 
front  of  them,  on  the  entrance-side  of  the  area.  The  colon- 
nade throughout  is  picnostyle,  which  seems  to  have  been  the 


EG  V 


o54 


EG  V 


usual  »li-.|iusitii>ii,  tho  iiitercoluiiin  being  slKIoiii  greater  than 
a  tliametiT  and  a  halt"  except  in  the  centre  of  a  portico, 
wht'ie  a  doorway  intervened,  which  practice  is  identical  with 
that  of  the  Greeks,  as  evinced  in  the  Doric  order.  The 
lieiijht  of  the  coJonnade  from  the  Uase  of  the  columns  to  the 
top  of  the  projecting  cornice,  with  which  they  were  sur- 
mounted, is  ahout  38  feet.  This  court  is  not  level,  hut  has  a 
considerable  ascent  towards  the  farthest  side,  which  is  elfected 
by  a  series  of  low  and  very  wide  steps,  extending  the  whole 
width  of  the  (piadrangle,  and  commencing  at  its  entianee. 
The  width  of  each  step  is  that  of  a  column  and  inter- 
column,  and  the  total  rise  is  SO  feet.  This  alteration  of  level 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
elevation  to  the  grand  portico  «  hieli  foinis  the  liirlher  side  of 
the  court,  and  consists  of  eighteen  columns,  in  three  rows  of 
six  each,  placed  one  behind  the  other,  and  flanked  on  either 
side  by  a  wall  so  as  to  resemble  a  (ii'eek  hexaslyle  in 
amis,  with  the  exception  that  here  there  aie  three  parallel 
rows  one  behind  the  other,  while  in  Grecian  temples 
there  are  never  more  than  two.  The  portico,  iiowever.  bears  a 
greater  resemblance  to  the  propylaia  of  the  Greeks,  than  to 
their  temples,  both  being  open  in  front,  and  enclosed  on  their 
other  sides,  having  several  rows  of  columns  one  behind  the 
other.  The  columns  in  this  portico,  or  pronaos,  are  loftier 
than  those  in  the  court  below,  and  are  surmounted  like  them 
with  a  projecting  cornice.  The  spaces  between  the  front 
row  of  columns  are  fdled  up  to  about  half  their  height  with 
a  screen  or  dado,  which  gives  the  up[ier  part  of  the  inter- 
cokmm  the  ajipearaiice  of  a  window.  Tlie  miildle  intercolumn 
is  tieatcd  in  a  somewhat  ditll'rent  maniK'r,  the  wall  or  screen 
being  carried  up  somewhat  higher,  and  advanced  a  little  in 
front  of  the  general  line;  the  sides  likewise  being  flanked 
with  short  colunms,  and  the  entrance  to  the  pronaos  being 
cut  thiough  the  screen.  In  the  w^dl  at  the  further  end  of 
this  first  hall,  is  an  entrance  into  a  second  of  smaller  dimen- 
sions, a  space  being  t.aken  olf  eai-h  .side  for  passages.  This 
hall  is  hvpostyle,  covered  with  a  flat  roof  composed  of  thick 
slalis  of  stone,  resting  on  large  stone  beams,  which  are 
supported  again  by  twelve  columns  disj)osed  in  three  rows 
of  four  each,  closely  set,  so  as  to  leave  only  narrow  passages 
between  them.  From  this  hall  we  come  into  a  chamber, 
having  iis  greatest  length  in  the  width  of  the  building,  as 
also  has  the  portico,  and  having  entrances  to  the  passages 
at  the  side  of  tiiis  chamber,  and  the  hy|iostyle  liall,  from 
which  access  is  obtained  by  means  of  steps  to  the  top  of  the 
sekox.  Beyond  this  is  another  similar  chamber  of  smaller 
dimensions,  having  a  cell  on  either  siile,  supposed  to  have 
been  for  the  priests.  Entrance  is  obtained  from  this  chamber 
into  the  sanctuary,  which  is  a  snuiU  covered  chamber 
having  its  greatest  length  parallel  with  that  of  the  main 
building;  its  size  is  about  33  feet  by  17,  and  in  it  was 
-filaced  the  image  of  the  deity.  Round  the  two  sides  and 
further  end  of  the  .sanctuary,  is  a  passage,  to  which  access 
is  obtaineil  iVom  the  second  chamber,  and  round  this  again 
a  larger  area  of  .similar  sha|)e,  into  which  the  smaller  one  led, 
and  which  gave  access  to  the  top  of  the  sanctuary.  In  most 
instances,  in  front  of  the  whole  building,  and  a  short  distance 
in  advance  of  tlie  propyhea,  were  erected  two  obelisks  of 
great  height,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  and  in  front 
of  them  a  long  avenue,  or  ilrutno!:,  as  it  is  calhd,  formed  by 
two  rows  of  sphinxes,  placed  at  short  intervals  from  each 
other,  the  space  l)etween  the  two  rows  forming  a  way  or  road 
to  the  temple.  Strabo,  the  historian,  who  saw  this  temple 
we  have  been  describing,  alludes  to  this  avenue — "Before 
the  [lillars  or  pmpylxa,''  says  he,  "  is  a  paved  road  or  avenue 
about  100  feet  in  breadth,  or  sometimes  less,  and  in  length 
from  the  entrance  from  300  to  400  feet,  or  even  more.     This 


is  called  the  dromos;  through  the  whole  length  of  which, 
and  on  each  side  of  it,  sphinxes  are  regidarly  jilaced  at  the 
distance  of  30  feet  from  each  ther,  which  forms  a  double 
row  on  each  side.  Between  the  sphinxes  you  advance 
towards  the  temple,  until  you  come  to  a  large  propykunm  or 
triumphal  entrance,  through  which  you  pass;  and  as  you 
advance,  you  come  to  another  pro[>yla;um,  which  you  pass 
through;  then  to  a  third;  and  still  keep  passing  on  until 
you  come  to  the  entrance  into  the  temple." 

The  above  description,  altlujugh  of  a  particular  example, 
will  answer  with  but  little  alteration  for  any  other  temple, 
all  such  buildings  being  built  on  a  similar  plan,  w'th  but  slight 
variations  in  particular  instances.  They  all  consist  of  a 
sekns,  or  sanctuary,  of  small  dimensions,  situate  near  one 
extremity  of  the  building,  surrounded  on  all  sides  with 
chamber.s,  passages,  and  courts,  and  approached  through  a 
series  of  covered  halls  and  colonnaded  atria,  the  whole  of  the 
buildings  being  inclosed  within  an  outer  wall,  and  having 
a  grand  entrance  flanked  by  two  jnramidal  moles.  No 
matter  to  what  date  a  building  may  belong,  or  wdiat  position 
it  may  occupy,  the  general  form  is  (he  same,  the  only  difl'er- 
ence  being  in  the  size,  and  in  the  number  of  adjoining  courts 
and  fniildings.  In  some  cases,  we  have  two  or  more  pro- 
pykea,  and  courts  preceding  the  temple,  and  sometimes 
avenues  of  colunms  crossing  the  courts  in  a  line  from  the 
entrance.  The  temple  at  Luxor  has  as  many  as  three  courts, 
the  lir.-t  with  a  double  peristyle,  the  .second  with  a  double 
range  of  columns  extending  throughout  its  length,  and  the 
third  flanked  by  colonnades,  each  consisting  of  a  double  row 
of  columns.  To  give  some  idea  of  the  magnilude  of  this 
work,  we  may  add,  that  in  the  second  court,  the  columns 
were  56  feet  high,  and  1 1^  feet  in  diameter. 

We  now  jiass  on  to  consider  the  elevation  of  such  buildings 
more  in  detail.  The  contour  of  the  elevation  was  pyramidal 
throughout;  not  only  did  the  obelisks  and  propyliva  present 
this  a]i])earance,  but  even  the  walls,  spreading  out  at  the 
base,  and  ciuiverging  towards  the  apex,  and  as  these  formed 
the  external  face  of  the  building,  they  gave  the  whole  a 
pyramidal  appearance,  which  doubtless  adds  considerably 
to  the  expression  of  strength,  which  is  a  marked  characteristic 
of  the  style.  The  columns  are  the  only  parts  of  the  building 
in  which  this  form  is  not  observable,  their  profile  being  for 
the  mo.st  part  vertical.  This  is  ju-st  the  reverse  of  Grecian 
arehitectm'e  ;  for  there  the  walls  are  vertical,  and  the  Colunms 
sloping  or  coniciil,  the  general  elfect,  however,  is  the  same — 
pyramidal;  for  whereas  in  the  (Jrecian  buildings,  the  sloping 
columns  are  placed  on  the  exterior,  in  those  of  Egypt  the 
walls  are  external,  surrounding  the  upright  columns,  so  that 
the  profile  of  the  building,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  same, 
although  the  arrangement  is  reversed. 

An  Egyptian  order — if  we  may  so  apply  the  term — con- 
sists, like  the  Greek,  of  column  and  enlablature.  which  parts 
we  proceed  to  consider  separately.  Existing  remains  oli'er 
us  examples  of  columns  in  great  variety,  dillering  in  shape, 
proportions,  and  decoration,  a  few  specinu-ns  oidy  of  which 
we  can  pretend  to  notice.  The  diversity  observable  in  thiMu 
is  so  great,  that  it  would  be  futile  to  attem])t  a  detailed 
classification  ;  for  examples  which  present  similarities  of  form 
or  decoration,  difl'er  in  proportions,  while  those  agreeing  in 
the  latter  vary  in  many  other  particulars.  As  in  other  styles, 
the  column  consists  of  three  members,  base,  shaft,  and 
capital :  the  first,  however,  can  scarcely  be  termed  a  distinct 
member,  being  in  some  cases  scarcely  recognizable,  and  in 
none  forming  a  very  prominent  feature.  It  is  usually  a  plain 
circular  slab  of  stone  or  plinth,  sometimes  projecting  from 
and  at  others  flush  with  the  face  of  the  shaft,  or  of  the  same 
projection  as  the  widest  or  bulging  poi tiun  of  the  shaft,  and 


PLAN  AND  INTER115R  COUHT  OF  EGYPTIAN  TEMPJLE  AT  EDFOU. 


COURT     OF    THE     TEMPLE 


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g 

V, 


FGIPTIAN  FACADES  OF  l'OTR.TlCOS» 


PACADE    OF  AN    EGYPTIAN    TEMPLE     OF    ISIS 


HINDOO     JN'TEIilOK.  OF  A   TEMPt-E    AT    EJLLOllA 


EGY 


355 


EGY 


projectini;  forwards  somewhat  at  their  junction,  where  the 
shaft  curves  in  wards. 

The  shafts  present  many  variations,  both  in  contour  and 
decoration  ;  tiieir  most  usual  form  is  that  of  a  cylinder,  or 
more  nearly  approachipig  the  cylindrical  than  any  i>ther  figure, 
there  being  frequently  a  sliglit  difference  between  the  upper 
and  lower  diameters.  Sometimes  the  shafl  contracted 
suddenly  immediately  above  the  base,  the  contour  of  this 
portion  being  curvilinear,  and  forming  a  tangent  with  the 
upper  surface  of  the  base,  resembling  in  shape  the  calyx  of 
a  (lower,  the  similarity  to  which  is  made  the  more  remarkable 
by  the  leaves  carved  upon  its  surface.  This  last  form  can 
scarcely  be  recommended  for  its  beauty  ;  for  in  spite  of  the 
assertions  of  its  admirers,  it  certainly  does  present  an  appear- 
ance of  weakness.  It  is  said  that  in  such  cases  the  judgment 
comes  to  the  assistance  of  the  senses,  and  corrects  the  eye, 
and  that  what  is  well  known  to  be  strong,  cannot  fairly  be 
said  to  appear  weak,  and  this  is  doubtless  true  to  a  certain 
extent;  nevertheless,  speaking  abstractedly  and  artistically, 
this  form  is  decidedly  olyectionahle.  In  some  inst;»nces, 
the  columns  slope  downwards  in  a  slight  degree,  similar  to 
those  of  Greece.  The  cyliudriral  shafts  are  usually  reeded, 
giving  the  surface  the  appearance  of  a  number  of  staves  or 
reeds  placed  round  a  common  centre,  or  of  a  bundle  of  reeds, 
whence  this  kind  of  column  has  obtained  the  name  of  the 
bntidle  j)ilkir.  This  resemblance  is  borne  out  by  the  fact,  that 
such  shafts  are  usually  cinctured  at  intervals  by  bands  con- 
sisting of  three  or  more  rings,  which  gives  one  the  idea  of  a 
bundle  of  reeds  bound  round  with  reeds  or  rushes  to  preserve 
them  in  their  position.  Thise  bands  are  sometimes  of 
greater  width,  and  have  a  plain  surface,  or  one  of  the  inter- 
vals bctvveen  two  bands  is  left  blank,  which  again  is  often 
filled  up  with  hieroglyphics  or  other  ornaments.  Specimens 
of  rei'ded  shafts  of  the  diflerent  descriptions  mentioned,  are 
to  be  found  at  13eni-has-aii,  Ilermontis,  and  Latopolis,  and 
indeed  in  almost  every  locality  ;  they  are  more  prevalent 
than  any  otht-r  form.  At  other  times,  the  reeds  entirely 
disappear,  the  plain  shaft  being  divided  vertically  into  a 
number  of  compartments  as  before,  by  meatis  of  aiuiulets  or 
bands  of  reeds,  and  these  compartments  filled  in  with  hiero- 
glyphics ;  many  elaborate  examples  of  this  kind  are  to  be 
seen  at  Dendera. 

Although  cylindrical  shafls  are  by  far  the  most  general, 
yet  we  occasionally  meet  with  examples  of  a  polygonal  form, 
and  sometimes  \\  ith  plain  rectangular  piers  ;  a  remarkable 
instance  of  the  former  exists  at  a  temple  at  Eilethyas,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  few  miles  south  of  Esneh,  where, 
in  the  interior  of  a  large  vestibule,  the  whole  of  the  roof,  as 
Mr.  Barry  infiirms  us,  is  supported  on  polygonal  columns  of 
sixteen  sides.  Examples  of  the  rectauiiular  piers  are  described 
by  the  same  writer  as  existing  at  Beni-hassan. 

Instances  of  the  employment  of  Caryatid  figures  in  the 
place  of  columns  are  not  unfrequent,  they  are  placed  in  front 
of  square  piers,  and  do  not  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the 
superincumhi'nt  mass,  w hie  his  mainly  supi)orted  by  the  piers. 
Examples  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  at  Itamesseion,  Thebes, 
and  Ibsandial,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  between  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia.  The  pronaos  of  the  last-named  temple,  according 
to  Belzoni,  is  57  feet  long  and  5"2  wide,  supported  by  two  rows 
of  squar.-  pillars,  each  having  a  figure  of  Sesostris  attached  to 
it  aliout  30  feet  high,  finely  executed,  and  in  good  preservation. 
The  pillars  are  five  and  a  half  feet  square,  and  the  sides  are 
covered  with  hieroglyphics. 

Of  capitals,  Enpytian  architecture  affords  a  vast  varietj', 
widely  difli  ring  in  form  and  character.  One  prevailing  form 
is  the  bulging  or  bulbous  capital,  which  projects  from  the 
shaft  in  a  flat  curve,  but,  instead  of  continuing  to  e.xpand  as 


it  proceeds  upwards,  it  recedes  back,  gradually  diminishing  in 
thickness,  until  at  its  junction  with  the  abacus  its  diameter 
equals  that  of  the  shaft ;  the  contour  is  similar  to  that  which 
would  be  produced  by  a  slightly  yielding  body  pressed  down 
by  a  superincumbent  weight.  Sometimes  this  capit^d  exhibits 
a  plain  surface,  only  relieved  by  hieroglyphics  arranged  in 
horizontal  rings,  as  at  Kournon  ;  at  others,  it  is  divided  into 
eight  or  more  compartments,  or  shafts,  running  vertically 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  or  reedeil. 
in  which  latter  case  another  subdivision  of  shafts  frequently 
takes  place  about  half  way  up  the  capital,  or  the  shafts  are 
interrupted  by  one  or  more  horizontal  bands,  either  plain  or 
covered  with  hierogly|>hic.':,  as  at  Latopolis.  The  simple-t 
capital  of  this  kind  is  where  the  reeds  of  the  shaft  are  car- 
ried up  without  any  interruption,  with  the  exception  of  a 
band  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  underneath  the  bulge  of  the 
capital. 

Another  form  of  capital,  which  was  frequently  adnpted, 
is  the  bell-shaped,  resembling,  in  contour,  an  inverted  bell, 
and  covered  with  leaves,  (lowers,  &c.,  or  they  may  be  said  to 
resemble  the  bell  and  petals  of  a  flower,  the  upper  ritn  turn- 
ing over,  and  bending  downwards.  This  rim  was  -sometimes 
perfectly  circular,  but  at  others  divided  into  a  number  of 
convex  curves,  forming  so  many  distinct  petals.  The  lotus, 
papyrus,  and  palm  seem  to  have  been  the  favourite  plants  for 
introduction  into  this  kind  of  capital,  and  so  beautifully  were 
they  carved,  as  frequently  to  exiiibit  the  most  delic;ite  and 
minute  parts,  such  as  the  petals,  pistyles,  reeds,  &c.  Exam 
pies  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  building  ;  among  others 
we  may  mention  those  of  Ilermontis,  Latopolis,  and  Apolli- 
nopolis  Magjia,  where  there  are  some  exquisite  specimens; 
indeed,  all  the  capitals  of  this  form  are  exceedingly  delicate 
and  beautiful,  of  elegant  form,  and  chaste  enrichment.  An 
example  of  somewhat  similar  character  is  given  selected  from 
the  temple  of  Esneh,  but  in  this  case  the  contour  is  different, 
being  convex  instead  of  concave;  the  treatment,  however,  is 
similar,  and  the  design  good.  Another  capital  is  freciucntly 
introduced  in  the  greater  temples,  which  may  be  termed  a 
double  capital,  the  lowerinost  of  which  consists  of  four 
Isis'  faces,  disposed  so  as  to  form  a  square  larger  than  the 
shaft,  the  folds  of  the  head-dress  on  each  side  hanging  down, 
and  projecting  beyond  it  at  the  corners.  Above  each  face  is 
a  projecting  abacus,  with  a  concave  face,  and  standing  upon 
these,  a  square  temple,  which  forms  the  second  capital. 
Instances  are  likewise  to  be  found  of  triple  capitals,  which 
consist  of  the  last^mentioned  double  form  placed  above  one 
of  the  bell-shaped  kind.  Another  instance  of  a  double 
capital  is  given,  taken  from  the  temple  of  Typhon,  which 
consists  of  a  rectangular  b!ock  placed  u])<m  a  bell  shaped 
■  capital,  against  each  of  the  four  sides  of  which  sits  an  image 
of  the  god.  Heads  of  animals  are  sometimes  carved  in  the 
place  of  capitals,  amongst  which  are  those  of  the  bull,  which 
form  is  worthy  of  notice  as  approximating  to  the  capitals 
found  at  Persepolis.  llarely  we  find  columns  without  capitals, 
or  with  a  simple  rectangular  block,  which  is  little  better  than 
an  abacus.  The  Egyptian  abacus  varies  from  the  Grecian 
in  being  nothing  more  than  a  plain  square  plinth,  of  consi- 
derably  smaller  dimensions  than  the  capital,  and  therefore 
receding  from,  not  projecting  over,  as  in  classical  architecture ; 
indeed  ft  scarcely  forms  a  member  of  the  capital  at  all,  for,  on 
account  of  its  great  depth  behind  the  capital,  it  is  scaicely 
visible,  unless  it  be  of  extraordinary  height ;  its  purpo-u 
seems  to  be,  to  form  a  marked  division  between  the  column 
and  entablature,  and  obviate  that  heaviness  of  appearance 
which  would  otherwise  be  occasioned.  The  bulging  capitals 
form  an  exception  to  this  rule,  for  in  them  thc^  abacus  pi-ojects, 
and  overhangs  the  capital,  the  object  of  which  is  apparent 


E  U  V 


356 


KU  Y 


from  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  capital  ;   in  this   case  it  is 
usually  ornarueiited  with  hieroglyphics  or  otherwise. 

We  have  hi-re  referred  to  some  few  of  the  specimens  of 
capitals  wliich  remain,  and  but  a  few,  for  there  is  a  great 
variety,  several  of  which  may  freriueiitly  be  found  in  the 
same  building  :  and  even  in  the  same  hall,  or  other  part  of  a 
building,  may  be  seen  capitals  of  dilFerent  design  though  of 
the  same  general  appearance,  which  circumstance  is  similar 
to  that  obsf  rvable  in  Gothic  buildings.  The  proportions  vary 
in  like  manner;  they  seem  to  have  had  no  settled  rule  as  to 
design  or  proportion,  which  wore  pujcly  matters  of  individual 
taste.  The  arrangement  was  generally  picnostyle,  especially 
in  the  covered  halls,  where  they  had  to  support  large  masses 
of  stone,  which  were  used  for  rooling. 

The  design  for  the  entablature,  on  the  contrary,  seems  to 
have  been  unalterable,  for  with  the  exception  of  some  little 
diversity  in  the  ornamentation,  they  are  universally  of  the 
same  form  and  character,  and  this  is  the  case,  however  much 
buildings  may  differ  as  regards  their  columns.  It  comprises 
two  parts  only,  the  epistylium  and  the  cornice,  the  former  of 
which  was  flush  with  the  walls  underneath  at  each  end  of 
the  colonnade,  answering  to  the  Greek  antie,  with  which 
likewise  they  are  enclosed  within  a  bold  torus-moulding,  and 
present  a  similar  appearance  to  the  architrave  <jf  a  door 
being  returned  at  the  sides.  The  torus-moulding  is  a 
marked  feature  in  Egyptian  buildings,  running  up  every 
angle  of  the  building,  and  then  returning  on  both  sides  under- 
neath the  cornice.  The  architrave  is  frecpiently  plain,  some- 
times covered  with  hieroglyphics,  but  most  frecjuently  has  a 
winged  globe  over  the  entrance  in  the  centre,  w'hich  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  symbolical  of  the  deity. 

The  cornice  is  a  very  prominent  feature  in  this  style,  and 
is  introduced  as  a  crowning  or  finish  in  every  situatiim,  with 
or  without  the  architrave :  it  is  seen  at  the  entrance  of  the 
temple,  over  the  doorway  and  propyla;a  ;  within,  over  the 
colonnade  and  portico  ;  and  on  the  exterior,  crowning  the 
whole  length  of  wall.  It  consists  of  but  little  more  than  a 
deep  cove,  but  produces  a  great  and  beneficial  etfect  by  the 
bold  shadow  which  it  casts.  The  surface  is  divided  into 
panels  by  an  ornament  similar  to  the  Doric  triglyph,  or  a 
band  of  three  or  more  reeds  placed  side  by  side,  with  gene- 
rally a  narrow  interval  between  each  two  ;  when,  however, 
the  band  is  composed  of  a  greater  luimber  of  reeds,  they  are 
placed  close  together.  The  metopes  or  panels  are  filled  up 
with  some  kind  of  ornamentation.  This  formed  the  termina- 
tion of  the  building,  for  the  roof  being  flat,  there  was  no  such 
thing  as  the  pediment,  the  finishing  line  was  horizontal. 

Let  us  return  for  a  few  moments  to  the  colunm,  the  sim- 
plest form  of  which  appears  in  an  example  at  Beni-hassam,  as 
figured  by  Mr.  Barry,  and  in  reference  to  which  he  says: 

"  The  prototype  would  appear  to  have  consisted  of  four 
large  reeds  of  the  Nile,  placed  upon  an  angular  block,  and 
tied  together  by  cords  near  the  top,  forming  thereby  the 
capital.  Small  sticks  are  introduced  between  the  reeds  at  the 
place  of  ligature,  to  render  the  figure  of  a  more  circidar  form, 
and  afford  the  means  of  more  firmly  tying  the  whole 
together.  The  top  is  crowned  by  a  stjuare  abacus,  and  the 
reeds  being  thereby  confined,  the  ctRct  of  any  incumbent 
weight  upon  them  would  be  to  produce  the  form." 

A  Column  similar  to  the  above,  but  in  a  more  forw.ard  state 
of  development,  is  to  be  seen  at  the  15rilish  Museum;  it 
consists  of  double  the  number  of  reeds,  placed  together  in  the 
same  manner,  with  similar  base  and  abacus.  But  besides  the 
difference  as  to  number,  there  is  in  this  example  another 
variation  in  the  method  of  joining  shaft  and  base,  the  reeds 
in  this  case  being  turned  under  so  as  to  meet  the  base  in  a 
curve,  a  fijrm  fretpiently  adapted  in  more  elaborate  specimens. 


The  next  change  seems  to  have  been  the  introduction  of 
horizontal  bands,  which  became  requisite,  as  the  reeds 
increased  in  number,  to  hold  them  firmly  together;  in  some 
cases  we  find  several  bands,  of  one,  two,  or  more  reeds.  The 
next  stej)  was  to  leave  one  or  more  of  the  spaces  between  the 
bands  plain,  and  the  next  to  cover  it  with  hieroglyphics,  till 
at  last  we  find  all  the  divisions  of  this  description,  at  the  Tcn- 
tyris.  The  progress  of  the  capitiil  would  seem  to  have  been 
of  a  like  nature  ;  at  first  we  find  them  composed  of  the  same 
materials  as  the  shaft,  with  only  a  band  to  mark  the  scp:v 
ration,  and  a  flat  square  abacus  at  the  top.  The  capital  is, 
however,  of  a  somewhat  different  contour,  bulging  out  to- 
wards the  lower  end  or  ligature.  In  the  second  example  we 
have  adduced,  the  same  furm  is  preserved,  but  the  capital  and 
aliacus,  as  well  as  the  shaft,  are  covered  with  hieroglyphics. 
The  next  alteration  would  be  similar  to  what  took  place  in 
the  case  of  the  shaft :  the  capitals  were  divided  horizontally 
into  bands,  as  at  Latopolis,  and  these  again  ornamented  with 
hieroglyphics  as  at  Kournou. 

The  bell-and- vase-shaped  capitals  are  of  an  entirely  differ 
ent  description,  and  c<mnot  be  said  to  have  been  a  develop- 
ment of  the  above;  they  must  have  arisen  from  an  entirely 
new  adaptation  of  natural  forms ;  while  the  above  consists  of 
mere  reeds,  the  new  form  was  an  imitation  of  foliage  and 
flowers  belonging  to  that  climate — the  palm,  the  lotus, 
and  the  papyrus.  The  outline  as  well  as  the  decoration  of 
this  kind  of  capital,  deserves  the  highest  praise  for  its  taste, 
combining  as  it  does  the  admirable  properties  of  severity  and 
grace,  and  will  bear  comparison  with  the  best  examples  vf 
classic  design,  not  excepting  the  Corinthian,  to  which  it  bears 
a  very  remarkable  resemblance,  so  much  so  as  to  give  us 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Romans  were  indebted  to  Egypt 
for  the  origin  of  their  most  admired  order.  Some  specimens 
bear  a  slight  resemblance  to  the  Ionic  ;  we  may  allude  to  that 
at  Latopolis,  but  this  is  not  so  obvious,  although  we  certainly 
have  the  upper  part  of  the  Ionic  capital  with  its  volutes 
repeated  as  a  minor  decoration. 

The  square  capitals,  again,  with  a  representation  of  the 
head  of  Isis  or  other  deity  on  its  four  sides,  firm  a  third 
class,  which  seems  to  have  had  its  origin  in  symbolism,  or 
at  any  rate  in  the  mysteries  of  religion  ;  a  supposition  which 
is  in  some  measure  confirmed  by  the  usual  accompaniment 
of  a  temple. 

There  are  some  columns  to  be  seen  in  Egypt  of  a  very 
different  description  to  any  we  have  noticed,  and  to  which 
Mr.  Harry  has  allied  attention  in  a  note  appended  to 
Mr.  GwilVs  edition  of  Chambers ;  they  bear  a  marked 
resemblance  to  the  Grecian  Doric,  and  are  considered  of 
earlier  date  than  any  existing  specimen  of  that  order.  One 
illustration  representsaporticoof  two  fluted  columns  in  antis, 
the  flutes  of  wliich  are  shallow,  and  twenty  in  number,  and  the 
capital  consists  of  an  abacus  oidy  ;  the  height  of  the  column  is 
about  5^  diameters.  Another  striking  example  is  found  at  Kii- 
laptchie,  on  the  borders  of  the  .Nile,  in  w  hich,  says  ilr.  Barry, 
'•  The  abacus  is  square,  and  1 1  inches  thick ;  the  shaft,  which 
lias  a  trifling  diminution,  is  7  feet  8  inches  high,  and  3  feet 
'2  inches  diameter.  The  circumference  is  in  24  divisiuiis, 
whereof  4,  which  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  are  flat 
faces  covered  with  hiemglyphics,  and  the  other  intervening 
ones  are  sunk  into  flat  elliptical  flutes  ^inch  deep." 

Another  example  is  to  be  seen  at  Amada  in  Nubia,  but 
here  we  have  two  different  kinds  adjoining  each  other,  which 
throw  some  light  upon  the  origin  and  purport  of  sueh 
culiimns.  In  this  case  the  columns  are  but  square  piers 
with  a  slight  projection  at  top  and  bottom,  for  abacus  and 
base,  not  very  difl'ercnt  from  those  already  described,  as 
placed  behind  the  (.'aryatid  figures  at  Ipsambal ;    the  pier  at 


EX"AJtfF]LES  OF  IE  (G^ilPTIAW    CAPITA.' 


COJLUMNS 


^.OM   TEMFLE  Of  APOLLONOPLIS 


fROK  TEMT 


"7^^:^^^^ 


l-'rIOM  lEMELE  OE 


TB.OH  TE- 


rE-OM  TEiirLli    OF   npHlN 


I 


i 

1 


EGY 


357 


EGY 


the  angle,  however,  presents  a  somewhat  diflcrent  appearance, 
for  while  the  abacus  and  base  remain  as  before,  the  shaft  is 
both  circular  and  fluted,  the  rounding  of  the  angles  seeming 
to  have  been  efl'ected  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  and  the 
fluting  as  of  ornament.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  not 
unfrequent  ot'currenee  of  polygonal  shafts,  and  we  cannot 
help  thinking  that  these,  as  well  as  the  fluted  examples  just 
now  described,  find  a  common  origin  in  the  square  pier  of 
which  they  are  all  improvements.  We  are  inclined  to  coin- 
cide with  Mr.  Barry  in  the  following  remarks  : — "  The 
general  resemblance  of  the  fluted  columns  to  those  of  the 
Grecian  Doric  order,  is  manifest,  and,  in  addition  to  many 
other  remarkable  indications  in  the  Egyptian  temple,  clearly 
points  to  Egypt  as  the  source  of  both  Greek  and  Komau 
architecture."     See  Doric  Order,  Column. 

Having  now  laid  before  the  reader  a  general  description 
of  the  elementary  parts  and  details  of  Egyptian  architecture, 
as  well  as  of  the  usual  form  and  distribution  of  their  temples, 
it  is  oin-  intention  to  give  some  more  particular  account  of 
the  more  noted  erections,  and,  in  following  out  this  scheme, 
wc  cannot  do  better  than  give  the  accounts  of  the  various 
authorities  in  their  own  words. 

The  principal  remains  are  to  be  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  in 
the  cities  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  but  the  s[)ot  in 
which  they  are  most  numerous  and  imposing,  is  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Thebes.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  larger 
temples  : — 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  at  Karnac ;  of  Jupiter  Amnion  ;  of 
Apollo,  at  Apollinopolis  Magna  ;  of  Osiris,  at  Tentyra;  of 
Venus  ;  of  ITiebais,  .at  Knubis.  Temples  at  Luxor,  Den- 
dera,  EdR>u,  Esneh,  or  Latopolis,  HermopoIis,Ombos,Syene, 
Queron,  Ipsambul  ;  Caryatic  temple,  at  Rhamesseion,  and 
various  temples  in  the  islands  of  Philoe  and  Elephantina. 
In  addition  to  which,  we  have  the  tombs  and  pyramids,  the 
labyrinth,  and  various  monuments,  obelisks,  and  other^solated 
works. 

We  have  already  stated,  that  the  grandest  monuments  are 
to  be  found  at  Thebes,  and,  of  such,  those  of  Karnac  and 
Luxor  take  the  pre-eminence  ;  they  form  two  separate  erec- 
tions, but  are  connected  together  by  a  long  avenue  of 
sphinxes,  as  hereafter  mentioned.  We  select  these  two  as 
subjects  for  the  first  desci  iption,  the  authorities  being  Denon 
and  Wilkinson. 

For  a  general  description  of  the  temple  at  Karnac,  we 
shall  refer  to  the  French  traveller,  M.  Denon,  who,  writing 
at  the  latter  end  of  the  la>t  century  (1798-9),  says:  — 

"It  is  the  sumptuousness  alone  of  the  Egyptians  which  is 
to  be  seen  at  Kainac,  where  not  only  quarries,  but  moun- 
tains, are  piled  together,  and  hewn  out  into  massive  propor- 
tions, the  traits  of  which  are  as  feebly  executed,  as  the  parts 
are  clum>ily  connected  ;  and  these  masses  are  loaded  with 
uncouth  bas-reliefs  and  tasteless  hieroglyphics,  by  which  the 
art  of  sculpture  is  disgraced.  The  only  objects  there  which 
are  sublime,  both  with  regard  to  their  dimensions  and  the 
skill  which  their  workmanship  displays,  are  the  obelisks,  and 
a  few  of  the  ornaments  of  the  outer  gates,  the  style  of  which 
is  admirably  chaste.  If  in  the  other  parts  of  this  edifice  the 
Egyptians  appear  to  us  to  be  giants,  in  these  latter  proiluc- 
tions  the\  are  geiiiuses.  I  am  accordingly  persuaded  that 
these  sul.>inK>  enjbellishments  were  posteriorly  added  to  the 
coK.ssal  m»»ijuments  of  Karnac.  It  mu^t,  however,  be  granted, 
that  the  phn  of  the  temple  is  noble  and  grand.  .  .  To 
the  known  descriptions  of  this  great  edifice  of  Karnac  should 
be  added,  that  it  was  but  a  temple,  and  could  be  nothing 
else.  All  that  exi>ts  at  present,  in  a  somewhat  entire  state, 
relates  to  a  very  small  sanctuary,  and  had  been  disposed  in 
this  way  to  inspire  a  due  degree  of  veueratii)n,  and  to  become 


a  kind  of  tabernacle.  On  beholding  the  vast  extent  of  these 
ruins,  the  imagination  is  wearied  with  the  idea  of  describing 
them.  Of  the  100  coluinns  of  the  portico  alone  of  this 
temple,  the  smallest  are  7^  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  largest 
12.  The  space  occupied  by  its  circumvallation  contains 
lakes  and  mountains.  In  short,  to  be  enabled  to  form  a 
competent  idea  of  so  much  magnificence,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  reader  should  fancy  what  is  before  him  to  be  a  dream, 
as  he  who  views  the  objects  themselves  rubs  his  eyes  to 
know  whether  he  is  awake.  With  respect  to  the  present 
state  of  this  edifice,  it  is,  however,  necessary,  at  the  same 
time,  to  observe,  that  a  great  part  of  the  effect  is  lost  by  its 
very  degraded  state.  The  sphinxes  have  been  wantonly 
mutilated,  with  a  few  exceptions,  which  barbarism,  wearied 
with  destroying,  has  spared,  and,  on  examining  which,  it  is 
easy  to  distinguish,  that  some  of  them  had  a  woman's  head, 
others  that  of  a  lion,  a  ram,  a  bull,  &c." 

For  the  following  more  particular  description  of  this 
temple,  we  are  indebted  to  Sir  I.  G.  Wilkinson. 

"  The  principal  entrance  of  the  grand  temple  lies  on  the 
north-west  si-de,  or  that  fiicing  the  river.  From  a  raised 
platform  cominences  the  avenue  of  Criosphinxes,  leading  to 
the  front  propyla,  before  which  stood  two  granite  statues  of 
a  Pharaoh.  One  of  these  towers  retains  a  great  part  of  its 
original  height,  but  has  lost  its  summit  and  cornice.  In  the 
upper  part,  their  solid  walls  have  been  perforated  through 
their  whole  breadth,  for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  timbers 
that  secured  the  flag-staffs  usually  placed  in  front  of  these 
propyla ;  but  no  sculptures  have  ever  been  added  to  either 
face,  nor  was  the  surface  yet  levelled  to  receive  them. 
Passing  through  the  pylon  of  these  towers,  you  arrived  at  a 
large  open  court,  ^75  feet  by  329,  with  a  covered  corridor 
on  either  side,  and  a  double  line  of  columns  down  the  centre. 
Other  propyla  terminate  this  area  with  a  small  vestibule 
before  the  pylon,  and  form  the  front  (jf  the  grand  hall,  170 
feet  by  329,  supported  by  a  central  avenue  of  12  massive 
columns,  06  feet  high  (without  the  pedestal  and  abacus), 
and  12  hi  diameter;  besides  122  of  smaller,  or  rather  less 
gigantic  dimensions,  41  feet  9  inches  in  height,  and  27  feet 
6  inches  in  circumference,  distributed  in  seven  lines  on  either 
side  of  the  former.  Other  propyla  close  the  inner  extremity 
of  this  hall,  beyond  which  are  two  obelisks,  one  still  standing 
on  its  original  site,  the  other  having  been  thrown  down  and 
broken  by  human  violence.  A  small  propylon  succeeds  to 
this  court,  of  which  it  forms  the  inner  side;  the  next  con- 
tains two  obelisks  of  larger  dimensions,  lieing  92  feet  high 
and  8  square,  surrounded  by  a  peristyle,  if  I  may  be  allowed 
the  expression,  of  Osiride  figures.  Passing  between  two 
dilapidated  propyla,  you  enter  another  smaller  area,  orna- 
mented in  a  similar  manner,  and  succeeded  by  a  vestibule, 
in  front  of  the  granite  gateway  of  the  pyramidal  towers, 
which  form  the  facade  of  the  court  of  the  sanctuary.  Tliis 
last  is  also  of  red  granite,  divided  into  two  apartments,  and 
surrounded  by  numerous  chambers  of  small  dimensions, 
varying  from  29  feet  by  10,  to  16  feet  by  8.  A  few  poly- 
gonal columns,  of  the  early  date  of  Osirtcsen  I.,  the  contem- 
porary of  Joseph,  appear  l)chind  these  in  the  midst  of  fallen 
architraves  of  the  same  era,  and  two  pedestals  of  red  granite 
crossing  the  line  of  direction  in  the  centre  of  the  open  space 
to  the  south-east,  are  the  only  objects  woithy  of  notice,  until 
you  reach  the  column  or  edifice  of  the  third  Thothiues.  The 
exterior  wall  of  this  building  is  entirely  destroyed,  except 
on  the  north-east  side;  to  it  succeeds  a  circuit  of  thirty-two 
pillars,  and  within  this  square  are  twenty  columns,  di-posed  in 
two  lines,  parallel  to  the  outer  walls,  and  to  the  back  and 
front  row  of  pillars.  Independent  of  the  irregular  position  of 
the  latter  with  regard  to  the  columns  of  the  centre,  an  unusual 


EG  Y 


358 


EGY 


Ciiprice  has  changed  the  established  order  of  the  iirchitoctural 
details,  and  capitals  and  cornices  are  reversed,  without  adding 
to  the  beauty  or  increasing  the  stiength  of  the  building.  A 
series  of  smaller  halls  and  chambers  terminates  tin-  extremity 
of  the  temple,  one  of  which  is  remaikable  as  containing  the 
names  of  the  early  predecessors  of  Thothines  111.,  their 
founder.  In  the  western  lateral  adytum  are  the  vestiges  of 
a  colossal  hawk  seated  on  a  raised  pedestal ;  the  sculptures 
within  and  without  containing  the  name  of  Ale.\andor,  by 
whose  order  this  was  repaired  and  sculptured. 

"  The  total  dimensions  of  this  part  of  the  temple  behind 
the  inner  propyla  of  the  grand  hall,  are  COO  feet,  by  about 
half  that  in  breadth,  making  the  total  length,  from  the  front 
propyla  to  the  extremity  of  the  wall  of  circuit,  inclusive, 
1,180  feet.  The  additions  made  at  ditl'erent  periods,  by 
which  the  distant  portions  of  this  extensive  mass  of  build- 
ings were  united,  will  be  more  readily  understood  from  an 
examination  of  the  survey  itself  than  from  any  description, 
however  detailed,  I  could  otllr  to  the  reader;  and  from  this 
it  will  appear  that  Diodorous  is  fully  justified  in  the  follow- 
ing statement:  that  'the  circuit  of  the  most  ancient  of  the 
four  temples  at  Thebes  measured  thirteen  stadia,'  or  about 
one  mile  and  two-thirds  English;  the  thickness  of  the  walls, 
'  of  25  feet,'  owing  to  the  great  variety  in  their  dimensions, 
is  too  vague  to  be  noticed;  but  the  altitude  of  the  building, 
to  which  he  allows  only  45  cubits,  falls  far  ^hort  of  the  real 
height  of  the  grand  hall,  which,  from  the  pavement  to  the 
summit  of  the  roof,  inclusive,  is  not  less  than  80  feet." 

The  next  description  of  Luxor  is  from  the  same  writer: — 

"  Luqsor,  which  occupies  part  of  the  site  of  ancient 
Diospolis,  still  holds  the  rank  of  a  market-town,  the  residence 
of  a  Ivashef,  and  head-ijuarlers  of  a  troop  of  Turkish  cavalry. 
Its  name  signifies  the  Palaces,  and  some  might  perhaps  feel 
inclined  to  trace  in  that  of  El  Qasrwi,  or  El  Ut)sora\n,  (the 
dual  of  the  word  Qasr,)  by  which  it  is  sometimes  designated, 
the  existence  of  the  two  distinct  parts  of  this  building, 
erected  by  Amunoph  III.  and  Renieses  II.  The  former 
monarch,  who,  at  the  time  of  its  foundation,  appears  to 
have  reigned  conjointly  with  his  brother,  built  the  original 
sanctuary  and  circumjacent  chambers,  with  the  addition  of 
the  large  colonnade  and  ]iylon  before  it,  to  which  Kemtfses  II. 
afterwards  added  the  great  court,  the  pyramidal  towers,  or 
propyla,  and  the  obelisks  and  statues. 

"These,  though  last  in  the  order  of  antitpiity,  necessarily 
form  the  present  commencement  of  the  temple,  which,  like 
many  others  belonging  to  different  epo('hs,  is  not  '  two  sepa- 
rate edifices,'  but  one  and  the  same  building.  A  dromos, 
Cuunecling  it  with  Karnak,  extended  in  front  of  the  two 
beautiful  obelisks  of  red  granite,  whose  four  sides  are  covered 
with  a  profusion  of  hieroglyphics,  no  less  admiralde  for  the 
style  of  their  execution,  than  for  the  depth  to  which  they  are 
engraved,  which  in  many  instances  exceeds  two  inches. 

"Two  sitting  statues  of  the  same  Kemeses  are  placed 
behind  these,  one  on  either  side  of  the  pylon  ;  but,  like  the 
obelisks,  arc  much  buried  in  the  earth  and  sand  accumulated 
around  ihenr.  Near  the  north-west  extremity  of  the  propyla, 
another  similar  colossus  rears  its  head  amidst  the  hoiisrs  of 
the  village,  which  also  conceal  a  great  portion  of  the  inter- 
esting battle-scenes  on  the  front  of  these  tower.s.  At  the 
doorway  itself  is  the  name  of  Sabaco,  and  on  the  abacus  of 
the  columns  beyond,  that  of  Ptolemy  I'hilopater,  bi>th  added 
at  a  later  epoch. 

"  The  area,  whose  dimensions  are  about  190  feet  by  170,  is 
surrounded  by  a  peristyle,  consisting  of  two  rows  of  columns, 
now  almost  concealed  by  the  hovels  and  niosk  of  the  village. 
The  line  of  direction  no  longer  continues  the  same  behind 
this  court,  the  Remessean  front  having  been  turned  to  the 


ea-tward,  in  order  to  fvuilitate  its  connection  w  ith  the  great 
temple  of  Karnak,  ralher  than  to  avoid  the  vicinity  of  the 
river,  as  might  at  first  be  supposed. 

"  Passing  through  the  pylon  of  Amunoph  you  arrive  at 
the  great  colonnade,  where  the  names  ol'  this  Pharaoh  and 
his  brother  are  sculptured.  The  latter,  however,  has  been 
effaced,  probably  by  order  of  the  surviving  mcmarch,  as  is 
generally  the  case  wherever  it  is  met  with,  and  those  of  the 
immediate  successor  of  Amunoph  III.  and  of  Osirci  aie 
introduced  in  its  stead. 

"The  length  of  the  colonnade  to  the  next  court  is  about 
170  feet,  but  its  original  breadth  is  still  uncertain,  nor  can 
it  be  ascertained  without  considerable  e.xcavation.  To  this 
succeeds  an  area  of  155  feet  by  1G7  surrounded  by  a  peristyle 
of  12  columns  in  length  and  the  same  in  breadth,  terminat- 
ing in  a  covered  portico  of  32  colunms  57  feet  by  111. 

"  Behind  this  is  a  space  occupying  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  building,  divided  into  chambers  of  different  dimensions, 
the  centre  one  leading  to  a  hall  supported  by  4  columns,  im- 
mediately before  the  entrance  to  the  isolated  sanctuary. 

"  On  the  east  of  this  hall  is  a  chamber  containing  some 
curious  scul()ture,  representing  the  accouchement  of  queen 
Maut-m-shoi,  the  mother  of  Amunoph  and  his  brother  ;  the 
two  (-hildren  nursed  by  the  deity  of  the  Nile,  and  presented 
to  Amuii,  the  presiding  divinity  of  Thebes;  and  several  other 
subjects  relating  to  their  education  and  subsequent  history. 

"  The  sanctuary,  w  hich  had  lieen  destroyed  by  the  Persians, 
was  rebuilt  by  Alexander  (the  son  of  Alexander,  Ptolemy 
being  governor  of  Kgypt,)  and  bears  his  name  in  the  follow- 
ing dedicatory  formula: 

" '  This  additional  work  made  he,  the  king  of  men,  lord  of 
the  regions,  Alexander,  for  his  father  Amunre.  president  of 
Tape  (i'hebes;)  he  erected  to  him  the  sanctuary,  a  grand, 
mansion,  with  repairs  of  sand-stone,  hewn,  good,  and  hard 
stone,  Bistead  of  his majesty,  the  king  of  men,  Amu- 
noph.' Behind  the  sanctuary  are  two  other  sets  of  apart- 
ments, the  larger  ones  supported  by  columns,  and  ornamented 
with  rich  sculpture,  much  of  which  appears  to  have  been 
gilded. 

"  Behind  the  temple  is  a  stone  quay,  of  the  late  era  of  the 
Ptolemies  or  Cajsars,  since  blocks  bearing  the  sculpture  of 
the  former  have  been  used  in  its  construction.  Opposite  the 
corner  of  the  temple,  it  takes  a  more  easterly  direction,  and 
points  out  the  original  course  of  the  river,  which  continued 
across  the  plain  now  lying  between  it  and  the  ruins  of  Kar- 
nak, and  which  may  be  traced  by  the  descent  of  the  surface 
of  that  ground  it  gradually  deserted.  The  southern  e.x- 
treniity  of  this  quay  is  of  brick,  and  indicates  in  like  maimer 
the  former  diieetion  of  the  stream,  w  hich  now,  having  formed 
a  recess  behind  it,  threatens  to  sweep  away  the  whole  of  its 
solid  masonry,  and  to  undermine  the  foundations  of  the 
temple  itself. 

The  road  to  Karnak  lies  through  fields  of  A«{/£A  indicating 
the  site  of  ancient  ruins,  and  here  and  there,  on  approaching 
that  magnificent  building,  the  direction  of  the  avenue,  and 
the  fragments  of  its  sphinxes,  are  traced  in  the  bed  of  a  small 
canal,  or  watercourse,  which  the  Nile,  during  the  inundation, 
appropriates  to  its  rising  stream.  To  this  succeeds  another 
diomos  of  Criosphinxes,  and  a  majestic  pylon  of  Ptolemy 
Eiiergetes,  with  his  queen  and  sixtei-  Berenice,  who  in  one 
instance  [)resent  an  oll'ering  to  their  predecessors  and  parents, 
Philadelphus  and  Arsinoe.  In  one  of  the  compartments 
within  the  doorway,  the  king  is  represented  in  a  Greek 
costume,  of  which  there  are  some  other  instances  in 
Ptolemaic  ruins.  Another  avenue  of  sphinxes  extends  to 
the  jiropylaofthe  isolated  temple  behind  this  gateway,  which 
wasl'ounded  by  l!eme»es  IV., and  continued  by  Kemeses  VLLL, 


EGY 


359 


EGY 


and  a  late  Pharaoh,  who  added  the  hypa-thral  area  and  the 
propvla.  His  iianu',  and  the  exact  era  at  which  he  ttoiirishcd, 
are  not  preciseiv  ascertained  ;  but  it',  as  is  very  probable,  we 
are  aiithorizi'd  to  read  liocchoris,  this  part  will  date  in  the 
time  of  the  twentv-l'ourth  dynasty,  or  abnut  810  B.C.  Other 
names  appear  in  ditVerent  parts  of  the  buildini;,  among  which 
are  those  t)f  Amyrtens  and  Alexander  on  the  inner  and  outer 
gate«a\s  of  the  area." 

Having  made  this  digression  in  favour  of  Karnac  and 
Luxor,  we  will  now  continue  our  descriptions,  taking  inu' 
examples  in  geographical  order,  commencing  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  rj)ptii'  Egypt,  and  travelling  southwards.  The 
first  remains  of  which  we  have  any  notice  are  those  of 
llermopolis  Magna,  but  they  are  little  better  than  mounds 
of  ruins,  the  portico  described  by  Denon  having  been 
demolished.  This  portico  was  of  great  merit,  and  consisted 
of  twelve  columns  in  two  rows  of  six  each,  surmounted  with 
cornice  and  entablature.  The  next  place  we  arrive  at  is 
Dendera,  the  ancient  Tentyris,  which  contains  ruins  of 
several  temi)les.  The  following  account  is  given  by 
Wilkinson. 

•■  The  name  of  Tentyris.  or  Tentyra,  (in  Coptic  Tentore,  or 
Nikentore.)  seems  to  have  originated  in  that  of  the  goddess 
Alhciror  ApliKidite,  who  was  particularly  worshipped  there; 
and  that  the  principal  temple  was  dedicated  to  that  goddess,  we 
learn  from  the  hieroglyphics,  as  well  as  from  a  Greek  inscription 
of  the  time  of  Tiberius,  iu  whose  reign  its  magnificent  portico 
was  added  to  the  original  building.  Egyptian  sculpture  had 
long  been  on  the  decline  before  the  erection  of  this  temple  ; 
and  the  Egyptian  antiquary  looks  with  little  satisfaction  on 
the  graceless  style  of  the  figures,  and  the  crowded  profu- 
sion of  ill-adjusted  hieroglyphics,  that  cover  the  walls  of 
Ptolemaic  and  Roman  monuments;  but  architecture  still 
retained  the  grandeur  of  an  earlier  period  ;  and  though  the 
capitals  of  the  colunms  were  frequently  overcharged  with 
ornament,  the  general  eflect  of  the  porticos  erected  under  the 
Ptolemie-i  and  Csesjirs,  is  grand  and  imposing,  and  frequently 
not  destitute  of  elegance  and  taste.  The  same  lemarks  apply 
to  the  temple  of  Dendera;  and  from  its  superior  state  of 
preservation,  it  deserves  a  distinguished  rank  among  the  most 
intei'esting  moiuunents  of  Egypt.  For  though  its  columns, 
considered  singly,  may  be  said  to  have  a  heavy,  and  perhaps 
a  grotesque,  appearance,  the  portico  is*  doubtless  a  noble 
specimen  of  architecture  ;  nor  is  the  succeeding  hall  devoid 
of  beauty  and  symmetry  of  proportion.  On  the  ceiling  of  the 
proKuos,  or  portico,  is  the  Zodiac,  which  has  led  to  much 
learned  controversy,  and  which  has  at  length,  through  the 
assistance  of  the  Greek  inscription,  and  the  hieioglyphieal 
names  of  the  Caesars  that  cover  its  exterior  and  interior  walls, 
been  confined  to  the  more  modest  and  probable  antiquity  of 
eighteen  hundred  years. 

"  The  details  of  the  cornice  offer  a  very  satisfactory 
specimen  of  the  use  of  iriglyphic  ornament,  which  is  common 
in  many  of  the  oldest  Pharaohnic  temples,  though  arranged  in 
a  somewhat  different  manner,  and  without  so  remarkable  a 
metope  as  in  the  present  instance. 

"  On  the  frieze,  or  rather  architrave,  is  a  procession  to 
Athor,  and  among  the  figures  thatcotnpose  it  are  two  playing 
the  harp,  and  another  with  the  tambourine.  The  inscription 
is  on  the  projecting  summit  of  the  cornice,  and  commences 
with  the  name  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  Those  of  Aulus 
Avillius  Flaccu^i,  the  military  governor  or  prefect,  and 
Aulus  Fidunus  Crispus,  commander  of  the  forces,  though 
purposely  erased,  are  still  traced  when  the  sim  strikes 
obliquely  on  the  surface  of  the  stone;  but  the  date  of  the 
emperor's  reign  is  luilortunatelv  lost. 

"'Ihe  small  plaidsphere  which  was  in  one  of  the  lateral 


chambers  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  temple,  and  behind 
the  pronaos,  has  been  removed  to  France,  and  from  its 
position  it  probably  dated  ar  tew  years  before  the  Zodiac. 
Numerous  are  the  names  of  Cajsars  in  this  temple.  In 
the  jiortico  may  be  distinguished  those  of  Til)erius,  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero,  and  on  the  former  front  of  the  temple, 
now  the  back  of  the  pronaos,  are  those  of  Augustus  and 
Caligula.  This  was  in  fact  the  (U'iginal  extent  of  the  build- 
ing, and  it  was  previous  to  the  addition  of  Uie  portico  that  it 
was  seen  by  Strabo. 

"The  oldest  names  are  of  Ptolemy  Caesarion,  or  Neo- 
cresar,  and  Cleopatra,  who  are  represented  on  the  back 
wall  of  the  exterior;  and  it  is  pix)bable  that  the  whole  naos 
was  the  work  of  the  Ptolemies,  though  the  sculptures  remained 
unfinished  till  the  reign  of  Tiiierius,  who,  ha\ing  erected  the 
portico,  added  many  of  the  hieroglyphics  on  the  exterior 
walls. 

"The  portico  is  supported  by  twenty-four  columns,  and 
is  open  at  the  front,  above  the  screens  that  unite  its  sLx 
colimins ;  and   in  each  of  the  side-walls  is  a  small  doorway. 

"To  this  succeeds  a  hall  of  six  columns,  with  three  rooms  on 
either  side  ;  then  a  central  chamber,  communicating  on  one 
side  with  two  small  rooms,  and  on  the  other  with  a  staircase. 
This  isft)llowed  Ijy  another  similar  chaniber  (with  two  rooms 
on  the  west,  and  one  on  the  east  side)  immediately  before  the 
isolateil  sanctuary,  which  has  a  passage  leading  round  it,  and 
communicating  with  three  rooms  on  cither  side.  The  total 
length  of  tliis  tftnple  is  93  paces  (or  about  220  feet,)  by  41, 
or,  across  the  portico,  50. 

"In  front  of  the  temple  was  the  dromos,  extending  for  the 
distance  of  110  paces  to  an  isolated  pylon,  bearing  the  names 
of  Domitian  and  Trajan.  The  attributes  of  Athor  through- 
out this  building  very  much  resemble  those  of  Isis  ;  and  she 
is  in  like  manner  represented  nursing  the  young  child  Ilarpo- 
crates,  who  is  said,  in  the  hieroglyphics,  to  be  the  'son  of 
Athor.' 

" '  Behind  the  temple  of  Venus,'  says  Strabo,  '  is  the 
chapel  of  Isis  :'  and  this  observation  agrees  remarkably  well 
with  the  size  and  position  of  the  small  temple  of  that 
goddess;  as  it  consists  merely  of  one  central  and  two  lateral 
adyta,  and  a  transverse  chamber  or  corridor  in  front,  and 
stands  immediately  behind  the  south-west  angle  of  that  of 
Athor.  To  it  belonged  the  pylon  that  lies  ITO  paces  to  the 
eastward,  and  which,  as  we  learn  from  a  Greek  inscription  on 
either  face  of  its  cornice,  was  dedicated  to  Isis,  in  the  thirty- 
first  year  of  Csesar  (Augustus) ;  Publius  Octavius  Ijeing 
militaiy  governor  or  prefect,  and  Marcus  Claudius Posthnmus, 
commander  of  the  forces,  in  the  hieroglyphics,  besides  the 
name  of  Augustus,  are  those  of  Claudius  and  Nero. 

"  Ninety  paces  to  the  north  of  the  great  temple  of  Athor 
is  another  building,  consisting  of  two  outer  passage-chambers, 
with  two  small  rooms  on  either  side  of  the  outermost  one, 
and  a  central  and  two  lateral  adyta,  the  whole  surrounded, 
except  the  front,  by  a  peristyle  of  twenty-two  columns.  The 
capitals,  ornamented  or  disfigured  by  the  representation  of  a 
Typhonian  monster,  have  led  to  the  sup[>osition  that  this  temple 
was  dedicated  to  the  evil  genius;  but  as  the  whole  of  its 
sculptuies  refer  to  the  birth  of  Ilarpocrates,  it  is  evident 
that  it  appertains  to  the  great  temple  of  Athor,  who  is  here 
styled  his  mother  ;  and  it  may  be  said  rather  to  be  dedicated 
to  Ilarpocrates  than  to  Typhon,  who  is  only  introduced  in 
a  subordinate  character,  as  relating  to  the  young  deity.  The 
names  are  of  Traj;m,  Adrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius. 

"  Aro\nid  these  buildings  extends  a  spacious  enclosure  of 
crude  brick,  about  240  paces  sqnare,  having  two  entrances, 
one  at  the  pylon  of  Isis,  the  other  at  that  before  the  great 
temple. 


EGY 


360 


EGY 


"  About  2'jO  paces  in  front  of  the  pylon  of  Athor  is  an 
isolated  ii_vp;tthral  V)uilding  consisting  of  fourteen  columns, 
united  by  intiTcokunnar  screens,  witli  a  doorway  at  either 
end  ;  and  a  short  distance  to  tiie  south  is  the  apjiearanee  of  an 
ancient  reservoir.  A  little  to  the  north-east  of  it  are  other 
remains  of  masonry  ;  but  the  rest  of  the  extensive  mounds 
of  Tetityrls  present  merely  the  ruins  of  crude  brick  houses, 
many  of  wliieli  are  of  Arab  date. 

'■Five  hundred  paces  east  of  the  pylon  of  Isis  is  another 
crude  brick  enclosure,  with  an  entrance  of  stone  similar  to 
the  other  pylons,  bearing  the  name  of  Antoninus  Pius.  Over 
the  face  of  the  gateway  is  a  singular  representation  <if  the 
sun,  with  its  sacred  emblem  the  hawk,  supported  by  Isis  and 
Nephthys.  This  enclosure  is  about  li)5  paces  by  205,  and  at 
the  south-east  corner  is  a  well  of  stagnant  water. 

'■  The  town  stood  between  this  and  the  enclosure  of  the 
temples,  and  extended  on  either  side,  as  well  as  within  the 
circuit  of  the  latter ;  but  on  the  north-west  side  appear  to 
be  the  vestiges  of  tombs. 

"  Between  the  town  and  the  edge  of  the  sandy  plain  to  the 
south,  is  a  low  channel,  which  may  once,  have  been  a  canal  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  to  this  that  the  Tentyrites 
owed  their  insular  situation  mentioned  by  Pliny." 

We  next  arrive  at  Kous,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Apollino- 
polis  Parva,  but  the  oidy  distinguishable  remains  of  the 
temple  there  consist  of  a  large  gate;  proceeding  therefore 
southward,  we  arrive  at  Tiiebes,  the  temples  of  which  we 
have  already  described.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
hOAever,  we  have  several  buildings  worthy  of  note,  of  wliich 
the  first  is  that  of  Qorneh  or  Kurnu,  of  which  Wilkinson 
speaks  thus  : — 

"  To  commence  with  the  ruins  nearest  the  river : — the  first 
object  worthy  of  notice  is  the  small  temple  and  palace  at  old 
Qorneh,  dedicated  to  Amun,  the  Theban  Jupiter,  by 
Osirei,  and  completed  by  his  son  Remeses  II.,  the  supposed 
Sesostris  of  the  Greeks.  Its  plan,  though  it  evinces  the 
usual  symmetrophobia  of  Egyptian  monuments,  presents  a 
marked  deviation  from  the  ordinary  distribution  of  the  parts 
which  compose  it.  The  entrance  leads  through  a  pylone, 
or  pylon,  bearing,  in  addition  to  the  name  of  the  founder, 
that  of  Remeses  III.,  beyond  which  is  a  dromos  of  128  feet, 
whose  mutilated  sphinxes  are  scarcely  traceable  amidst  the 
mounds  and  ruins  of  Arab  hovels.  A  second  pylon  termi- 
nates this,  and  cominencc's  a  second  dromos  of  nearly  similar 
length,  extending  to  the  colonnade  or  corridor  in  front  of  the 
temple,  whose  columns  of  one  of  the  oldest  Egyptian  orders 
are  crowned  by  an  abacus,  which  :i]ipears  to  unite  the  stalks 
of  waterplants  that  compose  the  shaft  and  capital. 

"  Of  the  intercolumniations  of  these  ten  columns,  three 
only  agree  in  breadth,  and  a  similar  discrepancy  is  observed 
in  the  doorways  which  form  the  three  entrances  to  the 
building.  The  temple  itself  presents  a  central  hall  about 
fiftj'-seven  feet  in  length,  supported  by  six  columns,  having 
on  either  side  three  small  chambers,  one  of  which  leads  to 
a  lateral  hall,  and  the  opposite  one  to  a  passage  and  open 
court  on  the  cast  side.  Upon  the  upper  end  of  the  hall  open 
five  other  chambers,  the  centre  one  of  which  leads  to  a  large 
room  supported  by  four  square  pillars,  beyond  which  was  the 
sanctuary  itself;  but  the  dilapidated  state  of  the  north  end 
of  ttiis  temple  alVords  but  little  to  enable  us  to  form  an  accu- 
rate restoration  of  the  innermost  chambers.  The  lateral  hall 
on  the  west,  which  belonged  to  the  palace  of  the  king,  is 
supported  by  two  columns,  and  leads  to  three  either  rooms, 
behind  which  are  the  vestiges  of  other  apartments;  and  on 
the  east  side,  besides  a  large  hypcethral  court,  were  several 
similar  chambers  extending  also  to  the  northern  extremity  of 
its  nrecincts." 


The  next  building  that  attracts  our  notice  is  the  Memno- 
nium,  and  tomb  of  Osmandyas,  of  which  ancient  authors  have 
given  us  such  wonderful  accounts;  we  give  that  of  Diodorus 
8iculus  : — 

"  Ten  stadia  from  the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Thebes,"  savs 
this  historian,  '"  one  admires  that  of  Osiinondue.  The  I'ntrance 
to  it  is  formed  by  a  vestibule  built  with  various-coloured 
stones.  It  is  200  feet  long  and  08  in  elevation.  On  coming; 
thi'uce  one  enters  under  a  scpuire  peristyle,  each  side  of  which 
is  400  feet  long.  Animals  tbrmed  of  blocks  of  granite  24 
feet  high,  serve  as  columns  to  it,  and  support  the  ceiling, 
which  is  composed  of  squares  of  nuirble  of  27  feet  every 
w'ay.  Stars  of  gold,  upon  an  azuri>  groinid,  shine  there  the 
whole  length  of  it.  Beyond  this  peristyle  opens  another 
entry,  followed  by  a  vestibule  built  like  the  former,  but 
more  loaded  with  all  sorts  of  sculpture.  Before  it  are  three 
statues  formed  of  single  stones,  and  hewn  by  Menmon 
Syenite.  The  principal  one,  which  rejiresents  the  king,  is 
seated.  It  is  the  largest  in  Egypt;  one  of  his  feet,  accurately 
measured,  exceeds  seven  cubits.  The  two  others,  borne  on 
his  knees,  one  on  the  right,  the  other  on  the  left,  are  those  of 
his  mother  and  his  daughter.  The  whole  work  is  less  remark- 
alile  for  its  enormous  size,  than  for  the  beauty  of  the  execu- 
tion and  the  choice  of  the  granite,  wiiich  in  so  extensive 
a  surface  has  neither  spot  nor  blemish.  The  colossus  has  this 
inscription: — 'lam  Osimondue,  ihe  K'ukj  of  Kiiifja ;  if  any 
one  wishes  to  know  hoiv  great  I  am,  and  where  J  repose,  let 
him  destroi/  some  of  these  works.''  Besides  this,  we  see  aiU)ther 
statue  of  his  mother,  cut  out  of  a  single  block  of  granite, 
and  30  feet  high.  Three  queens  are  sculptured  on  the 
head,  to  show  that  she  was  daughter,  wife,  and  mother, 
of  a  king. 

"  At  the  end  of  this  portico,  one  enters  into  a  peristyle 
more  beautiful  than  the  former.  On  a  stone  is  engraved 
the  history  of  the  war  of  Osiinondue  against  the  revolted 
inhabitants  of  Bactria.  The  facade  of  the  front  wall  shows 
this  prince  attacking  ramparts,  at  the  foot  of  which  riuis 
a  river.  He  combats  advanced  troops,  having  by  his  side  a 
terrible  lion,  which  defends  him  with  ardour.  The  wall  on 
the  right  presents  cajitives  in  chains,  their  hands  and  j)rivate 
parts  cut  off,  in  order  to  stigmatize  their  cowardice.  On 
the  wall  to  the  left,  diflerent  symbolical  figures,  very  well 
sculptured,  recall  tfie  triumphs  and  the  sacrifices  of  Osiniondue 
on  his  return  from  this  war.  In  the  middle  of  the  peristyle, 
at  the  place  where  it  is  exposed,  an  altar  was  prepared,  com- 
posed of  a  single  stone  of  marvellous  size,  and  of  exquisite 
workmanship.  In  short,  against  the  bottom  wall,  two 
colossuses,  each  of  them  of  one  block  of  marble,  and  40  feet 
high,  arc  seated  on  their  pedestals.  One  conies  out  of  this 
admirable  peristyle  by  three  gates  ;  one  of  them  between 
two  statues,  the  two  others  are  on  the  sides  ;  they  lead  to  an 
edifice  200  feet  long,  the  roof  of  which  is  supjiorted  by  8 
columns.  It  resembles  a  magnificent  theatre  ;  several  figures 
in  wood  represent  a  senate  employed  in  distributing  justice. 
On  one  of  the  walls  one  observes  30  senators,  and  in  the 
midst  of  them  the  president  of  justice,  having  at  his  feet  a 
collection  of  books,  and  the  figure  of  Truth  with  her  eyes 
shut,  suspended  at  his  neck.  One  passed  thence  into  a  .square 
surrounded  by  palaces  of  different  forms,  where  were  seen 
carved  on  the  table  all  sorts  of  dishes  whi<h  could  flatter 
the  taste.  In  one  of  them,  Osiniondue,  clad  in  a  magnificent 
di-ess,  was  offering  to  the  gods  the  gold  and  silver  he  drew 
yearly  from  the  mines  of  Egypt.  Below  was  written  the 
value  of  this  revenue,  which  amounted  to  32  millions  of 
silver  minas.  Another  jialace  contained  the  sacred  library, 
at  the  entrance  of  which,  (uie  read  these  words  :  liemedies 
fur  the  Soul.      A  third  contained  all  the  divinities  of  Egypt, 


EGY 


361 


EGY 


with  the  king,  who  oflfen^d  to  each  of  them  the  suitable 
presents;  callini;  Osiris,  and  the  princes  his  predecessors,  to 
witness  that  lie  had  exercised  ]iiety  tavards  the  gods  and 
justice  towards  men.  By  the  side  of  the  library,  in  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  buildings  of  the  place,  were  to  be  seen 
twenty  tables  surrounded  liy  their  beds,  on  which  reposed  the 
statues  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Osimondiie.  His  body  is 
thought  to  be  deposited  in  this  place.  Several  adjoining 
buildings  preserved  the  representations  of  all  the  sacred 
animals  of  Egypt.  From  these  apartments  one  mounted  to 
the  king's  tomb,  on  the  top  of  which  was  placed  a  crown 
of  gold,  a  cubit  wide,  and  :]().">  rt)und.  Each  cubit  answered 
to  one  day  of  the  year,  and  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  stars 
for  that  day  was  engraven  on  each  of  them,  with  such 
astrological  observations  as  the  superstition  of  tiie  Egyptians 
attached  to  them.  ]t  is  said  that  Cambyses  carried  oil"  this 
circle  when  he  ravaged  Egypt.  Such,  according  to  historians, 
w;is  tlie  tomb  of  Osirnomhie.  which  surpassed  all  others,  both 
by  its  e.xtent,  and  by  the  labour  of  the  able  artists  employed 
on  it." 

Upon  this  passage  Savar}'  remarks,  '■  I  dare  not  take  upon 
nie  to  warrant  all  these  facts,  advanced  by  Diodorus  Siculus 
on  the  authority  of  preceding  writers;  for  in  his  time  the 
principal  part  of  these  buildings  no  longer  existed.  I  admit 
even  that  all  these  wonderful  deesriptions  would  pass  for 
pure  chitneras  in  any  other  country  ;  but  in  this  fruitful 
land,  which  seems  to  have  been  first  honoured  with  the 
creative  genius  of  the  arts,  they  acquire  a  degree  of  proba- 
bility. Let  us  examine  what  remains  to  us  of  these  monu- 
ments, and  our  eyes  will  compel  us  to  believe  in  prodigy. 
Their  ruins  are  in  heaps,  near  to  MeJini't  Ahoit.  in  the  space 
of  half  a  league's  circumference.  The  temple,  the  peristyles, 
the  vestibules,  present  to  the  eye  nothing  but  piles  of  ruins, 
amongst  which  rise  up  some  pyramidal  gates,  whose  solidity 
has  preserved  them  from  destruction  ;  but  the  numerous 
colossuses  described  by  Diodorus,  are  still  subsisting,  though 
mutilated.  That  which  is  nearest  to  these  ruins,  composed 
of  yellow  marble,  is  buried  two-thirds  of  its  height  in  the 
earth.  There  is  anotlier  in  thejsame  line,  of  black  and  white 
marble,  the  back  of  which  is  covered  with  hieroglyphics  for 
30  feet  in  length.  In  the  space  betwen  them,  trunks  of 
columns  and  broken  statues  cover  the  ground,  and  mark  the 
continuation  of  the  vestibules.  Farther  on  we  distinguish 
two  other  colossal  statues,  totally  disfigured.  A  hundred 
toises  from  them,  the  traveller  is  struck  with  astonishment 
at  the  sight  of  two  colossuses,  which,  like  rocks,  are  seated 
by  the  side  of  each  other.  Their  pedestals  are  nearly  equal, 
and  formed  of  blocks  of  granite  30  feet  long,  and  18  feet 
wide.  The  smallest  of  these  colossuses  is  also  of  a  single 
block  of  marble  ;  the  other,  whicli  is  the  largest  in  Egypt,  is 
formed  of  five  courses  of  granite,  and  broken  in  the  middle; 
it  appears  to  have  been  the  statue  of  Osimondue,  for  one  sees 
two  figures  cut  in  relievo,  the  length  of  his  legs,  and  which 
are  about  one-third  of  his  height.  These  are  the  mother 
and  the  daughter  of  this  prince.  The  other  colossus,  which  is 
of  one  stone,  and  which  corresponds  with  the  dimensions  of 
Diodorus  Siculus,  represented  also  the  mother  of  the  king. 
To  give  you  an  idea  of  the  gigantic  stature  of  the  great 
colossus,  it  is  enough  to  tell  you,  that  his  foot  alone  is  near 
11  feet  long,  which  answers  exactly  to  the  seven  cubits  of 
Diodorus.  This  statue,  the  half  of  which  remains  upon  its 
base,  and  is  what  Stiabo  calls  the  statue  of  Memnon,  uttered 
a  sound  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  It  possessed  formerly 
great  renown.  Several  writers  have  spoken  of  it  with 
enthusiasm,  regarding  it  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  A  multitude  of  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  that 
are  still  legible,  on  the  base  and  the  legs  of  the  colossus 
•4(1 


testify  that  princes,  generals,   govenior.s,  and  men  of  every 
condition,  have  heard  this  miraeulous  sound." 

The  following  account  of  a  portion  of  the  above,  which  is 
given  somewhat  more  in  detail,  is  from  Wilkinson. 

"  Following  the  edge  of  the  cultivated  land,  and  about 
180  yards  to  the  west  of  this  building,  arc  two  mutilated 
statues  of  Rcmeses  II.,  of  black  granite,  with  a  few  sub- 
structions to  the  north  of  them  ;  and  770  yards  farther  to 
the  west,  lies,  in  the  cultivated  .soil,  a  sandstone  block  of 
Kemeses  III.,  presenting  in  high  relief  the  figure  of  that 
king,  between  Osiris  and  Pthah;  1,400  feet  beyond  this,  in 
the  same  direction,  is  a  crude  brick  enclosure,  with  large 
towers,  which  once  contained  within  it  a  sandstone  tetr.ple, 
dating  probably  from  the  reign  of  the  third  Thothmes,  whose 
name  is  stamped  on  the  bricks,  and  who  appears  to  have 
been  the  contemporary  of  Moses. 

"  Other  fragments  and  remains  of  crude  brick  walls 
proclaim  the  existence  of  other  ruins  in  its  vicinity  ;  and 
about  1.000  feet  farther  to  the  south-west,  is  the  palace 
and  temple  of  Remeses  II.,  erroneously  called  the  Memno- 
nium  :  a  building  which,  for  symmetry  of  architecture  and 
elegance  of  sculpture,  can  vie  with  any  other  monument  of 
Egyptian  art.  No  traces  are  visible  of  the  dromos,  that 
probably  existed  before  the  pyramidal  towers  which  form 
the  facade  of  the  first  hypffithral  area,  a  court  whose  breadth 
of  180  feet,  exceeding  the  length  by  nearly  13  yards,  is 
reduced  to  a  more  just  proportion,  by  the  introduction  of  a 
double  avenue  of  columns  on  either  side,  extending  from  the 
towers  to  the  north  wall.  In  this  area,  on  the  right  of  a 
flight  of  steps  leading  to  the  next  court,  was  the  stupendous 
Syenite  statue  of  the  king  seated  on  a  throne,  in  the  usual 
attitude  of  these  Egyptian  figures,  the  hands  resting  on  his 
knees,  indicative  of  that  tranquillity  which  he  had  returned 
to  enjoy  in  Egypt,  after  the  fatigues  of  victory.  But  the 
fury  of  an  invader  has  levelled  this  monument  of  Egyptian 
grandeur,  whose  colossal  fragments  lie  scattered  around  the 
pedestal,  and  its  shivered  throne  evinces  the  force  used  for 
its  demolition. 

"If  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  how  the  Egyptians  could 
transport  and  erect  a  mass  of  such  dimensions,  the  means 
employed  for  its  ruin  are  scarcely  less  wonderful ;  nor  shniild 
we  hesitate  to  account  for  the  shattered  appearance  of  the 
lower  part  by  attributing  it  to  the  explosive  force  of  powder, 
had  that  composition  been  know  at  the  period  of  its 
destruction.  The  throne  and  legs  are  completely  destroyed, 
and  reduced  to  comparatively  small  fragments,  while  the 
upper  part,  broken  at  the  waist,  is  merely  thrown  back  upon 
the  ground,  and  lies  in  that  position  which  was  the  conse- 
quence of  its  fall ;  nor  are  there  any  marks  of  the  wedge,  or 
other  instrument,  which  should  have  been  employed  for 
reducing  those  fragments  to  the  state  in  which  they  now 
appear.  The  fissures  seen  across  the  head,  and  in  the 
pedestal,  arc  the  work  of  a  later  period,  when  some  of  those 
blocks  were  cut  for  millstones  by  the  Arabs,  but  its  previous 
overthrow  will  probably  be  coeval  with  the  Persian  invasion. 
To  say  that  this  is  the  largest  statue  in  Egypt,  will  convey 
no  idea  of  the  gigantic  size  or  enormous  weight  of  a  mass, 
which,  from  an  approximate  calculation,  exceeded,  when 
entire,  nearly  three  times  the  solid  content  of  the  great 
obelisk  of  Karuak,  and  weighed  about  887  tons,  5  hundred- 
weight and  a  half. 

"  No  building  in  Tliebes  corresponds  with  the  description 
given  of  the  tomb  of  Osymandyas  by  IlecatEEUS.  Diodorus, 
who  quotes  his  work,  gives  the  dimensions  of  the  first  or 
outer  court,  two  plethra,  or  181  feet  8  inches  English, 
agreeing  very  nearly  with  the  breadth,  but  not  the  length 
of  that  now   before  us;  but  the  succeeding  court,  of  four 


EGY 


362 


EGY 


picthra,  iifitlicT  af^recs  with  this,  nor  can  agree  with  that 
of  any  other  Egyptian  edifice  ;  since  the  plan  of  an  Ej,'yptian 
building  invarialjly  requires  a  diininiition,  liy  no  increase  of 
diniensiims,  from  the  entrance  to  the  inner  chambers ;  and 
while  the  body  of  the  temple,  beliind  the  portico,  retained 
one  uniform  breadth,  the  areas  in  front,  and  frecpiently  the 
portico  itself,  exceeded  the  inner  portion  of  it  by  their  pro- 
jecting sides.  The  peristyle  and  'cidumiis  in  the  form  of 
living  Ijcings.'  roofed  colonnade,  sitting  statues,  and  triple 
entrance  to  a  chamber  supported  l)y  colunuis,  agree  well  with 
the  approach  to  the  great  hall  of  this  temple.  'ITic  largest 
statue  in  Egypt  can  scarcely  be  looked  fur  but  in  the  build- 
ing before  us,  yet  the  sculptures  to  which  he  alludes,  remind 
us  rather  of  those  of  Medeeiiet  Ilaboo  ;  nor  is  it  impiissible 
that  either  Ilecataius  or  Diodorus  have  united  or  confounded 
the  details  of  these  two  edifices. 

"The  second  area  isabout  140  feet  by  170,  having  cm  llie 
south  and  north  sides  a  row  of  Osiride  pillars,  connected  with 
each  other  by  two  lateral  corridors  of  circular  cohnnns. 
Three  fliu'hts  of  steps  lead  to  the  iKU-thcrn  corridor  behind 
the  Osiride  pillars,  the  centie  oni'  having  on  each  side  a  black 
granite  statue  of  Hemeses  11,,  the  base  of  whose  throne  is 
cut  to  (it  the  talus  of  the  ascent.  Hchind  the^e  cohunns, 
and  on  cither  side  of  the  central  door,  is  a  limestone  pedestal, 
which,  to  judge  from  tjie  space  left  in  the  sculptures,  must 
have  once  supported  tlu^  sitting  figure  of  a  lion,  or  perhaps 
a  statue  of  the  king.  Three  entrances  thence  open  into  the 
grand  hall,  each  strengthened  and  beautified  by  a  sculptured 
doorway  of  black  granite,  and  between  the  two  first  columns 
of  the  central  avenue,  two  pedestals  supported  (one  on  either 
side)  two  other  statues  of  the  king.  Twelve  mas.-ive 
columns  form  a  double  line  along  the  centre  of  this  hall,  and 
eighteen  of  smaller  dimensions,  to  the  right  and  left,  com- 
plete the  total  of  the  forty-eight  which  supported  its  solid 
roof,  studded  with  stars  on  an  azme  ground.  To  the  hall, 
which  measures  100  feet  by  l.'J.'J.  succeeded  three  central 
and  six  lateral  chambers,  imlicaling,  by  a  small  flight  of 
steps,  the  gradual  ascent  of  the  rock  on  which  this  edifice 
is  con-^tructed.  Of  nine,  two  only  of  the  central  apartments 
now  remain,  each  supported  by  four  eolunms,  and  each 
niea-iured  about  ;50  feet  by  r)5  ;  but  the  vestiges  of  their 
walls,  an<l  appearance?  of  the  rock,  which  has  been  levelled 
to  form  an  aiea  around  the  exterior  of  the  building,  point 
out  their  original  extent.  The  seulpt\ircs,  much  more  interest- 
ing than  tlie  an  hitectm-al  details,  have  suffered  still  more 
from  the  hand  of  the  destroyer;  and  of  the  manv  curi- 
ous battle-scenes  which  adorned  its  walls,  four  only  now 
remain.  " 

Still  southward  is  the  village  of  Medeenet  ITaboo,  which 
contains  the  ruins  of  two  temples,  of  which  we  have  not 
space  to  give  a  particular  account.  The  smaller  one  consists 
of  an  open  area  125  feet  by  80,  the  north  side  being  formed 
of  a  row  of  eight  eolunms,  through  which  access  is  obtained  to 
a  transverse  area,  having  two  pyramidal  towers  at  its  cxtre-' 
mity,  ;uid  between  them  an  entrance  into  an  hypiethral  court 
with  similar  towers.  These  lead  into  a  court  (50  feet  long, 
with  a  colonnade  on  either  side,  and  at  its  extremity  an 
entrance  into  the  sanctuary,  which  is  surrounded  by  colon- 
nades and  chambers.  The  larger  edifice  is  approached 
through  a  dromos  21)5  feet  in  length,  at  the  end  of  which  ai'C 
two  propvlaja  leading  into  a  large  hyp;uthral  court.  At  the 
further  side  of  this  court  an  eiitiance  through  pylons  is  given 
into  a  very  fine  peristyle  coui't  123  feet  by  l:>3  feet,  at  the 
extremity  of  which  is  the  portico.  The  large  court  contains 
specimens  of  Caryatid  columns. 

We  lujw  arriveat  adiflerent  class  of  buildings — the  tombs 
or   catacombs,   which  consist   of  subterranean   apartments 


and  passages  excavated  out  of  the  rock,  and  extending  over 
a  vast  tract  of  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Thclji's,  near 
Kurnu.  The  two  following  descriptions  are  fiom  the  writer 
previously  quoted  ;  the  first  relates  to  one  of  the  tombs  of  the 
kings,  which  was  first  opened  by  Belzoni  : — 

"The  tomb,  which  of  all  others  stands  pre-cminentlv  con- 
spicuous, as  well  for  the  beauty  of  its  sculpture  as  t\u:  state 
of  its  preservation,  is  undoiibteilly  that  discovered  and  opened 
by  Hclzoni.  But  the  plan  is  far  from  being  well  regulated,  and 
the  deviation  from  one  line  of  direction  greatly  injures  its 
general  effect;  nor  does  the  rapid  descent  by  a  staircase  of 
twenty-four  feet  in  perpendicular  depth,  on  a  horizontal 
length  of  twenty-nine,  convey  so  appropriate  an  idea  of  the 
ciUrance  to  the  abode  of  death,  as  the  gradual  talus  of  other 
of  these  sepulchres.  To  this  staircase  succeeds  a  passage  of 
eighteen  feet  and  a  half  by  nine,  including  the  imposts;  and, 
passing  another  door,  a  second  staircase  descends  in  horizontal 
length  twenty-five  feet ;  lieyond  which  two  doorways,  and 
a  passage  of  lwenty-niiu>  feet,  bring  you  to  an  oblong  cham- 
ber twelve  feet  by  fourteen,  where  a  [)it.  filled  U[i  by  Hel- 
zoni,  once  appcarccl  to  form  the  utmost  limit  of  the  tomb. 
Part  of  its  inner  wall  was  composed  of  blocks  of  hewn 
stone,  closely  cetncntcd  together,  and  covered  with  a  smooth 
coat  of  stucco,  like  the  other  walls  of  this  excavated  cala- 
comb,  on  which  was  painted  a  cont intuition  of  those  subjects 
that  still  adorn  its  remaining  sides. 

"  lnde|iendciit  of  the  main  objei-t  of  this  well,  so  admirably 
calculated  to  mislead,  or  at  last  check,  the  search  <if  the  curi- 
ous and  the  spoiler,  another  advantage  was  thereby  gained 
in  the  preservation  of  the  interior  part  of  the  tomb,  which 
was  effectually  guaranteed  from  the  destructive  inroad  of  the 
rain-water,  whose  tonent  its  depth  completely  intercepted  ; 
a  fact  which  a  storm,  some  years  ago,  by  the  havoc  caused 
in  the  inner  cambers,  sadly  demonstrated. 

"The  hollow  sound  of  the  wall  above-mentioned,  and 
a  small  aperture,  betrayed  the  secret  of  its  hidden  chambers, 
and  a  palm-tree,  supplying  the  place  of  the  more  classic  ram, 
forced,  on  the  well-known  principle  of  that  engine,  the 
intermediate  barrier,  whose  breach  displayed  the  splendour 
of  the  succeeding  hall,  at  once  astonishinsi  and  delighting  its 
discoverer,  vvhose  labours  were  so  gratefully  repaid. 

'•  Its  four  pillars,  supporting  a  roof  twenty-six  feet  square, 
arc  decorated,  like  the  whole  of  the  walls,  with  highly- 
finished  and  well-preserved  sculptures,  which,  fi'oin  their  vivid 
colours,  appear  but  the  work  of  yesterday  ;  and  near  the 
centre  of  the  iiuicr  wall,  a  few  steps  lead  to  a  second  hall  of 
similar  dimensions,  supported  by  two  pillars,  but  lefl  in  an 
unfinished  state,  the  sculptors  not  having  yet  commenced  the 
outline  of  the  figures  the  draughtsmen  had  but  ju.st  com- 
pleted. It  is  here  that  the  first  devi.itions  from  the  general 
line  of  direction  occur,  which  are  still  more  remarkable  in 
the  staircase  that  descends  at  its  southern  corner. 

"To  this  last  succeed  two  passages,  and  a  chamber  seven- 
teen feet  by  fourteen,  communicating  by  a  door,  xeartii  in  the 
centre  of  its  iiuier  wall,  with  the  grand  hall,  which  is  twenty- 
seven  feet  si|narc,  and  supjiortcd  liy  six  pillars.  On  cither 
side  is  a  snudl  chamber  opposite  the  angle  of  the  first  pillars, 
and  the  upper  eiul  terminates  in  a  vaulti'd  saloon,  iniu'tecn 
feet  by  thirty,  in  whose  centre  stood  an  alabaster  sarcophagus, 
the  kenotapli  of  the  deceased  monarch,  iqion  the  immediate 
siunmit  of  an  inclined  plane,  which,  with  a  stairca-e  on  either 
side,  descends  into  the  heart  of  the  argillaceous  rock  for 
a  distance  of  a  hundred  and  fit^y  feet.  This,  like  the  entrance 
of  the  tomb  and  the  first  hall,  was  closed  and  concealed  by 
a  wall  of  masonry,  which,  coming  even  with  the  base  of  the 
sarcophagus,  completely  masked  the  staircase  it  covered  and 
levelled  with  the  floor. 


EGY 


363 


EGY 


"  A  small  olianiher  ami  two  niilies  are  porfoiatod  in  the 
tiorlli-we^t  wall  ;  at  tlie  upper  eiui  a  step  loails  to  an  iirifi- 
nislK'd  clianilier,  17  foot  liy  43,  siippoilod  liy  a  row  of  four 
pillars;  and  o\i  the  south-west  aro  other  iiichc'*  and  a  room 
about  25  foot  stpuuv,  ornamented  with  two  pillars  and  a 
broad  bench  (hewn,  like  the  rest  of  the  tomb,  in  the  rock) 
around  three  of  its  sides,  four  foot  hii;h,  with  four  shallow 
reoesses  on  each  fare,  and  surmounted  by  an  elegant  Egyptian 
cornice.  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  purport  of  it,  unless 
its  level  summit  served  as  a  repository  foj-  the  mummies  of 
the  inferior  persons  of  the  king's  household  ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  these  were  also  deposited  in  pits. 

'•The  total  horizontal  length  of  this  catacomb  is  320  feet, 
without  the  inclined  descent  below  the  sarco|)hagus,  and  its 
perpendicular  depth  90,  or,  including  that  part,  about  ISO 
feet,  to  the  spot  where  it  is  closed  by  the  fallen  rock." 

The  second  description  is  of  tombs  of  more  recent  date, 
executed  during  the  twenty -si.\th  dyna-ty.  in  the  seventh 
century  befire  our  era  ;  they  are  of  great  extent,  and  unusual 
uniformity. 

"The  smallest,  which  are  those  behind  the  palace  of  Remeses, 
commence  with  an  outer  court  decorated  by  a  peristyle  of 
pillars,  anil  to  this  succeeds  an  arched  entrance  to  the  tomb 
itself,  which  consists  of  a  long  hall,  supported  by  a  double 
row  of  fom-  pillars,  and  another  of  smaller  dimensions  lieyond 
it,  with  four  pillars  in  the  centre.  The  largest  of  them,  and 
indeed  of  a!t  the  sepulchres  of  Thebes,  are  those  in  the 
Assascef,  one  of  which  far  exceeds  in  extent  any  one  of  the 
tombs  of  the  kings.  Its  oviter  court,  or  area,  is  103  feet  by 
76,  with  a  flight  of  steps  descending  to  its  centre  from  the 
entrance,  which  lies  between  two  massive  crude  brick  walls, 
once. supporting  an  arched  gateway.  The  inner  door,  cut  like 
the  rest  of  the  tomb  in  the  limestone  rock,  leads  to  a  second 
court,  53  feet  by  67,  with  a  peristyle  of  pillars  on  either 
side,  behind  which  are  two  closed  corridors;  that  on  the 
west  containing  a  pit  an<l  one  small  sqnare  room,  the  opposite 
one  having  a  similar  chandler,  which  leads  to  a  narrow 
passage,  once  closed  in  two  places  by  masonry,  and  evidently 
used  for  a  sepulchral  purpose. 

"  Contimiing  through  the  second  area  you  arrive  at  a  porch, 
who.se  arched  summit,  hollowed  out  of  the  rock,  has  the  light 
form  of  a  small  segment  of  a  circle,  and  from  the  surface  of 
the  inner  wall  are  relieved  the  cornice  and  mouldings  of  an 
elegant  doorway. 

"  This  opens  on  the  first  hall,  53  feet  by  37,  once  supported 
by  a  double  line  of  timr  pillars,  dividing  the  nave  (if  I  may 
so  call  it)  from  the  aisles,  with  halfpillars,  as  usual,  attached 
to  the  end-walls.  Another  ornamented  doorway  leads  to 
the  second  hall,  32  feet  .square,  with  two  pillars  in  each 
row,  disposed  as  in  the  forjner.  Passing  through  another 
door,  you  arrive  at  a  small  chamber,  21  feet  by  12,  at 
whose  end-wall  is  a  niche,  formed  of  a  series  of  jambs, 
receding  successively  to  its  centre.  Here  terirdnates  the 
first  line  of  direction.  A  sqnare  room  lies  on  the  left 
(entering),  and  on  the  right  another  succession  of  passages, 
or  narrow  apartments,  leads  to  two  flights  of  steps,  imme- 
diately before  which  is  another  door  on  the  right.  Beyond 
these  is  another  passage,  and  a  room  containing  a  pit  45  feet 
deep,  which  opens  at  about  one-third  of  its  depth  on  a  lateral 
cliaml)er. 

"A  third  line  of  direction,  at  right  angles  with  the  former, 
turns  to  the  right,  and  terminates  in  a  room,  at  whose  upper 
end  is  a  squared  pedestal. 

"  Returning  through  this  range  of  passages,  and  re-ascending 
the  two  staircases,  the  door  above  alluded  to  presents  itself 
on  the  left  hand.  You  shortly  arrive  at  a  pit  (opening  on 
another  set  of  rooms,  beneath  the  level  of  the  upper  ground- 


plan),  and  after  passing  it,  a  large  square,  surrounded  by 
long  passages,  arrests  the  attention  of  the  curious  visitor. 
At  each  angle  is  the  figure  of  one  of  the  eight  folhiwing 
goddesses  : — Ncith,  Sate,  Isis,  Nephlhys,  Netpe,  Justice, 
Selk,  and  .\thor,  who,  standing  with  outspread  arms,  preside 
over  and  protect  the  sacred  inclosure,  to  which  they  front, 
and  are  attached. 

"  A  gentleman,  an  autlxir,  whose  reading  is  far  more 
respectable  than  his  judgment,  has  not  failed  to  discover 
something  extraordinary  in  the  position  of  these  figures, 
referring,  as  he  supposes,  to  the  crucifix,  adopted  by  the 
Christians. 

"  Eleven  niches,  in  six  of  which  are  small  figures  of  different 
deities,  occur  at  intervals  on  the  side-walls,  and  the  summit 
is  crowned  by  a  frieze  of  hieroglyphics.  Three  chambers  lie 
behind  this  square,  and  the  passage  which  goes  round  it 
dencends  on  that  side,  and  rejoins,  by  an  asceiidhifj  talus  on 
the  next,  the  level  of  the  front.  A  short  distance  further 
terminates  this  part  of  the  tomb,  but  the  above-mentioned 
pit  communicates  with  a  subtenanean  passage  opening  on  a 
vaulted  chamber,  from  whose  upper  extremity  another  pit 
leads,  doioiuoards.  to  a  second,  and  idtimatelv  through  the 
ceiling  of  the  last,  upwards,  to  a  thiid  apartment,  coming 
immediately  below  the  centre  of  the  square  above  noticed. 
This  has  one  central  niche,  and  seven  on  either  side,  the 
wh(jle  loaded  with  hieroglyphical  .sculptures,  which  cover  the 
walls  in  every  part  of  this  extensive  tomb. 

"  But  to  give  an  idea  of  its  length,  and,  conseqnentlv,  of 
the  profusion  of  its  ornamental  details,  1  shall  briefly  state 
the  total  extent  of  each  series  of  the  passages  both  in  the 
upper  and  under  part  of  the  excavation.  From  the  entrance 
of  the  outer  area  to  the  first  deviation  from  the  original  right 
line,  is  320  feet.  The  total  of  the  next  range  of  passages  to 
the  chamber  of  the  great  pit,  is  177  feet.  The  third  pas.sage, 
at  right  angles  to  this  last,  is  60  feet ;  that  passing  over  the 
second  pit,  is  125;  and  adding  to  these  three  of  the  sides  of 
the  isolated  square,  the  total  is  862  feet,  independent  of  the 
lateral  chambers. 

'•  The  ana  of  the  actual  excavation  is  22,217  square  feet, 
and  with  the  chanilicrs  of  the  pits  23,809,  though,  from  the 
nature  of  its  plan,  the  ground  it  occupies  is  nearly  one  acre 
and  a  quarter,  an  immoderate  space  for  the  sepulchre  of  one 
individual,  even  allowing  that  the  members  of  his  fiiinily 
shared  a  portion  of  its  extent." 

At  Hermontis,  a  short  distance  south  of  Thebes,  are  the 
ruinsof  a  small  temple,  consisting  of  a  colonnaded  court  with 
portico  and  sanctuary,  and  some  distance  beyond  this,  more 
extensive  remains  at  Esneh,  or  Latopolis,  but  the  only 
portion  uncovered  is  a  portico  of  considerable  pretensions. 
Passing  bv  several  monuments  more  or  less  remarkable,  we 
arrive  at  Edfou,  or  Apollinopolis  Magna,  the  temple  of  which 
has  already  been  described  ;  and  beyond  this,  at  ()nd)os, 
where  are  ruins  of  two  temples,  one  of  which  is  remarkable 
for  having  a  double  entrance,  and  two  sanctuaries  side  by  side. 
In  our  way  to  the  islands  of  Philoe  and  Elephantina,  we 
would  stop  for  a  moment  at  Syene  to- notice  the  quarries  of 
granite  from  which  a  great  portion  of  the  stone  for  building 
was  supplied,  previous  to  the  working  of  the  quarries  near 
Philoe.  The  islands  of  Philoe  and  Eh'phanlina  are  rich  in 
remains,  but  more  especially  the  former,  which  we  accord- 
ingly select  for  illustration.      Deiion  says: — 

"  As  soon  as  I  could  set  foot  in  the  island  (Philoe)  I  began 
first  by  going  over  all  the  inner  part,  to  take  a  general  survey 
of  the  "various  monuments,  and  to  form  a  kind  of  topographical 
chart,  containing  the  island,  the  course  of  the  river,  and  the 
adjacent  characteristic  scenery.  1  found  a  convincing  proof 
that  this  group  of  monuments  had  been  constructed  at  dilTerenl 


EGY 


3G4 


ELE 


periods,  by  seveial  nations,  and  had  belonged  to  difTercnt 
forms  of  religinus  worship;  and  the  union  of  these  various 
edifices,  eaeh  of  them  in  itself  regular,  and  crowded  together 
in  this  nairow  spot,  formed  an  irregular  group  of  most 
piclurestpie  and  magnificent  objects.  I  could  here  distin- 
guish eight  sanctuaries  or  separate  temples,  of  different 
dimensions,  built  at  various  times,  and  the  limits  of  each  had 
bci'n  respected  in  the  construction  of  the  succeeding  ones, 
which  had  impaired  the  rci;ularity  of  the  whole.  A  part  of 
the  ad'litious  to  the  original  buildings  liad  been  made  with 
a  view  of  coimecting  the  old  to  the  new,  avoiding,  with  great 
dexterity,  false  angles  and  general  irregularities.  This  kind 
of  confusion  of  the  architectural  lines,  which  appear  like 
errors  in  the  plan,  produce  in  the  elevation  a  picturesque 
effect,  -wiiich  geometrical  rectitude  cannot  give  ;  it  multi- 
plies objects,  forms  elegant  groups,  and  offers  to  the  eye 
more  richness  than  cold  symmetry  can  ever  command.  I 
was  here  able  to  convince  myself  of  the  truth  of  a  remark 
which  I  had  before  made  at  Thebes  and  Tentyra,  which  is, 
that  the  mode  of  building  with  the  ancient  Egyptians  was, 
first,  to  erect  large  masses,  on  which  they  at'tcrwards 
bestowed  the  labour  of  ages  in  the  partic\ilars  of' the  deco- 
l~.Uion,  beginning  their  work  with  slmjjing  the  architectural 
lines,  proceeding  next  to  the  sculpture  of  the  hieroglyphics, 
and  Concluding  with  the  stucco  and  the  painting.  All  these 
distinct  periods  of  work  Tire  very  obvious  here,  where  nothing 
is  finished  but  what  belongs  to  the  highest  antiquity  ;  where, 
as  a  [Kirt  of  the  subordinate  buildings  which  served  to  con- 
nect the  various  monuments,  had  been  left  in  many  particulars 
without  finish,  without  sculpture,  and  cvl'U  incomplete  in  the 
building.  The  great  and  magnificent  oblong  monument 
cxiiibits  these  ditlerent  periods  of  workmanship;  it  would 
be  difficult  to  assign  any  use  to  this  edifice,  if  the  presence 
of  certain  monuments  representing  offerings,  had  not  pointed 
it  out  to  be  a  temple.  It  has,  however,  the  form  neither  of 
a  portico,  nor  of  a  temple  ;  the  columns  which  compose  its 
outer  circumference,  and  which  are  engaged  in  the  wall  only 
half  their  height,  support  nothing  but  an  entablature,  and  a 
cornice  without  roof  or  platform  ;  it  only  o]iened  by  two 
opposite  doors,  without  lintels,  which  made  a  straight  p.assage 
through,  in  a  longitudinal  direction.  As  it  was  doubtless 
built  in  the  later  period  of  the  Egyj)tian  power,  it  shows  the 
perfection  of  art  in  the  highest  |nirity  ;  the  capitals  are 
admirable  in  beauty  and  execution  ;  the  vt)lutes  and  the 
foliage  are  gracefully  waved,  like  the  finest  Greek  architec- 
ture, and  are  symmetrically  diversified  like  those  of  Ajiolli- 
nopolis,  that  is  to  say.ditli'ring  fix>m  the  contiguous  capitals, 
and  similar  to  the  corresponding  ones,  and  all  are  exactly 
kept  within  the  same  parallel." 

This  group  of  buildings  is  800  feet  long  and  420  feet 
broad,  and  it  is  almost  entirely  covered  with  the  most  stately 
monuments  of  ditlerent  ages.  The  front  is  a  rampart  wall, 
to  serve  as  a  protection  against  tiie  rising  waters  of  the  Nile. 
The  entrance  to  the  temple  was  appmaclied  by  a  magnificent 
double  range  of  columns  around  a  court  250  feet  long,  behind 
which  were  rooms  for  the  priests.  The  pyramidal  moles  are 
each  47  feet  long,  27  feet  thick,  and  75  feet  high ;  two  rows 
of  gigantic  hieroglyphics  adorn  them,  representing  five  of 
their  grand  divinities  ;  there  are  likewise  other  figures  of 
priests.  &c. ;  on  each  side  of  the  door  (which  is  2G  feet  high) 
is  an  obelisk  18  feet  high,  and  a  sphinx  7  feet  long,  behind 
is  a  court  80  feet  long,  and  45  feet  wide,  also  flanked  t)y 
galleries  of  columns.  On  the  right,  behind  the  columns,  isa 
suite  of  cells  10  feet  deep,  and  on  the  left  a  private  dwelling, 
composed  of  a  portico  at  each  end,  and  of  three  rooms  of 
various  dimcn.iions,  communicating  one  with  anothir,  and 
opening  to  the  porticos  ;  this  is  the  only  building  lliat  JJenon 


ever  saw  of  the  kind.  Two  other  moles  serve  as  the  portal 
to  the  most  beautiful  and  regular  part  of  the  edifice  ;  this  is 
a  species  of  portico,  decorated  by  10  columns  and  8  pilasters 
4  feet  in  diameter,  as  magnificent  as  they  are  elegant ;  the 
columns  and  walls  are  covered  with  sculptures,  tlie  ceilings 
are  either  painted  in  astronomical  tables,  or  with  white  stars 
on  an  azure  ground.  Reyond  this  again  was  the  secret  piart 
of  the  temple,  00  feet  Ijy  30,  divided  into  tijur  rooms,  one 
leading  to  the  others;  in  these  remote  chambers  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  sacred  birds  and  rej)tiles  were  kept. 

"  Besides  this  vast  enclosure,  in  which  these  numerous 
temples  were  connected  and  grouped  together  hy  dwellings 
for  the  priests,  there  were  two  temples  standing  ajiart  ;  the 
larger  of  the  two  1  have  already  spoken  of,  the  smaller  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  that  can  be  conceived,  in  perfect 
preservation,  and  so  small,  that  it  almost  gives  one  the 
desire  of  carrying  it  away.  I  found  within  it  some  renmins 
of  a  domestic  scene,  which  seemed  to  be  that  of  Jf)seph  and 
!Maiy,  and  suggested  to  me  the  subject  of  the  flight  into 
Egvpl  in  a  style  of  the  utmost  truth  and  interest." 

\Ve  have  now  described  several  of  the  priucipa]  monu- 
ments belonging  to  this  style  of  architecture,  from  which  may 
be  formed  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  Egyptian  method  of  arrang- 
ing and  adorning  their  temples.  We  have  not  touched  upon 
the  pyramids,  although  the  subject  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be 
completed  without  some  description  of  them  ;  we  have,  how- 
ever, already  extended  this  article  to  a  somewhat  inconvenient 
length,  and  would  rather  defer  their  consideration  to  a  later 
period,  than  treat  them  here  in  a  summary  and  insufficient 
manner.  The  same  reasoning  apiplies  to  the  description  of 
the  sphinxes,  and  such  like.  We  refer  the  reader,  therefoie, 
to  the  articles  under  the  heads  Pyr.\mid  and  Sphinx. 

The  subject  we  have  been  treating  of  is  one  of  very 
considerable  interest,  and,  although  not  of  direct  practical 
utility  to  the  architect,  is  yet  well  worthy  his  careful  consi- 
deration. 

Ecvptian-IIall,  or  B.\kqueting-Rooms.  See  (Ecus. 
Egyptian  Pvra.mids.  See  Pyramids. 
EIDOGRAPH,  an  instrument  for  copying  designs,  in- 
vented by  Professor  Wallace,  of  Edinburgh.  The  eidograph 
is  an  improvement  on  the  pentagraph  in  common  use,  is 
much  more  correct,  and  can  be  used  for  purposes  to  which 
the  latter  cannot  be  applied. 

EIDOLON,  a  likeness,  image,  or  representation. 
ELBOWS   OF   A  Window,   the   two   flanks   of  panelled 
work,  one  under  each  shutter,  generally  tongued  or  rebated 
into  the  Itack,  so  that  the  two  elbows  and  the   back  tbrm  a 
lining  round  the  three  sidis  of  the  recess. 

ELEOTIIESION,  the  an>  inting-ioom,  belonging  to  the 
palestra:,  calUd  by  the  llomans  nnctiiarium.  See  Palkstk.e. 
ELEVATION,  an  orthographical  prcji-ction,  made  on  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.  In  arehiteetiire,  as 
buildings  are  constructed  with  vertical  faces  or  fronts,  the 
plane  of  delineation  is  generally  chosen  parallel  to  a  side,  in 
order  that  the  measure  in  every  direction  may  be  readily 
obtained.  What  is  generally  called  a  section,  ]iartakes  as 
much  of  a  geometrical  projection  or  elevation,  as  a  section. 
By  the  elevations  and  plans,  all  the  measures  of  an  original 
oliject  may  be  ascertained,  whether  the  lines  or  arri.ses  re- 
presented be  horizontal,  vertical,  or  inclined.  In  orthogra- 
phical projections,  all  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  delineation  are  projected  into  points,  and  all  straight 
lines  parallel  to  the  plane  of  delineation,  are  ]u-ojected  into 
straight  lines  of  equal  lengths,  and  are  alike  situated  with 
regard  to  the  plane  of  delineation,  as  the  stiaigiit  arris  in  the 
•  original  object  is  with  regard  to  the  naked  face  of  the  wall. 
Therefore,  whatever  lines  are  perpendicular  to  the  elevation, 


ELL 


305 


ELL 


they  will  be  represented  by  points,  and  whatever  arrises  are 
parallel  to  the  elevation,  they  will  be  represented  by  lines 
parallel  to  the  oriirinal.    Sec  Df.sion. 

ELIZABETHAN     AllClIlTECTURE.       See      Tudor 

AUCHITKCTURK. 

ELLIPSIS,  or  Ellipse,  in  geometry,  a  conic  section 
formed  by  cuttini^  a  cone  entirely  through  the  curved 
surface,  neither  parallel  to  the  base,  nor  iiuiking  a  subcon- 
trary  section;  so  that  the  ellipsis,  like  the  circle,  is  a  curve 
that  returjis  into  itsrlf,  and  completely  encloses  a  space. 
Sec  the  definitions  iindrr  the  word  Cone. 

One  of  the  principal  and  most  useful  properties  of  the 
ellipsis  is,  that  the  rect.ingle  under  the  two  segments  of  a 
diameter  is  as  the  square  of  the  ordinate.  In  the  circle,  the 
same  ratio  obtains,  but  the  rectanglennder  the  two  segments 
of  the  diameter  becomes  equal  to  the  square  of  the  ordinate  : 

Prnbltm  \. —  TJie  two  axex  of  an  ellijisis  being  given  to 
describe  the  ctirve. 

Metliod  I. — -Figure  \.  Let  a  c  be  the  greater  axis,  bg  the 
lesser,  cutting  each  other  in  the  centre  h  ;  and  if  with  the 
radius  a  ii,  or  h  c,  from  the  point  b,  an  arc  e  f  be  described, 
it  will  cut  A  c,  at  E  and  f,  the  foci ;  fix  two  pins  at  e  and  f  ; 
take  a  thread  equal  in  length  to  a  c,  and  fi.x  one  end  of  it  to 
E,  and  the  other  to  f  ;  then  keeping  a  pencil  at  the  point  d, 
move  such  point  forward  in  the  same  direction,  so  that  the 
parts  D  E  and  E  f  may  continue  to  be  stretched  during  the 
motion,  until  the  describent  d  come  to  the  point  whence  it 
began  to  move. 

Method  II. — Figure  2.  Find  the  foci  E  and  F,  as  before  ; 
between  E  and  F,  take  any  point,  1  ;  with  the  radii  a  1,  1  c, 
and  the  centres  e  and  f,  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  at 
G,  as  also  at  h  ;  then  g  and  ii  are  points  in  the  curve  ;  in  the 
same  manner,  with  the  same  radii,  from  the  centres  f  and  e, 
find  tlie  intersections  i  and  K.  In  like  manner,  if  any  other 
point,  2,  be  taken  between  e  and  f  ;  four  other  points, 
L,  M,  N,  o,  will  be  obtained,  and  thus  as  many  more  as  will 
be  requisite  for  drawing  the  curve  l)y  hand. 

For  by  the  construction  of  the  ellipsis,  e  d  +  d  f,  {Figure 
1)  is  equal  toEC  +  cf,  =  Er+2Fc;  also  e  d  -j-D  f  = 


rA  +  AE=:EF  +  2AE;  therefore  ef  +  2fc  =  ef  + 
2  A  e  :  consequently  A  e  is  equal  to  f  c ;  hence  e  d  +  d  f  = 
ef  +  2aez=ef  +  2fc:  that  is,  the  sum  of  the  two  lines 
drawn  from  the  foci,  to  any  point  in  the  curve,  is  equal  to  the 
transverse  axis. 

Method  111. — Figure  3.  To  describe  an  ellipsis  with  the 
ellipsograph,  or  trammel,  as  it  is  called  bg  workmen,  the  axes 
A  B  and  c  D  being  given  in  position,  bisecting  each  other  in  the 
centre  e. — In  any  piece  of  material,  contained  between  any 
two  parallel  planes,  cut  two  grooves,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  in  one  of  the  planes  ;  then  provide  a  rod  with  three 
pins,  or  points,  so  that  at  least  two  may  be  moveable,  and  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  third  :  let  h  f  o  be  the  rod,  with  the 
points  F  and  o  moveable  ;  making  h  g  equal  to  the  greater 
semi-axis  ;  then  placing  the  grooves  over  the  axes,  and 
putting  the  points  f  and  G  in  the  two  grooves,  move  the 
point  u  round,  keeping  the  point  f  upon  the  greater  axis,  a  b, 
and  the  point  o  upon  the  lesser  axis  c  d,  until  the  describent 
H  come  to  the  point  where  the  motien  commenced  ;  and  the 
figure  so  described,  will  be  an  ellipsis.  The  tiammel,  used 
by  artificers,  consists  of  two  rulers,  with  a  groove  in  each,  so 
fixed  that  both  grooves  may  be  in  the  same  plane,  and  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  and  that  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
cross  may  be  in  a  plane  parallel  to  those  of  the  grooves.  The 
rod  above,  is  a  bar  with  two  moveable  cursors,  the  fixed  end 
is  made  to  hold  a  pencil,  and  each  of  the  other  two  an  iron 
point,  made  to  fill  the  groove,  but  capable  of  sliding  freely. 

Method  IV. — Figure  4.  Given  one  of  the  axis,  a  b,  and  an 
ordinate,  c  d,  to  describe  the  ellipsis. — Bisect  A  B  at  i  for  the 
centre  ;  through  i  draw  e  f,  parallel  to  c  d  ;  with  the  distance 
I  A,  or  I  b,  from  the  point  d,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  i  f  at  g  ; 
draw  the  straight  line  d  o  n,  cutting  i  a  at  n  ;  then  if  u  d  g 
be  conceived  to  be  an  inficxible  line  or  rod,  the  points  H.  G,  D, 
remaining  at  the  same  distance  in  respect  to  each  other  ;  and 
if  the  [)oint  »  be  moved  in  the  axis  a  b,  and  the  point  g  in 
the  axis  e  f,  while  the  describent  d,  is  carried  round  the 
centre,  i,  until  a  come  to  the  point  whence  it  began  to 
move  ;  a  curve  d  b  e  a  f,  will  be  described,  which  will  be  an 
ellipsis. 


Demonstration. — Figure  5. 

L  F,  or  B  K     :  F  g,  or  D  B     :   :  L  c,  or  A  B     .  c  d  , 
Therefore,  b  k'    :  d  b'    :  :  a  b'^    :  c  d'  ; 

B  k'    :  b  k'  —  D  b''    :  :  a  b'    :  a  b'  —  c  u'. 

But    Bk'  Db'    =    BK    +    BD     X     BK   —   BD    =   DH     X     UK 

and  c  D*  =  c  l"  —  D  l"  =  a  b"  —  L  d'. 
Consequently,  b  k*  :  d  h  X  d  k  :  :  a  b'' :  d  l  which  is  a  most  principal  property  of  the  ellipsis 


but    the    demonstration   which   accompanies   the    following 
method,  is  quite  general,  for  every  two  diameters. 

iMethod  V. — Figure  6.  A  diameter,  k  h,  and  an  ordinate, 
D  L,  of  an  ellipsis  being  given,  to  describe  the  curve  by  a  con- 
tinued motion. — Bisect  k  h  at  i,  and   through  i,  draw  a  i  a, 


parallel  to  d  l  ;  draw  dec,  and  k  b,  at  right  angles  to  a  a  ; 
from  L,  with  the  distance  k  b,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  i  a 
at  f  ;  draw  i  f  c  ;  through  the  points  c  and  i,  draw  m  n  ;  then 
if  the  point  c  be  moved  in  m  n.  and  the  point  p  in  a  a,  the 
point  L  will  describe  the  curve  of  an  ellipsis. 


Demo7istration. 

For  the  triangles  l  r  g,  and  l  c  d  are  similar  .  " .  l  f 
But  because  fl  =  bk,  fo^de,  and  l  c  =:  a  i,  k  b 
Again,  by  similar  triangles,  i  k  b,  and  i  d  e  .  .  k  b 
Therefore,  by  equality  of  ratios  .         .         .         k  i 

By  duplication     .  .  .         .  .  .  .     k  i" 

By  division k  i'  :  k  i"- 

But  K  i' —  D  i'  =  (k  I  +  D  i)  X  (k  I D  1 

and  c  d'  =  L  c'  —  L  d'  =  A  i'  —  L  dI 
Therefore  by  substituting  d  a    X    d  k,  for  k  i'  —  d  i\  and  a  i'  — l  d',  for  c  d' 
In  the  last  analogy  we  have  .         .         .         .  ki':dhXdk: 

a  well-known  property  of  the  ellipsis. 


)  —  D  H  X 


c  : 
I  ) 

I  : 

i': 

D  K 


c  D  ; 
c  D  ; 
D  i; 
c  D  ; 
c  d'  ; 
ai^- 


L  D-, 


ELL 


3C« 


ELL 


The  mothoil  for  describing  an  ellipsis,  liavinj;  two  conju- 
gate diameters  given,  may  be  found  in  the  Man|iiis  de 
l'IIasf)it;il's  Treatise  of  Conic  Section-f,  Iranslated  liy  Stone. 
But,  the  author  of  the  Arcliilectural  Dictionurij  has  chosen 
to  give  tlie  description  and  dcnidnstration  from  a  iliaiiieter 
and  douliie  ordinate  instead  of  two  conjugate  iliameters,  as 
being  more  jciidily  applied  in  perspective.  It  is  strangr,  that 
this  useful  method  has  been  negli'cled  liy  all  iuiglisli  writers 
that  have  fallen  in  our  way.  'J'his  property  was  dis- 
covered by  ihe  author,  and  demonstrated  by  him,  many  years 
before  he  met  with  the  above  work,  in  endeavouring  to  fuid 
out  methods  for  describing  the  perspective  ri'|)re.,entation  by 
continued  motion. 

Mcl/wJ  V'l. — Figure  7.  No.  L  Let  a  b  be  the  greater 
a.\is,  bisected  in  c,  by  the  lesser  semi-axis  c  d  ;  take  two 
rulers,  c  e  and  e  f,  of  equal  length,  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
semi-axes  c  d  and  c  b,  moveable  upon  each  other  at  e,  and 
the  end  c  of  the  rule  c  E,  moveable  upon  the  centre  of  the 
ellipsis.  Make  the  part  f  g  of  the  ruler,  f  e,  equal  to  the 
semi-a.\is  c  d  ;  now  suppose  c  e  and  e  f  to  coincide  with  each 
other,  and  with  the  a.\is  c  d  ;  then  move  the  point  f  from  c, 
in  the  direction  c  b.  until  the  desciilient  a  arrive  at  b  :  the 
point  G  will  then  have  traced  the  quadrant  D  li  of  the  ellipsis. 
The  other  (piadrants  will  be  described  in  the  same  manner, 
by  reversing  and  inverting  the  rulers. 

Figure  8. — Another  variation  of  this  :  Let  a  b  be  the 
greater,  and  cd  the  lesser  senii-axis,  as  before;  take  the 
.straight  line  H  i,  equal  to  the  greater  semi-axis,  a  c  or  c  b  ; 
from  I  H  cut  off  i  k,  e(inal  to  the  lesser  semi-axis,  c  D,  and 
divide  H  K  into  two  equal  parts  at  i ;  then  place  the  joint 
rule  c  E  F  in  the  following  manner,  viz.,  make  c  e  aiid  k  f 
each  equal  to  hl,  or  l  k;  the  part  c  e  being  moveable  round 
the  centre,  c,  of  the  ellipsis,  and  the  two  rules  c  e  and  e  g 
being  moveable  round  e  ;  now  let  c  e  and  e  g  coincide  with 
c  D,  and  the  point  f  to  coincide  with  c,  and  consequently  o 
■with  D  ;  then  move  the  point  f  towards  a,  keeping  it  in  the 
semi-axis  c  a  ;  and  when  c  e  and  e  f  come  in  the  same 
stiaight  line,  the  point  a  will  have  described  the  quadrant 
of  an  ellipsis  ;  the  lesser  axis  {see  Figures  7  and  8)  is  equal 
2  X  F  G,  and  the  greater  =  2Xce  +  2Xeg. 

Demonstration. — Figure  7,  No.  2.  JJraw  o  I  parallel  to 
C  F,  cutting  c  E  at  i,  and  diaw  el  perpendicular  to  c  f,  meet- 
ing c  B  at  L  ;  produce  c  e  to  h,  and  make  c  n  ^  c  b  ;  join 
u  G,  and  produce  it  to  k. 

Now  by  the  general  demonstration,  accompanying  the 
article  Cyli.nuer,  we  have  c  b'  :  c  d'  :  :  a  k  X  k  b  :  k  o'  ; 
but  by  the  property  of  the  circle  k  n''  +  a  k  +  k  b;  there- 
fore c  b'  :  cd'^  :  :  k  h'  :  k  g' ;  consequently  cb  :  c  d  :  : 
K  H    :    K  G,  a  jn'operty  of  the  ellipsis. 

But  c  E  is 'the  half  sum  of  the  two  axis,  and  c  i,  or  f  g, 
equal  to  the  lesser  axis  ;  then  i  E,  or  E  G,  is  equal  to  the 
difference  between  the  half  sum  of  the  two  semi-axes  and 
the  lesser  semi-axis  ;  therefore  i  e  =:  half  the  dilleienee 
between  the  two  semi-axes,  and  i  n  :=  the  whole  dilference  ; 
consequently  I  E  =  E  H. 

Then  because  i  o  is  parallel  to  c  f,  we  have  e  c  :  e  f  :  : 
E  I  :  E  Q  ;  but  EC  =:  E  F ;  therefore  e  i  =^  eg;  and  because 
K  I  =r  E  n,  K  o  is  also  equal  to  e  h  :  then  since  the  angle  e  p  g 
is  a  right  angle,  the  angles  peg  and  e  o  p,  arc  togeihcr  equal 
to  a  right  angle ;  but  the  angles  e  g  n  and  g  e  i>  are  alternate  ; 
therefore  E  G  ii  =  g  e  p  ;  add  to  each  of  these  equal  angles, 
the  angle  E  o  p,  then  will  eoh'+  eqp  =  gep+kop 
equal  to  a  right  angle  ;  consequently  i  g  is  parallel  to  c  k, 
and  the  triangles  c  k  h  and  i  g  ii  are  similar. 

Therefore  c  ii  :  c  I  :  :  K  H  :  kg;  but  C  B  =  C  ii,  and  c  n 
=  ci;  CB  :  CD  ::  ku  :  kg,  the  above  property  of  the 
ellijjsis. 


Method  VII. — Figure  9.  Find  the  foci  e  and  p,  as  in 
Methods  I.  and  II.  let  the  ends  e  and  f  of  two  rules  f  i  and 
e  K  be  moveable,  the  one  round  k,  and  the  other  round  f.  and 
let  each  be  equal  in  Kngth  to  a  b,  the  greater  axis,  inter- 
secting each  other  at  e  ;  let  the  ends  i  and  k  be  connected 
by  a  bar,  i  k,  equal  in  length  to  e  f,  so  as  lo  be  moveable 
round  the  points  i  and  k  ;  then  if  the  point  i  or  k,  be  carried 
round  g,  the  whole  instnrmeiit  will  be  in  motion,  and  the 
point  A  will  docribe  the  curve  of  an  ellipsis. 

Deuionstriition. — Join  e  i  ;  then,  because  the  triangles  ike 
and  I  f  e  have  the  two  sides,  i  k  and  k  e.  equ;d  to  the  two 
sides  E  F  and  f  i,  and  the  base  i  a  cominon  to  both,  the  angles 
I  K  E  and  I  F  e  are  equal  ;  therefore  the  sides  i  n  and  h  e  are 
equal  ;  therefore  lFr=AB  =  eh  -|-hf,  which  is  a  property 
tif  the  ellipsis. 

Method  Vni.— Another  method  will  be  found  under  the 
article  Cone,  by  the  equal  divisions  and  inteisections  of 
straight  lines. 

Method  IX. — Figure  10.  To  find,  any  ninnbcr  of  points 
in  Ihe  curve. — On  the  transverse  axis,  a  b,  describe  a  semi- 
circle :  take  as  many  points  in  the  circumference  of  the 
semi-circle,  as  may  be  necessary  for  constructing  the  elliptic 
curve  ;  draw  straight  lin<'s  perpendicularly  to  the  axis  cutting 
it,  and  let  one  of  these  lines,  c  u.  pa-^s  through  the  centre  ; 
let  E  F  be  any  other  per[)endicul;ir,  cutting  the  axis  in  f,  and 
let  CG  be  the  lesser  serni-axis  ;  find  the  point  n,  so  that  F  H 
may  be  a  fourth  proportional  to  c  d,  c  r,  f  e,  and  the  point  h 
will  be  in  the  curve  of  the  ellipsis  reijuired  :  in  the  same 
manner,  a  point  may  lie  found  in  each  of  the  other  perpen- 
diculars. The  finding  of  points  in  the  curve  by  this  method 
being  entirely  in  proportion,  the  whole  may  be  very  readily 
obtained,  by  making  i  k  =  c  d,  i  l,  equal  to  the  lesser 
semi-axis  of  the  ellipsis  ;  join  k  l  ;  on  i  K  make  i  I,  e  m,  i  n, 
equal  to  the  perpendiculars;  draw/o,  m  p,  n  q,  parallel 
to  K  L,  cutting  I  L,  at  o,  p,  q  ;  then  i  o,  i  p.  i  g,  are  the 
ordijiates  of  the  ellipsis,  to  be  applied  respectively  upon  the 
perpendiculars,  fiom  the  greater  axis.  This  may  very 
easily  be  described  by  means  of  the  proportional  compass,  or 
the  sector. 

Method  X. — Figure  1 1.  Let  A  n  be  the  greater  axis,  c  d 
the  lesser  semi-axis.  On  the  diameter  a  b,  describe  the 
semi-circle  a  e  b,  and  with  the  radius  c  d  describe  the  semi- 
circle F  D  G  ;  take  any  mnnber  of  points,  li,  i,  &c.  in  the 
circumference  a  e  b,  and  draw  /;  c,  i  c,  &e.  cutting  the  scnii- 
ciiele  F  D  G,  at  /i  and  /  ;  from  the  points  h,  i,  &e.  draw  lines 
/;  m,  i  ti,  &c.  perpendicularly  to  A  b;  also  fioni  the  points X-.  /. 
&c.  draw  lines  k  m,  I  n,  &c.  parallel  to  a  b  ;  then  the  points 
m,  n,  &c.  are  in  the  elliptic  curve.  When  the  points  for  half 
the  curve  are  t'oinid,  the  corre~|ionding  points  liir  the  olhei 
half  will  be  reailily  obtained,  by  producing  the  perpendiculars 
to  the  other  side  of  c  b,  and  making  the  ordinates  on  the  one 
side  equal  to  those  on  the  other. 

Method  XI. — Figure  12.  Aug  two  conjugate  diameters, 
A  B  and  c  D,  being  giren,  to  describe  an  ellipsis  through  points 
found  in  ang  diameter,  taken  at  pleasure. — Through  D  draw 
p  Q  parallel  to  a  b  ;  from  n  draw  d  f,  pcrpen<liinlar  to  p  tj  ; 
make  d  f  equal  to  E  A,  or  e  b,  upon  f  ;  with  the  distance  k  n. 
describe  the  circle  n  vi  k  \  through  the  centre,  E.  draw  the 
lines  p  E  N,  /  E  M,  s  E  L,  indefinitely  cutting  the  tangent  p  q, 
at  p,  t,  s,  &c.  ;  join  pf,  <f,  s  f,  &c.  c\itting  the  circle  n  d  k,  at 
the  points  n,  m,  I,  &C.  ;  also  join  e  f,  if  necessary,  and  draw 
n  N,  /KM,  /  L,  &c,  parallel  to  it.  cutting  the  diameters  n  n,  m  m, 
I,  L,  &c.  at  N,  M,  I.,  &c.  .-ind  these  points  will  be  in  the  curve 
of  the  ellipsis  required  :  if  the  diameters  are  produced  to  the 
opposite  sides,  at  n.  m.  l.  &c.  anil  the  distances  E  N,  E  M,  E  L, 
«5cc.  are  made  respectively  equal  to  their  opposite  corres- 
ponding distances  e  n,  e  m,  k  l,  &c.  ;  then  the  points  n,  m,  l, 


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on  the  under  side  of  the  diameter  a  b,  will  also  be  in  the 
curve. 

This  method  may  be  very  easily  applied  in  perspective:  by 
having  ihi'  reprcsontatiun  of  a  diainoter  of  an  original  circle 
peipcudiciilar,  and  th:it  of  another  [laralLel  to  tiie  picture,  we 
have  a  diameter  and  double  ordinate  :  the  diameter  of  the 
ellipsis,  or  reprcseiUation.  is  the  diameter  of  the  circle  per- 
pendicular to  the  inti'rsectiiig  line  of  its  jilane;  thus  it  is  only 
iiiidiiig  the  conjugate  diame'er,  and  drawiiig  as  above. 

F'ljure  13. —  The  axes  ab  and  cd  of  an  ellipsis  being 
given,  to  descri/ie  il>-  represenU  tion  by  means  of  circular  arcs. — 
Draw  B  p  parallel  and  equal  to  e  c  ;  bisect  it  at  1  ;  draw  1  c, 
and  p  D,  cutting  each  other  at  k  ;  bisect  k  c,  by  a  perpen- 
dicular meeting  c  D  at  o  ;  on  o,  with  the  radius  o  c,  describe 
the  ijuadraMt  c  Q  Q  ;  tin-ough  a  and  q  draw  q  o,  cutting  the 
quadrant  at  G  ;  draw  o  o,  cutting  a  n  at  m  ;  make  e  l  equal 
to  E  M,  and  E  N  equal  to  E  o  ;  from  o,  through  M  and  L,  draw 
o  o  and  o  K  ;  from  o,  complete  the  arc  G  K  ;  from  n,  w  ith  the 
same  radius,  equal  to  the  distance  n  d,  describe  the  opposite 
arc  II  I ;  i'rum  M  with  the  radius  m  o,  describe  the  arc  g  h,  at 
the  extremity"  of  the  longer  axis;  and  lastly,  from  l,  with 
the  same  radius,  equal  to  lb,  describe  the  opposite  arc  ki  ; 
then  agckbidiia  is  the  representation  required,  made  to 
pass  through  eight  points  in  the  curve. 

Figure  14. —  To  Jiiid  the  representation  of  an  ellipsis,  by 
■means  of  circular  arcs,  passing  through  twelve  points  in  the 
curve  (  a  more  accurate  method  than  the  former  )  the  axes 
A  B  and  c  D  being  given. — Draw  a  3  parallel  to  e  c  ;  divide  it 
into  three  equal  parts;  draw  2c  and  Ic;  divide  ae  also 
into  three  equal  parts,  and  through  the  points  1,  2,  draw  dq 
and  D  p,  cutting  the  former  in  q  and  p.  Bisect  c  p  by  a  pei- 
pendicular,  meeting  c  d,  produced  at  s ;  and  join  p  s,  cutting 
A  E  at  X  ;  make  e  w  equal  to  e  x,  and  e  u  equal  to  e  s  ; 
draw  p  X  s,  o  w  s,  K  X  u,  and  l  w  cr.  Bisect  p  q  by  a  perpen- 
dicular, meeting  p  s  at  f,  and  draw  zf  parallel  to  a  b.  With 
the  radius  fq  describe  the  arc  qz,  cutting  fz  at  z;  join 
z  a,  and  produce  it  to  meet  the  are  at  qz,  at  g  :  join  y  f, 
cutting  A  B  at  v  ;  make  x  i  equal  to  x  f,  also  w  a,  and  w  g, 
equal  to  X  F  ;  make  e  t  equal  e  v,  and  draw  i  v  r,  h  t  m,  and 
G  T  N  ;  then,  with  the  centre  s,  and  distance  s  c,  describe  the 
arc  po;  with  the  centre  u  and  distance  u  d,  equal  to  the 
former,  describe  the  opposite  arc  kl;  with  the  centres  i,  f, 
0,  H,  describe  the  arcs  k  r,  p  q,  no,  and  l  m  ;  and,  lastly, 
with  the  centres  v  and  t,  descrHie  the  arcs  qr  and  m  n,  at 
the  extremity  of  the  longer  axis  ;  and  AC  b  d  is  the  repre- 
sentation passing  through  the  twelve  points  a,  q,  p,  c,  o,  n, 
B,  M,  L,  D,  K,  B,  as  required. 

This  method  ditiers  so  little  from  a  true  ellipsis,  that  it 
may  be  used  in  preference  to  any  instrument  for  describing 
the  curves  of  very  large  arches  of  bridges,  and  in  finding 
the  joints  of  the  stones,  as  w'as  the  practice  of  the  celebrated 
French  engineer  Perronet. 

Another  method  of  describing  ati  ellijisis,  by  means  of  an 
instrument,  constructed  upon  the  princijile  of  the  oval  turning 
lathe. — As  we  have  never  seen  any  investigation  of  this 
method,  upon  simple  principles,  the  Author  offers  the 
fiillowing  to  the  public,  which  has  only  been  given  in  his 
Mechanical  Exercises. 

Definition. —  If  there  be  any  plane  figure,  and  two  inflex- 
ible straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other;  and  if  the 
plane  be  fixed  to  an  axis  at  right  angles  thereto;  and  if 
the  two  inflexible  lines  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  plane, 
and  be  so  moveable  on  its  surface,  that  one  of  them,  which 
we  shall  call  the  primary  line,  may  always  pass  through  two 
lived  points  in  the  plane,  and  through  the  point  where  the 
plane  is  intersected  by  the  axis;  and  if  the  other  transverse 
ine  be  made  to  pass  or  slide  along  a  given  point,  which  is  not 


attached  to  the  plane,  but  would  remain  stationary.  i-:i- 
thciugh  the  plane  were  in  motion  :  and  if  a  secondary  ■  a  •■ 
be  fixed  to  the  inflexible  lines  parallel  to  the  piiii.ar\  ph.nc-  ; 
then  if  the  axis  be  carried  round  while  the  puint  in  li.e 
transverse  line  is  at  rest,  the  priiiuiry  pl.me  will  alsn  1  c 
carried  round,  and  every  point  in  it  will  describe  the  circnm 
ference  of  a  circle  :  the  secondary  plane  will  likewise  he 
carried  round,  and  perform  its  revolutions  in  the  same  linu' 
as  the  primary  plane  and  the  axis,  but  being  immovcably 
fixed  to  the  rectangular  lines,  they  will  cause  it  to  have  both 
a  progressive  and  retrogressive  motion,  in  the  direction  of 
the  primary  line,  in  each  revolution;  and,  lastly,  if  anoiher 
point  at  rest  be  held  to  the  surface  of  the  secondary  plane 
while  in  motion,  it  will  either  describe  an  ellipsis,  a  circh-,  or 
a  straight  line.  Hence  the  describing  point  will  always  be 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  centre,  or  point  where  the  axis 
intersects  the  primary  plane. 

The  eccentricity  of  the  ellipsis,  or  the  difll-rence  of  the 
axis,  will  be  double  the  distance  between  the  stationary  point 
in  the  transverse  line  and  the  axis. 

Instead  of  the  stationary  point,  a  circle  may  be  placed  with 
its  centre  in  this  point,  and  its  plane  perpendicular  to  th(! 
axis,  and  instead  of  the  inflexible  line  moving  backward  and 
forward  upon  two  fixed  points  in  the  plane,  the  diametrically 
opposite  parts  of  the  circumference  may  always  touch  a  jiair 
of  parallel  lines  on  the  revolving  plane. 

Illustrations. — Figure  15.  Let  A  B  and  E  F,  No.  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5.  6,  7,  8,  be  the  two  inflexible  lines  intersecting  each 
other  in  i,  at  right  angles,  and  let  c  d  be  the  two  fixed  points. 
Let  A  B  be  denominated  the  primary  line,  and  e  f  the  secon 
dary  line,  and  let  the  lines  a  b  and  e  f  at  right  angles,  taken 
as  a  whole,  be  called  a  transverse  ;  also,  let  c  represent  a  pri- 
mary point,  and  let  the  describing  point  be  taken  at  g,  in  the 
line  drawn  through  c  d  produced  ;  now,  in  all  positions  of 
the  chuck,  the  primary  fine  a  b  is  always  upon  the  point  c, 
and  E  F  upon  d.  Having  premised  this  in  general,  suppose, 
before  the  machine  begins  to  start,  that  e  f,  No.  1,  the 
secondary  line,  coincides  with  e  g,  and   the  point  g  with  o, 

0  being  in  the  plane  of  the  figure  to  be  described  ;  then 
because  a  b  always  passes  through  c,  the  points  i  and  c  will 
be  coincident,  a  b  being  then  at  right  angles  to  e  f.  Let  us 
now  suppose  the  motion  to  commence,  and  let  it  perform  an 
eighth  part  of  a  revolution,  as  at  No.  2,  the  describing  point 
G,  still  remaining  in  the  same  position  with  respect  to  c 
and  D,  viz.,  in  the  right  line  coo;  then  the  point  o  will  be 
at  a  distance  from  the  point  g,  and  a  part,  g  o,  of  the  curve 
will  be  described  by  the  fixed  point  g,  and  the  point  i  will  be 
above  the  line  c  d  g  ;  now  let  the  motion  proceed,  and 
describe  another  eighth,  as  at  No.  3,  then,  the  point  o  being 
always  in  the  line  e  f  produced,  e  f  will  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  fixed  line  c  d  g,  and  a  b  coincident  w  ith  c  d  g  and  the 
point  which  was  last  at  g,  will  now  be  at  i.  In  like  manner, 
when  anf)ther  eighth  has  been  performed,  as  at  No.  4,  the 
point  o  has  performed  three-eighths  of  a  revolution,  the  point 

1  is  in  a  line  drawn  from  the  point  c  perpendicular  to  the 
fixed  line  c  D  G,  and  the  point  2,  which  was  at  g,  in  No.  3, 
is  situated  between  1  and  o.  In  this  manner,  by  continuing 
the  motion,  the  whole  curve  will  be  generated.  No.  5  sht^ws 
the  curve  when  half  a  revolution  has  been  described  ;  No.  (5, 
five-eighths;  No.  7,  six-eighths,  or  three-quarters;  and  No.  8, 
seven-eighths. 

Here  it  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  angles  per- 
formed by  the  revolution  of  the  machine,  are  very  difltient 
from  the  corresponding  angles,  formed  by  lines  drawn  from 
the  centre  of  the  ellipsis  to  the  describing  point,  and  to  the 
extremitv  of  the  curve  at  its  commencement. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  easy  to  conceive,  that  the 


ELL 

operation  of  elliptic  turning  is  nothing  more  than  that  of 
the  ellipsograph,  or  coinmon  trammel,  with  this  dilR-rence 
that  m  the  ..j.eration  of  turning,  the  ellipsis  is  described  bv 
moving  the  plane,  and  keeping  tlu-,  point  steady,  but  in  fonn- 
ing  the  curve  by  the  ellipsograph,  the  plane  of  descrintion  is 
kept  steady,  while  the  point  is  in  molion.  The  transverse 
A  B  E  F  IS  the  same  as  the  grooves  in  the  trammel-cross  and 
the  line _c  DO  the  trammel-rod  :  here  the  cross  and  plane  of 
description  move  round  together,  but  fixed  to  each  other,  and 
the  tramniel-rod  CDO  is  held  still  or  imraoveably  confined  ■ 
m  the  trammel,  the  board  and  cross  are  fixed  together,  and 
held  while  the  trammel-rod  CDo  moves  with  the  points  c 
and  D  111  the  grooves. 

To  set  this  machine,  therefore,  it  is  only  to  make  cd  equal 
to  the  ditlercnce  ot  the  axes. 

F>,,„re  I6.-N0.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  show  the  relation  between 
the  foregoing  diagrams  and  the  chuck.     Let  klmn  be  the 
face  o    a  board  representing  the  plane,  which  is  fixed  to  the 
axis  o    the  machine;  and  let  opqr  be  another  board,  made 
to  slide  in  the  board  klmn:    each  two  points,  o  and  k 
Land  p,  M  and  q,  n  and  r,  coinciding  at  this  moment,  klm.v 
will  therefore  represent  a  wide  groove  in  the  board;  as  this 
groove  may  be  of  any  width,  we  may  conceive  the  breadth 
to  be  very  small,  or  nothing;   it  may  therefore  be  represented 
by  a  groove   or  by  the  line  a  b  parallel   to  kn  and  l  m,  and 
m  the  iniddle  of  the  distance  between  them.    Instead  of  sup- 
posing the  point  D  always  moving  backward  and  forward  on 
tlie  line  e  k,  we  may  suppose  a  circle,  or  the  end  of  a  lar-e 
cylindnc  pin,  moving  in  a  very  wide  groove,  t  uy  w,  across 
the  slides  OPQK.     Now,  all  the  differences  between  these 
diagrams  and    those   in   the   former   Plate,   are   only    wide 
grooves  in  place  of  lines  passing  longitudinally  through  the 
midd  e:  for  the  line  ab  is  always  conceived  to  move  reci- 
procally from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  board  klmn- 
and  It  IS  the  same  thing  whether  one  straight  line  slide  Ion' 
gitudinally  upon  another  fixed  line,  or  whether  a  bar  of  any 
breadth  move  in  a  groove  of  the  same  breadth,  or  whether 
a  straight  line  in  reciprocal  motion  always  pass  throuirh  two 
nxed  points.  '^ 

No.  1  shows  the  chuck,  as  in  the  first  diagram  of  the  last 
Plate  :  No.  3  as  No.  2,  No.  3  as  No.  3,  and^\o.  4  as  No  4 
of  the  said  Plate.  Any  farther  explanation  is  conceived'  to 
be  unnecessary. 

Problem  -l.—An  elllp,is,  a  b  d  c,  being  given,  to  find  the 
transverse  and  conjugate  axes. 

Draw  any  two  parallel  lines  a  d  and  c  d,  cuttin<r  the 
ellipsis  at  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d;  bisect  a  b  at  e,  and  c  D°at  /• 
draw  G  efh,  cutting  the  curve  at  o  and  11;  bisect  gh  at  / 
wliich  gives  the  centre;  from  i,  with  any  radius  that  will 
cut  the  curve,  describe  a  circle,  k  I  n  m,  and  join  k  I  and  m  n  ■ 
bisect  kl,  or  m  n,  at  o  or  p,  and  draw  qoipii,  meeting  the 
curve  in  q  and  r  :  then  q  r  is  the  greater  axis ;  draw  s  t  at 
right  angles  therewith,  meeting  the  curve  in  s  and  t  and 
ST  will  be  the  lesser  axis.  ' 

Problem  3. — Aug  diameter,  a  b,  being  given,  and  an  ordi- 
nate c  D,  to  find  the  conjugate  diameter  of  the  ellipsis. 

Draw  c  i  perpendicular  to  a  b  ;  bisect  a  b  in  f,  and  draw 
FH  parallel  to  cd;  on  f,  with  the  distance  fa,  or  fb, 
describe  the  semi-circle  aib,  cutting  ci  at  i;  make  af.  equal 
to  c  I,  and  draw  e  g  parallel  and  equal  to  c  d  ;  through  o 
and  a,  draw  ah,  cutting  fh  at  11,  then  f  h  is  the  semi^con- 
jugatc  diameter. 

This  problem  is  useful  in  perspective,  in  the  representation 
of  the  circle:  for,  having  the  representation  of  a  diameter  of 
the  circle  perpendicular  to  the  intersecting  line,  and  the 
representation  of  a  diameter  of  the  circle  parallel  to  it, 
the  former  representative  diameter  of  the  circle  will   be  a 


368 


ELL 


diameter  of  the  ellipsis,  and  the  latter  will  be  a  double  ordi- 
nate of  the  same;  find  ihe  conjugate  diameter  by  this  pro- 
blem ;  then,  having  the  two  conjugate  diameters,"  the  curve 
n.ay  be  described  as  in  Method  XI;  or  the  a.xis  may  be 
toiind  as  in  the  next  problem,  and  thence  this  curve 
described. 

Problem  4.—Ang  two  conjugate  diameters,  a  b  and  c  D 
beiug  given,  to  find  the  axis.  ' 

Through  D  draw  ef  parallel  to  ab,  and  d  i  perpendicular 
to  EF  ;  make  d  i  equal  to  M  a,  or  m  b  ;  with  the  radius  i  d 
describe  from  i  the  arc  ^r  d /,  and  join  i  m,  which  bisect  hv 
a  perpendicular,  meeting  the  tangent  e  f  at  n  ;  with  the 
distance  Ni  describe  from  n  a  semi-circle,  eif;  join  em  and 
FM,  which  produce  to  h  and  k;  and  join  19E  and  i/f- 
paralleJ  to  i m,  draw  /l  and  go,  cutting  h  e  and  kf  at  o  and 
l;  make  m  h  equal  to  m  g,  and  m  k  equal  to  m  l  ;  then  will 
o  II  and  K  L  be  the  two  axes  required. 

In  like  manner,  if  g  h  had  been  a  diameter,  its  conjugate 
would  have  been  thus  found  :  produce  h  g  to  e,  and  join 
Ei;  draw  ev  at  right  angles  to  ei;  then  draw  a  g,  and 
comph'te  the  rest  as  before. 

This  problem  may  be  readily  applied  in  perspective;  for 
by  the  last  problem,  two  conjugate  diameters  will  be  found 
and  having  the  two  diameters,  the  axes  may  be  found  by 
this,  and  the  curve  be  described  geometrically  bv  an  elliptic 
compass,  or  by  traversing  the  curve  with  an  iVorv,  paste- 
board, or  strong  paper  slip. 

Problem  &.—An  ellipsis  and  its  foci  f  and  o  being  given 
to  draw  a  tangent  through  a  given  point,  11,  in  the  curve 

Join  FIT  and  g  u,  and  produce  the  latter  to  i ;  bisect  the 
angle  i  h  by  the  straight  line  l  ii,  and  l  h  is  a  tangent  to  the 
curve.  ° 

_  This  problem  is  very  useful  in  masonry,  for  findin<r  the 
joints  of  elliptic  arches.  Thus,  find  a  tanye.it  in  the  curve 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  joint,  and  from  the" point  of  contact' 
draw  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  tangent;  and  the  line  thus 
drawn  wnl  be  the  joint. 

Problem  G.— Two  conjugate  diameters,  ab  and  c  d,  and 
the  centre,  u,  being  given,  to  draw  two  tangents  to  the  ellipsis 
fom  a  given  2>'nnt,  e,  without  the  curve.  ' 

First,  let  the  point  e  be  in  d  c,  produced;  make  h  i  equal 
to  H  c,  and  join  i  e  ;  through  c  draw  c  k,  parallel  to  i  e   cut- 
ting H  A  m  K  ;  make  h  l  equal  to  h  k,  and  through  l  draw  f  g 
parallel  to  a  b  ;  find  the  extreme  points  f  and  g,  by  Problem  3 
and  draw  e  f  and  e  g,  which  are  the  tangents  required.  ' 

But  if  the  point  e  be  in  neither  of  the  diameters,  a  b  or  c  d 
when  produced,  draw  a  line  from  the  given  point  E,throu(rh 
the  centre,  so  as  to  be  terminated  by  the  curve;  and  the  por- 
tion  thus  intersected  will  be  a  diameter;  then  find  a  conju.-ate 
to  this  diameter,  as  in  Problem  4. 

This  problem  will  be  very  useful  in  the  perspective  repre- 
sentation of  a  cone,  for  drawing  the  contour  of  the  sides  with 
the  utmost  exactness;  the  diameters  being  found  by  (he  pre- 
ceding problem. 

Problem  7. — To  describe  an  ellipsis  sijnillir  to  a  given  one 
A  BCD,  through  a  given  point,  p,  having  the  same  centre,  and 
the  axes  in  the  same  lines. 

If  the  two  axes,  a  d  and  b  c,  are  not  given,  find  them  as 
in  Problem  4 ;  and  the  point  e,  where  they  intersect,  is  the 
centre;  through  the  given  point  p,  draw  f  e,  to  meet  the 
curve  m  f;  join  af  and  fb;  parallel  to  fa  draw  pg  cut- 
tmg  A  E  at  o  ;  aixi  parallel  to  f  b  dr.iw  p  h,  cutting  e  b  at  h; 
then  will  EG  be  the  greater  semi-axis,  and  eh  the  lesser 
semi-axis. 

Problem  8. —  Through  the  angular  points,  abcd,  of  a 
given  rectangle,  to  circumscribe  an  ellipsi.i,  which  shall  have 
its  axes  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  sides  of  the  rectangle. 


IKIJLIiPSIS 


Prol     3 


jjratyn   hv  f'A'tchol'i 


ErufHyB  r/>ew. 


ELL 


360 


ELL 


Draw  the  diagonals  a  c.  and  b  d,  cutting  each  other  at  s, 
the  centre ;  througli  s  draw  e  f  and  o  ii,  respectively  parallel 
to  A  B  and  A  D ;  upon  s,  with  the  radius  s  i,  equal  to  the  half 
of  A  D  or  B  c,  describe  the  quadrant  i  k  l,  cutting  e  f  at  l  ; 
bisect  the  arc  i  k  l  at  k,  and  through  k  draw  m  n  parallel  to 
K  F,  cutting  the  diagonal  b  d  at  n  ;  join  i  n,  and  through  b 
draw  B  G  parallel  to  it,  cutting  o  ii  at  o,  and  make  s  n  equal 
to  s  o ;  join  n  o,  and  through  b  draw  b  f  parallel  to  it, 
cutting  K  F  at  F ;  make  s  e  equal  to  s  f,  and  e  f  and  a  h  are 
the  two  axes ;  then  the  curve  may  be  described  by  any  of  the 
methods  shown  in  IVoblcm  1. 

Problem  9. — A  trapezium,  a  b  c  D,  being  given,  to  inscribe 
an  el/ipsis  therein. 

Produce  the  sides  b  a  and  c  d  to  q  ;  also  the  sides  a  d  and 
B  c  to  R  ;  draw  the  diagonals  a  c  and  b  d,  meeting  each  other 
at  F  ;  through  f  draw  R  i  ii,  cutting  the  sides  of  the  trapezium 
at  1  and  h  ;  also,  through  f  draw  q  e  o,  cutting  the  other  two 
sides  of  the  trapezium  in  e  and  o ;  bisect  i  h  at  n,  and  e  g  at 
M  ;  draw  Q  N  p  and  R  M  p ;  join  l  p,  to  whieh  produce  K : 
make  p  k  equal  to  p  i ;  draw  o  l  parallel  to  c  d,  cutting  i  k  at 
L  :  then  I  K  is  a  diameter  bisected  by  p,  the  centre,  and  l  g  is 
an  ordinate. 

This  prolilem  might  have  been  constructed,  as  in  the 
Principles  (see  Vol.  I.  Problems  xvm.  xix.  and  xx.)  by 
having  one  of  the  points  of  contact  given  ;  but  it  is  here 
much  simplified,  and  reduced  into  one  problem,  by  which  it 
is  much  better  adapted  to  perspective. 

Problem   10. —  To  find  the    area    of  any   seginent  of  an 
ellipsis. — Let  t  =  the  greater  axis, 
c  =  the  lesser, 
y  =  D  H,  the  ordinate, 
and  2  =  A  D,  the  abscissa. 

c 
Then  by  the  property  of  the  curve,  we  have  y  = X  x 


(a  x—x'Y  but  -  X  i  (a  ar— x')     is 


a    fourth    proportional 


to  t,  c,  and  x  (a  x — x')     for  t  :  c  :  :  x  {a  x—x'') 


c 


i. 


{a  x—x'')  ;  and  since  x  {a  x—x''Y  is  known  to  be  the 
lluxion  of  the  semi-segment  of  the  circumscribing  semi-circle 
a  e  b,  (see  the  article  Segment  ;)  therefore,  as  the  transverse 
axis,  or  the  diameter  of  the  circumscribing  circle,  is  to  the 
conjugate,  or  diameter  of  the  inscribed  circle,  so  is  the  area 
of  the  semi-segment  of  the  circle  to  the  area  of  the  elliptic 
segment  a  h  d  ;  but  the  ordinate  f  d  of  the  circle  is  to  the 
ordinate  h  d  of  the  ellipsis,  as  the  diameter  of  the  circum- 
scribing circle  is  to  the  diameter  of  the  inscribing  circle ; 
therefore,  circular  and  elliptic  segments  upon  the  same  base, 
and  between  the  same  parallels,  are  to  one  another  as  their 
bases,  when  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipsis  is  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  circumscribing  circle. 

It  is  therefore  evident,  that,  whether  we  know  the  specific 
measure  of  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipsis,  or  the  diameter  of 
the  circumscribing  circle,  or  not,  we  still  can  obtain  the  area 
of  the  elliptic  segment,  by  a  circular  segment;  provided  it 
be  known,  that  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipsis  is  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  circle.  In  architecture,  this  circumstance  is 
frequently  known :  suppose,  for  example,  that  in  a  groin, 
one  side  is  the  segment  of  a  circle,  and  the  other  the  segment 
of  an  ellipsis;  it  follows,  from  the  construction  of  the  groin, 
that  both  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  circular  side,  and  the 
vertical  axis  of  the  elliptic  side,  are  equal ;  and  therefore,  if 
the  width  of  each  side  of  the  groin,  -which  is  the  chord  of  its 
arc,  be  given,  and  the  height  of  the  arch,  we  have  nothing 
more  to  do  than  to  find  the  area  of  the  circular  section  or 
side,  and    the   area  of  the   elliptic   side  will  be    found   by 

47 


the  rule  of  proportion.     For  practical  use,  take  the  following 
rule  : 

First. —  To  measvre  the  circular  segment. — To  two-thirds 
of  the  area  of  the  base,  multiplied  by  the  height,  add  the 
cube  of  the  height,  divided  by  tw  ice  the  base  of  the  segment, 
and  the  sum  is  very  nearly  the  area  of  the  circular  segment ; 
then  To  find  the  area  of  the  elliptic  segment,  say,  As  the 
chord  of  the  circle  is  to  the  chord  of  the  ellipsis,  so  is  the 
area  of  the  circular  segment  to  the  area  of  the  elliptic 
segment. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  of  the  elliptic  end  of  a  groin 
which  rises  5  feet,  and  extends  at  its  base  15  feet,  supposing 
the  base  of  the  circular  end  to  be  18  feet? 

2  X  15  =  30,  twice  the  length  of  the  segment. 
18  5 

15  5 


90 

18 

3)270 


25 
5 


3,0)12,5 


90 
90 


4.166,  &c. 


180  two-thirds  of  the  product  of  the  base  and  height. 
4.166  cube  of  the  height,  divided  by  twice  the  basa 


184.166  area  of  the  circular  eegment. 


Then  18  :  15 


184.166 
15 

920830 
184166 

18)2762490(  153.471  tlie'  area  of  the  eUipUc  segment 
18 


96 
90 


62 
54 


84 
72 


129 
126 

.30 
18 

12 

To  have  wrought  this  example  according  to  the  series, 
would  have  been  too  operose  for  practical  purposes. 

The  above  method  for  finding  the  area  of  the  segment  of 
a  circle,  was  discovered,  or  invented,  by  the  author,  in  the 
year  1794,  and  published  in  his  Principles,  in  1795. 

It  is  evident,  that  whatever  takes  place  in  the  segment, 
must  also  occur  through  the  whole  curve ;  therefore,  in  an 
ellipsis  having  its  greater  axis  ecjual  to  the  diameter  of  a 
circle,  it  will  be.  As  the  diameter  of  the  circle  is  to  the  lesser 
axis  of  the  ellipsis,  so  is  the  area  of  the  circle  to  the  area  of 
the  ellipsis. 


ELL 


370 


ELL 


Exiimple. — What  is  the  area  of  an  ellipsis,  the  greater  axis 
of  which  is  24,  and  the  lesser  18  \ 

24 
24 


96 

48 


576 

.7854 

2304 

2880 
4(508 
4032 

452.  3904  the  area  of  the  ciicumscribing  circle. 


Therefore  24  :  18  :  :  452.3904 

18 


30191232 
4523904 


24)8143.0272(339.2928  the  elliptic  area. 

7>2 


94 
72 


223 
216 


70 

48 

222 
216 


67 

48 

192 
192 


JJut  the  proportion  of  18  to  24,  is  as  4  to  3 :  therefore  tlie 
above  might  have  l)een  considerably  abiidged  ;  we  were, 
however,  desirous  of  working  the  operation  at  full  Icnjxth, 
as  would  unavoidably  happi-n  in  case  of  incommensurable 
numbers,  in  order  to  eonipaie  it  with  the  following  ope- 
rations. 

Now  let  us  try  whether  we  cannot  find  a  more  practical 
rule  for  the  area  of  an  entire  ellipsis,  than  that  above. 

Let/?  (P  be  the  area  of  a  circle  circumscribing  an  ellipsis, 
where 
p  =  .7854,  and  d  =  the  diameter  of  the  circle  or 
greater  axis  of  the  ellipsis, 
and  c  =  the  conjugate,  or  shorter  axis; 

I?  u     C 

then  we  have  d  :  c  :  :  p  (P  :  ■ — -i —  =:  p  d  c  the  area  of  the 

entire  ellipsis;  we  have  therefire  the  following  neat  rule. 

Multiply  the  two  axes  together,  and  the  product  by  .7854, 
and  this  second  product  will  be  the  area. 

Suppose  now,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  that  we  take  the 
former  example,  viz.,  the  greater  axis  24,  and  I'he  lesser  18. 


24 

18 

192 

24 

432 

7854 

1728 

2 

1()0 

34 

56 

302 

4 

339  .  2928  area  of  the  ellipsis. 

In  the  saine  m;inner,  may  the  hiilf  or  the  quarter,  be 
foiuid,  viz.,  by  multiplying  the  two  dimensions  together,  and 
the  product  by  .7854. 

Example. — In  a  semi-ellipsis  upon  the  greater  axis.  Let 
the  greater  axis  be  24,  as  above,  and  the  lesser  semi-axis  9, 
the  area  is  required. 

24  .7854 

9  216 


216 


4 

7124 

7 

854 

157 

08 

1()9.04(;4  =  the  area  of  the 
semi  -  ellipsis,  which  is  half  of  the  entire  area  before 
shown. 

Exdinjile  in  a  quadrant. — Let  the  greater   semi-axis   be 
12,  and  the  lesser  semi-axis  9,  the  area  is  required. 
12  .7854 

9  108 


108 


6  2832 
78  540 


84.  8232  the  area  of  the  (]uad- 

rant  of  the  ellipsis,  being  one  i|uartcr  of  the  area  of  the  entire 

ellipsis,  in  the  foregoing  example.     The  area  of  an  ellipsis  is 

a  mean  pro|iortional  between  the  area  of  the  circumscribing 

and  inscribing  circle. 

For  p  P  is  the  area  of  the  circumscribing  circle  ;  and  7>  c' 

is  the  area  of  the  inscribing  circle: 

;>'  /'  c* 

Now  p  P  :  p  t  c  :  :  p  t  c  : 5 —  =  ^  e' ;  and  therefore 

p  t 

the  proposition  is  manifest. 

To  find  the  periphery  of  an  ellipsis. 

Let  a  =  the  greater  .semi-axis  a  c  ; 
c  =  the  lesser  semi  axis; 

X  =  the  distance  c  d  from  the  centre,  the  abscissa; 
y  ^  D  II,  the  ordinate  ; 
z  =  E  F,  the  arc: 
then  will   a  v  =  a  —  x  and   v  o  =  a  +  x,  therefore  a  d 


X    i>  o 


a  +  a;  X  a 


Then  by  the  property  of  the  ellipsis, 


A  c   or  c  B 


:  A  D  X  n  n 


D  II' 

-x' 


that  is 

y 


consequently  y' 
and  therefore  \j  -. 


')\ 


ELL                                          3 

ri                                      ELL 

and         y  =  — ; -?     Therefore  z  = 

a{a—x') 

Therefore  2 ) .  36  =  rf 
2).  18 

.09 
3 

.27 

.36=:rf 

162 

81 

1 

=  D 

substituting  rf  for j —  in  this  last  expression 

we  obtain     V  . ,,  .  "    for  the  value  of  z.     But 

x{<r  —  dx^)h       ax\\  -      a'   1                  ax        , 

(■  -  '-^f 

Then  by  throwing   the  factor  (1  —   -5-)^  into  an  infinite 

,     .                     ax,               /,          d  x'' 
series,    we    obtain    z    =  ^^,  _  ^^^l      X       ^1          ^  ^, 

7  —  ^   .    .    ,    „      1     But    the    fluent   of  — 1 

2.4  a*         2.4.6  a«  &c./                                        (a=  -  x')^ 

is  equal  to  the  corresponding  arc,  b  f,  of  the  circumscribing 
circle.     Therefore,  taking  a  equal  to  the  circular  arc,  we 

.       ,     .            ^                       «/               d^                 3  (/' 
obtain  the  fluent  of  z  =  a— b  ;r— j— c-—— ^— d— — -- — - 

2a'         2.4  a*          2.4.6  a' 

0'  .v  -  X  (a-  -  i')l               3  a'  B  -  x'  (rt^  -  x'') 
where  n  = C  = —> - 

5  a  c  -  x'  {o'-x')l         '  I,          ^            , 

D  =  — ^— ' ^  &c.,  but  when  x  becomes  =  a, 

1  " 
then  (0'— .c')2  =  0,  consequently  the  values  b,  c,  d,  become 
only  as  follows,  viz., 

a' 

B    =    -A 

Sa''          3  a'        a'                 3  a* 
^-     4''-     4    X    2   X"  =  2.4^ 

5fi'          5  a'      3  a'       a'                  3.5  a» 
''-     6^-     6^4X2    X  ^  =  2.4.6^ 

Those  values  being  substituted  in  the  above  series,  give 

the   quadrant    .    -    a    X     (l          ^.2            2.2.4.4 

3.3.5  d'    \  ,          ^^         ^              .                      d 
2.2.4.4.6.6) '^'-      ^°^    ^y    I^""'"g    =    =    2.2'"  - 
Sd'                     3.3.5c^ 

4). 0972 

4 ) . 0243 

.  006075  =  A  4-4^  =  B 
3           *■'* 

. 018225 
5 

.091125 

.36  =  i 

546750 
273375 

6 ) . 03280500 

6 ) . 00546750 

.00091125  =  B^'*''  =  o 
5            ^-^ 

. 00455625 

7 

, 03189375 

.36  =  rf 

19136250 
9568125 

8). 01 14817500 
8). 00143521875 

.  00017940234375  =  c   ^'  ^    = 

rj                     0.0 

2.2.4.4'°-2.2.4.4.6.6,*"'-  ^^"^  "'^t'""  -   -  ^  X 
/.         rf           l.S.rf         3.5.rf        5.7.fA  „ 

^1        ,,,        B      ^5            c     ^.^           D     gj      j&c.     Ihcre- 

fore,  to  find  the  circumference  of  an  ellipsis,  we  have  the 
following 

Rule.  Multiply  the  circumference  of  the  circumscribing 

circle  by  the  sum  of  the  infinite  series  1  —  — -  —  b  —^-~- 

3.5.(f        5.7.rf    , 

C      g.,              D      g,        ,&c. 

Example. — Required    the    periphery   of  an    ellipsis,  the 
transverse  axis  of  which  is  50,  and  the  conjugate  40   then 

.  00125581640625 
9 

.01130234705625 

.36  =  rf 

678140859.3750 
3390704290875 

.  0040688451562500 

ELL 


372 


ELL 


10  )  . 0040G8845 1562500 

10 ). 0004068845156250 

.0000400884515625 
9 


7.9d 

D  =  E 


10.10 


.  0003661960640625 
11 

.  0040281567046875 
.36 

0241689402281250 
120844701140625 

12  ) . 001450136413687500 

12) . 000120844701140625 

.  00001007039176171875  =  e 
11 

.  0001 1077430937890625 
13 


9.11(1 

12.12 


33232292813671875 
11077430937890625 

. 00144006602192578125 
.36 

00864039613155468750 
432019806577734375 

4 ) .  0005184237678932812500 

7  ) .  0001296059419733203125 

7).  00001 85151345676171875 

• 11.13rf 

.  0000026450192239453125  =  f   .  .    .  .-  =  g 


14.  14 


Therefore,  these  terms  collected,  are  as  follow  : 

A  =  .  09 

B  =  .  000075 

c  =  .00091125 

D  —  .00017940234375 

E  —  .0000406884515625 

F  =  .00001007039176171875 

o  =  .  00000264.'')019.i239453125 

Therefore      .0972190562062981640625  =  the  sum  of 
the  negative  terms,  which  therefore  boing  taken  from  1. 
. 0972 19056206298 1 640625 


leaves 
the  series. 


.  9027809437937018359375  for  the  sum  of 


Therefore  .  90278  0943 
50 

45.1390  47150 
3.1416 

270  8312  8290 
451  3904  715 
18055  6188  00 
4  5139  0471  5 
13541114145 

141.80883052  64400  =  the  periphery  of  the 
ellipsis  required. 


But  as  this  rule  would  be  much  too  laborious  for  practice, 
we  must  content  ourselves  with  some  easy  method  of 
approximation  :  It  will  be  very  serviceable,  however,  in 
comparing  the  results  obtained  by  such  approximations, 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  dependence  th:it  may  be 
put  on  them.  Let  us  therefore  try  the  following  Kule,  for 
the  periphery  of  the  whole,  the  half,  or  the  quadrant  of  the 
curve. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  half  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  two  axes  by  3.1416,  and  the  product  will  be 
the  circumference,  nearly. 

Eiample. — Let  the  greater  axis  be  50,  and  the  lesser  40, 
as  before :  the  entire  periphery  is  required. 


50 

40 

50 

40 

2500 

1600 

1600 

2)4100 

20.50  ( 

45.27692,  the  root. 

16 

85  ) . 450 

425 

902).  2500 
1804 


9047  ) .  69600 
63329 


90546). 627100 
543276 


905529  ) .  8382400 
8149761 


9055382  ) .  23263900 
18110704 


.5153136 

45.2  7692 
3.1416 

271  6  6152 

452  7  692 
1  81107  68 
4  5276  9  2 
135.8307  6 

142.2419  7  1872 

The  above,  though  agreeing  only  in  the  two  first  places  of 
fi<Tnres,  is  sufficiently  near  for  most  practical  purposes  in  inea- 
siiiing';  the  diil'crciice  in  four  places  of  ligures  is  only  four 
mors  than  the  truth. 

The  investigation  of  this  rule  is  as  follows: 
Let  t  =  the  greater  axis, 
and  c  =:  the  lesser, 

then  p  (—■ H"--)^  expresses  the  rule  ; 


EMB 


3^3 


EMB 


m'="(^^/ 

aii'l  since  rf  =  1 r- 

c'  1  -  rf 

we  nave  - — i  =  — - — 
2?  2 

therefc>re  p  t  (l-  +  ~y  ^  p  i  ^^  +  ^—^  =  p  t 

V  ~  '^1  ~ P  '  V  ~  ¥ ~ ¥7\~ ¥^~ ¥'.\&l 

&:c.  =  the  periphery  ;  but  the  true  periphery  z=  p  t 

/,  ^  3(f  3.3.5f/'\.        ^        ..        . 

(1  -  gT  -  -2\4r  ~  ¥.^V  Now  this  series  agree.s 

with  the  former  in  the  first  and  second  terms,  and  differs  in 

d' 
the  third  only  —  ;  the  rule  is  therefore  an  approximation. 

The  rule  now  delivered  is  still  too  long  for  practical  uses  ; 
let  us  therefore  try  the  following  : 

Rule. — Multiply  the  half  sum  of  the  two  axes  by  3.1416, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  periphery,  nearly. 

Exiimple. — The   same   still    as    the   preceding,    viz.,    50 
and  40. 

50  3.1416 

40  45 


2)90 


45 


15  7080 
125  664 


141.3720  the  periphery. 

This  rule  is  exceedingly  easy,  and  sufficiently  near  for  all 
practical  purposes,  where  the  eccentricity  of  the  ellipsis  is 
not  very  great.  It  gives  the  periphery  nearly  as  much  below 
the  truth  as  the  preceding  rule  is  above  ;  and,  consequently, 
where  great  accuracy  is  required,  if  the  result  be  found  by 
both  methods,  the  half  sum  will  be  exceedingly  near.  To 
show  this  by  an  example : 

The  result  by  the  first  rule     142.241971 

The  result  by  the  last  rule      141.3720 


2)283.613971 


The  half  sum  of  both  141.806985  which  is  very 
near  the  truth,  as  it  agrees  in  five  places  of  figures  with  the 
result  bf  the  series. 

ELLIPSOGRAPH,  an  instrument  usually  constructed  of 
brass,  for  describing  a  semi-ellipsis  at  one  movement  of  the 
index.     See  Ellipsis,  Problem,  1,  Method  3. 

ELLIPSOID,  a  solid,  generated  by  revolving  a  semi- 
ellipsis  round  either  of  its  a.xes.  This  solid  is  understood 
by  some  to  be  the  same  as  spheroid.     See  Spheroid. 

Elliptic  Arch,  a  portion  of  the  curve  of  an  ellipsis, 
employed  as  an  arch.  This  curve  has  some  advantages  over 
circular  arcs,  in  bridge-building,  as  it  leaves  a  greater  space 
at  the  haunches  for  the  passage  of  vessels,  and,  consequently, 
saves  a  considerable  quantity  of  materials  in  the  construc- 
tion. 

Elliptic  Compasses.     See  Ellipsogr.^ph. 

Elliptic  Conoid,  the  same  as  Ellipsoid. 

Elliptic  Winding  Stairs,  a  winding  stair,  having  an 
ellipsis  for  its  plan.     See  Stairs  and  Winding  Stair. 

EMBANKMENT,  a  large  liody,  mound,  or  bank  of  earth, 
constructed  or  thrown  up  in  dilleient  ways,  according  to  cir- 


cumstances. Embankments  are  of  various  kinds,  acerii-iling 
to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  desigjied,  as  Railway 
Emuankments,  which  carry  a  line  of  railway  over  valievs 
and  low  ground  at  the  elevation  reiiuircd  for  the  level  of  the 
rails  ;  Canal  Embankments,  for  confining  the  water  of  a 
canal  or  reservoir,  or  upon  which  a  canal -or  aqueduct  is 
formed  ;  and  Embankments  constructed  with  the  view  of 
guarding,  protecting,  and  defending  lands  on  the  borders  of 
the  sea,  rivers,  and  lakes,  from  being  inundated  and  injured 
by  them,  and  for  reclaiming  lands  from  the  sea. 

We  shall  treat  first  of  the  latter  description  of  embank- 
ments. These  are  of  different  kinds  and  forms,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  situations  and  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  constituted.  In  embanking  against  the  sea  and 
large  rivers,  where  the  slopes  next  them  are  naturally  gentle 
and  easy,  they  are  mostly  of  the  earthy  description,  being 
well  put  together,  and  covered  on  the  surface  with  turf  cut 
from  the  tough  sward  of  the  land  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  but 
in  cases  where  the  banks,  borders,  and  shores,  are  steep  and 
bold,  they  are  usually  of  a  more  hard  and  solid  nature  :  as 
of  stone,  brick,  gravel,  sand,  shells,  and  other  similar  sub- 
stances, laid  closely  in  some  sort  of  tenacious  material,  .-uch 
as  clay  or  mortar,  and  other  matters  of  the  same  quality. 
Timber  is  also  frequently  employed  in  their  construction,  ii; 
a  variety  of  forms. 

In  works  of  this  sort,  very  much  depends  upon  the  form 
in  which  they  are  constructed,  and  the  nature  and  manage- 
ment of  the  materials  made  use  of.  In  respect  to  the  first 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  banks  of  these  kinds  are  com- 
monly constructed  with  too  narrow  bases  for  the  heights 
which  are  given  them  ;  from  which  circumstance,  the  sides 
w  hich  are  opposed  to  the  effects  of  the  water  become  too  steep 
and  upright ;  consequently,  in  cases  of  high  tides  or  floods, 
they  are  utterly  incapable  of  resisting  their  weight,  which  has 
eijually  a  lateial  and  downright  pressure.  Besides  this,  there 
is  another  disadvantage  attending  this  method  of  formini' 
them,  which  is,  that  the  floods,  as  well  as  the  tides,  in  ebbing 
auil  flowing,  have  a  more  continued  action  on  one  part  than 
would  be  the  case,  if  the  slopes  were  more  gentle  and  gradual  : 
consequently,  they  have  a  much  greater  tendency  to  break 
down  and  destroy  the  superficial  parts  of  the  hanks.  With 
some  variations  in  the  forms,  most  of  the  embankments  in 
this  country  are,  however,  made  in  this  way.  They  may 
succeed  in  some  particular  histances ;  but,  in  general,  it  is 
found  that  Ijreaches  are  frequently  taking  place  in  them,  from 
the  eft'ects  of  the  sea  or  floods,  which  are  not  capable  of  being 
tilled  up  or  repaired  without  considerable  difficulty  anil 
trouble  ;  and  which,  if  suffered  to  continue  even  for  a  short 
space  of  time,  endanger  the  whole  embankment. 

'I  he  common  form  of  embankment  is  shown  at  Figure  1, 
and  the  improved  form  pointed  out  at  Figure  2. 

The  angles  or  slopes  of  these  sorts  of  works  aie  made  very 
different  in  various  cases  ;  but  that  shown  in  the  above  figure 
seems,  in  general,  w  ell  calculated  for  the  purpose  of  resisting 
the  impression  of  heavy  tides,  or  the  waters  of  floods.  The 
greater  breadth  they  have,  in  proportion  to  their  height,  the 
more  effectual  they  must  be  in  resisting  the  power  of  the 
waters  which  come  upon  them.  In  regulating  the  heights 
of  embankments,  it  is  necessary  to  asccitain  the  greatest 
depth  of  water  at  the  highest  tides  or  floods  ;  making  the 
summits  of  them  about  two  feet  higher  than  the  points  to 
which  they  rise  at  such  times.  By  some,  a  less  height  than 
this  above  the  highest  mark  of  the  tides  or  floods  has,  how- 
ever,  been  considered  sufficient ;  but  it  is  always  proper  to 
be  on  the  safe  side,  as  the  consequences  of  an  overflow  are 
very  serious. 

In  forming  embankments  with  stones,  or  other  similar 


EMU 


374 


EMB 


materials,  which,  as  has  been  seen,  is  essential  in  bold  steep 
bsiiiks  or  shores,  \l  is  necessary  that  they  be  laid  in  projuT 
materials,  and  be  closely  jointed  next  tlie  sea.  or  the  rivers, 
so  as  to  be  fully  capable  ot"  resislin<;  ihc  entrance  of  water. 
Great  care  is  requisite  in  doing  this,  or  the  bank  will  not 
stand,  for  the  water,  insinuating  itself  between  the  openings, 
will  sink  down  among  the  stones,  softening  and  hjosening  the 
clayey  or  earthy  n)atters  underneath,  by  which  porlitms  of 
them  will  be  forced  out  and  washed  away.  Hollows  being 
formed  in  that  way  below,  the  stones  naturally  sink  down  ; 
and  the  waters,  rushing  into  the  cavities  with  considerable 
iinj)etuosity,  quickly  displaces  others,  and  the  whole  embank- 
ment is  soon  destroy  ed.  This  very  frequently  takes  place 
with  the  heads  thrown  across  rivers,  and  su<h  paved  or  cause- 
wayed banks  as  are  formed  with  the  view  of  protecting  and 
preserving  bold  and  open  shores.  Such  shores  are  especially 
liable  to  be  undermined  and  carried  away  by  the  washing 
opeiatiun  of  the  waters  which  come  against  them.  In  order 
to  render  the  embankments  perfectly  secure  in  such  cases, 
they  should  be  laid  w ith  good  moitar,  and  be  pointed  with 
a  strong  cement.  A  good  coat  of  gravel,  in  some  cases  of 
this  kind,  is  even  found  far  sujierior  to  paving  with  stones. 

It  sometimes  h.ippens  that  rivers,  near  their  mouths,  form 
shallow  estuaries,  and  occupy  much  ground  which  might  be 
usefully  employed.  In  this  case,  an  entirely  new  outlet  may 
sometimes  be  made,  through  which  the  river  may  at  once 
discharge  itself  into  the  sea  ;  and  the  whole  course  will, 
probably,  be  soon  filled  up  by  the  deposition  of  soil  and  mud 
brought  in  by  the  tides  ;  for  it  is  the  current  which  clears 
the  channel,  and  when  this  is  taken  aw'ay  the  channel  soon 
fills  up.  In  the  course  of  a  short  time  the  old  mouth  of  the 
river  will  be  so  filled  up  as  scarcely  to  admit  the  tide  ;  and 
an  embankment  across  it  may  lay  a  large  fertile  track  of 
land  quite  dry. 

In  constructing  embankments  of  the  quaj-,  or  other  similar 
kinds,  a  mortar  formed  fiom  powdered  unburnt  lime-stone 
and  coarse  sharp  sand  is  employed  ;  the  whole  being  painted 
with  puzzulaiia  earth,  by  which  they  become  as  solid  as  rock, 
and  fully  resist  the  etlects  of  water.  The  lime  of  particular 
sorts  of  lime-stone  is  found  njore  proper  for  forming  this  sort 
of  mortar-cement  than  that  of  others  ;  thu.s.  that  found  at 
Dorking,  in  Surrey,  is  sup|iosed  to  constitute  the  most  dura- 
ble substance  of  this  kind  of  any  in  the  kingdom  ;  and  has 
been  employed  in  many  works  near  Loudon.  And  an 
excellent  sort  of  lime-stone,  for  the  same  purpose,  has  like- 
wise been  discovered  near  VVorsley,  in  Lancashire,  which  is 
there  termed  Sutton  time. 

An  excellent  cement  for  this  use,  which  hardens  under 
water,  may  be  composed  by  having  four  parts  of  blue  clay, 
si.\  of  the  black  o.xide  of  manganese,  and  nine  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  submitted  to  a  white  heat,  and  then  well  incorpo- 
rated with  sixty  parts  of  sand,  and  as  much  water  as  may  be 
necessary  to  form  it  into  a  mortar.     See  Conckete. 

It  is  invariably  found,  in  examining  the  shores  of  the  sea, 
and  the  banks  of  rivers,  that  such  as  have  easily  and  gently 
declining  slopes  from  their  beds  to  their  borders  or  banks, 
and  those  which  are  formed  in  a  steep  u|iright  maimer,  of 
rocky  materials,  such  as  are  shown  at  Figures  3  and  4.  are 
the  least  exposed  to  injury  from  the  ctfecls  of  the  waters  : 
the  two  former  being  the  most  secure  when  spread  over  or 
coated  with  good  coverings  of  sand  or  gravel,  or  uniformly 
turfed  over  quite  down  to  the  water-side  with  the  sward  of 
a  tough  old  pasture.  The  strength  and  firmness  of  their 
banks  are  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  slope  ;  and  their 
durability  depends  oi"  that  of  their  being  made  uniform  on 
their  surfaces,  both  in  ..«specl  to  liardne^s  and  smoothness  : 
as  in  the  former  case,  'oom  the  great  length  of  slope,  the 


flows  and  decreases  of  the  waters  act  more  momentarily  on 
their  difi;  nut  parts,  and  their  greater  weight  renders  their 
banks  more  firm  ;  while,  in  the  latter  case,  by  the  equality  of 
their  sui  faces,  the  power  of  the  water  is  lendered  the  same  on 
one  jiart  as  another,  and  no  obstacles  are  left  for  the  |)roducing 
of  eddies,  or  otiier  means  of  fiirming  holes  or  l)ieaks  in  them. 

In  the  latter,  or  th<ise  of  the  bold,  upright,  rocky  kind  of 
banks,  their  strength  chiefly  depends  on  the  resistance  of  the 
large  quantity  of  materials  by  which  they  are  backed,  and 
not  on  the  manner  in  which  they  are  disposed,  as  in  the 
foiiner  case;  and  their  durability,  on  that  of  the  uniform 
compactness  of  texture  in  the  parts  opposed  to  the  effects  of 
the  waters:  as,  where  these  have  fissures  in  them,  or  are 
softer  in  some  parts  than  others,  the  wateis  are  liable  to 
enter  and  break  down  the  banks  in  time,  according  to  the 
particular  nature  of  the  cases. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  importance,  that  the  modes  and  forms 
of  embankment,  which  are  thus  naturally  presented,  should 
be  imjiroved  upon  by  art.  It  is  evident,  that  if  a  cut  were 
formed  behind  the  embankment,  as  in  Figure  5,  at  the  letter 
X,  the  shores  or  banks,  th(jugh,  in  this  case,  as  it  were,  de- 
tached fiom  the  land,  would  be  found  equally  strong,  and 
capable  of  resisting  the  pre.ssure  of  the  waters,  as  in  their 
original  state.  Hence,  if  a  mound  or  bank  were  formed,  and 
placed  out  at  the  distance  of  one.  two,  or  three  miles  from 
the  shore  or  other  embankment,  within  the  bed  of  the  sea  or 
other  waters,  as  at  y  in  the  same  Fiyure,  it  would  be  equally 
capable  of  resisting  them  as  in  the  former  instance,  and  not 
more  liable  to  be  broken  down  by  their  pressure  than  in  its 
former  station  ;  and  would  also  defend  them  as  completely 
fVom  the  intermediate  space  of  land,  as  it  did  before  from 
the  narrow  trench.  Consequently,  on  this  principle,  vast 
tracts  of  land  may,  in  difi'erent  parts  of  the  kingdom,  be 
obtained  by  judicious  embankments. 

Though  the  shores  of  bold  steep  coasts  may  not  aflord 
examples  equally  cajuable  of  being  followed  with  advantage 
as  the  above,  they  nevertheless  suggest  useful  hints  lor  the 
purpose  of  defence,  hi  cases  of  bold,  abrupt,  broken  shores, 
constituted  of  earth,  or  of  that  material  and  rocky  substances 
intermixed.  It  readily  presents  itself  to  the  mind,  that  the 
raising  a  good  pirpendicular  stone  wall  against  such  banks, 
renders  them  nearly  as  strong  and  lasting  as  those  formed  by 
nature  of  steep  solid  rcjcky  bodies.  This  soit  of  walled  bank 
is  exhibited  at  Figure  0  ;  but  though  this  method  may  be 
practised,  in  cases  of  the  aboye  kind,  with  great  advantage, 
it  is  not,  by  any  means,  applicable  in  geneial  to  rivers;  as, 
with  them,  the  waters,  during  the  periods  of  floods,  stand  in 
need  of  room  to  spread,  which  is  t^ie  great  use  of  giving  their 
banks  a  sloping  foi  m  ;  w  hile,  in  this  way,  it  would  have  the 
cllect  of  doing  more  injury  than  was  the  case  before.  The 
increased  rapidity  of  the  current,  caused  by  its  being  so  con- 
fined, doing  greater  damage  to  the  banks.  Instances  may, 
however,  happen  in  which  it  may  be  had  recourse  to  with 
propriety,  in  defending  a  part  of  the  bank  of  a  river,  without 
giving  it  a  sloping  direction,  or  for  protecting  one  part  of  a 
bank  at  the  risk  of  that  which  is  oppo>ite  to  it ;  but  well- 
constructed  piers,  in  such  cases,  are  preferable,  and  attended 
with  less  e.xpiiise  to  maintain.  But  instead  of  these,  art  may 
suggest  one  that  may  answer  in  some  respect  more  perfectly  ; 
as,  in  place  of  bringing  together  such  a  mass  of  earthy  or 
other  substances,  as  may  be  proper  for  constructing  such 
banks  as  are  shown  at  Figures  1  and  7,  it  may  be  more  ad- 
vantageous to  have  one  formed,  such  as  is  shown  at  Figute  8, 
the  side  of  which,  next  the  water,  forms,  with  the  base,  an 
angle  of  about  45  degrees.  This  will  be  capable  of  bearing 
all  the  weight  or  pressure  of  water  that  can  possibly  be 
brought  upon  it,  equally  well  with  that  of  Figure  1,  except 


EMB 


375 


EMB 


that  tlie  oporation  of  the  tides  would  break  the  superficial 
part  of  the  >ide  next  the  sea,  unless  prevented  hy  coating  it 
with  some  durable  substanee,  sueh  as  pavinrr  stones,  bricks, 
or  other  similar  materials. 

Banks  of  various  kinds,  between  this  and  the  first  natural 
kind,  niav  be  invented,  dilVeriu<;  only  in  the  dcijret'  of  incli- 
nation which  thiy  have  towards  the  sea;  that  which  slopes 
in  the  highest  degree,  .as  Fir/ure  1,  having  the  surface  covered 
over  with  sand  or  gravel ;  and  that  which  has  the  least  slope, 
as  Fiijiire  8,  may  be  covered  with  pavement;  the  difTerent 
intermeiliate  slopi'S  being  protected  by  materials  which  have 
a  quality  between  the  two,  such  as  coarse  gravel,  chalk-stones, 
brick,  and  sand.  The  embankment,  shown  in  Figure  9,  is 
wholly  constructed  <>f  a  sandy  loam  deposited  upon  a  soil  of 
the  same  quality  ;  but  as  it  would  not,  for  some  time  after 
being  formed,  be  sufficiently  impervious  to  water,  a  column 
of  clay  is  carried  upright  in  the  middle,  from  the  clayey  sub- 
stratum of  the  soil  underneath,  as  is  shown  at  x  x,  in  the  sec- 
tion.    This  is  called  Puddling. 

In  cases  where  the  shores  are  of  a  very  sandy  nature, 
embankments  may  be  made  wholly  of  a  sort  of  wicker-work. 
Thus  three  or  four  rows  of  paling  are  put  down,  of  different 
heights,  and  the  vacant  spaces  between  them  well  filled,  by 
forcing  in  furze,  brush-wood,  or  even  straw,  as  represented 
at  Figure  10.  These  substances,  by  detaining  the  mud  and 
sand,  as  the  tide  passes  through  them,  or  during  high  floods, 
soon  forms  a  sort  of  embankment,  such  as  that  shown  in  the 
above  representation.  It  should  afterwards  be  covered  with 
some  plant,  which  is  capable  of  binding  and  giving  it  solidity, 
such  as  the  ebjiaus  arenurlus.  An  embankment,  so  con- 
structed, would  continue,  during  extraordinary  tides,  to  retain 
still  larger  quantities  of  the  sandy  materials,  until,  ultimately 
raised  above  the  range  of  the  highest  floods,  a  safe  bank 
would  be  formed.  By  banks  formed  in  this  way,  large  quan- 
tities of  land  might  be  gained  in  a  very  few  years,  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  rivers  Severn,  Humber,  Frith,  &c. 

In  all  cases  of  embankment,  however  they  may  be  formed, 
tunnels  and  sluices  of  a  proper  kind,  with  valves  towards  the 
sea  or  rivers,  must  be  occasionally  placed,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, so  as  to  permit  the  water  that  may  be  collected 
within  to  pass  away,' and  that  of  the  sea  or  rivers,  to  flow 
up,  with  different  intentions  in  the  view  of  improving  the 
land. 

The  utility  of  projecting  points  is  very  considerable,  in 
different  cases,  on  the  sea-coasts  and  rivers,  in  defending  the 
bays  and  inlets  of  the  former,  as  well  as  guarding  the  banks 
of  the  latter,  by  diverting  their  streams  ur  currents  to  the 
opposite  sides.  Hence  arises  the  formation  of  piers,  which 
become  highly  beneficial  in  defending  embankments,  as  well 
as  the  borders  of  rivers  and  brooks.  In  the  first  of  these 
cases,  they  may  generally  be  constituted  and  coated  ovei'  with 
the  same  sort  of  material  as  that  of  which  the  embankment 
is  formed ;  while,  in  the  latter,  they  should  be  formed  of 
some  sort  of  stony  matter,  being  constructed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  decrease  in  every  direction  as  fhey  advance  outwards, 
as  represented  in  Figure  11.  In  each  of  these  cases,  they 
are,  however,  capable  of  being  constituted  of  brush  wood, 
secured  by  means  of  stakes,  often  with  more  perfect  success. 
And  it  frequently  happens,  that  a  simple  rude  wicker-work 
fence,  of  not  more  than  three  or  four  yards  in  length,  may  be 
fully  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  Embankments  formed  of 
stone,  unless  constructed  in  the  manner  represented  at  the 
above  figure,  are  apt  to  cause  eddies  below  them  ;  while 
those  formed  of  brush-wood  cannot  have  this  effect. 

It  is  obvious,  that  considerable  attention  must  be  required 
in  deciding  the  most  proper  situations  for  constructing  this 
sort  of  projection  in,  and  the  distances  to  which  they  should 


extend  into  the  rivers;  as  a  too  extended  projection  may  be 
highly  dangerous  to  the  opposite  hardt,  and  of  course  do 
harm,  instead  of  being  beneficial;  while  not  carrying  them 
out  sufficiently  far  may  prevent  the  effect  which  is  wanted. 
In  cases  where  piers  are  to  be  formed  of  stone,  as  in  rivers 
where  the  bottoms  are  of  a  rocky  nature,  the  phin  represented 
at  Figure  11,  is  a  good  one,  as  it  will  scarcely  cause  any 
eddy,  and  be  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  wicker-  work,  in 
the  effect  which  it  produces.  Different  works  of  these 
several  kinds  have  been  constructed  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  island  with  much  success. 

Proper  Materials  frr  Emhankmentn. — It  will  be  obvious, 
that  different  sorts  of  materials  may  be  made  use  of  in  dif- 
ferent situations  and  kinds  of  works  of  this  nature,  with 
more  advantage  than  others,  both  in  so  fur  as  duration  and 
expense  are  concerned. 

Those  steep  upright  embankments,  which  are  constructed 
with  the  view  of  protecting  bold  shores,  or  coasts,  and  the 
banks  of  particular  rivers,  may  probaldy  be  best  firmed  of 
good  brick,  rubble,  or  ashlar  work,  in  the  manner  of  a  wall, 
as  seen  at  Figure  6,  in  the  Plate,  the  materials  being  laid  in 
the  strongest  mortar  that  can  be  made.  But  where  this  is  not 
the  case,  they  may  be  built  in  the  common  way,  and  pointed 
with  puzzolana  earth,  or  what  is  termed  the  Roman  cement, 
prepared  by  Messrs.  Parker  and  Co.,  London.  Concrete  has 
been  used  most  successfully  and  extensively  for  the  purpose 
of  embankments,  as  we  have  shown  under  that  article. 

The  different  kinds  of  sloped  embankments  may  be  formed 
either  with  common  earthy  materials,  clay,  mud,  or  a  mixture 
of  these  several  different  substances;  and  any  other  matters 
which  are  capable  of  uniting  into  a  solid,  firm,  compact  mass, 
may  bo  had  recourse  to  for  the  same  purpose.  Where  the 
sides  next  the  sea  or  other  waters  form  angles  of  from  20 
to  30,  or  even  35  degrees  with  their  bases,  they  may  be 
coated  with  sand,  the  shells  from  the  sea,  or  coarse  gravel 
from  the  borders  of  the  shores.  And  stones,  broken  down 
to  unifiirm  sizes  of  a  few  pounds  in  weight,  may  be  employed 
in  a  similar  manner.  Where  none  of  these  substances  can 
be  procured  in  sufficient  abundance,  a  method  practised  in 
Holland,  of  covering  them  with  such  perishable  materials 
as  mats,  reeds,  straw,  bark,  and  others  of  the  same  nature, 
may  be  had  recourse  to  ;  but  these  are  obviously  disadvan- 
tageous, as  requiring  very  frequent  renewal.  They  might 
likewise  be  protected  by  a  low  fence  of  brushwood  fixed  in 
an  erect  manner  all  along  at  the  bottom  of  the  bank,  of  an 
equal  height,  as  tending  to  break  off'  the  violence  of  the 
'  waves.  Another  method  might  also  be  employed,  whieh  is 
that  of  covering  the  whole  front  of  the  bank  with  brushwood, 
either  made  into  bundles,  or  in  the  manner  of  wicker-work, 
or  fixed  down  in  a  neat  manner  by  means  of  long  poles  and 
strong  hooked  stakes.  And  flirther,  they  may  be  laid  in  the 
form  of  a  causeway,  with  stones  in  moss,  or  covered  with 
wicker-work  applied  upon  the  mossy  material  when  spread 
out  over  the  bank.  Many  other  modes  also  may  be  adopted 
under  particular  circumstances. 

In  all  cases  where  the  sides  and  slopes  towards  the  sea 
constitute  angles  of  frotii  35  to  45  degrees  with  their  bases, 
as  in  Figure  8,  recourse  may  be  had  to  stones  of  the  flag  kind, 
as  coverings,  which  should  be  jointed  with  cement  mortars 
formed  in  some  of  the  ways  we  have  mentioned  above.  And 
where  these  sorts  of  stones  cannot  be  provided,  if  clay  can 
be  found,  proper  kinds  of  bricks  may  be  made,  and  used  in 
the  same  way  as  the  stones.  Where  the  slopes  or  inclined 
planes  are  from  40  to  45  degrees,  it  is  frei|uently  more  cheap 
and  economical  to  have  them  covered  with  stones  of  about 
six  or  eight  pounds  in  weight,  applied  to  the  thickness  of  a 
foot  and  a  half,  or  nearly  two  feet ;  or  these  may  be  used  on 


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a  bed  of  com  men  moss  of  three  inches,  or  of  peat-moss  of  the 
flow  kind,  of  six  inches  in  thici<ness,  spread  upon  the  banks, 
only  to  the  thickness  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Stones  of  these 
kinds  may  likewise  be  formed  into  a  sort  of  causeway,  or  be 
laid  in  strong  clay,  and  their  surfaces  jointed  with  lime  or 
a  strong  cement  mortar,  which  has  the  property  of  quickly 
hardening,  and  of  enduring  the  operation  of  the  air  and  tides, 
which  alternately  act  upon  it. 

Tliere  may  likewise  be  cases  in  which  it  may  be  the  most 
advantageous  practice  to  have  the  sides  next  the  sea  or  rivers 
protected  by  coverings  of  wood  only,  in  which  case,  larch 
may  be  the  most  proper,  or  such  others  as  are  durable, 
having  their  surfaces  covered  over  with  pitch  and  some  sort 
of  sharp  sand.  And  old  sail-cloth,  or  oil-cloth  pitched  and 
coated  over  witli  sand  in  the  same  manner,  or  even  thin 
plates  o*"  metals,  have  been  suggested  as  useful  in  particular 
instances. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers 
in  May,  1841,  the  Hon.  Mr.  Stewart  gave  a  very  interesting 
account  of  the  application  of  peat  to  the  purpose  of  building 
"sea  walls."  The  author  described  some  embankments 
constructed  with  it  on  the  estates  of  his  brother  the  Earl  of 
Galway,  to  reclaim  various  portions  of  land,  to  the  amount 
of  many  hundred  acres,  and  stated  that  it  had  been  found  to 
answer  extremely  well,  for  several  reasons,  the  most  prominent 
of  which  were,  that  the  blocks  of  peat,  when  well  rammed 
down,  grew  together,  thus  forming  a  complete  "  puddle" 
wall ;  and  that  from  its  spongy  nature  it  was  not  liable  to 
crack  in  dry  weather  like  clay,  when  any  portion  of  it  was 
in  water,  as  moisture  was  in  that  case  drawn  up  to  all  parts 
of  it. 

It  is  evident  that  great  quantities  of  land  might  in  many 
situations  be  obtained  from  the  sea  and  large  rivers,  by  the 
forming  of  proper  embankments.  Some  notion  of  this  may 
indeed  be  formed  by  a  careful  examination  of  such  lands  as 
lie  along  their  shores  and  banks,  by  ascertaining  the  distances 
to  which  the  waters  ebb  out  at  common  tides,  as  it  is  found 
Sy  experience,  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  extent  of  land, 
tnus  uncovered  in  any  particular  situation,  may  be  gained  ; 
hence,  throughout  the  whole  kingdom,  it  could  hardly  be 
estimated  at  a  less  quantity  than  from  two  to  three  millions 
of  acres,  but  it  is  probably  much  more  than  even  the  last 
quantity,  if  it  were  capable  of  being  ascertained  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy  or  correctness. 

Importance  of  emhankmentis. — When  the  extent  and  the 
value  of  the  lands  which  are  capable  of  being  gained  by  these 
means  are  fully  considered,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their 
being  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  the  interests  of  the 
country.  It  has  been  well  remarked  by  a  late  writer  on  this 
subject,  that  there  are  numerous  jilaccs  in  the  kingdom  where 
vast  improvements  may  be  etfected  by  the  judicious  applica- 
tion of  these  means.  Vast  tracts  of  land  of  the  best  kind 
may  not  only  be  gained  from  the  sea,  but  likewise  from  the 
large  rivers  and  lakes,  besides  the  beneficial  consequences 
which  must  necessarily  arise  from  the  prevention  of  such 
rivers  from  overflowing  their  banks,  and  injuring  the  level 
grounds  in  their  vicinity  by  such  inundations.  In  some 
cases,  it  is  supposed,  that  by  raising  a  bank  of  only  three  or 
four  feet  in  height,  at  a  very  small  expense,  some  thousands 
of  acres  might  be  prevented  from  being  overflown,  the  crops 
from  being  carried  away,  and  much  othei  mischief  from 
being  produced.  In  other  instances,  the  forming  of  very 
trifling  banks  might  be  the  means  of  obtaining  much  extent 
of  country,  which  in  its  present  state  is  of  but  very  little 
/alue ;  yet  so  indirterent  are  people  in  general  about  improve- 
i\enls  of  this  description,  that  though  immense  tracts  are 
fear  after  year  overflown,  and  the  most  dreadful  devastations 


committed,  they  have  recourse  to  no  means  of  prevention  ; 
nay,  even  though  the  sea  itself,  says  the  writer,  as  if  to  rouse 
them  from  their  inaction,  presents  to  their  view  twice  every 
twenty-four  hours,  large  tracts  that  might  by  proper  means 
be  made  of  very  great  value,  yet  these  repeated  invitations 
are  disregarded,  and  no  attempts  are  made  to  possess 
what  might,  in  many  eases,  be  so  easily  and  so  advan- 
tageously acquired.  It  is  certainly  extraordinary  and 
unaceoinitable  that  the  acquiring  of  distant  possessions 
should  be  eagerly  sought  after,  and  considered  of  so 
great  importance  to  us  as  a  nation,  when  the  addition 
of  land  in  our  own  country  by  the  reclamation  of  it 
from  the  waters,  must  be  in  every  point  of  view  so  much 
more  valuable. 

The  acquisition  of  additional  territory  at  home  should, 
therefore,  be  more  attended  to,  and  have  more  expense 
bestowed  upon  it  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case.  In  par- 
ticular situations,  indeed,  a  few  active  and  enterprising  jier- 
sons  have  taken  advantage  of  the  opportunities  which  have 
been  presented ;  as  in  the  counties  of  York,  Lincoln,  Cam- 
bridge, and  others,  many  hundred  thousands  of  acres  have 
been  gained  by  embankments.  In  Norfolk,  too,  a  consid- 
erable extent  of  land  has  been  gained  in  this  way.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Chester,  the  River  Dee  Company  have 
likewise  gained  several  thousands  of  acres  from  the  sea, 
which  have  since  been  divided  into  diflerent  beautiful  farms, 
the  whole  of  which  pay  in  rent  more  than  2,000  pounds  per 
annum.  And  in  Holland  the  whole  country  has,  in  a  great 
degree,  been  obtained  by  these  means. 

It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Beatson,  in  the  second  volume  of 
Commnnicalions  to  tlie  Board  of  Agriculture^  that  large 
sums  have  been  expended  in  some  places  by  individuals  with 
a  view  of  guarding  against  inundations,  but,  owing  to  the 
embankments  they  have  made  being  injudiciously  placed, 
and  as  bally  constructed,  the  desired  effect  has  not  always 
been  produced,  particularly  in  the  northern  parts  of  Cheshire, 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Mersey,  where  works  of  this  kind 
have  been  thrown  up  at  a  great  expense,  which,  from  the 
manner  of  their  being  placed,  may,  in  some  cases,  by  con- 
fining the  course  of  the  river,  do  more  harm  than  good.  By 
the  appearance  of  that  part  of  the  country,  so  far  as  he  could 
judge  from  the  cursory  view  he  had  of  it,  it  seemed  to  him 
that  the  inundations  from  that  river  might  have  been  effec- 
tually prevented  at  a  much  easier  rate,  if  a  proper  method 
had  been  taken  at  first;  but  from  a  certain  ill-judged  and 
mistaken  tenaciousness  of  property,  the  embankments  are 
constructed  so  close  upon  the  sides  of  the  river,  that,  in  many 
places,  it  is  confined  to  a  space  not  more  than  20  yards  over. 
Owing  to  this,  and  to  an  aqueduct  across  the  river,  with  only 
one  arch  instead  of  two,  which  it  ought  at  least  to  have  had, 
the  water  sometimes,  in  great  floods,  rises,  he  was  informed, 
to  the  height  of  about  20  feet  above  its  ordinary  level,  and 
overflows  the  embankments,  although  now,  by  frequent  addi- 
tions, they  are  about  that  height.  Instead  of  20  yards,  had 
these  embankments  been  80  or  a  100  yards  distant  from  each 
other,  and  the  river  widened  in  the  narrowest  places,  one- 
third  or  one-fourth  of  their  present  height  would  have  been 
quite  sufficient.  They  would  have  been  much  easier  made, 
and  less  liable  to  damage  by  the  floods ;  a  great  deal  of  money 
also  would  have  been  saved,  not  only  in  the  first  construction, 
but  in  keeping  the  banks  afterwards  in  repair.  The  space 
of  ground  between  the  embankments  and  the  river  thus  left, 
would  have  produced  the  richest  pasture,  or  meadow  hay, 
by  its  frequent  manurings  with  the  fertilizing  particles  left 
upon  it,  when  flooded  by  the  swelling  of  the  river;  and  in 
those  places,  if  any,  that  are  unfit  for  pasture  or  hay,  willow.s 
or  other  aquatics  '.nlch*  have  been  planted  togrpat  advantage; 


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and  thus  it  might  have  been  of  more  value  perhaps  than  at 
prc-eiit,  while  the  interior  gi-uiinds  would  have  been  more 
ffi;-ctually  secured  from  the  lavages  of  sudden  floods.  Not- 
witlistanding  the  general  indolence  shown  in  mo^t  parts  of 
theeountry,  respeeting  the  ae(|uisition  of  land  by  embanking, 
and  the  seeming  aversion  that  most  people  have  to  engage 
in  sueh  undertakings,  there  have  been,  however,  some 
iiiuenious  and  enterprising  projectors,  whose  ideas  upon  that 
suliject  have  soared  far  beyond  the  bounds  allotted  to  common 
undiMstandings.  From  the  speculations  of  such  people,  the 
most  important  advantages  are  sometimes  produced;  and 
surely  the  man  who  is  possessed  of  a  speculative  turn  of 
minil,  and  who  considers  no  obstacles  insurmountable,  is  a 
much  more  useful  member  of  society  than  he  who  is  perpe- 
tually starting  difliculties  against  every  new  project,  and  is 
for  having  all  things  remaining  in  shitu  quo,  that  is,  for 
leaving  the  world  as  he  found  it. 

The  idea  of  reclaiming  land  from  the  sea,  for  example, 
would  have  appeared  to  a  torpid  genius  of  this  kind,  as  a 
matter  too  visionary  for  sober-minded  men.  A  thousand 
dirtieuhies  would  have  started  up  at  such  a  proposal  ;  and 
obstacles,  which  to  a  more  expanded  mind,  would  seem  per- 
(ectly  practicable  to  overcome,  would  have  presented  to  him 
impediiuents  itisuperable. 

W  hat  would  such  anti-projectors  think  of  proposals  to 
exclude  the  sea  entirely  from  extensive  bays,  many  miles 
across,  and  exjiosed  to  the  full  sweep  of  the  winds  and  the 
waves!  Such  was  the  proposition  to  carry  a  railway 
embankment  across  Morecambe  Bay,  and  the  estuary  firmed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Duddon,  the  embankments  on  Lough 
Fo_\  Ic  in  Ireland,  and  other  similar  works. 

That  there  are  many  large  tracts  of  land  in  dilTin-ent  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  both  on  the  sea-coasts  and  on  the  sides  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  easily  attainable,  there  cannot  be  the  smallest 
doubt.  It  is,  therefore,  an  object  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
those  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  property  of  this 
nature,  to  have  it  ascertained  by  persons  of  experience  in 
such  matters,  how  far  the  acquisition  of  additional  portions  of 
land  may  be  adequate  to  the  expense  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  incur  in  procuring  it.  But  embankments  are  important 
in  other  views  than  those  of  gaining  ground  by  them.  When 
rivers  are  concerned,  one  material  advantage  is  the  deepening 
of  their  courses,  by  which  vessels  of  greater  burden  than 
they  admitted  formerly,  may  be  permitted  to  navigate  them. 
And  farther,  as  embankments  become  more  frequent  on  the 
holders  of  rivers  and  sea-shores,  the  intervening  distances 
may  become  a  sort  of  bays,  in  which  accumulations  of  shell, 
mud,  sand,  gravel,  and  other  matters,  may  take  place  by'  the 
iiitlux  of  the  tides;  and  these,  however  difficult  they  may  be 
at  lirst  to  embank,  will  in  time  be  as  easy  to  perform  the 
work  on,  as  the  natural  bays  and  creeks  are  at  this  period. 
In  this  way  many  rivers,  which  in  their  present  state  are 
eight  or  ten  miles  in  width  at  their  junction  or  influx  with 
the  sea,  may  in  the  course  of  years  be  reduced  to  less  than 
half  these  distances.  Cotisequently,  such  embankments  would 
be  equally  beneficial  to  the  proprietors  of  land,  and  the  mer- 
chant or  manufacturer,  as  many  rivers  would  become  more 
easily  navigable,  and  those  obstacles  which  interrupt  their 
mouths  be  wholly  removed. 

in  embanking  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  it  is 
necessary  to  ascertain,  with  great  accuracy,  the  maximum 
height  to  which  the  water  rises  ;  the  methods  of  doing  this 
have  been  already  shown.  But  as  new  works  of  this  sort, 
especially  where  the  banks  are  large,  are  liable  to  subside  too 
much,  it  may  be  a  proper  precaution  to  take  the  levels  fre- 
quently for  some  time  after  they  are  completed,  in  order  to 
guard  against  any  mischief  which  might  arise  in  this  way. 

48 


Where  the  banks  are  low,  this  is  not,  however,  so  necessary, 
as  in  higher  ones,  as  the  settling  is  always  more  or  less 
according  to  their  height;  in  low  banks  it  will  of  course  be 
very  little.  In  the  making  of  such  embankments,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  lay  down  any  general  rule  in  regard  to  their  size  or 
dimensions,  as  these  must  be  directed  by  situation  and  circum- 
stances, under  the  management  of  an  expert  engineer.  In 
cases  where  the  emliaiikment  lo  be  formed  is  to  exclude  the 
sea  from  a  piece  of  low  marshy  ground,  over  which  it  only 
flows  at  spring-tides,  the  work  is  easy,  ami  capable  of  being 
accomplished  at  no  great  expense.  But  where  it  is  intended 
to  reclaim  a  portion  of  land  v\hich  is  covered  every  tide,  in 
some  bay  or  creek,  or  on  the  sides  or  windings  of  some  large 
river  in  which  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  the  business  will  be  in 
some  degree  more  difficult,  according  to  the  depth  and  rapi- 
dity of  the  current  of  the  water.  And  where  it  is  proposed 
to  exclude  the  sea  from  an  exposed  situation  at  the  mouth 
of  a  river,  or  in  a  bay,  or  inlet,  which  is  uncovered  every 
tide,  the  operation  will  be  the  most  difficult  and  expensive  of 
all,  according  as  it  is  exposed  to  prevalent  winds,  and  the 
depth  of  the  water  to  be  resisted.  Each  of  these  situations, 
therefore,  requires  a  diffi>rent  method  of  management. 

The  business  of  embanking  against  the  sea,  when  at  any 
considerable  distance  within  high-water  mark,  is  not  only  the 
most  tedious,  but  at  the  same  time  the  most  difficult ;  as,  when 
the  materials  are  not  very  good  and  the  work  not  well  per- 
formed, the  force  of  the  water  at  every  flowing  of  the  tide 
will  quickly  undo  all  that  has  been  effected,  especially  if  the 
soil  be  of  a  sandy  nature,  as  is  often  the  case  in  such  situations. 
If  it  be  a  strong  clay,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  marshy 
places,  there  will  be  the  less  risk  of  its  being  washed  away. 
In  sandy  situations  it  lias  been  advised  by  some  to  lay  bun- 
dles of  straw  or  reeds  well  fastened  down,  or  any  other  impe- 
diment, to  hinder  the  soil  from  being  carried  away  by  the 
ebbing  tide.  Whore  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  strong  turf 
cannot  be  had,  other  expedients  may  be  tried  ;  but  where  such 
turf  can  be  provided,  as  is  the  case  in  most  marshy  situations, 
and  where  the  embankment  required  is  not  to  exceed  the 
height  of  four  or  five  feet,  it  is  best  to  finish  the  slope  with 
good  turf  as  expeditiously  as  possible,  as  the  work  proceeds; 
that  is,  supposing  the  length  of  30,  40,  or  50  feet  or  yards  of 
it  can  be  completed  in  a  tide,  it  is  better  to  finish  that  length 
to  its  intended  height,  than  to  trace  out  or  begin  a  greater 
extent  than  can  be  finished  before  the  tide  returns,  by  which 
a  great  deal  of  the  soil  might  be  carried  away,  and  much  of 
the  work  demolished,  which  is  not  so  likely  to  be  the  case 
when  the  slope  is  finished.  Turf  which  contains  the  roots 
of  bent  or  rushes  is  very  good  for  this  use. 

In  commencing  a  work  of  this  kind,  however,  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  strike  out  the  intended  line  of  it,  setting 
out  the  breadth  at  the  base,  also  the  width  of  the  excavation 
or  trench  to  be  made  in  the  inside,  from  which  most  of  the 
materials  that  compose  the  bank  are  to  be  taken :  this  trench 
serving  also  as  a  drain  to  keep  the  grounds  within  dry.  There 
should  also  be  trunks  or  sluices  at  diff'erent  parts  of  it,  to  shut 
off"  themselves  against  any  external  water,  and  to  open  when 
the  tide  ebbs,  to  let  out  any  water  from  within.  The  width 
of  it  should  be  proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  materials 
required  from  it,  for  the  raising  of  the  embankment,  as  eight, 
ten,  or  fifteen  feet  wide,  and  three  or  four  feet  deep,  leaving 
a  berme,  or  space,  between  the  edge  of  the  trench  and  the 
inner  bottom  of  the  emliankment.  If  the  soil  be  strong,  one 
foot  or  eighteen  inches  will  be  sufficient  for  this  purpose ;  but 
if  loose  or  sandy,  three  or  four  feet  at  least  will  be  required. 
The  more  easy  "and  gradual  the  external  slope  is  made,  the 
less  sudden  the  resistance  against  the  sea  will  be,  as  has  been 
seen  above,  and  of  course  the  embankment  be  less  liable  to 


Em  U 


378 


EMB 


injury ;  this  slope  should  therefore  be  formed  according  to  the 
exposure  of  it  to  the  winds  and  tides  :  a  contnirv  opinion  has, 
however,  liCL-n  iield  liy  some  engineers,  and  the  formation  of 
upright  walls  properly  faoed  has  by  them  heen  considered 
better  adapted  to  resist  the  action  of  the  water.  FKjtire  12, 
is  supposed  to  he  a  section  of  an  embankment  in  which  the 
base  or  horizontal  liney /j  should  at  least  bo  three  times  the 
perpendicular  height  h  i ;  but  /  m,  the  inside  slope,  nc<d  not 
be  more  tlian  three-fourths  of  the  perpendicular  height,  that 
is,  nine  inches  for  every  foot  of  rise.  The  inside  slope  should 
be  faced  with  turf  likewise,  laid  with  the  green  siile  down- 
wards, as  in  common  sod  walls.  Some  expert  sodders  can 
finish  this  sort  of  work  extremely  neat  by  setting  the  sod  on 
edge,  according  to  the  slope  intended  to  be  given,  and  with 
pr<i|>er  mallets  and  beetles  ramming  the  earth  hard  behind, 
which  consolidates  the  work  as  it  advances,  and  tenils  to 
reniJer  it  dural)le.  As  soon  as  the  tir.st  or  lower  course  is 
finished,  the  ii|)per  edge  of  the  sods  is  pared  with  a  sharp 
knift;  (|uite  even,  by  laying  a  rule  to  thetn,  and  then  they  go 
on  with  the  si^cond  course,  which  they  finish  in  the  same 
maimer,  and  thus  |iroceed  until  the  whole  height  is  completed, 
which,  when  properly  finished,  has  a  smooth  and  beautifid 
appearance,  not  a  joint  between  the  turfs  being  seen.  Where 
turf  is  used  in  covering  the  outside  slope,  it  should  all  be  laid 
with  the  grass  uppermost,  as  already  noticed,  and  be  well 
beaten  down  with  a  Hat  sod-beetle  for  the  pin-[iose,  and  in 
onler  the  better  to  secure  them,  it  may  be  proper  to  drive 
small  stakes,  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  through  every 
sod.  In  ciilting  sods  for  this  use,  they  should  be  taken  up  in 
a  careful  maimer,  and  be  all  traced  by  a  line  of  the  same 
breadth  ;  their  edges  being  cut  as  even  as  possible,  that  they 
may  make  the  clo>er  joints,  which  wdl  tend  very  much  to 
their  security,  until  they  are  grown  properly  together.  In 
lax  ing  the  dilfereut  courses  of  such  sods,  care  shouM  also  be 
taken  that  the  joints  of  the  one  be  covered  by  the  other,  in 
the  iiianiier  that  good  brickwork  is  made. 

Wliere  it  is  propcjsed  to  reclaim  a  piece  f)f  land,  upon 
which  the  sea  ebbs  and  flows  every  tide,  to  a  greater  depth 
Inan  in  the  firegoing  case,  as  in  a  creek,  or  on  the  side  of  a 
large  river,  a  dillcrent  mode  of  poceeding  must  be  piirsuiKl, 
according  to  the  soil,  and  the  nature  of  the  materials  to  be 
employed.  Where  plenty  of  stones  can  lie  reai  lily  procured, 
a  Ijank  may  be  ('(jriiied  of  them,  with  a  mixture  ol  clay,  either 
by  nieaiis  of  laud  carriage,  or,  « hich  in  some  instances  is 
lielter,  by  conveying  them  in  tlat-bottomed  boats,  or  punts, 
and  throwing  them  over-board  until  the  bank  is  fprmcd. 
Wheie  sliJiies  cannot  be  easiiy  had,  clay,  or  otin'r  inaterials 
proper  fu'  the  busine>s,  may  be  thrown  in,  in  siidicicnt 
(.piaiJtity,  in  the  same  m.niner,  with  perhaps  nearly  ecpial 
success.  It  is  supposed  that  most  of  the  embankments  in 
llobaud  were  formed  in  this  way,  the  clay  dug  from  the 
canals  being  made  use  of  for  the  purpose.  In  either  case  it 
is  re(juisite  to  fix  up  strong  poles  before  the  work  is  begun, 
as  guides  for  laying  down  the  materials.  Proper  sluices 
must  likewise  be  laid  in  suitable  direction  for  taking  ofi' the 
back-water  when  the  tide  ebbs,  under  the  inspection  of 
the  engineer.  Much,  in  all  aises  of  this  sort,  depends  on  a 
skilful  engineer,  who  is  capable  of  suggesting  and  contriving 
various  means  of  facilitating  the  business,  and  of  obviating 
the  dilliiMilties  that  may  aiise  in  its  execulion.  A  person  of 
real  genius  is  often  capalile,  by  his  ditferent  contrivances, 
of  ri'iidering  the  accom|ilishmcnt  of  a  great  undertaking  com- 
parativelv  easy, which  toothers  woidd  be  almost  impracli  able, 
or  carried  on  at  such  a  heavy  I'Xpense  as  to  couulcrbalaiicc 
tlie  advantages  to  be  drawn  from  it.  In  cases  of  the  kind 
just  noticed,  he  might  suggest  the  erection  of  stages  or  plat- 
forms, in  such  a  manner  as  to  carry  on  the  wiirk  at  all  times 


of  the  tide,  which  would  be  an  immense  saving,  as  the 
delays  caused  by  the  tides  in  this  sort  of  business  are  both 
tedious  and  expensive.  Waggons  might  likewise  be  contrived 
in  such  a  way  as  to  carry  on  such  platforms  large  quantities 
of  materials  at  once,  which  couM  be  easilv  emi)ticd  and 
filled  ;  and  at  the  same  time  be  drawn  bv  machinerv.  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  save  much  labour  and  expense,  both  in  car- 
riage and  tidework. 

There  is  another  species  of  sea  embankment,  which  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  of  any ;  as  there  are  few 
estuaries,  or  months  of  rivers,  in  which  large  tracts  of  land 
may  not  be  gained  by  it.  The  shoals  or  flats  fiirmed  at  the 
entrance  of  such  rivers,  are  mostly  composed  of  the  richest 
and  most  fertilizing  particles,  brought  down  from  the  towns 
and  circumjacent  country  through  which  they  pass.  Such 
shoals  and  flats  may,  therefore,  under  proper  management  be 
in  most  cases  readily  converted  into  the  most  fertile  plains. 
Ill  these  situations  the  first  object  is  that  of  coJlectiiig  the 
whole  river  into  one  stream,  and  preventing  its  oviu-spreading 
a  wider  extent  than  is  merely  siiflicieiit  for  its  discharge;  or 
it  may  be  better,  perhaps,  to  alter  its  course  altogether,  and 
cause  it  to  be  dischaiged  at  some  other  outlet.  It  has  been 
found  by  experience,  that  where  the  course  of  a  river  is 
(•hanged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  discharge  itself  into 
the  sea  at  a  different  place  to  that  where  it  did  before,  the 
tbrmer  place  will  in  a  few  years,  by  the  continued  accumn'a- 
tion  of  sand  and  mud  brought  in  atevery  tide,  be  so  choked  up, 
and  raised  above  its  firmer  level,  as  to  form  of  itself  in  the 
course  of  time,  a  bank,  that  with  a  very  little  assistance,  will 
exclude  the  sea  ;  for  as  the  current  of  the  river  bef  u'e  carried 
away  all  that  sediment  which  the  motion  of  the  waves 
naturally  stirred  np,  from  its  being  now  removed,  it  is 
obvious  that  all  or  most  of  the  iiniddiness  will  not  only  be  car- 
ried farther  up  the  old  channel  of  the  river,  but  a  ureat  part 
i>f  it  be  deposited  there  as  the  tide  recedes.  It  has  been 
fiiinid  that  in  spring-tiiles  and  particular  winds,  this  sediment 
is  deposited  in  larger  (|uaiitities  than  at  other  limes,  and  on 
making  a  perpendicular  cur  in  the  ground  iituler  reclamation, 
the  dilferent  layers  are  found  to  be  so  distinct,  that  those 
made  at  spring-tides  can  be  easily  distinguislieil  from  the 
rest.  This  curious  fiict  is  well  deserving  of  the  attention  of 
all  those  who  have  lauds  situated  at  the  mouth  <>i'  rivers,  as 
there  may  in  many  such  situations  be  considerable  tracts 
gained  at  a  very  light  expense.  But  though  this  fact  may 
exist  in  some  places,  as  has  been  proved  by  experience, 
nevertheless  it  is  supposed  that  the  cllect  cannot  be  the  same 
ill  all  situations.  Where  there  is  a  great  extent  of  flat  or 
iiiiuldv  shores,  the  motion  of  the  waves  will  no  doubt  stir  up 
the  mud  and  sand,  and  carry  great  quantities  of  them  along 
with  the  current  on  the  flowing  of  the  tide;  and  when  the  tide 
ebbs,  though  some  of  the  lighter  particles  will  be  carried 
away  again,  yet  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  the  heavier  ones 
will  be  left  behind.  If  the  shores  are  bold  and  rocky  exce[1t 
just  near  the  entrance  of  the  river,  there  will  be  less  of  this 
mild;  but  on  such  shores  there  can,  indeed,  be  little  or  no 
occasion  for  embanking,  unless  perhaps  in  some  creeks, 
narrow  at  the  entrairce  and  spreading  out  wide  above.  If 
the  sea  were  excluded  from  such  creeks,  a  great  deal  of  land 
might  probably  be  gained. 

In  the  marshland  district  of  ihe  county  of  Norfidk,  lying 
between  the  rivers  Wyii  and  Oise.  im  iu'u-;e  tracts  of  the 
most  rich  land,  such  as  is  composed  of  the  muddy  depositions 
left  bv  the  tides  and  floods,  which  is  there  called  .v/7//;(y,  have 
been  obtained  by  means  of  emliaiiking.  This  kind  of  work 
has  sometimes  been  nnderlaki^n  by  the  tenants  on  a  low  piece 
of  marsh,  in  emisideration  of  having  the  land  free  fi>rtwenly- 
ouc  years.      But  in  these  cases  the  lianks  have  often  been  very 


f'l;     1 


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EMB 


379 


EMB 


imperfectly  made,  not  having  cost  more  than  fovly  shillings 
a  rod.  And  those  which  were  construe! ed  by  tlie  landlords 
were  indeed  frequently  but  little  better,  being  mostly 
deficient  in  not  having  slope  enough  given  them  towards  the 
water.  Count  Bentinck,  and  his  son,  who  succeeded  him  in 
the  estates,  undertook  the  drainage  of  the  marsh  lands  upon 
a  scale  never  practised  in  that  part  of  the  island  before,  and 
by  their  successful  operations  have  increased  the  old  estates 
by  more  than  1,000  acres. 

The  base  of*the  embankment,  in  this  case,  is  about  50  feet, 
the  slope  to  the  sea  36  feet,  forming  an  angle,  of  about 
25  or  30  degrees.  The  crown  is  4  feet  in  width,  and  the 
slope  to  the  fields  17  feet,  in  an  angle  of  abnut  50  degrees  ; 
the  slope  towards  the  sea  being  very  nearly  turfed  over. 
The  first  ex()euse  incurred  in  forming  this  bank  was  £4  per 
rod,  but  a  very  high  tide  Coming  before  it  was  finished,  not 
only  made  several  breaches,  but  occasioned  an  additional 
height  and  slope  to  be  given  to  several  diflerent  parts,  in 
onlej-  to  bring  it  to  the  dimensions  mentioned  al)0ve,  all  of 
which  made  the  gross  expense  to  amount  to  about  £5  the  rod. 
The  whole  cost  was  something  more  than  £5,000.  The 
expense  of  the  houses,  firm  buildings,  and  other  things,  was 
about  as  much  more,  fjr  five  new  farms,  which  was  a  greater 
expense  than  was  necessaiy,  as  the  land  would  have  let  as 
well  in  two  or  three  as  five  farms.  Supposing,  therefore,  the 
e.xp>tsu.se  at  £10,000  and  the  new  rental  at  £1,000  a  year,  it 
is  just  10  per  cent  fur  the  capital  laid  out.  The  expense 
here,  however,  seems  to  have  run  too  high,  when  the  neces- 
sary lejiairs  of  the  liank  are  taken  into  the  account.  The 
representation,  given  at  Figure  23,  in  the  Plate,  fully 
explains  the  nature  of  the  embankjnent  formed  in  this 
c;ise. 

In  another  new  embankment,  in  which  273  acres  of  marsh 
land,  and  18  of  bank,  were  gained,  the  men  were  paid  4s.  6d. 
a  floor  of  400  cubical  feet,  finding  uhreling  [ilanks,  barrows, 
trussels,  &c.  When  it  is  thus  formed,  the  front  slope  is 
sodded,  for  which  they  are  paid  in  addition  4s.  a  floor  of  400 
square  feet,  earning  from  5s.  6d.  to  7s.  a  day,  and  there  is 
some  little  further  expense  necessary  for  beating  it  down  in 
a  linn  manner.  The  whole  of  the  expense  of  the  bank, 
sluice,  and  every  thing  else,  was  about  £3,300.  The  land 
was  immediately  ofl'ered  to  be  rented  at  four  pounds  an  acre 
for  four  years,  or  three  j)ounds  an  acre  for  six  years;  which, 
in  the  tbrmer  case,  would  amount  to  £4,308  in  that  length 
of  time,  or  1,000  guineas  more  tliaii  the  whole  of  the  capital 
laid  out  on  the  ui*lcrtakiug. 

On  this  coast  the  operation  of  silting  up,  or  raising  the 
surtiice  of  the  marsh-land  by  the  repeated  depositions  of 
muddy  matters  from  the  sea,  is  performed  in  a  more  rapid 
manner  than  in  many  others ;  and  the  little  hollows  and  creeks 
are  found  from  experience  to  silt  up  much  faster  where  the 
tide-waters  are  speedily  taken  off  by  proper  cuts  and  channels 
formed  tiir  the  j)urpuse,  than  where  the  contrary  is  the  case. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  reclamations  of  land  in  England, 
is  the  large  tract  of  country  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Great  Bedford  Level.  This  great  expanse  of  rich  and 
fertile  country  is  bounded  by  the  high  lands  of  the  counties 
of  Norfolk,  Sulfolk,  Cambridge,  Huntington,  Northampton, 
Lincoln,  and  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  contains  upwards  of 
300,000  acres  of  fen-land,  hex  ond  which  are  about  a  dozen 
very  large  marshes  also  similarly  reclaimed.  The  drainage 
olihc  whole  level  is  ertt'cte<l  by  innumerable  dikesand  drains 
of  all  sizes  conmiuuicating  with,  or  gathered  together  into 
three  great  channels,  forming  the  main  outfalls  into  the  sea. 
One  of  these  outfalls  is  at  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire;  one  at 
Wisbeach.  in  Cambridgeshire  ;  and  the  other  at  Lynn  Regis, 
in  Norfolk. 


In  Holland,  however,  is  exhibited  the  most  prominent 
illustration  of  the  successful  redemption  of  land  from  the 
sea  ;  and  probably  in  no  part  of  tiie  world  has  it  been  cairicd 
to  so  great  an  extent.  Indeed,  the  whole  country  has  been 
rescued,  as  it  were,  from  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  and  has 
lieen  secured  and  held  otdy  by  the  constant  care  and  super- 
intendence of  the  persevering  conquerors. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  inhabitants  of  Holland  were 
obliged,  in  the  first  instance  for  their  own  preservation,  to 
erect  barriers  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  On  the 
invasion  of  their  country  by  the  Danes  and  Normans,  the 
latter  soon  discovered  the  superiority  of  these  lands  to  those 
adjacent  to  them,  and  at  once  afiplied  all  their  energies  to 
the  proper  reclaiming  of  so  fertile  a  property.  Thus,  by  the 
steady  perseverance  of  ages,  has  Holland  become  pre-eminent 
f  )r  the  extent  of  her  drainage  works,  though  the  manner  in 
which  their  embankments  are  constructed  is  very  far  from 
equal  to  similar  works  executed  in  this  coinitry.  It  is  said 
by  those  who  have  made  it  their  business  to  examine  tiie 
mode  of  making  these  banks,  that  in  those  made  of  stone, 
the  materials  are  not  economically  distributed.  Imt  are  heaped 
so  confusedly  on  each  other,  as  not  only  to  weaken  the  bank, 
but  occasion  great  waste.  They  have,  however,  a  very 
ingenious  method  of  lacing  their  banks  where  there  is  a 
scarcity  of  stone,  with  straw,  formed  into  ropes,  about  an 
inch  or  two  in  thickness,  laid  in  regular  courses.  These 
courses  fit  closely  together  from  top  to  bottom,  and  are  fas- 
tened down  to  the  bank  with  wooden _/«//■.«. 

In  Ireland  the  attempt  to  bring  into  cultivation  the 
immense  tracts  of  bogs  or  flats  partially  covered  with  water, 
a  few  years  ago  attracted  the  public  attention  ;  and  a  lioard 
of  commissioners  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  bogs  in  Ireland,  and  the  practicability  of 
reclaiming  them. 

These  commissioners  have  published  reports  containing 
much  interesting  and  instruetive  matter,  exhibiting  the 
present  state  of  the  wastes  in  certain  di^tricts,  and  evincing 
clearly  the  practicaliility  of  cimverting  them  at  a  compara- 
tively small  expense,  into  rich  aral)le  and  pasture  land. 

On  the  north  and  west  co.asts  of  Ireland  there  are  a  great 
number  of  deep  bays  or  iidets  of  the  sea,  presenting  great 
facilities  for  embanking.  Amongst  these  the  estuaries 
called  Lough  Swilly  and  Lough  Foyle,  in  the  counties  of 
Donrgaland  Derry,  seemed  to  offer  to  some  enterprising  specu- 
lators a  tract  of  land  peculiarly  adapted  for  embanking. 

Sir  John  Macneill  having  been  consulted  on  the  scheme 
for  the  drainage  of  these  loughs,  employed  Mr.  J.  W.  Bazal- 
zette  to  make  the  necessary  surveys  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
latter  has  furnished  to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  a 
valuable  paper  on  the  subject  from  which  the  following 
observations  have  been  extracted. 

Lough  Foyle  is  described  by  Mr.  Bazalzette,  asnot  entirely 
insulated  from  the  Iiish  Channel,  but  as  having  a  narrow 
mouth  communicating  with  it.  Above  this  mouth  the  waters 
spread  over  a  wide  tract  of  land,  and  then  .-igain  contract  into 
a  narrow  channel.  The  efti^ct  of  tlie  tide  rising  through 
so  small  a  passage  has  been  to  scour  the  narrows,  and  throw 
up  the  deposits  on  the  sides  of  the  Lough.  By  the  accumu- 
lations of  years  these  deposits  have  at  last  become  immense 
banks  of  rich  alluvial  soil  extending  for  some  miles  and 
covered  only  at  high  water.  To  reclaim  this  land  it  was 
pnrpo.sed  to  construct  an  embankment  or  .sea-wall,  a  little 
below  low-water  mark,  for  fourteen  miles  in  length,  by  which 
about  25.000  acres  of  land  would  be  enclosed. 

Loui^h  Swillv  is  less  extensive  than  Lough  Foyle,  but  pre- 
sents greater  difliculty  in  the  construction  of  the  works,  from 
the  scarcity  of  the  necessary  materials.     It   is  wider  at  its 


E.uB 


380 


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mouth  (wliifh  opens  into  the  Western  Ocean.)  than  in  any 
other  pint,  and  in  its  whole  extent  is  extrfiiieiy  exposed  to 
the  winds.  It  was  proposed  to  construet  here  three  eniliank- 
ments,  the  first  1,100  yards,  the  second  l,lo3  yards,  and  the 
third  (533  yards  in  leii!.'th.  'J'iie  posilion  of  these  hanks 
being  fixed  by  careful  nieasnrenients  an<l  soundings,  the  pro- 
posed method  of  formation  was  as  follows  : 

Each  bank  was  to  be  4  feet  in  ])erpendicnlar  height  above 
the  highest  spring-tides,  which  here  rise  to  18  feet  :  and  to 
have  a  slope  on  the  sea-face  of  3  to  1,  except  in  the  most 
exposed  {)art,  where  the  slope  was  to  be  4  to  1.  The  materials 
available  for  the  work  were  stone,  clay,  earth  and  gravel, 
taken  from  the  adjoining  lands,  and  the  banks  were  to  be 
faced  with  rough  stones  on  botii  sides,  laid  as  close  as  possible 
with  the  edge  outwards,  in  cour.scs  not  exceeding  4  feet  in 
height.  In  the  centre  of  each  bank  was  to  be  built  a 
culvert  of  masonry,  with  proper  sluices  and  flood-gates. 
These  culverts  were  to  rest  on  a  (()undation  made  by 
driving  piles  into  the  soil,  which  from  its  alluvial  character 
could  not  be  depended  \ipon  in  itself.  'J'lie  sluices  being  self- 
acting,  thedraiiuige  would  be  effected  in  the  following  manner. 
At  high  water,  it  lieing  supposed  that  the  whole  of  the  slob 
(as  it  is  termed  in  Ireland,)  is  covered  on  the  receding  of  the 
tidal  water,  the  sluices  would  shut  of  themselves,  retaining 
the  water  within  the  banks.  When  the  flood-tide  came  on, 
the  pressure  on  the  sluice-gates  from  within,  would  prevent 
their  opening  to  adiuit  i^,  and  the  retained  water  would  soon 
eva]io!ate,  leaving  the  rich  slob  dry,  and  to  l)e  in  asliort  time 
fit  tor  agricultural  purposes. 

The  extent  of  the  slol)  thus  enclosed  by  these  three  walls 
would  he  about  2,000  acres,  and  the  value  of  it  may  be 
estinnited  by  the  tiict  ihat  a  large  quantity  of  land  has  already 
been  reclaimed  near  this  part  of  the  Lough.  This  land  now 
lets  at  £5  per  acie,  and  is  considered  the  richest  soil  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Indeed,  in  every  case,  where  a  proper 
selection  of  land  has  been  made,  and  the  works  performed 
judiciously,  simihir  success  has  been  the  result. 

It  has  been  reni.-irked  by  Mr.  Ijeatson,  whose  observations 
on  this  subje('t  we  have  before  noticed,  that  in  the  lakes  or 
niirei;  of  the  north,  and  the  Lniiyhs  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
the  business  of  embaidiing  is  both  simple  and  easy.  In  these 
situations  the  waters  generally  subside  during  the  summer 
months,  rising  considerably  in  winter,  and  whenever  the 
season  is  very  wet.  In  paitieular  cases  the  extent  of  surface 
which  is  overflown  in  the  winter  season,  so  far  exceeds  that 
which  it  covers  during  the  summer,  that  it  would  be  an  object, 
and  sometimes  a  considerable  acquisition,  to  confine  the  water 
within  its  summer  boundaries,  or  to  cut  ofl'sonie  of  its  parts. 
To  accomjjlish  this  the  principal  outlet  must  be  carefully 
examined,  and  be  considerably  widened  and  enlarged  ;  which 
will  prevent  the  water  from  rising  so  high  as  was  formerly 
the  case.  Where  the  levels  will  not  admit  of  much  depth 
being  had,  or  where  the  ground  is  of  a  rocky  luiture,  and 
Would  of  course  be  difficult  and  expensive  to  deepen,  the 
breadth  should  be  increased  as  much  as  possible,  and  all 
obstacles  cleared  away,  that  the  water  may  run  freely  in  a 
shallow  stream.  Where  it  is  required  to  ascertain  with 
exactness,  or,  to  fix  with  certainty,  the  future  limits  of  the 
water,  a  section  of  the  greatest  quality  running  out  during 
a  flood  .-.hould  be  taken.  Sup|)ose  this  section,  for  cxanqile, 
be  10  feet  in  width  and  4  feet  in  depth,  by  luakiiig  it  40  feet 
in  width,  the  same  quantity  of  water  will  not  rise  above  1 
foot  :  consequently,  by  this  means  alone,  3  feet  in  height  will 
be  gained  all  round  the  lake,  which,  in  case  of  embanking  it, 
would  be  a  great  object.  During  the  summer  season,  when 
the  water  is  lowest,  is  the  most  proper  time  for  carrying  on 
these,  as  well  as  other  embankments.     When,  however,  any 


materials  are  to  be  brought  from  a  distance,  they  may  be  laid 
down,  or  prepared  at  other  seasons,  with  the  exception  of 
tm-f  which  should  always  be  used  as  soon  as  possible  after  it 
is  cut.  The  maimer  of  constructing  embankmi'nts  of  this 
kind  may  lie  sufllcicntly  understood,  from  what  has  already 
been  said  in  the  other  description  of  embankments  :  observ- 
ing, however,  as  a  general  nde,  tliat  when  the  materials  on  the 
spot  will  answer  the  Jiurpose,  they  should  invariably  be  made 
use  of,  although  at  the  expense  of  digging  a  trench  larger 
and  dee|)er  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary.  It  should 
constantly  be  attended  to,  in  executing  all  sorts  of  embank- 
ments, that  the  greatest  care  betaken  to  make  them  perfectly 
firm  and  solid,  by  continually  beating  them,  and  examining 
tiicm  carefully,  during  the  whole  of  the  time  they  are  in  a 
state  of  being  formed. 

The  following  account  of  embankments  on  the  Continent, 
is  taken  from  the  "  Dictionary  of 'J'erms  of  Art,"  part  of  the 
very  useful  rudimentary  treatises  published  by  Mr.  Weale. 

"  On  the  haidis  of  the  Po.  two  sorts  of  dykes  are  used  to 
j)revcnt  the  river  from  overflowing  during  the  winter,  or  the 
flood  season.  They  are  called  'in  froldi,'  when  immediately 
upon  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  'in  golenc,'  when  at  any 
considerable  distance,  as  it  is  sometimes  found  advisable  to 
allow  the  river  to  spread  over  a  large  surf  lee  of  the  adjacent 
vallev,  cither  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  it  to  deposit  the 
mud  in  suspension,  or  to  allow  it  to  lose  itstorrental  chaiacter. 
The  mainteiuuice  of  the  works  of  these  dikes  is  coidided  to 
the  government  engineers,  who  are  under  the  control  of  a 
syndicate  of  the  proprietors  of  the  property  most  liable  to  be 
artected  by  inundations.  When  the  river  passes  from  one 
state  to  another,  as  from  Piedmont  to  Modena,  a  mixed  com 
mission  is  charged  with  the  joint  superintendence. 

"The  Haarlem  lake,  besides  the  very  remarkable  steam- 
engines  described  by  Mr.  Dempsey,  merits  observation  for 
the  extensive  works  executed  fir  the  defence  of  the  land, 
and  f(ir  the  canals  reserved  for  the  navigation.  The  enclosure 
dike  is  50.000  metres  long,  or  rather  more  than  31  miles. 
It  has  two  outfall  dikes,  which  serve  for  the  navig.ition, 
9,000  metres,  about  5^  miles;  one  half  of  which  is  40"" 
(131  fi'Ct  'i  inch)  wide  at  the  bottom  or  floor  line  ;  tiie  other 
43°'  20  (141  feet  10  inches.) 

"The  ordinary  tides  are  at  the  flux,  2  feet  4  inches  above 
the  scale  or  datum  line  at  Amsterdam  ;  at  the  reflux  2  fi'ct 
8  inches  below  the  same  datum  :  the  difference  between  hiuh 
and  low  water  is  then,  on  the  average,  about  5  feet.  With 
violent  winds  from  the  N.  W.,  however,  the  tides  rise  some- 
times 6  feet  6  inches  above  the  average.  The  tides  of 
the  Y,  near  the  lake,  are  +  16°  (or  G^"  inches)  and— 23' 
(or  9  inches),  giving  a  total  variation  of  1  f  lot  3^^  inches. 

"The  estinutted  cost  of  reclaiming  the  18,000  hectares, 
was  8,000,000  of  florins,  or  £()(>T,000  English,  nearly  about 
£13  per  acre.  Previously  to  undertaking  this  colossal  work, 
the  Zind  Plas,  of  4,000  hectares  superficial,  (nearly  11,500 
acres)  liad  been  reclaimed  at  a  cost  of  3,000.000  of  florins, 
or  .i'250.000  ;  not  far  from  £22  per  acre.  The  heights  of 
the  enclosure  dike  are  -(-  or  —  the  datum  line  at  Amsterdam, 
or  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  in  that  i)ort. 

£iii/ituiki>ieiit  of  /lie  flooded  part  of  the  Aum/rrdiini  and 
Ilaark'iii  railway. — The  bottom  part  consists  of  treble  ranges 
of  fascines,  tied  down  by  longitudinal  poles  1  metre  apart 
from  centre  to  centre,  and  0.25' diameter;  two  double  stakes 
at  each  end  of  the  poles,  and  two  ties  in  the  inteiinediate 
distances.  The  interstices  of  the  fascines  and  the  space 
between  the  rows,  are  filled  in  with  sand.  The  iqiper  pari, 
forming  the  encasement  for  the  balla-t.  is  made  of  three  rows 
of  treble  fascines,  well  staked  and  wattled  together. 

"A  core  of  sand  or  clay,  faced  with  step  fascines,  is  made 


Ei\IB 


381 


EMB 


up  to  low-water  mark.  Upon  this  a  bed  of  rushes,  fastened 
clown  by  stakes  and  wattles,  is  laid ;  and  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  bank  is  faced  with  fascines  of  a  reguhir  slope 
of  1  to  1." 

Embankments  against  rivers  may  be  divided  into  two 
kinds;  namely,  such  as  are  for  preventing  their  encroaching 
on  the  adjacent  larld^^,  and  for  protecting  those  lands  and  the 
ncighliouring  level  country  from  being  oveiflown,  when  the 
water  rises  above  its  ordinary  level.  It  may  be  remarked, 
that  where  the  course  of  a  river  is  a  straight  line,  or  nearly 
so,  it  hardly  ever  makes  any  encroachment  upon  its  banks, 
unless,  perhaps,  in  very  large  rivers,  when  they  rise  above 
their  common  level,  either  owing  to  an  increase  in  the  waters, 
or  to  their  being,  in  some  degree,  aliected  by  the  tides.  In 
either  case,  the  waves  occasioned  by  a  strong  wind,  where 
the  river  is  wide,  will  nmulder  away  the  banks  on  that  side 
upon  which  it  blows,  unless  prevented  in  proper  time.  This 
may  be  done  either  by  securing  the  bank  properly  with 
stones,  or  by  driving  a  row  of  long  piles  pretty  close  together 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore,  the  piles  being  of  such  a 
length,  and  so  driven,  that  their  tops  may  be  always  above 
the  highest  rise  of  the  water.  It  is  surprising  the  elfect  that 
piles  driven  in  this  manner  have  in  resisting  the  power  of  the 
waves  in  such  situations. 

Some  years  ago,  when  Mr.  Beatson  was  on  duty  as  an 
engineei-  at  a  fort  near  Portsmouth,  built  on  a  point  of  land 
nmch  exposed  to  the  sea,  the  waves  made  such  havoc,  that 
the  walls  on  that  side  were  constantly  giving  way,  although 
built  in  the  most  substantial  manner;  and  having  bulwarks 
of  large  heavy  stone  besiiles,  to  protect  the  foundation  : 
however,  all  would  not  do;  those  bulwarks  were  soon 
knocked  to  pieces,  and  several  times  the  wall  itself.  At 
length  it  was  proposed  to  drive  a  number  of  piles  at  about 
40  or  50  yards  fiom  the  fort.  These  piles  were  12  or 
15  inches  in  diameter,  and  driven  about  one  diameter  from 
each  other  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  |)arallel  to  the  wall  where 
the  waves  did  .so  nmch  damage.  They  were  driven  into  the 
ground  with  a  pile-engine  till  perfectly  firm,  perhaps  8  or 
9  feet  deep,  and  about  "2  feet  ot  the  top  of  them  left  above 
the  level  of  high-water  mark.  After  this  was  done,  the  wall 
received  no  firtlier  injury,  the  space  between  the  piles  and 
the  fort  l)eing  always  perfectly  smooth,  however  tetnpestuous 
the  waves  might  be  without.  The  same  siinple  method 
might,  it  is  supposed,  sometimes  protect  the  banks  of 
large  rivers,  if  exposed  to  the  waves,  when  other  methods 
might  fail. 

But  it  is  suggested,  that  the  most  common  cause  of  rivers 
enci'oaching  on  their  banks,  is  the  resistance  occasioned  by  a 
sudden  bend.  In  flat  countries,  apt  sometimes  to  be  over- 
flown, where  there  are  any  such  bends  or  windings  in  the 
rivers,  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  to  straighten  the 
course  as  much  as  possible;  for,  as  every  impediment  or 
obstruction  will  naturally  cause  the  water  to  rise  higher  than 
it  otherwise  would  do,  and  as  such  bends  have  that  effect, 
consequently,  in  the  time  of  a  flood  the  waters  will  overflow 
a  greater  extent  of  countrv,  and  to  a  greater  depth,  than  if 
the  river  had  a  free  and  nninteirupted  course  straight  forward. 
If  the  windings  of  the  river  cannot  be  altered,  and  encroach- 
ments are  making  on  some  part  of  the  banks,  it  must  first  be 
considered,  w  hether  the  force  of  the  water  can  be  driven  to 
another  place  where  no  injury  can  be  done.  If,  for  example, 
a  river  is  encroaching  on  its  banks  at  x,  Fifjure  13,  a  jetty 
of  stone,  a  little  way  up  the  river,  in  the  direction  y  z,  would 
thiow  ort'  the  current  towards  w,  and  might  totally  prevent 
any  farther  encroachment.  On  the  river  Nith,  in  Dumfries- 
shire, it  is  stated,  that  a  good  deal  has  been  done  in  this  way 
by  Mr.  Millar,  of  Dalswinton,  a  gentleman  of  the  most  enter- 


prising genius  and  most  liberal  mind,  who  has  paid  more 
attention,  and  laid  out  more  money,  in  making  im[iortant  and 
useful  experiments,  than  almost  any  other  private  individual. 
The  course  of  the  river,  where  Mr.  Millar  has  been  carrying 
on  his  operations,  is  said  to  be  nearly  as  shown  at  Fii/ure  14, 
by  rsi  u;  at  t,  it  was  encroaching  mo>t  rapidly,  and  seemed 
inclined  to  take  a  new  course  towards  v,  which  would  have 
destroyed  some  very  fine  land,  and  done  a  great  deal  of  mis- 
chief in  that  part  of  the  country.  To  prevent  this,  !Mr.  Millar 
made  a  large  cut,  about  400  yards  in  length,  from  w  to  r,  and 
threw  in  a  great  quantity  of  stones  quite  across  the  river  at  s, 
to  direct  its  course  in  a  straight  line  from  r  to  w.  This  had, 
in  a  great  measure,  the  desired  etFect,  by  totally  preventing  its 
progress  at  t,  but  now  it  began  to  encroach  on  its  banks  at  u. 
lie  at  first  endeavoured  to  prevent  this  l)y  driving  in,  at  a 
considerable  expense,  a  number  of  piles  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  bank,  and  wattled  them  witli  willow  branches,  &c., 
thinking  thereby  to  protect  the  bank.  The  piles  were  driven 
in  with  heavy  mallets,  apparently  firm  into  the  ground  ;  they 
continued  so  for  some  months,  till  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  came 
on,  which  swelled  the  river,  undermined  the  piles,  and  car- 
ried them  all  away.  But,  indeed,  it  is  in  vain  to  think  of  piles 
doing  any  good  in  such  a  situation,  unless  firmly  driven  in  by 
a  pile-engine  ;  foi-  it  is  not  possible  to  drive  them  in  properly 
with  mallets;  this  nmst  have  been  the  cause  of  their  giving 
way  so  soon.  The  piles  not  succeeding,  Mr.  Millar  was 
resolved  to  try  another  plan  ;  several  of  his  adjacent  fields 
being  covered  with  an  immense  quantity  of  stones,  he  ordered 
them  to  be  gathered  and  thrown  into  the  river,  so  as  to  form 
a  jetty  at  x,  a  little  way  above  the  injured  bank.  Being 
obliged  to  go  from  home  about  that  time,  and  to  leave  t'iie 
execution  of  the  work  to  some  country-people,  they  carried 
out  this  jetty  too  much  at  right  angles  to  the  stream.  It  had 
not.  therefore,  the  desired  efllct,  but  rather  made  the  matter 
worse  than  before;  for,  if  a  jetty  is  carried  out  at  right 
angles,  as  at  a,  in  Figure  4,  the  current  will  be  forced  from 
a  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  at  4,  and  from  thence  it 
will  rebound  towards  c.  more  violently  that  it  did  before. 
But  if  a  jetty  be  placed  obliquely,  as  at  d.  it  will  force  the 
current  gradually  towards  e,  in  which  position  one  jetty  may 
do  more  good  than  several  placed  improperly  at  right  angles. 
Mr.  ^Miliar  was,  therefore,  under  the  necessity  of  making 
other  jetties  in  this  way,  and  at  leiiiith  had  the  salistaction  to 
find  that  they  answered  the  purpose  intended.  Those  he  made 
laterally  formed  a  sort  of  convex  slope,  the  convexity  being 
parallel  to  the  current.  Strong  planks  were  also  firndy  set 
on  edge  aiBong  the  stones,  their  ends  pointing  towards  the 
river,  so  that  if  ever  any  current  came  so  rapidly  as  to  move 
any  of  the  stones,  it  must  move  them  all  in  a  body  the  whole 
length  of  the  plank.  Perhaps  this  precaution  was  unneces- 
sary; for  although  stones  are  thrown  into  a  river  loose  in 
this  manner,  the  slush,  sand,  &c.,  that  come  down  the  river 
will  soon  fill  up  all  the  cavities,  and  lemier  it  as  firm  and 
Solid  as  a  regular-built  wall.  Mr  Beatson  has  been  the  more 
particular  in  this  description,  he  says,  in  order  to  show  the 
errors  that  ]\Ir.  Millar  at  first  fell  into,  and  the  great  expense 
they  occasioned,  whereas,  liad  he  been  on  the  spot  himself, 
and"  got  the  work  executed  as  he  intended,  it  would  have 
saved  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  labour  as  well  as  money. 
It  is  stated  by  the  .same  writer,  that  tlie  next  sort  of  em- 
bankments against  rivers,  are  those  to  prevent  them  over- 
flowing their  banks,  and  inundating  large  tracts  of  country. 
This  may  be  considered  as  the  simplest  and  easiist  of  all 
soits  of  embanking,  if  judiciously  executed.  It  is,  therefore, 
the  more  inexcusable  to  see,  in  some  places,  extensive  tiacts 
of  the  richest  meadows  completely  overflown  by  every  flood, 
for  want  of  them. 


EMB 


382 


EMB 


Two  ordiiiarv-sized  rivers  rise  no  more,  even  in  the  jireatest 
flood,  tliaii  live  or  six  feet  above  their  coiniiion  level,  unless 
when  they  meet  with  some  considerable  interruption  or  con- 
finement in  their  course.  But  if  interrupted  or  confined,  they 
will  rise  twenty  feet  or  more,  as  is  the  case  with  some  parts 
of  the  river  Mersey,  already  mentioned.  If,  for  example, 
a  given  quantity  of  water  is  six  feet  deep,  when  running 
over  a  space  twenty  feet  wide,  it  is  clear,  if  that  space  were 
only  made  ten  feet  wide,  tiie  water  would  lise  to  twelve  feet, 
and  if  it  were  made  forty  feet  wide,  the  same  quantity  of 
water  would  only  rise  to  the  height  of  three  feet.  It  is, 
therefoie,  of  great  consequence,  in  preventing  iiuindations, 
to  give  the  river  as  much  width  as  possible,  by  widening 
evi-ry  narrow  jilace.  All  kinds  of  obstructions  should  also 
be  removed,  whether  oeeasioned  by  windings,  shoals,  stones, 
trees,  bushes,  or  anything  else.  In  some  cases  this  mav  even 
preclude  the  necessity  of  embanking;  but  where  embanking 
is  necessary,  let  the  banks  by  all  means  be  at  a  sufficient 
distance  from  each  other,  to  contain  with  ease,  between  them, 
the  largest  contents  of  the  river  in  great  floods.  The  dis- 
tance and  height  of  the  banks  may  easily  be  ascertained  by 
measuring  a  section  of  the  river  when  at  its  highest,  or  when 
the  flood-mark  is  visible.  By  not  attending  to  this,  a  great 
deal  of  money  has  been  thrown  away  on  the  embankments 
on  the  river  Mersey,  and  after  all  they  do  not  efleetnally 
answer  the  intended  purpose  ;  a  great  part  of  the  country 
being  still  overflown  every  time  the  river  rises  to  any  con- 
siderable height. 

Where  a  suflicient  distance  is  allowed  between  the  embank- 
in, Mits  their  height  need  not  exceed  from  four  to  six  feet. 
If  irreinoveable  obstacles  are  in  the  way,  which  cause  the 
nvcr  to  ri-e  higher,  the  banks  must  be  higher  in  proportion. 
In  either  ease,  however,  the  slope  of  these  kinds  of  banks  on 
lacli  side  may  be  equal  to  its  perpendicular  height,  and  the 
lireitlth  on  the  top  about  one-third  of  that  height,  which, 
supposing  the  bank  six  feet  high,  the  base  wouM  be  fourteen 
feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  top  two  feet,  as  shown  at  Fii/ure 
10.  in  the  Plate, 

The  materials  for  making  these  banks  should  l)e  taken  as 
much  as  po-sible  from  the  sides  of  the  river,  which  will  have 
the  double  eflect  of  widening  the  river  and  forming  the  em- 
bankments; and  there  should  be  a  trench  on  the  inside  (from 
which  materials  may  also  be  got)  with  some  sluices,  as  for- 
merly directed,  to  drain  ofl'  any  water  from  within  ;  also 
sluices  to  let  in  water  from  the  river,  if  required,  which 
would  very  much  fertilize  the  meadows,  if  properly  laid  out 
for  that  purpose. 

Such  farms  as  are  situated  on  the  borders  of  rivers  are 
frequently,  it  was  observed  by  a  late  writer,  liable  to  much 
injury  and  inconvenience  from  them:  1st.  From  part  of  the 
soil  being  carried  away  in  times  of  flood.  2nd.  I'Vom  their 
overflowing  their  banks.  3rd.  From  their  flowing  back  in 
times  of  flood  into  the  channels  of  the  rivulets  and  streams 
that  conduct  the  water  from  the  more  elevated  and  distant 
grounds  to  the  rivers,  whereby  these  rivulets  and  streams  arc 
made  also  to  overflow  their  banks. 

In  respect  to  the  first,  the  danger  of  the  soil  being  carried 
away  in  time  of  floods,  it  is  increased  or  decreased  according 
to  circumstances,  as  the  form  of  the  banks,  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  the  ra|iidity  of  the  river,  and  the  quantity  of  water  that 
lodges  on  th<'  margins  of  the  banks,  or  falls  over  them  into 
the  river.  Where  the  banks  of  a  river  are  perpendicular, 
especially  if  the  soil  be  of  a  rich  mouldering  nature,  the 
danger  of  part  of  them  being  carried  away  by  floods  is  much 
greater  than  where  they  slope  gently  from  the  surface  of 
the  held  to  the  bed  of  the  river,  as  has  been  already  fully 
seen. 


Where  that  is  not  the  case  naturally,  they  ought  to  be 
moulded  into  that  form  by  art;  as  when  a  river,  in  plaie  <if 
being  conliiied  in  its  progress,  has  a*  power  of  efflux  atnl 
reflux,  the  damage  to  be  ai)piehen<led  is  inconsiderable  com- 
pared with  what  is  likely  to  happen  when,  beinir  rcsti'ained 
within  too  narrow  liim'ts,  it  is  eonstantiv  struggliiii;  for  an 
extension  of  space.  Where  the  soil  is  rich  free  mould,  ami 
the  under  stratum,  opposite  to  the  greatest  force  of  the  water, 
sand  or  gravel,  this  struggle  never  fails  to  be  attended  with 
bad  consequences,  if  the  soil  and  subsoil  be  one  entire  mass 
of  clay  or  strong  loam,  and  the  current  i>f  the  river  does  not 
[U-ess  more  upon  one  part  than  another,  a  most  substantial 
improvement  may  be  eflccted  by  sloping  the  V)ank,  so  that 
the  declivity  may  be  one  foot  in  three  oi-  four  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  field  to  the  bed  of  the  river.  This  some  may 
object  to,  as  saerilicing  a  certain  [lortion  of  valuable  land  ; 
but  it  should  rather,  it  is  thought,  be  considered  as  a  preininm 
[laid  fijr  the  insuranci;  of  the  remainder,  than  as  a  total  loss. 
If  gravel,  mixed  with  small  stones,  can  be  Conveniently  pro- 
cured, spreading  these  materials  on  the  sloping  bank  to  the 
de[)th  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  and  till  beyond  the  flowings  of 
the  river,  will  prove  a  good  security  against  farther  damage ; 
and  if  the  bank  be  planted  thick  with  any  sort  of  willow, 
especially  the  Dutch  willow,  it  will  in  a  short  time  become 
an  impenetrable  fence,  while  the  anniral  cuttings  of  wood 
will  soon  be  equal  to  the  heritable  value  of  the  land  thus 
apparently  sacrificed.  Where  no  gravel  can  be  procured, 
the  new  sloped  bank  should  be  immediately  covered  with 
well  swarded  turf,  pressed  down  as  hard  as  possible,  either 
with  the  back  of  a  spade,  or  with  wofiden  mallets.  If  this 
be  done  in  the  begiiming  of  summer,  and  willows  planted 
the  following  autumn,  the  improvement  will  be  both  effec- 
tual and  permanent.  In  case  the  river  run  with  extraordi- 
nary violence  against  any  one  particular  part  of  the  bank,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  make  a  fence  or  bulwark  of  stone  in  the 
front  of  that  place;  the  best  way  of  doing  which,  is,  in  pla<« 
of  building  a  wall,  to  drop  the  stones  in  a  careless  manner, 
but  so  as  they  may  lie  close  together  on  the  sloped  bank,  as 
already  suggested. 

This  is  a  much  more  secure  mode  of  fencing,  if  the  bank 
be  made  with  suflicient  declivity,  than  any  stone  wall  that 
ever  was  built  for  the  purpose,  and  while  it  is  the  most 
secure,  it  is  also  the  least  expensive;  but  care  should  be 
taken  to  lay  the  stones  all  the  way  from  the  bed  of  the  river, 
till  considerably  beyond  where  the  river  flows  in  common. 
Where  the  soil  is  of  a  strong  adhesive  nature,  and  the  under 
stratum  is  sand  or  a  pebbly  gi-avel,  it  becomes  in  a  much 
greater  degree  necessary  to  slojie  the  banks.  The  water, 
when  rushing  violently  along,  has  a  powerful  eflfect  in  under- 
mining the  bank  ;  so  that  the  soil,  having  nothing  to  support 
it,  naturally  gives  way,  and  frequently  in  such  (juantities  as 
to  occasion  very  serious  loss  both  to  proprietors  and  tenants. 
In  all  such  cases,  the  slope  shoidd  be  made  much  more  gr;w 
dual  than  where  the  soil  and  sulisoil  are  of  the  same  (pialil.y, 
and  such  as  will  nourish  aquatic  plants.  The  banks,  having 
been  sloped  according  as  circumstances  require,  a  thick  coat 
(jf  gravel,  mixed  with  small  stones,  where  such  can  be  pro- 
cured, should  be  laid  on,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  natural 
beach,  over  which  the  river,  when  in  flood,  may  have  power 
to  extend  itself  at  pleasure,  Should  it  be  difficult  or  im- 
possible to  procure  such  materials  as  are  proper  fir  forming 
this  best  of  all  defences,  strong  thick  sods  should  be  pbn  eil 
on  the  surface,  in  the  maimer  befire  directed:  these,  if  laid 
on  in  spring,  or  early  in  summer,  will  have  time  to  unite, 
and  to  become  one  compact  body  before  the  autuinnal  floods 
(which  are  those  whence  the  greatest  danger  is  to  be  expect- 
ed) begin   to  flow.     If  the  subsoil   be  of  a  nature  unfavour- 


EMB 


383 


EMB 


able  to  the  growth  of  willows,  such  sods  as  are  full  of  the 
roots  of  ruslios  should  be  made  choice  of  in  preference  to  all 
others;  as,  where  these  planls  thrive  and  spread  over  the 
surface,  it  becomes  iu  a  great  degree  impenetrable  by  water, 
even  in  great  flonds,  and  when  the  river  runs  with  consider- 
erable  violence  and  rapidity. 

The  directions  above  given  will,  it  is  supposed,  be  found 
mi>re  or  less  practicable  aud  useful  according  as  the  river  on 
ordinary  occasions  rinis  with  greater  or  less  rapidity.  In 
level,  or  nearly  level  districts,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  secure 
full  sc<ipe  for  the  rivers  to  overflow  their  usual  bounds  with- 
out interruption;  when  that  is  secured  by  either  of  the 
methods  before  mentioned.  Hnods,  unless  very  violent,  seldom 
do  any  material  damage  to  the  banks  of  rivers  in  such  situa- 
tions. It  becomes  in  many  cases  extremely  diflicidt  to  fence 
rapid  running  rivers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  part  of 
the  banl<s  from  being  carried  away  by  inundation.  Sloping 
the  banks  would  be  attended  with  no  gnod  consequences. 
Even  strong  bulwarks  made  of  stone  are  often  swept  away 
by  the  overpowering  flood.  A  method  has,  however,  been 
suggested,  of  fencing  the  sides  of  a  rapid  running  river,  which 
has  been  practised  with  success,  after  several  other  attempts 
had  failed  :  it  is  by  means  of  a  sort  of  large  baskets,  pro- 
vincially  termed  creels,  firmed  of  hazel,  willow,  &c.,  into, 
a  kind  of  open  network,  which  being  placed  along  the  bottom 
of  the  banks,  are  filled  with  stones.  This  is  a  very  simple, 
and  by  no  means  an  e.xpensive  expedient ;  and  as  these 
baskets  may  he  made  to  contain  two  or  three  tons  of  stone, 
it  can  only  be  on  few  occasions,  and  in  very  particular 
situations,  that  a  basket,  containing  such  a  weight,  can  be 
displaced  or  carried  away.  Such  a  mode  of  fencing  as  this, 
it  is  imagined,  would  prove  etiectual  in  manv  parts  of  Scot- 
land and  Wales,  where  the  rivers  run  with  uncoinmon 
]  apiility.  Owing  to  inattention,  or  rather  to  not  being  aware 
of  the  consequences,  much  damage  is  otlen  done  to  the  banks 
of  rivers  in  level  districts,  especially  if  the  banks  be  perpen- 
dicular, and  of  a  considerable  height,  by  allowing  the  land- 
floods  to  fall  over  them  into  the  river.  As  the  water  from 
the  furrows  approaches  the  bank,  it  is  frequently  stopped  in 
the  furrow  of  the  head  ridge,  which  becomes  for  a  time  a 
kind  of  reservoir  ;  the  consequence  of  which  is,  that  a  con- 
siJeral)le  proportion  of  water  sinks  and  lilters  through  the 
earth,  which  being  thus  .softened  and  swelled,  is  more  easily 
undermined  and  carried  off  by  the  river.  Sometimes  little 
cuts  or  openings  are  made  for  the  furrows  across  the  head 
ridge,  for  the  purpijse  of  conducting  the  rain-water  into  the 
river  ;  here,  again,  the  consequences  are  equally  bad.  Who- 
ever will  examine  the  bank  of  a  river  where  this  mode  of 
management  is  adopted,  and  it  is  very  commoji,  will  observe, 
that  at  every  one  of  these  cuts  or  openings  a  little  creek  is 
formed,  in  consequence  of  the  hank  having  been  more  soft- 
ened, and  by  that  means  having  become  a  more  easy  prey  to 
the  river  when  in  flood.  To  prevent  these  evils,  it  is  neces- 
sary, besides  sloping  the  banks,  to  devote  a  part  of  the  lands 
adjoining,  to  the  breadth  of  "20  or  30  yards,  for  instance,  either 
to  pasturage  or  the  growth  of  trees,  and  to  form  a  drain  at 
a  proper  distance  from,  and  parallel  to  the  bank,  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  and  carrying  off  the  water  from  the 
furrows.  Were  this  done,  and  were  the  water  from  this 
drain  conducted  into  the  river  by  conduits  formed  a  little 
above  its  ordinary  level,  much  land,  which  is  annually  lost 
by  neglecting  this  simple  precaution,  would  be  saved,  and 
preserved  in  a  proper  state. 

In  the  second  case,  it  is  evident  that  injuries,  although  of 
another  nature,  are  often  sustained  by  farmers,  from  rivers 
overflowing  their  banks.  Sometimes  the  farmer  is  prevented 
from  sowing  his  field  ;  at  other  times  the  crops  of  grain  and 


grass  are  greatly  injured,  by  being  covered  for  a  considerable 
time  with  water;  and  at  others  again,  the  whole  produce  of 
the  year,  the  hay  and  corn  crops,  are  swept  away.  To 
prevent  evils  so  complicated,  and  so  serious  in  their  nature, 
is  certaiidy  the  business  of  every  man.  who,  from  the  situa- 
tion of  his  firm,  has  reason  to  apprehend,  that,  without  using 
proper  precautions,  he  may  be  subjected  to  such  vi.-^itations. 
These  damages  can  only  ha[)pen  in  level  tracts,  where  the 
banks  of  the  rivers  are  low,  and  where  the  course  is  not  of 
sufficient  breadth  to  contain  the  water  in  time  of  flood. 
Some  people,  although  very  improperly,  raise  mounds  of 
earth  close  to  the  top  of  the  bank,  and  of  a  height  exceeding 
that  to  which  the  river  can  be  expected  at  any  time  to  rise. 
These  mounds,  from  being  placed  so  near  the  river,  are  unable 
to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  water,  and  by  giving  way, 
frequently  admit  a  current  into  the  fields,  which  proves  much 
more  injurious  in  its  course  than  if  no  mound  whatever  had 
been  erected.  Were  a  mound  of  earth  formed  on  the  side  of 
the  drain,  proposed  to  be  made  for  carrying  ofl'  the  land- 
water,  and  were  that  mound  well  sloped  on  the  side  towards 
the  river,  it  would  be  the  most  secure  and  effectual  guard 
against  rivers  doing  injury  to  the  adjoining  lands,  of  any  that 
could  be  adopted.  By  these  mounds  being  [daced  at  a  distance 
from  the  river,  the  f  irce  of  the  stream  would  be  much  lessened, 
and  the  natural  boundaries  of  the  river  greatly  enlarged  ; 
as,  in  proportion  as  the  mounds  are  removed  from  the  centre 
of  the  current  of  the  river,  in  like  proportion  will  they  become 
more  secure,  as  being  less  liable  to  violent  pressure.  The 
propriety  of  erecting  these  m^iunds  at  a  proper  distance  must, 
therefore,  be  sufliciently  evident ;  as,  when  mounds  are  erected 
near  the  top  of  the  bank,  which  can  only  be  owing  to  ill- 
judged  parsimony,  they  form  as  it  were  a  part  of  the  bank, 
and  are  liable  to  be  undermined  and  swept  away.  Whereas, 
when  they  are  placed  at  the  distance  of  20,  30,  or  40  yard.s, 
they  serve  rather  as  a  boundary  to  confine  the  overflowing 
waters  which  glide  along  the  bottom,  than  as  a  barrier  to 
prevent  the  encroachtnents  of  an  impetuous  river  during  the 
time  of  floods. 

In  regard  to  the  third  case,  it  is  observed,  that  formers 
who  possess  lands  in  low  situations  often  sustain  damage 
from  rivers,  in  time  of  flood,  by  their  flowing  back  into  the 
channels  of  the  rivulets  and  streams  that  conduct  the  water 
from  the  more  distant  and  elevated  grounds  to  the  rivers, 
whereby  these  rivulets  and  streams  are  made  also  to  over- 
flow their  banks. 

The  only  precaution  that  can  be  adopted,  in  such  a  case, 
or  at  least  the  one  which  appears  to  have  the  greatest  proba- 
bility of  answering  the  purpose,  is  to  erect  mounds  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  banks,  and  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the 
quantity  of  water,  which,  from  the  cause  now  mentioned, 
may  be  supposed  at  any  time  to  stagnate  in  these  channels. 
This  may  be  done  at  a  very  trifling  expense  either  in  money 
or  land.  If  the  proprietors  do  not  choose  to  ornament  the 
country  and  improve  their  own  estates,  by  planting  trees  on 
the  borders  of  the  rivulets  and  streams,  the  farmers  may  so 
construct  these  mound,s,  as  that  they  may  become  fences 
to  their  arable  field.s,  while  that  portion  of  the  farm,  neces- 
sarily and  properly  cut  ofl"  for  the  protection  of  the  remain- 
der, may  be  devoted  to  pasturage. 

Several  different  embankments  of  a  successfid  kind  have 
been  effected  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  kingdom.  An 
important  work  of  this  nature  was  some  years  since  executed 
on  the  estate  of  Lord  Galloway,  situated  on  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Cree,  near  Cree-town,  by  his  lordship's  tenant,  ^Mr. 
Thomas  Ilannay,  who  states,  in  the  third  volume  of  the 
'•Farmej's  Magazine,"  that  at  the  time  he  entered  on  the 
farm,  upwards  of  100  Scottish  statute  acres  were  regularly 


EMB 


384 


EMB 


flooded  by  the  higliest  spring-tides,  excepting  about  three 
months  in  sunuiicr,  when  the  tides  were  lower.  They  were 
seldom,  however,  covered  above  the  depth  of  one  or  two  fi'ct, 
and  never  above  four  or  five.  Eiglity  acres  of  the  above 
consisted  of  a  rich  sea  marsh,  or  iit(;s,  as  they  c;ill  them  there, 
almost  a  true  level,  excepting  where  hollows  were  formed 
by  the  egress  and  regress  of  the  tides,  and  the  passage  of 
fresh  water  from  the  higher  grounds  ;  and  about  4  or  5  acres, 
which  were  about  16  inches  lower,  being  a  younger  marsh, 
and  nothing  but  what  they  call  ink-grass  growing  upon  it  ; 
other  grasses,  such  as  clover,  rib-grass,  &c.,  gicw  on  the 
rest  of  the  marsh,  forming  a  very  beautiful  close  cover  in 
the  summer.  The  other  20  acres  were  on  an  average  about 
18  inches  higher;  consefjuently  the  sea  did  not  cover  tliem 
so  often.  It  had  formerly  been  ploughed,  but  not  for  about 
20  years  past.  Last  time  it  was  in  corn,  it  was  flooded 
immediately  after  being  sown,  which  rendered  the  crop 
almost  entirely  useless,  and  deterred  former  tenants  from 
ploughing  it  again.  Mr.  Ilannay  began  to  bank  this  field 
in  the  autumn  of  the  year  1T98,  by  making  a  dike  along  the 
side  opposite  to  the  river,  in  a  direct  line  facing  the  east. 
This  dike  was  made,  at  an  average,  about  34-  feet  high,  and 
6  feet  broad  at  bottom,  and  20  inches  at  top,  built  after  the 
same  manner  with  that  mentioned  below.  He  enclosed, 
along  with  the  said  fields,  he  says,  4  acres  of  the  marsh 
adjoining,  by  making  a  dike  5  feet  high,  and  5  feet  in  bottom, 
almost  wholly  of  solid  feals  or  sods,  with  a  very  little  stuff, 
properly  beat,  in  the  heart  of  it,  wliich  makes  an  excellent 
fence,  and  promises  to  be  a  very  durable  one.  This  dike, 
together  with  two  small  drains,  one  on  each  side  of  it.  about 
two  feet  deep,  cost  3d.  per  yard.  The  division-dikes  of  the 
whole  marsh,  which  now,  divided  into  4  parts,  are  all  built 
after  the  same  numner,  only  that  there  is  no  loose  stuff  in 
the  heart  of  some  of  them,  but  all  of  solid  feal,  jointed  like 
bricks,  as  may  be  seen  at  Fi</iire  17,  which  represents  an  end 
view,  or  section  of  it.  This  dike,  meant  as  a  permanent 
fence,  answered  as  a  temporary  bank,  and  enabloil  him  to 
plough  that  field  in  spring,  1799,  although  the  bank  round 
the  whole  marsh  was  not  fini.shcd  till  the  winter  following. 
He  sowed  oats  on  this  field,  and,  considering  the  badness  of 
the  season,  had  a  very  good  crop  ;  particularly  so  on  that 
part  which  had  not  been  ploughed  formerly.  On  farther 
consideration,  he  altered  the  plan  of  the  bank  round  the 
marsh,  (which  extends  in  a  circular  direction  facingthe  north) 
by  making  it.  at  an  avcr.ige,  about  four  feet  and  a  half  high, 
and  allowing  about  two  feet  in  the  base  for  one  in  height,  as 
at  Figure  18,  where  a  b  c  represents  an  end  view,  or  section 
of  it,  every  small  span  representing  the  section  of  a  feal  or 
sod  ;  a  b  shows  the  inside  of  the  bank,  with  the  green  side 
of  the  feal  down  ;  b  c  the  base  ;  a  c  the  side  next  the  water, 
with  the  green  side  of  the  feal  out,  (which  adds  greatly  both 
to  the  strength  and  beauty  of  the  bank  ;)  and  d  the  heart  of 
the  dike,  made  up  with  stuff'  properly  compressed  with  a 
rammer.  The  stuff  was  taken  from  a  ditch,  in  thi;  inside  of 
the  bank,  leaving  a  casement  of  a  foot,  w  hich  ought  to  have 
been  three  at  least  ;  and,  where  the  ground  is  of  a  sandy 
nature,  more  ;  as  the  fresh  water,  running  in  the  inside,  was 
likely  to  undermine  the  bank,  had  he  not  prevented  it,  by 
cutting  a  new  drain,  and  filling  the  old  one  with  the  stuff 
cast  from  it.  The  only  creek  worth  noticing,  through  which 
the  bank  passed,  was  about  40  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep, 
in  the  bottom  of  which  a  wooden  pipe,  with  a  stopper,  was 
laid  through  the  bank. 

There  are  now  about  50  acres  of  the  same  kind  of  marsh- 
land adjoining  his  ;  and  also  about  100  acres  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  banked  in,  all  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  represented  in  the  figure.     The  bank  on  a  farm  on  the 


side  of  the  river  opposite  to  his.  was  made  almost  a  complete 
wieck,  by  an  extraordinary  tide,  owing  to  its  Iviirg  quite 
exposed  to  the  south-west  winds,  which  always  send  up  the 
highest  tides  ;  but  on  his  side,  though  suffering  some  injury 
from  the  same  high  tide,  he  was  not  affected  by  those  winds, 
as  they  blew  right  over  the  bank.  In  his  opinion,  the  bank 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  in  order  to  be  durable,  would 
require  to  be  30  feet  broad,  and  8  feet  high,  covered  with 
feals,  with  the  green  side  out ;  and  that  no  stuff  should  be 
lifted  within  6  or  7  feet  of  it,  the  ground  being  of  a  sandy 
nature.  It  might  be  made  after  the  form  shown  at  Fii/iire  10. 
The  whole  of  this  turned  out  most  excellent  land,  and  con- 
tinues to  produce  to  this  day  some  of  the  finest  crops  in  that 
part  of  the  country. 

Anotheriniprovemont  of  the  same  nature  was  accomplished 
on  what  in  Scotland  is  tiTmed  rarxe  hual,  on  the  farm  of 
Xetheiton  of  (irange,  belonging  to  James  Peterkin.  Esq., 
by  Afr.  John  Iloyes,  his  tenant.  The  work  was  undertaken 
under  an  agree^ient  w'ilh  the  proprietor,  to  allow  one  year's 
rent,  of  £195  sterling,  with  the  farther  allowance  of  amelio- 
rating the  farm-liouses  to  the  extent  of  £150  more.  The 
method  adopted  for  carrying  on  the  operations  was  this  : — 
Afier  looking  overthe  carse,  and  marking  out  the  line  or  dike, 
the  length  of  which  is  1,400  yards,  mostly  in  a  right  line, 
except  an  angle  at  the  distance  of  300  yards  from  the  west 
end,  an<l  a  segment  of  a  circle  at  about  250  from  the  south- 
east end,  it  was  resolved  to  make  the  embankment  6  feet  high 
in  the  highest  part  of  the  ground,  and  to  allow  2  feet  of 
breadth  in  the  bottom  of  every  foot  in  height,  as  seen  by  the 
draught  of  the  mould  at  Fujnre  20.  After  taking  the  "level 
of  the  carse,  it  was  found  that  where  the  ground  was  k>w, 
and  a  good  deal  of  it  broken  by  rinis  of  the  sea  and  outlets 
for  the  water,  the  dike  would  require  to  be  8  and  10  feet 
high,  to  have  it  on  a  level  at  the  tup;  so  that  the  average 
would  be  9  feet  high.  The  eml)ankment  was  built  in  the 
following  manner:  It  was  begun  on  the  highest  ground,  near 
the  west  end,  and  tw-o  moulds  set  up  at  the  distance  of  70  or 
80  yards ;  the  height,  6  feet,  by  12  broad  in  the  base  ;  the 
slope  on  the  outside  (Jfeet,  on  the  inside  4  feet,  and  the  breadth 
at  the  top2  feet  ;  the  sides  made  iqi  with  feal  from  the  brnken 
ground  on  the  outside  of  the  dike,  which  were  laid  with  the 
grass-side  down,  two  feal  deep  on  each  side  of  the  dike  ; 
the  outside  feal  of  the  fir.st  course  with  the  ends  out  and  in, 
and  the  other  running  along;  the  next  course,  the  outside 
feal  running  along,  and  the  outside  out  and  in,  and  so  on 
alternately,  each  course  consisting  of  a  head  and  runner  ;  the 
body  of  the  dike  being  made  up  of  the  carse  ground  from 
which  the  feal  had  been  cut,  and  packed  down  by  men  with 
beateis.  When  this  was  brought  to  the  height  of  4  or  5  feet, 
another  piece  was  begun,  leaving  an  intermediate  space,  where 
there  were  any  water-rims,  for  the  egress  of  the  tide  :  this 
was  found  nect^ssary,  to  draw  off  the  water  from  the  low  parts 
of  the  carse,  which  would  have  been  filled  up  in  spring  tides  : 
and,  by  coming  in  at  the  end  and  over  the  high  ground,  wonid 
have  been  prevented  from  getting  out  by  the  dike,  if  it  had 
not  been-  done  in  that  way  ;  so  that  the  embankment  was  all 
in  detached  pieces,  till  it  was  brought  near  the  height.  Tiiese 
intermediate  spaces  were  then  filled  iqi,  between  the  fall  of 
one  and  rise  of  next  spring-tide,  after  laying  down  wooilen 
pipes  with  stoppers  in  the  dike,  to  carry  off  the  sink-water. 
In  carrying  on  the  work,  they  had  in  some  places  to  cross 
over  lakes  and  runs  made  by  the  tides,  which  required  vast 
quantities  of  materials,  the  dike  being  in  some  places  upwards 
of  10  feet  high,  and  22  broad  in  the  base  ;  the  greatest 
part  of  the  dike  being  Ki  to  18  feet  broad,  'i'here  was  one  lake 
of  150  feet  in  length,  and  50  feet  in  breadth,  filled  up  with 
earth,  clay,  and  sand,  to  the  height  of  5  feet;  on  which  the 


EiMB 


385 


EMB 


uUc  wiis  ilici\  liiiilt.  This  forms  a  mound,  on  the  outside 
(if  the  dike,  of  15  or  IG  feet  broad;  and  throu>;h  this  theie 
.M-.-  [lines  laid,  to  carry  off  the  sinli-water.  A  stream  of 
•vater  was  also  turned  by  the  west  end  of  the  farm,  by 
I  iitiiiiij;  a  canal,  which  conveyed  the  water  throiigli  the  eni- 
liaiikirient  there,  by  means  of  an  outlet  built  of  stone,  with 
u  sluice  on  the  inside,  raised  to  the  level  of  the  running 
water,  and  a  folding  door  on  the  outside,  to  be  shut  by  the 
■|ii-iiig-tides.  At  this  place,  a  road,  that  formerly  led  to 
Findhorn  at  low  water  through  the  carse,  is  carried  over  the 
top  of  the  dike,  by  making  a  mound  of  earth  at  each  side, 
with  a  gradual  approach  and  descent. 

In  Fiyure  20,  a,  is  the  breadth  of  the  dike  at  the  top,  when 
finished;  b,  the  breadth  of  dike  at  the  bottom,  being  twelve 
feet,  when  it  is  six  feet  high ;  c,  the  breadth  when  eight  feet 
high ;  d,  the  breadth  when  ten  feet  high ;  f,  the  slope  on  the 
sea-sideof  the  dike,  which  is  always  equal  to  half  of  the  breadth 
of  the  bottom  :  the  inside  slope,  and  breadth  of  the  dike  at 
the  top,  is  equal  to  the  other  half;  and  e  is  the  plumb-rule  in 
a  fiaine,  made  to  apply  to  the  mould  or  dike  :  the  intention 
of  it  was,  to  find  if  the  dike  was  kept  on  the  proper  slope, 
where  a  line  could  not  be  applied  from  one  mould  to  another, 
as  in  a  round  or  turn,  or  when  the  moulds  were  obliged  to 
be  taken  down  ;  but  this  one  only  answered  for  the  sea-side, 
another  being  used  for  the  inside,  to  fit  its  slope."  Figure  21, 
is  a  scale  of  the  mould,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  a  foot. 

A  curious,  useful,  and  highly  ingenious  method  of  embank- 
ing, and  preventing  the  waters  of  the  tides  from  soaking 
through  the  porous  banks,  made  in  the  fen-lands,  and  low 
nuirshy  grounds,  was  described  by  Mr.  John  Smith,  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  "  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture,^'' who  begins  by  "  concisely  observing,  that  the  great 
land  of  the  fens  is  divided  into  three  large  levels  ;  and  that 
each  of  these  levels  is  subdivided  into  numerous  districts  by 
iianks:  but  as  these  banks  are  made  of  fen-moor,  and  other 
light  materials,  whenever  the  rivers  are  swelled  with  water, 
or  any  other  district  is  deluged  either  by  rain,  a  breach  of 
ijanks,  or  any  other  cause,  the  waters  speedily  pass  through 
these  light,  moory,  porous  banks,  and  drown  all  the  circum- 
jacent districts.  The  fens  have  thus  sometimes  sustained 
£20,000  or  £30,000  damages  by  a  breach  of  the  banks,  though 
these  accidents  seldom  happen  in  the  same  district  tw'ice  in 
twenty  years.  The  w'ater,  however,  soaks  through  all  feu- 
banks  every  year,  in  every  district ;  and  when  the  water- 
mills  have  lifted  the  waters  up  out  of  the  fens  into  the  rivers 
in  a  windy  day,  a  great  part  of  the  water  soaks  back  through 
the  porous  banks,  in  the  night,  upon  the  same  land  again." 
And  he  adds,  that  "  this  water  that  soaks  through  the  bank 
drowns  the  wheat  in  the  winter,  washes  the  manure  into  the 
dikes,  destroys  the  best  natural  and  artificial  grasses,  and  pre- 
vents the  fens  from  being  sown  till  too  late  in  the  season. 
Tiiis  stagnant  water  lying  on  the  surface,  causes  also  fen- 
ayues,  &c.  Thus,  says  he,  the  waters  that  have  soaked 
through  the  porous  fen-banks  have  done  the  fertile  fens  more 
real  injury  than  all  the  other  floods  that  have  ever  come  upon 
them." 

Having  been  much  concerned  in  fen-banking  from  his 
youth,  he  had  some  time  since  devised  the  plan  which  he 
nt)w  finds  to  answer  so  well ;  but  found  it  difficult  to  prevail 
with  any  gentleman,  who  had  a  proper  extent  of  this  sort  of 
land,  to  give  it  a  fair  trial.  However,  during  the  last  autumn, 
he  prevailed  with  a  person  in  the  parish  where  he  lives  to  try 
it,  which  showed  it  to  be  equal  to  his  highest  expectations. 

The  improved  method  of  embanking   proposed   by  this 

gentleman,  consists  chiefly  in    this :  that  "  a   gutter  is  cut 

eighteen  inches  wide,  through  the  old  bank  down  to  the  clay 

(the  fen  substratum  being  ireneraliy  clay  ;)  the  gutter  is  made 

"49 


near  the  centre,  but  a  little  on  the  land-side  of  the  centre  of 
the  old  bank.  This  gulti'r  is  afterwards  filled  up  in  a  very 
solid  manner  with  tempered  clay  ;  and  to  make  the  clay  resist 
the  water,  a  man  in  boots  always  treads  the  clay  as  the  gutter 
is  filled  up.  As  the  fen-moor  lies  on  clay,  the  whole  expense 
of  this  cheap,  improved,  and  durable  mode  of  waterproof 
banking  costs  in  the  fens  only  sixpence  per  yard.  This  plan 
was  tried  on  a  convenient  farm,  and  a  hundred  acres  of  wheat 
were  sown  on  the  land.  The  wheat  and  grass  lands  on  this 
farm  were  all  dry,  whilst  the  fens  around  wore  covered  with 
water.  This  practice  is,  after  all,  nothing  more  than  making 
&  puddle-bank,  well  known  to  all  engineers,  or  those  engaged 
in  forming  canals. 

The  term  embankment  in  canal-making  is  applied  to  any 
large  mound  of  earth,  either  for  confining  the  water  of  the 
canal  or  reservoir,  or  for  carrying  the  former  across  a  valley 
or  low  piece  of  ground.  The  method  of  constructing  such 
embankments  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  those  for  railways, 
except  that  in  the  former  the  sides  have  puddle-trenches 
formed  near  the  canal,  to  prevent  leakage. 

The  embankments  on  someof  the  great  lines  of  railway  in 
this  country  are  of  immense  magnitude,  on  the  London  and 
Birmingham  railway,  for  instance,  the  total  of  embankments 
amounted  to  about  11  millions  of  cubic  yards.  The  follow- 
ing extracts  from  specifications  for  works  of  this  kind  will 
show  the  usual  mode  of  construction. 

"  The  whole  of  the  embankment  in  this  contract  shall  have 
slopes  of  two  to  one  (that  is  to  say)  where  the  base  of  the 
slope  is  two  feet,  its  height  shall  be  one  foot  only,  and  they 
shall  be  thirty-three  feet  wide  at  the  level  of  the  red  line  in 
the  section,  neither  more  nor  less. 

"  Each  of  the  embankments  shall  be  uniformly  carried 
forward  as  nearly  as  the  finished  heights  and  width  as  the  due 
allowance  for  shrinking  of  materials  will  admit  of,  and  this 
allowance  shall  not  exceed  or  fall  short  of  the  quantity  deemed 
necessary  by  the  engineer.  In  all  cases,  this  must  be  care- 
fully and  strictly  attended  to,  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity 
of  making  any  subsequent  addition,  either  to  heights,  or  the 
width  of  the  embankment,  to  bring  them  to  their  proper 
level  and  dimensions. 

"  The  surface  of  the  embankment  shall  be  kept  in  such  form 
or  be  intersected  by  such  drains,  as  will  always  prevent  the 
formation  of  pools  of  water  upon  them,  and  insure  the 
embankment  being  kept  as  dry  as  possible. 

"Whenever  the  material,  teemed  over  the  end  of  the 
embankment,  shall  not  form  the  proper  slope,  it  shall  be  care- 
fully trimmed  to  its  requij-ed  form  ;  and  this  opeiation  must 
proceed  at  the  same  time  with  the  end  of  the  embankment, 
so  as  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  any  future  addition  of 
material  to  the  sides  of  the  embankment. 

"  As  the  embankments  advance,  and  become  consolidated, 
the  slopes  shall  be  carefully  trimmed  into  planes  having  the 
proper  slope,  and  be  neatly  covered  with  a  uniform  substance 
of  turf,  of  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  thickness,  and  laid 
with  the  green  .sward  outwards;  the  turf  must  be  t;iken  from 
the  ground  to  be  occupied  by  the  base  of  the  embankment, 
and  cut  scpiare,  so  as  to  be  laid  on  the  slopes  in  the  form  of 
flags ;  and  where  the  land  is  arable,  the  slopes  of  the 
embankment  shall  be  covered  with  soil.  It  must  be  uni-. 
formly  laid  on,  of  the  thickness  of  six  inches,  and  sowti  with 
rye-grass  and  clover-seed,  as  soon  as  the  proper  season  will 
admit  of  its  being  done,  not  less  than  one  pound  and  a  half 
of  clover-seed,  and  one  pound  and  a  half  of  rye-grass  seed,  to 
be  sown  to  each  acre. 

"  When  the  material,  brought  to  the  embankment,  consists 
of  large  lumps,  they  shall  be  broken  into  pieces  of  not  more 
than  six  inches  in  diameter." 


ENA 


386 


ENT 


Expense  of  forming  embankments. — This  must  obviously 
be  very  ditlereiit  in  diflercnt  situations  and  circumstances, 
accoidins!  to  inatorials  and  the  price  of  labour,  but  though  in 
general  pretty  considerable,  it  is  seldom  so  high  as  is  com- 
monly supposed.  It  is  probable,  that  in  cheap  districts,  and 
where  the  materials  are  plentiful,  the  expense  of  forming  an 
carthbank,  covered  with  sand  or  gravel,  such  as  that  shown 
at  Figure  1,  could  not  be  less  than  from  fourpence  or  sixpence, 
to  tenpence  or  a  shilling,  the  cubic  yard.  And  such  as  have 
more  steep  and  bold  slopes,  as  from  thirty-five  to  forty 
degrees,  and  arc  formed  with  pavement  on  the  surfaces, 
cannot  cost  less  than  from  ninepeuce  to  one  shilling  the  cubic 
yard.  One  made  on  the  plan  of  that  shown  at  Figure  (5, 
could  not  be  constructed  for  less  than  from  twelve  or  fifteen 
to  thirty  pounds  for  every  thirty-two  yards.  And  one  con- 
structed of  brushwood,  in  the  same  method,  for  soft  ground, 
which  will  not  admit  of  a  wall,  would  not  be  lower  than 
Irom  sixpence  or  eightpence,  to  six  or  seven  shillings  for  each 
foot  forward  in  a  lineal  manner.  In  many  situations,  the 
ezponses  would,  however,  in  all  sorts  of  embankments,  stand 
a  gieat  deal  higher  than  these. 

In  some  districts,  embankments  are  formed  by  the  rod  and 
the  floor,  the  former  being  from  four  to  five  pounds,  and  the 
latter  about  four  shillings  and  sixpence,  the  workmen  finding 
all  sorts  of  neccssarv  things  for  the  business. 

EMBATTLED  BUILDING,  a  building  with  embrasures 
in  the  parapet,  resembling  a  castle  or  fortified  place. 

Embattled  Line,  a  straight  line  bent  into  right  angles,  so 
that  if  there  be  two  sets  of  parts,  the  parts  of  each  set  may- 
lie  in  the  same  straight  line,  and  parallel  to  the  parts  of  the 
other. 

Embattled  Aronade,  is  partly  the  same  as  the  Embattled 
Line,  the  diflcrence  consisting  of  a  semi-circle  raised  in  the 
middle  of  each  part  which  forms  the  continuation  of  one  of 
the  straight  lines,  the  semi-circle  presenting  its  convexity 
'.owards  the  parts  which  form  the  other  straight  line. 

Embattled  Battled  Line,  a  straight  line  bent  into  right 
angles,  so  that  if  there  be  three  sets  of  parts,  one  set  may 
bo  parallel  to  those  of  the  other  two. 

EMBLEMATA,  a  kind  of  inlaid  or  mosaic  vrork,  used  by 
the  Romans  in  flooring,  panelling,  &c. 

EMBOSSING,  the  act  of  forming  work  in  relievo,  whether 
it  be  cast,  moulded,  or  cut  with  a  chisel. 

Embossing,  in  architecture,  that  kind  of  sculpture  in  which 
the  figure  stands  in  relief  beyond  the  plane,  or  other  surface 
from  which  it  seems  to  rise.  The  several  kinds  of  sculpture 
firmed  by  embossing  are,  loio  relief,  mean  relief  and  high 
relief. 

EMBRASURE,  an  enlargement  or  splay  of  the  aperture 
of  a  door  or  window,  generally  wilhinside  the  wall,  for  the 
admission  of  a  greater  quantity  of  light ;  when  the  wall  is  very 
thick,  an  enlargement  is  also  made  on  the  outside  of  the  wall. 

Embrasure,  is  also  applied  to  the  apertures  of  an  embattled 
parapet.  It  is  another  term  for  the  crenelles,  or  intervals 
between  the  merlons. 

EMBI'OIDERY,  the  enrichment  of  woven  fabrics  by  the 
introduction  of  devices  in  needlework.  Embroidery  was  a 
kind  of  work  very  usually  employed  in  ecclesiastical  hangings, 
vestments,  and  the  like,  and,  in  such  cases,  is  of  the  most 
gorgeous  and  elaborate  description. 

EMl^LECTON,  a  kind  of  walling,  used  by  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Roman  villagers,  consisting  of  rubble  masonry,  with 
finings  of  wrought  stones  laid  in  regular  courses.  See 
Walls. 

ENAMELLING,  a  method  employed  to  enrich  metal-work 
by  the  introduction  of  colour,  much  used  in  the  works  of  the 
middle  ages.     Specimens  of  enamel  of  an  early  date  are  to 


be  seen  on  the  envelopes  of  Egyptian  mummies,  also   in 
Greek  and  Roman  work,  &c. 

ENCAIIPUS,  sculptures  of  fruit  or  flowers,  such  as  those 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  friezes. 

Encaustic,  a  term  applied  to  paintings,  in  which  the 
colours  arc  fixed  by  means  of  heat.  Fncau.slic  tile.i,  are  those 
in  which  coloured  devices  are  introduced,  the  colours  being 
burnt  in  during  the  process  of  manufacture. 

ENCHASING,  that  mode  of  decorating  metal-work  in 
which  the  devices  are  represented  in  low  relief. 
ENDECAGON.     See  Henuecaoon. 
END-IRONS,  otherwise  aiid-irons,  standards,  usually  of 
metal,  and  of  various  forms,  used  in  fireplaces  previous  to 
the  employment  of  coal  for  fuel,  to  support  the  logs  of  wood. 
ENDS  OF  A  Stone,  the  two  parallel  sides,  which  form  the 
vertical  joints. 

ENGAGED  COLUMN.     Sec  Column. 
ENGINE,  Pile.     See  Pile  Engine. 
ENGLISH  ARCHITECTURE,  a  term  applied  by  some 
to  the  styles  of  Gothic  architecture  as  developed  in  England. 
See  Gothic  and  Domestic  Architecture. 

ENGLISH-BOND,  in  bricklaying,  a  disposition  of  bricks, 
wherein  a  course  of  headers  succeeds  a  course  of  stretchers 
alternately.  In  the  north,  bricklayers  frecpicntly  run  three 
or  five  cour.scs  of  stretchers  to  one  of  headers. 

ENGLISH  OAK,  oak  timber  of  the  native  produce  of 
England.  It  is  much  used  in  the  country  for  rustic  buildings, 
and  is  particularly  useful  in  the  truss-posts  of  roofs,  as  being 
less  liable  to  compression,  and  possessing  a  greater  degree  of 
tension,  than  fir. 

ENNEAGON,  a  figure  of  nine  sides  and  angles. 
ENSEMBLE,  (a  French  word,  signifying  together,  or  one 
with  another,  formed  of  the  Latin  in  and  simnl,)  the  work 
or  composition  of  a  building,  considered  as  a  *hole,  and  not 
in  parts. 

ENTABLATURE,  (Freneh,  from  the  Latin  tabulatum,  a 
stage,  or  story,)  that  part  of  an  order  which  is  supported  by 
the  column  or  columns,  and  forms  the  covering  or  shelter  to 
the  edifice.  It  consists  of  three  principal  divisions,  viz.,  the 
architrave,  which  rests  upon  the  capitals  of  the  columns;  the 
frieze  immediately  above  it ;  and  the  cornice  at  the  summit. 
These  divisions,  according  to  Vitruvius,  represent  the  princi- 
pal timbers  used  in  the  roof  of  the  timber-buililing,  which  he 
supposes  to  have  been  the  origin  and  type  of  erections  in 
stone.  This  subject  has  been  already  referred  to  under  the 
title  Doric  Architecture.  The  entablature  either  finishes 
the  whole  edifice,  or  so  much  as  has  the  order  applied  to  il  ; 
and  in  strictness  ought  to  terminate  either  in  a  level  cornice, 
or  in  a  pediment  formed  of  two  equally  inclined  cornices. 
This  rule,  however,  was  not  always  adhered  to  by  the 
Romans:  for  in  many  of  their  buildings,  we  find  the  ordoii- 
nance  crowned  with  an  attic  or  blocking  course.  The  edifice-s 
of  Balbec  and  Palmyra  were  often  finished  in  this  nianiur  ; 
as  were  even  some  of  the  Grecian  structures,  after  Greece 
had  become  a  Roman  province. 

The  general  height  of  the  entablature  is  equal  to  two  dia- 
meters of  the  column  ;  though  some  authors  make  the  Doric 
entablature  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  column  ;  and  the 
entablature  of  the  Ionic  onclburth,  and  that  of  the  Corinthian 
or  Composite,  each  one-fifth  of  the  respective  columns. 
Vignola  makes  the  entablature  one-quarter  of  the  height  of 
the  column,  in  each  of  the  orders;  but  the  former  proportion 
of  twice  the  breadth  of  the  base  agrees  much  better  with  the 
ancient  Grecian  examples  than  the  other  two.  It  must  be 
recollected,  that  in  ancient  examples  of  the  same  Order,  the 
height  of  the  entablature  is  in  some  instances  more,  in  others 
less,  than  two  diameters.   In  the  temple  of  Minerva,  at  Athens, 


ENV 


387 


ENV 


whieli  is  one  of  the  most  chaste  of  the  Grecian  Doiics,  the 
eutabliiture  is  almost  precisely  two  diainctors  of  tlie  column. 
In  the  Corinthian  or  Composite,  where  the  column  is  ten 
di^uncters  in  height,  the  proportion  found  in  some  ancient 
examples  of  later  date,  one-filth  of  the  said  height,  is  exactly 
two  diameters  of  the  foot  of  the  shnft. 

To  find  the  proportions  of  the  ditl'eient  parts  of  the  entab- 
lature, divide  the  total  height  into  ten  parts,  of  which  give 
three  to  the  architrave,  three  to  the  frieze,  and  the  remaining 
four  to  the  cornice.  This  will  stand  as  a  general  rule,  but  in 
the  Doric  order  the  prcipoitioiis  are  somewhat  dilferent,  the 
architrave  containing  two-eighths,  and  the  frieze  and  cornice 
three-eighths  each. 

The  entablature  is  also  called  trabeation  ;  and  by  Vitruvius 
and  Vignola,  ornament. 

Entablature,  or  Entablement,  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  last  row  of  stones  on  the  top  of  the  wall  of  a  building, 
whereon  the  covering  rests.  As  this  is  frequently  made  to 
project  lieyond  the  naked  of  the  wall,  to  carry  oft'  the  rain, 
some  autliors  call  it,  in  Latin,  stillicidium,  or  drip  ;  but  such 
an  entablature  does  not  stand  out  far  enough,  but  permits  the 
water  to  fall  on  the  foot  of  the  wall. 

ENTAIL,  a  term  used  in  the  middle  ages  to  designate  all 
kinds  of  sculpture  and  carved  decoration,  but  more  especially 
applied  to  the  more  elaborate  enrichment. 

E.\T.\S1S,  the  swell  observable  in  the  shafts  of  Grecian 
columns,  and  more  particularly  in  those  of  the  Doric  order. 
Amongst  the  modern  Italian  architects,  the  practice  has  been 
earried  to  an  absurd  excess.  Several  methods  of  describuig 
the  curve  will  be  found  under  the  article  Column. 

ENTER,  (from  the  Fiench  entrer,  to  go  in,)  in  carpentry 
and  joinery,  to  insert  the  end  of  a  tenon  in  the  mouth  or 
beginning  of  a  mortise,  previous  to  its  being  driven  home  to 
the  shoulder. 

ENTRESOLE,  (French,)  an  intermediate  story  ;  a  low 
floor  introduced  between  two  principal  ones.  See  Mezza- 
nine. 

ENTRY,  (from  the  Fiench  entree,  a  passage,)  a  door, 
gate,  passage,  &c.,  for  admission  into  the  interior  of  an  enclo- 
sure, house,  or  apartment. 

ENVELOPE,  (French,)  the  covering  of  a  portion  of  the 
surface  of  a  solid,  by  means  of  a  thin  pliable  substance, 
which  comes  in  contact  in  all  points  or  parts  with  such 
surface. 

To  develope  the  surface  of  a  solid,  is  to  find  the  envelopes 
that  will  cover  its  different  parts. 

A  few  examples  of  the  developeraent  of  surfaces  will  be 
here  given,  and  for  further  information  we  refer  the  reader 
to  the  article  Soffit. 

Problem  1. —  To  develope  that  portion  of  the  curved  surface 
of  a  ei/lindroid,  which  is  contained  between  two  parallel 
planes,  and  another  plane  passinff  tlirough  the  axis  at  riyht 
(ini/lcs  with  the  parallel  planes. 

Plate  I.  Figure  1. — Let  M  N  L  c  be  the  plane  passing 
through  the  axis,  terminated  at  m  c  and  n  l  hy  the  parallel 
]ilaues,  and  by  the  surface  to  be  developed,  at  m  n  and  c  l; 
the  four  lines  m  c,  c  l,  l  n,  n  m,  forming  a  parallelogram, 
M  c,  L  N.  Draw  c  A  Cj  at  a  right  angle  with  c  l,  and  pro- 
duce N  M  to  A  ;  then  A  c  is  one  of  the  axes  of  the  elliptic 
Section,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  cylindroid.  On  a  c 
describe  the  semi-ellipsis  A  B  c,  having  its  other  semi-axis 
equal  to  that  of  the  cylindroid ;  divide  the  curve  a  n  c  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  eight,  and  extend  them  from 
A  to  c„  which  coincides  with  the  termination  of  the  eighth 
part,  marking  the  respective  points  as  1,  2,  &e.,  at  e,(/,  (kc. 
Through  the  points  of  division,  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  in  the  are,  draw 
the  straight  lines  1  e  f  i,  2  o  h  k,  parallel  to  a  m  :  also,  from 


the  points  e,  g,  &c.,  draw  lines  e  f  i,  g  h  k,  &c.,  parallel  to 
A.  M.  Transfer  the  distances,  e  f,  o  h,  &c.,  to  e  f,  g  h,  &c. ; 
through  the  points  m,  f,  h,  dsc,  to  Cj  draw  a  curve ;  and 
c,  M  N  /  will  be  the  envelope  required. 

Problem  II. —  To  develope  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  con- 
tained between  two  other  concentric  cijlindric  sutfaces  and  a 
plane,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  axes  of  the  two  ci/lindric 
surfaces  mag  cut  the  axis  of  the  first  cylinder  at  right  angles, 
and  that  the  plane  may  pass  along  the  axis  of  the  first 
cylinder,  and  cut  the  axes  of  (he  two  cylinders  at  right 
angles. 

Figure  2. — Let  a  c  l  n  be  the  plane  terminated  by  the  arcs 
A  c  and  N  L,  which  are  the  intersections  of  the  concentric 
cylindric  surfaces,  and  by  the  parallel  straight  lines  a  n  and 
c  L,  which  are  formed  by  the  curved  surface  of  the  cylinder 
intersecting  the  plane. 

Proceed  in  every  I'espect  as  in  Figure  \,  and  the  envelope 
will  be  obtained  ;  the  referring  letters  being  alike  in  both 
Figures. 

Problem  III. —  To  develope  that  portion  of  the  surface 
of  a  cone  contained  between  two  parallel  planes  and  a  third 
plane,  so  that  the  axes  of  the  code  may  be  cut  at  right  angles 
by  the  parallel  planes,  and  that  the  third  plane  may  pass 
along  the  a.vis  of  the  cone. 

Figure  3. — Let  a  e  fc  be  the  plane  passing  along  the  axis, 
terminated  at  a  c  and  e  f  by  the  parallel  planes,  and  at  a  e 
and  0  F  by  the  curved  surface  of  the  cone,  a  b  c  is  a  section 
of  the  cone,  perpendicular  to  the  axis.  Produce  a  e  and  c  f 
to  meet  in  d;  and  with  the  radii  d  e  and  d  a  describe  the 
arcs  E  a  and  a  c  ;  extend  the  semi-circumference  of  a  b  c  on 
the  arc  a  c,  from  a  to  c,  and  draw  c  g  d  ;  and  a  c  g  e 
will  be  the  envelope  required. 

Problem  IV. —  To  develope  that  portion  of  the  surface  of 
a  cone  contained  between  two  concentric  cylindric  surfaces 
and  a  plane  passing  along  the  axis,  so  that  the  plane  may 
cut  the  common  axis ^  of  the  cylindric  surfaces  at  right 
angles. 

Figure  4. — Let  a  i  k  o  be  the  portion  of  the  plane  passing 
along  the  axis,  and  the  arcs  a  c  and  i  k  the  intersections  of 
the  cylindric  surfaces  ;  the  straight  lines  a  i  and  c  k,  the 
intersections  of  the  conic  surface,  a  b  c  is  a  section  upon 
the  chord  a  c.  From  d,  with  the  radius  d  a,  describe  the 
arc  A  M  ;  divide  the  semi-circumference  a  b  c  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  extend  them  upon  the  arc  a  m, 
from  A  to  M,  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  &c.  to  m  :  draw  1  d,  2  n, 
3  D,  &c.  to  M  D  included;  also,  through  the  points  1,  2.  3, 
in  the  arc  a  b  c,  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  a  c,  cutting  it 
in  as  many  points  :  from  these  points,  di-aw  lines  to  d,  cut- 
ting both  the  concave  and  convex  curves ;  from  the  points  so 
cut,  draw  lines  parallel  to  a  c,  cutting  a  d  ;  then  from  the 
points  of  intersection,  made  by  the  parallels  drawn  from  one 
of  the  curves,  describe  the  several  arcs  drawn  from  the 
point  D,  to  cut  the  respective  straight  lines.  Proceed  in 
the  same  manner  with  the  other  curve,  and  through  the 
points  so  obtained,  draw  the  two  curves  ;  and  a  m  l  i  will 
form  the  envelope  required.  But  to  show  more  particularly 
how  the  successive  points  in  the  curve  of  the  envelope  are 
found,  we  shall  only  describe  a  single  point,  and  the  remain- 
ing points  will  be  obtained  in  the  same  manner;  thus,  to 
find  the  point  ii  in  the  envelope,  draw  2  e  perpendicular 
to  A  c,  cutting  it  at  e  ;  draw  e  d,  cutting  the  curve  a  c  at  f  ; 
draw  F  G  parallel  to  a  c,  cutting  a  d  at  g  ;  from  tlie  centre  d, 
describe  the  arc  o  h,  cutting  2  d  at  ii,  which  is  a  point  in 
the  curve,  as  before  stated  ;  but  by  drawing  the  several 
systems  of  perpendicular  lines,  of  lines  going  to  a  centre, 
and  parallel  lines,  at  once,  much  time  will  be  saved  in  the 
operation. 


EN  V 


^88 


EPI 


Problem  V. —  To  develope  the  surfuce  of  a  cunenid  con- 
tained betioeen  two  parallel  planes,  and  a  plane  passing 
along  the  axis  of  the  ciineoid,  so  that  the  parallel  planes 
may  be  perpendicular  to  the  j)laiie  jessing  along  the  axin, 
the  section  of  one  of  the  parallel  planes  being  given. 

Figure  5. — Let  a  n  c  d  be  the  plane  passing  along  the  axis, 
terminated  by  the  straight  lines  a  d  and  b  c,  which  are  the 
intersections  of  the  parallel  planes,  and  by  the  straight  lines 
A  B  and  c  D,  which  are  the  intersections  of  the  cuneoidal 
surface.  Let  the  section  b  e  c,  standing  npon  b  c,  be  a  semi- 
circle, and,  consequently,  the  section  a  p  d  formed  by  the 
other  parallel  plane,  will  be  a  semi-ellipsis  of  the  same 
altitude. 

Produce  a  b  and  n  c  to  meet  in  g,  divide  the  arc  b  e,  which 
is  the  half  of  the  scmi-circumfcrence,  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  say  four,  from  the  points  of  division,  draw  the 
peipcndiculars  1  ii,  2  i,  3  k,  e  l,  cutting  b  c  at  n,  i,  k,  l  : 
draw  G  i>  perpendicular  to  a  o ;  on  g  p  make  a  m,  g  n,  g  o, 
and  g  i-  respectively  equal  to  h  1,  i  2,  k  3,  and  l  e  ;  from 
the  points  m,  n,  o,  p.  as  centres,  with  the  respective  distances 
G  H,  g  I,  g  K,  and  g  l,  describe  the  arcs  h  r,  i  t,  k  v,  and  I  x  ; 
extend  the  arc  b  1,  or  1,  2,  which  is  the  eighth  [lart  of  the 
semi-circumfereiicc,  from  b  to  h,  from  h  to  i,  from  i  to  k,  and 
from  k  to  /;  then  drawing  the  curve  u  h  i  k  I,  will  give  the 
half  of  the  envelope,  which  will  coincide  with  the  arc  h  e, 
when  the  semi-circle  u  e  c  is  turned  perjicndicular  to  the 
plane,  a  b  c  d,  upon  its  base  b  c  :  and  since  /  p  is  the  middle 
line,  the  other  half,  or  counter  part,  will  easily  be  found. 
To  develope  the  elliptic  edge,  join  m  h,  n  i,  o  k,  and  p  I,  and 
produce  them  to  «,  s,  t,  f:  transfer  h  u,  i  s,  k  t,  to  h  u,  i  s, 
k  t,  I  f  and  through  the  points  a,  u,  s,  t,  f  draw  a  curve 
A  u  s  if,  which  will  be  the  envelope  of  the  arc  a  f,  the  half 
of  the  semi-ellipsis  a  f  d  ;  then  the  counter  part  being  found, 
will  complete  the  envelope  a  b  c  </  of  the  curved  surface, 
standing  over  a  b  c  rf. 

Problem  VI. —  To  develope  that  piorlion  of  the  surface  of 
a  cuncoid  terminated  on  two  sides  by  a  plane  passing  through 
the  axis,  and  by  two  concentric  cylindric  surfaces  whose  axis 
is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  given  ;  given  that  2>r'rtion  of 
the  plane  terminated  by  the  curved  surface  of  the  cuneoid,  and 
by  the  intersections  of  the  two  cylindric  surfaces  ;  also,  the 
semicircular  section  of  the  cuneoid. 

Figure  C— Let  a  e  and  n  g  be  the  intersections  of  the 
cuneoidal  surface,  and  the  arcs  a  e  n  and  e  f  g  the  intersec- 
tions of  the  concentric  cylindric  surfaces. 

Let  D  0  be  the  intersection  of  the  section,  which  is  a  semi- 
circle, then  find  the  envelope  for  the  semi-circumference,  as 
in  the  last  problem  for  parallel  planes  ;  then  the  lengths  of 
the  intermediate  lines  contained  between  the  base  of  the 
oircular  section,  and  the  intersections  of  the  cylindric  surfaces, 
being  transferred  upon  the  corresponding  lines  from  the 
semicircular  envelope,  will  form  the  covering  of  the  cuneoidal 
surface,  as  defined. 

The  reader  will  observe,  that  the  two  last  constructions  in 
Problems  V.  and  VL,  are  only  approximations  near  to  truth; 
it  is,  we  believe,  impossible  to  find  the  true  envelope  by 
means  of  straight  lines,  or  perhaps  even  to  extend  the  true 
3uneoidal  surface  on  a  plane  at  any  event,  any  more  than  that 
A' a.  sphere,  which  can  only  be  represented  by  means  of  pro- 
■eclions.  The  only  surfaces  which  can  be  extended  on  a 
plane,  are  those  to  which  a  straight  edge  will  everywhere 
apply  through  a  certain  point,  or  in  parallel  directions  to  a 
given  line  ;  of  this  description  are  the  surfaces  of  planes, 
3ones,  and  cylinders:  a  straight  line  will  apply  to  all  parts  of 
^he  surface  of  a  cone  through  the  vertex,  and  to  all  parts 
)f  a  plane  through  any  given  point,  and  to  all  parts  of  the 
•urface  of  a  cylinder  parallel  to  the  axis. 


The  envelopes  of  all  solids,  to  which  a  tangent  plane  to  its 
surface  parallel  to  the  given  |ilane  will  apply,  have  the  same 
curvature  or  straight  line  at  the  edge,  where  the  plane  be- 
comes a  tangent,  as  the  corresponding  part  of  the  edge  of  the 
given  plane. 

In  describing  the  envelopes  of-solids,  the  whole  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  section  passing  through  the  axis,  is  always  sup- 
posed to  be  given,  as  also  a  section  of  the  solid,  making  a 
given  angle  with  the  said  plane,  and  the  intersection  in  a 
given  position. 

If  only  a  portion  of  the  section  passing  along  the  axis  be 
given,  it  is  always  supposed  to  be  terminated  by  the  same 
surfaces,  which  also  terminate  the  surface  to  be  covered. 

The  following  is  a  more  general  method  of  finding  the 
envelope  of  a  solid  by  means  of  points. 

In  this  description  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  have  the 
seats  of  three  points  given  on  the  base,  and  the  heights  of 
the  points  on  the  cylindric  surface  from  their  seats.  Let  a  b  c 
{Plate  II.  Figure's  1,  2,  3)  be  the  part  of  the  base  of  the 
cylinder,  and  a.  b,  c  the  seats  of  the  three  points;  join  a  c  ; 
draw  c  e  and  a  d  perpendicular  to  a  c;  make  A  d  equal  to 
the  height  of  the  point  above  a,  c  e  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
point  above  c,  and  c  f  equal  to  the  height  of  the  point  above 
the  seat  b  ;  join  e  d  ;  draw  f  g  parallel  to  c  a,  and  g  ji  parallel 
to  c  E,  cutting  A  c  at  H ;  and  join  h  b  ;  pi-oduce  a  c  to  i ; 
divide  the  curve  a  b  c  into  any  number  of  equal  parts;  and 
extend  those  parts  upon  c  i ;  through  the  points  of  division 
in  the  curve,  a  b  c,  draw  lines  parallel  to  b  ii,  intersecting  b 
c;  from  the  points  of  intersection  in  a  c  draw  lines  parallel 
to  o  H,  to  meet  d  e  ;  fr<mi  the  points  of  intersection  draw  lines 
parallel  to  a  c  ;  and  from  the  divisions  in  c  i  draw  lines 
j)arallel  to  c  e,  so  as  to  intersect  the  other  parallels  last 
drawn  ;  through  the  points  thus  found,  draw  the  curve  c  i  k  e  c, 
and  it  will  be  the  cnvel<)))e  required. 

Figure  1,  is  the  case  where  the  rectangular  plane  makes  a 
right  angle  with  the  elliptic  section  : 

Figure  2,  that  where  the  angle  made  by  the  rectangular 
plane  and  the  elliptic  section  is  acute  : 

Figure  3,  where  the  angle  firmed  by  these  two  planes 
is  obtuse. 

In  Figures  2  and  3,  n  m  e  is  the  orthographical  projection 
of  the  curve  ;  with  which  the  curve,  e  k,  of  the  envelope 
would  coincide.  This  is  found  by  drawing  parallels  to  g  h 
through  the  points  of  division  in  the  curve  a  n  c,  to  meet  the 
parallels  of  a  c,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

EPIIESUS,  an  ancient  city  of  Ionia,  formerly  the  metro, 
polls  of  Asia  Minor,  now  in  ruins.  The  celebrated  temple 
of  Diana,  in  this  city,  was  deemed  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  In  the  time  of  Pocockc,  the  remains  of  this 
renowned  metropolis  consisted  of  the  temple  of  Diana; 
a  circus;  a  gymnasium;  a  large  theatre,  and  two  of  smaller 
dimensions;  an  odeum,  or  music  theatre;  a  building,  called 
the  Athenaeum;  another,  called  the  Jlypekvum,  of  whi<h 
there  are  yet  considerable  remains;  with  some  vestiges  of 
an  aqueduct,  and  other  fragments.  A  great  part  of  the 
ancient  walls  are  still  entire,  but  in  some  parts  the  founda- 
tions only  remain,  from  whi»h  it  appears  they  were  ten  feet 
thick.  Most  of  these  vestiges  are  represented  in  Pococke's 
Travels  in  the  Fast.  The  situation  of  this  city  was  very 
favourable  to  the  pi  ocm-ing  of  materials,  being  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mount  Lepre,  which  consisted  of  rocks  of  stone  and  marble, 
whose  elevated  situation  alVorded  the  means  of  an  easy 
transit  of  the  stones  or  blocks  for  building,  to  the  site  of  the 
intended  fabric. 

EPICYCLOID,  in  geometry,  a  curve  generated  by  the 
revolution  of  a  point  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  whde 
it  is  moved  round   the  circumference  of  another  quiescent 


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circle  in  the  same  plane,  so  that  in  each  circle,  the  distance 
between  the  point  of  contact  at  the  comnuncement  of  the 
motion,  and  the  point  of  contact  at  any  instant  while  in 
motion,  is  equal  one  to  the  other.  Hence  if  the  circum- 
ferences are  equal,  all  parts  of  the  circumference  of  the 
moving  circle  will  have  been  in  contact  with  all  the  partsof 
the  circumference  of  the  quiescent  circle. 

If  the  generating  circle  proceed  along  the  convexity  of 
the  periphery,  it  is  called  an  upper,  oi'  exterior  epicycloid : 
if  along  the  concavity,  a  lower,  or  interior  epicycloid. 

The  part  of  the  quiescent  circle  wliich  the  generating 
circle  moves  along,  is  called  tlie  base. 

The  length  of  any  part  of  the  curve,  which  any  given 
point  in  the  revolving  circle  has  descrilted  from  the  time  of 
its  first  beina;  in  contact  with  the  quiescent  circle,  is,  to  double 
the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arc,  as  the  sum  of  the  diameters 
of  the  circles,  to  the  semi-diameter  of  the  quiescent  circle; 
[irovided  the  circumference  of  the  moving  circle  be  carried 
along  the  convex  side  of  the  quiescent  circle  ;  but  if  upon 
the  concave  side,  as  the  difterence  of  the  diameters  to  the 
said  semi-diameter. 

Dr.  Halley  gives  us  a  general  proposition  for  the  measuring 
of  all  cycloids  and  epicycloids  :  thus,  the  area  of  a  cycloid  or 
epicycloid,  either  primary,  contracted,  or  prolate,  is  to  the 
area  of  the  generating  circle,  and  also  to  the  areas  of  the  parts 
generated  in  these  curves,  to  the  areas  of  the  analogous 
segments  of  the  circle,  as  the  sum  of  double  the  velocity  of 
the  Centre,  and  the  velocity  of  the  circular  motion,  to  the 
velocity  of  the  circular  motion.  The  demonstration  hereof, 
see  Phil.  Trans.  No.  218. 

The  areas  of  epicycloids  may  be  determined  by  the  follow- 
ing proportion:  As  the  radius  of  the  circle  of  the  base  is  to 
three  times  that  of  the  radius,  together  with  twice  that  of  the 
generating  circle,  so  is  the  circular  segment  to  the  epicycloidal 
sector,  or  the  whole  generating  circle  to  the  whole  area  of  the 
epicycloid. 

As  to  the  tangents,  it  is  known  from  the  time  of  Descartes, 
tliat  a  line  drawn  from  any  point  to  that  of  the  base,  which 
touches  the  circle,  whilst  this  point  is  described,  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  curve,  and  consequently  to  the  tangent. 

Maupertius,  discussing  this  subject,  conceived  a  polygon 
to  revolve  upon  another,  the  sides  of  which  are  respectively 
equal ;  one  of  the  angles  described  a  curve,  the  periphery  of 
which  is  formed  of  arcs  of  circles,  and  the  area  is  composed 
of  circular  sector.s,  and  right-lined  triangles.  He  determined 
the  proportion  of  the  area,  and  of  the  periphery  of  this  figure 
to  those  of  the  generating  polygon.  He  also  supposed  those 
polygons  to  become  circles,  the  figure  described  to  become 
an  epicycloid,  and  the  above-mentioned  proportion,  modified 
agreeably  to  this  supposition,  gave  him  the  area  and  periphery 
of  the  epicycloid.     Mem.  de  I' Acad.  1727. 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  writer  published  an  account  of 
epicycloids,  before  the  celebrated  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who,  in 
the  first  book  of  his  Principia,  proposed  a  general,  and  a  very 
simple  method  of  rectifying  these  curves.  After  him, 
Bernouiili,  during  his  residence  at  Paris,  showed  how,  by 
means  of  the  integral  and  dift'erential  calculus,  to  determine 
their  area  and  rectification.  The  invention  of  epicycloids  is, 
however,  ascribed  to  M.  Reaumur,  the  celebrated  Danish 
philosopher,  during  his  residence  at  Paris,  about  the  year 
1674.  These  curves  appeared  to  him  to  be  such  as  best 
suited  the  teeth  of  wheels,  constructed  so  as  to  diminish  their 
mutual  friction,  and  to  render  the  action  of  the  power  more 
uniform  ;  hence  he  was  led  to  consider  them,  and  to  this 
purpose  they  have  been  applied.  However,  M.  de  la  Hire 
makes  no  mention  of  Reaumur,  and  seems  to  claitn  the  merit 
of  this  geometrical  and  mech,anical  invention.  But  M.  Leibnitz, 


who  resided  at  Paris  in  1074,  and  the  two  following  years, 
says,  that  the  invention  of  epicycloids,  and  their  appliciitii^n 
to  mechanics,  was  the  work  of  this  Danish  mathematician,  and 
that  he  was  esteemed  the  author  of  it. 

EPISTYLE,  (from  etti,  upon  g-vXog.  column)  in  ancient 
architecture,  a  term  used  by  the  Greeks  for  what  we  call 
architrave,  viz.,  a  massive  stone,  or  a  piece  of  wood,  laid 
immediately  over  the  capitals  of  columns,  from  one  to  the 
other. 

The  epistyle  is  the  first  or  lowest  principal  division  of  the 
entablature. 

EPISTYLAR  ARCUATION,  a  term  applied  to  that 
method  of  building  in  which  arches  are  thrown  from  column 
to  eolunni,  instead  of  horizontal  architraves. 

EPITITHEDAS,  (Greek  etti  tlOtihi)  a  word  used  by  the 
Greeks,  to  express  the  sima;,  or  cymatium,  or  crowning 
moulding  of  the  entablature.  By  some  the  term  is  restricted 
to  the  upper  member  of  a  raking  cornice. 

EQUAL  ANGLES,  are  those  whose  containing  lines  are 
measured  by  equal  portions  of  equal  arcs,  described  from  the 
meeting  of  the  two  containing  lines. 
Equal  Arcs.     See  Arcs. 

Eqoal  Circles,  are  those  whose  diameters  are  equal. 
Equal  Curvatures,  are  such  as  have  the  same,  or  equal 
radii  of  curvature.     See  Curvature  and  Curve. 

Equal  Figures,  are  those  whose  areas  are  equal,  whether 
the  figures  be  similar  or  not. 

Equal  Solids,  are  those  which  comprehend,  or  contain 
as  much  as  the  other,  or  whose  solidities  or  capacities  are 
equal. 

EQUIANGULAR  FIGURES,  such  as  have  equal  angles. 
EQUIDISTANT  STRAIGHT   LINES,  are  a  series  of 
parallels  with  equal  intervals. 

Equidistant  Solids,  are  those  whose  intervals  are  termi- 
nated by  parallel  planes,  at  equal  distances  on  the  corres- 
p(jnding  sides,  comparing  that  of  any  two  adjoining  solids, 
with  that  of  any  other  two  adjoining  solids. 

EQUILATERAL  (from  ccqiiiis,  equal,  and  lutus,  a  side) 
having  equal  sides. 

Equilateral  Figure,  that  which  has  all  its  sides  e(iual. 
Equilateral  Hyperbola,  that  in  which  the  asymptotes 
are  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

EQUILIBRIUM,  in  mechanics,  the  equality  of  forces  in 
opposite  directions,  so  that  they  mutually  balance  each  other; 
equipoise. 

ERGASTULUM,  among  the  ancients,  a  house  of  correc- 
tion, or  workhouse,  where  slaves,  by  the  private  authority  of 
their  masters,  were  confined  and  kept  at  hard  labour  for  some 
offence.     It  was  likewise  called  sophronisterinm. 

ESCAPE,  a  concave  quadrantal  moulding  used  to  join 
two  parallel  meimbers  of  dilfeient  projections,  as  the  shaft  of 
a  cohmin  with  the  fillet  at  its  foot  and  junction  with  the 
capital. 

ESCUTCHEON,  a  shield  charged  with  armorial  bearings. 
Decorations  of  this  kind  were  much  used  in  the  later  periods  of 
Gothic  architecture,  carved  on  bosses,  dripstones,  spandrels, 
&c.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  metal  plate  on  doors 
surrounding  the  kc3'-hole,  and  to  that  from  which  the  handle 
is  suspended.  Beautiful  specimens,  of  excellent  design  and 
workmanship,  are  to  be  found  in  old  mediieval  buildings. 

ESCURIAL,  the  palace  or  residence  of  the  kings  of  Spain. 
The  word  originally  signified  a  little  village  in  Spain,  situated 
in  the  kingdom  of  New  Castile,  twenty-two  miles  to  the 
N.  W.  of  Madrid.  Here  king  Philip  built  a  stately  monas- 
tery, of  the  order  of  St.  Jerome,  held  by  the  Spaniards  as  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  begun  in  1557.  and 
finished  in  about  22  years,  at  the  expense  of  6,000,000  of 


ETR 


390 


ETR 


piastres.  The  plan  of  the  work  resembles  a  gridiron,  in 
memory  of  St.  Quintin,  who  sufl'ored  martyrdom  with  that 
instrument. 

The  king  and  queen  had  their  apartments  there,  the  other 
parts  Were  j)ossessed  by  the  monks. 

The  length  of  this  superb  palace  is  an  oblong  740  by  580 
Spanish  feet,  besides  400.  for  what  may  be  termed  the  handle 
of  the  gridiron.  The  height  of  the  roof  is  CO  feet,  and  every 
angle  has  a  square  tower  200  feet  in  height.  The  west  front 
has  200  windows,  and  that  of  the  east  306. 

The  Eseurial  has  a  very  fine  ehurch,  crowned  with  a  dome, 
which  is  330  feet,  supported  by  four  rows  of  pillars,  and 
paved  with  black  marble  ;  containing  40  chapels,  and  48 
altars.  To  this  church,  Philip  IV.  annexed  a  beautiful 
mausoleum,  called  the  Pantheon,  or  Rotunda,  built  on  the 
plan  of  the  temple  of  that  name  at  Rome.  It  is  36  feet  in 
diameter,  and  incrusted  with  marble  ;  in  which  the  kings  and 
queens  of  Spain,  who  leave  any  posterity,  are  interred  ;  the 
rest  being  laid  in  another  vault  of  the  same  church,  together 
with  the  intimts  and  other  princes. 

ESTIMATE,  a  calculation  of  the  expenses  of  a  building, 
or  other  parts  thereof,  by  measuring  the  drawings  with  a 
compass  from  a  scale,  and  calculating  the  amount  upon 
materials  and  workmanship.  See  Brickwork,  Carpenters' 
WORK,  Joiners'  Work,  &c. 

ESTIMATION,  the  act  of  estimating  a  building,  See 
Estimate.  A  quick  mode  of  estimating,  or  rather  guessing 
at  the  expense  of  a  building,  is,  to  throw  the  whole  intocul)ic 
feet,  as  if  all  the  parts  w^ithin  the  walls  and  roof  were  really 
solid,  and  calculating  the  whole  at  a  certain  rate  per  cubic 
foot;  but  this  is  so  dillerent  in  different  places,  and  even  in 
diflerent  times  in  the  same  place,  that  no  certain  ratio  can  be 
established:  but  where  things  are  finished  in  the  same  way, 
in  the  same  place,  and  at  the  same  time,  it  frequently  comes 
nearer  to  the  truth  than  many  real  estimates,  which  are 
•  accepted  far  below  value,  in  order  to  obtain  the  work. 
Though  estimates  sometimes  come  very  near  each  other,  yet 
the  difference  at  other  times  is  so  preposterous,  as  to  be  one- 
fourth,  or  one-third  of  the  whole  amount,  either  owing  to 
articles  being  overlooked,  or  to  a  dillerence  of  rates,  or  both. 

ESTRADE  (a  French  term,  signifying  a  public  road  or 
highway)  in  building,  a  little  elevation  of  the  floor  of  a  room, 
frequently  encompassed  with  an  alcove  or  rail,  for  receiving 
a  bed  ;  or  sometimes,  as  in  Turkey,  it  is  only  covered  with 
fine  carpets,  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors  of  distinction. 

ETRUSCAN  ARCHITECTL-RE.  The  method  of  build- 
ing practised  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Etruria ;  from 
which  it  is  supposed  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  Roman 
architecture  took  their  rise,  and  the  Tuscan  order  was  bor- 
rowed. The  origin  and  history  of  this  people  is  involved  in 
obscurit)',  as  is  also,  to  a  great  extent,  raeir  architecture. 
They  seem  to  have  been  a  mixed  race,  com[)osed  of  Siculior 
Umbri,  of  I'clasgi,  and  of  a  third  race,  of  Lydian  extraction, 
and  to  have  attained  to  eonsideiable  eminence  in  the  scale  of 
nations,  both  in  power  and  civilization.  Although  they 
had  brought  the  arts  to  a  great  degree  of  perfection,  we  had, 
until  recently,  but  little  evidence  of  the  fact ;  and,  as  regards 
their  architecture,  examples  are  still  so  scanty,  as  to  allbrd 
us  no  precise  notion  of  its  character.  We  have  no  remains 
of  temples,  or  other  buildings  of  the  kind;  all  such  infornui- 
tion  is  to  be  derived  solely  from  their  hypogici  or  sepulchres, 
and  the  representation  of  buildings,  to  be  found  on  the  vari- 
ous utensils  discovered  therein.  The  remains  above  ground 
sonsist  almost  solely  of  ruins  of  walls  surrounding  the 
liflerent  cities,  which  remind  us  of  the  Cyclopaian  erections 
tt  Tiryus  and  Myceiue,  consisting,  as  they  do.  of  lufty  heaps 
if  stones  of  enoiinous  size,  fitted  together  in  a  conqiaet  t'orm, 


but  without  either  cramps  or  cement.  Ruins  of  this  nature 
exist  at  Cortona,  Vulterra,  Fiesol,  &c.,  in  the  first  of  which 
are  some  stones  more  than  twenty-two  Roman  feet  in  length, 
and  about  five  or  six  feet  in  height.  The  walls  of  Volterra 
are  of  a  similar  description.  In  the  earliest  example-;,  the 
stones  are  of  an  irregular  polygonal  shape,  and  in  building 
were  so  laid  as  to  have  all  their  sides  in  close  contact  with 
the  surrounding  stones;  remains  of  this  kind  of  work  are  to 
be  found  at  Cora  near  Velletri.  Generally  speaking,  the 
stones  were  of  rectangular  form,  and  of  various  sizes,  disposed 
in  horizontal  courses.  There  is  at  Volterra  a  gateway,  called 
the  Gate  of  Hercules,  which  has  a  fine  arch  com]iosed  of 
nineteen  large  stones.  This  leads  us  to  remark,  that  the 
origin  of  the  arch  is  veiy  generally  ascribed  to  Etruria,  from 
whence  it  is  said  to  have  found  its  way  into  Rome.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  the  Etrurians  were  ccrtaiidy  aware  of  its  princi- 
ples, specimens  of  true  arches  and  vaulting  having  been 
found  in  the  remains,  some  of  which  are  probably  of  early 
date.  In  a  tomb  at  Ceroetri  is  a  wall  carj-ied  up  soiiK'what 
after  the  shape  of  a  Gothic  arch  gradiuilly  converging  towards 
the  top,  but  not  meeting  at  the  apex,  a  square  channel  being 
left  between  the  two  sides-  of  the  arch,  which  is  covered  ovei 
with  a  block  of  nenfro.  This,  however,  is  not  a  true  arch 
but  is  similar  to  those  to  be  found  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  tlie 
building  to  which  it  belongs  is  on  all  hands  allowed  to  be  of 
very  groat  antiquity. 

From  the  description  of  Etruscan  temples  given  us  by  Vitru 
vius,  we  learn  that  they  were  of  an  olilong  form,  the  length 
being  occupied  by  three  chajiels,  of  w  Inch  the  central  one  «  as 
the  principal.  The  facades  were  similar  to  those  of  Greece, 
adorned  with  columns,  pediments,  &c.,  and  the  latter  with 
sculptures  in  terra  cotta.  From  the  same  author  we  likewise 
learn,  that  their  private  houses  were  buildings  of  some  im- 
poitanee,  having  external  porticos  and  vestibules  like  those  of 
Home;  indeed,  it  is  supposed  that  thi'  atrium  was  Ixirrowed 
from  them  by  the  Romans.  Amongst  the  structures  for  which 
the  Etrurians  were  eminent,  are  their  tunnels,  canals,  and 
sewers,  for  the  purposes  of  drainage  and  irrigation  ;  roads, 
fortifications,  and  other  works  of  an  equally  useful  character. 
Remains  of  a  cloaca  have  been  discovered  at  Tarquinii,  in 
which  the  arch  is  employed,  and  which  is  altogether  siniiliir 
to  tliat  at  Home;  and  at  Volaterra  are  the  ruins  of  a  subter- 
ranean reservoir,  24  Roman  feet  high,  50  long,  and  29  broad. 

We  have  now-  only  to  notice  the  sepulchral  buildings ;  which 
form  by  far  the  principal  portion  of  the  remains,  and  are 
found  in  great  numbers,  fresh  ones  being  constantly  opened 
at  the  present  day.  They  seem,  to  have  been  eiiually  as 
numerous  as  the  cities,  and  it  would  appear  to  have  been  an 
uni\ersal  rule,  that  each  city  should  have  a  place  of  burial  for 
its  dead  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  To  su(-h  an  extent  is  this 
the  ease,  that  a  modern  writer  lays  it  down  as  an  axiom,  that 
wherever  there  stood  an  ancient  town,  there  you  will  find 
a  cemetery  ;  and  wherever  you  find  a  cemetery,  there  will 
have  stood  likewise  an  ancient  city.  These  sepuUlir-s  are, 
however,  not  all  alike,  their  forms  and  situation  varying; 
according  to  the  geographical,  geological,  and  other  charac- 
teristics of  the  site;  in  some  cases  they  are  cut  out  of  cliffs 
below  the  city  wall  ;  at  others  out  of  more  yii-ldiiig  soil,  and, 
in  cases  where  requisite,  lined  with  masonry  on  the  inside. 
Besides  these  excavated  sepulchres,  we  have  some  of  a  more 
primitive  and  less  imposing  character,  being  nothing  better 
than  graves  sunk  a  few  feet  below  the  surface,  an<l  covered 
with  unhewn  masses  of  stone.  They  are  very  similar  to  the 
Druidical  cromlechs  ;  which  fact  would  intimate  some  con- 
nection between  the  Celts  and  Etruscans.  Again,  we  find 
tumuli,  another  form  of  sepulchral  monument,  which  is  com 
moil  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


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Amongst  the  cemeteries  which  have  been  explored,  that 
at  Viiici  is  one  of  the  more  important,  and  this,  like  many 
others,  was  discovered  by  mere  chance,  and  was  found  to 
contain  a  vast  number  of  anticjues  of  various  l<inds.  Those 
of  Norchia  and  Castel  d' Asso,  tlie  facades  of  which  are  covered 
with  sculpture,  were  discovered  in  1810;  those  of  Bomaizo 
and  Oite  from  1830  to  1837.  Of  still  later  date  are  the  dis- 
coveries of  Savona  by  Mr.  Ainslic,  and  of  several  others  by 
Mr.  Dennis,  who  has  publi-shed  a  very  interesting  work  upon 
the  sul)ject.  There  seems  to  be  no  scarcity  of  such  monu- 
ments, for  new  discoveries  are  being  brought  to  light  every 
year,  and  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  vast  tracts  of  country 
were  completely  undermined  by  them.  The  cemeteries  vary 
in  size,  some  of  them  being  of  very  great  extent,  and  laid 
out  like  a  city  in  streets  and  squares.  Each  has  its  peculiar 
kind  of  tomb,  the  most  simple  of  which  consist  of  mere  coni- 
cal pits  about  eight  or  nine  feet  in  depth,  and  six  in  diameter. 
Next  to  these  come  the  tombs,  with  a  simrile  doorway  open- 
ing in  the  side  of  the  clitT,  and  leading  into  a  small  vestibule 
about  five  feet  square,  with  a  shaft  carried  up  from  the  roof 
to  the  ground  above,  the  opening  of  which  is  frequently 
covered  over  with  a  large  stone.  The  vestibule  gives  access 
to  the  tomb,  which  is  an  apartment  from  twelve  to  twenty 
feet  square,  cut  out  of  the  rock,  and  supported  in  the  centre 
by  a  lo-w  massive  quadrangular  pillar,  or  in  larger  tombs  by 
four  or  more  similar  piers,  as  is  shown  in  Inghirami's  plates. 
Sometimes  the  tomb  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  thick  wall 
cut  out  of  the  rock,  which  forms  a  means  of  support  in  place 
of  pillars.  In  the  side-walls  of  the  tombs,  and  sometimes 
in  the  piers  and  partition  walls,  are  two  or  more  tiers  of  long 
horizontal  niches  in  which  the  bodies  were  placed.  Tombs 
of  this  kind  exist  near  Corneto,  Ferenti,  and  Cervetri. 

Cemeteries  of  more  imposing  chaiacter  are  to  be  seen  at 
Castel  d'Asso,  and  the  places  to  which  we  have  above 
referred ;  of  the  former  we  give  the  following  description 
from  a  popular  work  of  the  day.  "  At  Castel  d'Asso  the 
tombs  rise  upon  each  side  of  a  narrow  glen,  facing  each 
other  like  the  houses  in  a  street.  Each  tomb  being  detached, 
and  the  cliffs  in  which  they  are  hollowed  being  hewn  to 
a  smooth  surface,  and  formed  into  square  architectural 
facades,  with  bold  cornices  and  mouldings  in  high  relieli  they 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  dwelling-houses,  their  facades 
extending  the  whole  height  of  the  cliffs,  which  in  some 
places  rise  as  high  as  30  feet.  In  the  centre  of  each 
fa9ade  is  a  rod-moulding,  describing  the  outline  of  a  door,  in 
many  cases  having  panels  recessed  one  within  the  other. 
This,  however,  is  but  the  false  semblance  of  an  entrance,  the 
real  one  being  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cliff,  which  having 
been  left  to  project  when  the  fafade  was  smoothed  down, 
has  been  hollowed  into  a  kind  of  small  vaulted  antechamber, 
open  in  front.  The  form  of  these  monuments,  as  well  as  of 
the  false  door  in  the  facade,  tapers  upwards,  and  the  front 
recedes  slightly  from  the  perpendicular.  Along  the  top  of 
the  fa9ade  runs  a  massive  horizontal  coniice,  but  receding 
from  the  plane  of  the  facade.  On  many  of  the  tombs  there 
aie  inscriptions,  some  of  which  are  still  legible,  graven  deep 
in  the  smooth  surface  of  the  rock  above  the  simulated  doorway. 
On  the  inner  wall  of  the  little  entrance-chamber,  and  immedi- 
ately below  the  one  in  the  fa9ade,  is  a  second  false  door,  mould- 
ed like  the  former,  but  with  a  niche  in  the  centre  ;  and  direct- 
ly below  this  again  is  the  real  door  leading  into  the  sepulchral 
chambers,  which,  neither  in  grandeur  of  dimensions,  nor  ele- 
gance of  details,  answer  to  the  external  appearance  of  the 
tombs.  They  are  quadrilateral,  of  various  sizes,  and  rudely 
hollowed  in  the  rock,  having  a  flat  or  slightly-vaulted  ceilino- 
and  ledges  of  rock  against  the  wall  for  the  support  of  sarco- 
phagi.    In  some  cases  the  sarcophagi  have  been  sunk  in  the 


rock  in  two  rows,  side  by  side,  with  a  narrow  passage 
between  them,  and  seem  to  have  been  originally  covered 
over  with  tiles.  In  the  interstices  which  separate  the  monu- 
mental facades,  there  are  in  many  cases  flights  of  steps  cut 
in  the  rock,  and  leading  to  the  plain  above." 

Tombs  of  a  more  decorative  character  exist  at  Norchia, 
adojned  with  pediments  filled  with  sculpture,  and  Doric 
friezes,  and  bas-reliefs  on  the  inner  walls  of  the  portico. 
The  inteiiors,  however,  are  of  similar  character  to  those  at 
Castel  d'Asso.  At  Bieda,  are  tiers  of  tombs  hewn  in  terraces 
one  above  the  other,  and  connected  l>y  flights  of  steps  cut  in 
the  rock.  Here  also  another  peculiarity  is  presented,  the 
tombs  standing  t>ut  from  the  rock  completely  isolated,  and  of 
similar  form  to  dwelling-houses,  having  roofs  sloping  down 
on  either  side  with  overhanging  eaves  at  the  gable.  The 
internal  arrangement  likewise  bears  a  very  great  resemblance 
to  that  of  dwelling-houses. 

The  tombs  near  Cervetri,  opened  in  1836,  were  originally 
covered  with  a  large  conical  mound,  and  contain  two  apart- 
ments, an  inner  and  outer  one,  separated  by  a  partition,  the 
latter  being  somewhat  the  largest,  and  the  length  of  the  two 
together  measuring  about  CO  feet.  On  each  side  of  the  first 
chamber  is  a  small  cell  cut  out  of  the  rock,  the  chamber 
itself  being  lined  with  masonry,  and  roofed  over  with  a  kind 
of  Gothic  vault,  which  springs  at  about  three  feet  from  the 
ground.     Of  this  vault  we  have  spoken  above. 

A  curious  range  of  sepulchres  has  been  discovered  at 
Chiusi,  which,  from  the  winding  passages  which  lead  from 
one  tomb  to  another,  presents  the  idea  of  a  labyrinth,  and 
caused  it  at  one  time  to  bo  considered  a  portion  of  the  tomb 
of  Porsenna,  a  description  of  which  is  given  by  Varro. 

The  following  account  is  taken  from  the  publication  before 
referred  to  : — "  The  tombs  to  which  we  allude,  are  excavated 
in  the  conical  crest  of  a  broad  hill,  surrotnided  by  a  fosse 
about  three  feet  wide,  and  lined  on  the  inner  side  with  large 
blocks  of  travertine,  which  thus  form  a  wall  measuring 
about  855  feet,  this  being  the  circumference  of  the  base  of 
the  enclosed  tumulus.  The  chief  sepulchres  open  from  the 
encircling  wall ;  the  largest,  a  circular  chamber  facing  the 
south,  and  supported  in  the  centre  by  a  huge  pillar  hewn  in 
the  rock,  is  cotniected  with  the  fosse  by  a  passage  of  about 
50  feet  in  length.  Towards  the  south-east  is  a  group  of 
smaller  chainbers  ;  close  upon  the  f<jsse,  and  facing  the  south- 
west, is  another,  connected  with  the  former  by  a  passage 
about  45  feet  long ;  while  other  smaller  ones  again,  are 
situated  all  around,  flicing  all  the  points  of  the  compass. 

"  Above  this  tier  is  another,  containing  likewise  several 
gi'oups  of  chambers  of  different  size  and  shape ;  and  below 
the  level  of  the  fosse  is  a  third  tier,  the  chambers  of  which 
are,  however,  in  a  very  ruinous  state.  Opening  from  the 
circular  chamber  facing  the  south,  is  a  narrow  passage, 
which  winds  by  many  a  circuitous  route  towards  the  western 
group  of  chambers,  and  then  turning  again  to  the  south, 
branches  out  into  many  side-passages.  These  passages  were 
at  first  thought  to  form  a  regularly  planned  labyrinth,  but 
their  lowness  being  such  as  barely  to  allow  a  man  to  creep 
thr.nigh  on  all-fours,  the  irregularity  of  their  level,  and  the 
circumstance  of  the  passage  opening  into  the  western  group 
of  chambers,  breaking  through  one  of  the  stone  benches 
with  which  the  walls  of  the  chamber  are  lined,  and  on  which 
the  dead  reclined,  have  subsequently  led  to  the  abandonment 
of  this  opinion,  and  of  th<;  idea  of  this  being  the  site  of  the 
far-famed  tomb  of  Porsenna." 

We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  colour  was  used  in  these 
tombs  as  a  means  of  decoration.  At  Tarquinii,  they  are  all 
painted,  but  there  is  one,  the  Grotta  Querciola,  which  in  the 
design  and  execution  of  the  pictures,  surpasses  all  the  others. 


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Tlio. walls  are  entirely  covered  with  paintings  illustrative  of 
I  lie  t.ocial  manners  of  the  Etrurians,  the  colours  of  which, 
though  now  somewhat  dim,  must  have  been  originally 
splendid,  hi  the  Grotta  del  Triclinio,  hard  by,  the  colours 
have  retained  their  brilliancy,  and  the  effect  is  described  as 
j)crti;ctly  dazzling  by  those  who  have  beheld  them  in  a 
bright  light. 

The  Etruri.ans  do  not  seem  to  have  been  a  people  of  any 
groat  native  taste,  and  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the 
Greeks  in  this  respect;  they  preferred  utility  to  beauty,  and 
convenience  to  decoration.  Some  assert  that  all  that  is  really 
beautiful  in  their  moiuiments,  emanates  solely  from  Greece; 
but  this  we  cannot  suppose  ;  tliey  were  destitute  indeed  of 
the  creative  imagination  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  borrowed 
very  largely  from  them,  but  at  the  same  time  we  cannot 
suppose  them  to  have  been  entirely  devoid  of  originality. 

For  further  information  on  this  .subject,  we  would  refer 
to  Michali  and  Ingliirami,  as  also  to  the  recent  work  of 
Mr.  Dennis  on  the  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etriiria.     See 

Ro.MAN  AkCHITECTURE. 

EIJANTIII  COLOURS,  in  painting,  a  term  used  by  the 
Greeks,  to  express  what  the  Romans  called  the  floridi  colores, 
or  such  as  had  remarkable  brightness  :  the  duller  and  coarser 
colours,  the  Romans  called  aiisteri  colores,  and  the  Greeks 
baihijci.  Of  the  fir.st  sort  were  cinnabar,  lapis  arminus, 
chrysocolla,  minium,  indigo,  purpurissa,  according  to  the 
Romans ;  but  the  Gieeks,  as  we  find  by  Dioscorides,  made 
cinnabar  one  of  the  austere  colours. 

EVOLVENT  (from  the  Latin  evolo,  to  unfold)  in  geo- 
metry, the  curve  resulting  from  the  evolution  of  a  curve, 
in  contradistinction  to  th(!  cvolute,  which  is  the  curve  sup- 
posed to  be  opened  or  evolved. 

EVOLUTE,  or  Evolut.\,  in  the  higher  geometry,  a  curve 
first  proposed  by  Iluygen.s,  and  much  studied  by  the  later 
mathematicians  :  suppose  a  string,  or  flexible  line,  be  un- 
wound, so  that  the  part  unwound  may  be  kept  straight  and 
in  the  plane  of  the  curve,  the  extremity  will  describe  a  new 
curve,  of  which  tiie  first  turn  is  the  cvolute. 

The  radius  of  the  evolnte,  is  the  part  of  the  thread  con- 
tained between  any  point  where  it  is  tangent  to  the  evolute, 
and  the  corresponding  point,  where  it  terminates  in  the  new 
curve. 

Every  curve  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the  evolution 
of  another. 

EURYTIIMY,  (from  the  Greek  BypvOjioq,  harmonij,)  a 
certain  majesty  or  elegance  in  the  composition  of  the  different 
parts  of  a  building. 

The  wgrd  is  Greek,  and  signifies  literally  a  consonance  or 
fine  agreement ;  or,  as  we  call  it,  hurmoni/,  of  all  the  parts: 
it  is  compounded  of  ev,  well,  and  pvOjioc,  rythmus,  cadence,  or 
agreement  of  numbers,  sounds,  or  the  like. 
"EUSTYLE,  (from  the  Gi-cek,  ev,  bene,  well,  and  ^vXog, 
column)  a  disposition  of  columns  in  whic-h  the  intervals  are 
exactly  two  diameters  and  a  quarter.  This  intereolumiiia- 
tioii  was  most  approved  of  by  the  ancients,  as  being  a  medium 
between  the  pycnostyle  and  areostyle. 

Vitruvius,  lib.  iii.  chap.  2.  observes,  that  the  eustyle  is 
tlie  most  approved  of  all  the  kinds  of  intercolumniation,  and 
that  it  surpasses  all  the  rest  in  conveniency,  beauty,  and 
strength. 

EX.\GON,  See  Hexagon. 

EXCAVATING  MACHINES,  for  digging  and  removing 
earth  in  extensive  excavations,  have  occupied  the  attention 
of  many  ingenious  men,  and  various  machines  f  u-  the  purpose 
have  been  proposed  and  tried  with  dilferent  degrees  of  success. 
The  great  difiiculty  seems  to  consist  in  adapting  any  peeidiar 
trraugement  of  mechanism  which  shall  be  capable  of  digging 


into  the  various  sorts  of  earth.  Were  it  only  to  operate 
upon  a  uniform  mass,  the  task  would  be  of  comparatively 
easy  accomplishment. 

Amongst  others  w'ho  have  devoted  much  time  and  capital 
in  the  attempt  to  overcome  these  difllculties,  Mr.  G.  V.  Palmer 
applied  himself  to  the  construction  of  machines  of  this  kind. 
In  1830  he  took  out  a  patent  "  for  a  machine  to  cut  and 
excavate  the  earth."  This  invention  is  designed,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  steam-power,  to  Inosen,  dig  up,  and  remove  into  a  cart, 
earth  from  a  canal  or  other  cavity,  and  to  move  itself  forwards 
as  the  excavation  proceeds.  In  principle,  its  leading  arrange- 
ment resembles  the  dredging-mac-hiiu's  employed  in  clearing 
the  beds  of  rivers  and  harbours  ;  but  it  has  several  appurte- 
nances, such  as  picis,  for  loosening  the  earth  ;  cutlers,  for 
separating  it;  and  scrapers,  for  filling  it  into  scoops  or 
elevators;  the  latter  convey  it  into  the  cart  by  which  it  is 
carried  away.  The  machine;  is  inoinitcd  upon  foin-  wheels, 
and  gradually  moves  forward  upon  a  temporary  railway,  as 
the  excavation  proceed.s.  The  moving  power  is  applied  to 
the  axis  of  a  fly-wheel,  and  to  the  same  axis  is  fixed  a  drum 
or  pulley,  around  which  i)asses  an  endless  pitched  chain, 
giving  motion  to  another  drum  or  pulley,  which  revolves  in 
bearings  fi.xed  to  the  upper  ends  of  two  long  cheeks  or 
supports.  Around  this  second  drum  passes  another  endless 
chain,  by  which  a  third  drum  or  pulley,  of  a  quadrangular 
figure,  is  set  in  motion,  and  which  turns  on  an  axis  in  the 
lower  ends  of  the  long  cheeks ;  to  this  last-mentioned 
chain  are  fastened  a  series  of  earth-scoops,  which  are 
successively  brought  into  operation  in  taking  up  the  earth. 
So  far,  the  machine  resembles  the  common  ballast-engiiu-  ; 
we  have  now  to  describe  how  the  several  actions  of 
picking,  digging,  and  projecting  the  earth  are  effected. 
A  third  endless  chain  is  actuated  by  the  drum  on  the  main 
axis,  and  gives  motion  to  a  spur-wheel ;  this  spiu'-wheel 
drives  another  toothed  wheel  attached  to  the  fore-wheels  of 
the  carriage,  and  thus  the  carriage  gradually  advances.  By 
an  ingenious  system  of  levers,  connected  to  a  crank  on  the 
main  axis,  a  i-ow  of  pick-axes,  a  row  of  cutters,  and  a  row 
of  scraping-shovels,  are  alternately  brought  into  action. 
When  the  pickers  have  descended  and  loosened  a  portion  of 
earth,  the  cutters  follow,  and  separate  it  fi'om  the  mass,  and 
this  separated  portion  is  immediately  afterwards  drawn  thv- 
wards  by  the  scraping-.shovels  into  the  scoops,  which,  by  the 
action  of  the  machine,  arc  brought  into  the  required  position 
on  one  of  the  sides  of  the  revolving  quadrangular  drum  ; 
and  filled  scoops  thence  [)roceeding  to  the  top  of  the  machine 
by  the  revolution  of  the  attached  endless  chain,  discharge 
their  contents  into  a  cart  or  waggon  to  be  conveyed  away. 
The  same  gentleman  patented  another  engine  for  this  purpose 
in  1832.  This  consisted  of  an  excavated  cart  and  plough 
united,  to  be  worked  by  horses  or  other  power.  The  cart- 
wheels are  made  considerably'  wider  than  those  in  common 
use,  and  the  interior  portion  of  the  ring  of  each  wheel  is 
made  into  a  series  of  earth-boxes  ;  these  earth-boxes  are 
made  to  open  inwards,  and  also  towards  the  centres  of  the 
wheels.  Underneath  the  cart,  immediately  adjoining  each 
wheel,  is  placed  a  plough,  for  raising  and  tinning  the  earth 
into  the  boxes,  as  the  cart  is  moved  forwards  ;  the  wheels  at 
the  same  time  turning  round,  bring  up  the  earth,  and  deliver 
it  into  the  body  of  the  cart.  When  a  sutlicieiit  load  h.as  been 
thus  deposited  in  the  cart,  the  ploughs  arc  raised  from  the 
ground  by  means  of  a  lever,  and  then  the  cart  can  be  drawn 
in  every  respect  as  a  common  cart,  to  the  place  intended  for 
the  deposition  of  the  excavated  earth,  where  it  is  to  be 
unloaded  by  withdrawinij  a  pair  of  bolt",  which  allow  the 
bottom  of  the  cart  to  fold  downwards  sufliciently  to  permit 
the  earth  to  escape.     There  are  nuany  circumstances  where 


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tlie  upplittitioii  of  excavating  niaeliincs  of  this  kind  might  be 
employed  to  advantiige,  but  though  the  use  of  them  in  tlie 
extensive  exeavalions  of  railway  woiks  has  been  many  times 
attempted,  they  have  not  been  found  to  answer  so  well  in 
practiee  as  to  liring  them  into  general  employment. 

EXCAVATION,  (from  the  Latin  ex,  out>,  and  camts, 
hollow)  the  act  of  hollowing  or  digging  a  cavity,  particularly 
in  the  ground. 

The  excavation  for  the  foundation  of  a  building,  by  the 
Italians  called  cavatione,  is  settled  by  Pa  I  hid  io  at  a  sixth  part 
ol  tile  height  of  the  building,  unless  theje  be  cellars  under 
ground,  in  which  case  he  would  have  it  somewhat  more. 

But  this  proportion  is  vague,  and  cunti-ary  to  experience 
and  reason.  Good  firm  gravel,  clay,  or  rock,  forms  as  good 
a  foundation  at  a  foot  or  IS  inches  from  the  surface,  as  at  any 
gicatei-  depth ;  while  swampy  or  boggy  land  is  not  good  at 
any  depth.     See  Digging  and  FouND.vnoN. 

EXCHANGE,  a  building  where  merchants  resort  to 
transact  business.  The  principal  commercial  cities  of  Europe 
and  America  have  edifices  appropiiated  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  Bourses  of  Paris,  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  and  other 
continental  cities,  and  the  E.xchanges  of  London,  Liverpool, 
New  York,  ikc,  are  distinguished  for  their  beauty  and 
convenience.  In  Loudon  there  arc  three  buildings  of  this 
kind;  the  Corn  Exchange — the  Coal  Exchange — and  the 
Exchange  of  London,  jtar  cxcelkiice,  the  Royal  Exchange. 
The  two  first  ai'e  appropriated  to  the  particular  branches  of 
cummeree  indicated  by  their  names,  and  are  more  espe- 
cially resorted  to  by  persons  therein  engaged  ;  the  Royal 
Exchange  is  the  general  place  of  assembling,  at  a  certain 
hour  of  the  day,  of  the  merchants  and  traders  of  Lt)ndon. 
Here  meet  together  men  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
iiere  arc  settled  transactions  of  commerce  of  a  magnitude 
inconceivable  by  those  unacquainted  with  the  subject.  There 
are  few  merchants  in  the  city  but  make  it  a  rule  to  attend 
the  Exchange  daily,  or,  as  it  is  termed  in  commercial  phrase- 
ology, "to  go  on  'tJhange."  We  propose  to  give  a  brief 
description  of  each  of  these  places  of  mercantile  rendezvous. 

The  Corn  Exchange  is  situated  in  iLiik  Lane,  and  con- 
sists, in  fact,  of  two  buildings  adjoining  each  other,  and 
known  respectively  as  the  Old  and  New  Corn  Exchange. 
Business,  however,  is  carried  on  in  both,  and  together  they 
are  considered  as  the  "  Corn  E.xchange." 

The  new  building,  as  we  have  before  observed,  immedi- 
ately adjoins  the  older  one,  which  still  continues  to  be  made 
use  of',  and  which  ma)'  therefore  with  propriety  be  briefly- 
described  here,  if  only  for  the  purpose  of  affording  some 
kind  of  comparison  between  the  two.  "  The  lower  part  of 
the  structure  is  an  open  colonnade,  whose  pillars  are  of  the 
modern  Doric  kind,  but  the  entablature  has  a  plain  frieze, 
and  its  architrave  is  singularly  narrow  for  the  order,  or  in- 
deed for  any  oider  whatever.  There  are  eight  columns,  with 
an  iron  palisading  between  them  ;  displaying,  however,  a 
very  peculiar  arrangement,  four  of  them  being  placed  in 
pairs,  but  in  such  a  manner,  that,  beginning  to  reckon  from 
the  south  end,  we  find  them  placed  thus:  first,  a  pair  of 
columns  at  that  angle,  then  three  single  columns,  then  another 
pair,  and  at  the  north  angle  another  single  column,  firming 
altogether  live  inter-columns,  corresponding  with  which  are 
as  many  windows  in  each  of  the  two  stories  forming  the  upper 
part  of  the  building  over  the  colonnade ;  which  are  quite 
plain,  with  the  exception  of  the  centre  one  on  the  first  floor, 
which,  in  addition  to  other  dressings,  has  a  pediment." 

There  is  no  wall  behind   these  columns,   and    the   space 

within  is  open  to  the  street,  forming  a  court  rather  th.nn  a 

hall,  the  centre  space  of  which  is  not  covered  bv  a  roof.   With 

this  diti'erenoe,  it  resembles  the  similar  part  of  the  plan  in  the 

50 


new  building,  having,  as  that  has,  three  intercohimns  at  each 
end,  and  live  on  each  side;  and  it  further  resembles  it  in  the 
great  depth  of  the  ambulatory  around  it.  The  building, 
though  making  little  pretension  to  architectural  character, 
except  what  it  derives  from  its  columns  and  their  arrange- 
ment, has,  in  its  general  efiect,  a  degree  of  pieturcsqueness 
both  unusual  and  pleasing,  especially  as  there  is  a  second 
range  of  columns  between  those  in  front  and  the  area  of  the 
Exchange  itself 

The  New  Corn  Exchange  was  erected  in  1828.  f  om  the 
designs  of  Mr.  G.  Smith,  the  architect  of  St.  Paul's  School, 
and  exhibits  a  very  tasteful  and  appropiiate  application  of 
the  Grecian  Doiic. 

In  point  of  design,  this  facade  merits  investigation,  because, 
whatever  else  may  be  alleged  against  it,  no  one  can  object 
to  it,  that  it  is  either  a  direct  copy,  or  an  asscmbl.ige  of 
copies,  that  is,  of  parts  entirely  borrowed  from  other  build- 
ings, without  other  iio\^eUy  than  what  they  derive  from  their 
combination  with  each  other. 

The  colonnade  forming  the  centre,  (which  being  an 
hexastyle  in  amis,  gives  the  same  number  of  intercolumns 
as  an  octostyle,)  does  not  constitute  a  loggia,  or  even  a 
mere  corridor;  for,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  plan,  the  space 
between  the  columns  and  the  wall  is  occupied,  except  wliere 
the  entrances  occur,  by  a  sunk  area  screened  by  the  stylo- 
bate.  This  area  being  barely  equal  to  one  diameter,  the 
colonnade  is  much  shallower  than  usual,  and  therefore  likely 
to  be  censured,  on  that  account,  by  those  who  consider  a 
certain  depth  of  space  behind  the  colunms  to  be  an  indis- 
pensable requisite  for  their  proper  effect,  and  invariably 
demanded  in  all  situations  and  under  all  circumst.inces. 

In  the  present  instance,  the  very  moderate  distance  at 
which  the  wall  is  placed  behind  the  columns,  occasions 
greater  breadth  of  surface,  as  the  light  falls  upon  that  as 
well  as  on  the  columns  themselves;  which  would  not  be  the 
case  were  the  wall  so  far  back  that  the  columns  would  re- 
lieve themselves  entirely  against  the  shadow  of  the  parts 
beyond  them.  At  the  same  time,  the  columns  receive  a 
greater  portion  of  reflected  light,  and  thus  contrast  more 
distinctly  with  the  shadows  which  they  cast  on  the  wall 
itself,  and  w  liieh  produce  an  agreeable  variet}'  and  equipoise 
of  light  and  shade,  according  to  the  sun's  elevation,  when  it 
shines  on  this  (the  west)  side  of  the  building.  But  that  to 
which,  more  than  anything  else,  this  l^ifade  is  indebted  for 
its  classical  air  and  architectural  beauty,  is  the  entire  absence 
of  windows  within  the  colonnade.  Not  only  do  such  aper- 
tures— unless  introduced  very  sparingly  indeed — destroy 
repose,  by  frittering  what  requires  to  be  preserved  nearly 
an  unbroken  surflice,  but  they  show  themselves  in  a  situa- 
tion where  their  serviceableness  is  greatly  lessened.  Besides 
which,  the  colonnade  or  portico  itself  seems  misplaced,  being 
overlooked  by  the  rooms  behind  it. 

To  return  to  the  immediate  object  of  our  description  :  we 
may  observe,  that  the  wall  is  not  entirely  plain,  it  having 
slightly  projecting  antte  or  pilasters  correspoixling  with  the 
cofumns,  and  thefaees  of  those  in  the  centre  serve  partly  as 
a  ground  upon  which  the  jambs  of  the  large  door  are  raised. 
This  door  is  a  feature  not  only  important  for  its  size,  but 
tasteful  in  design — bold  and  simple,  yet  at  the  same  time 
carefully  finished. 

In  the  frieze,  wreaths  composed  of  ears  of  corn  are  sub- 
stituted for  triglyphs;  and  even  had  they  not  elegance  of 
form  as  well  as"  novelty  to  recommend  them,  they  would 
still  have  a  propriety  and  significance  which  we  rarely  meet 
with  in  those  similarly  shaped  decorations  of  laurel  trans- 
ferred to  modern  buildings,  from  the  entablature  of  the 
monument  of  Thrasyllus. 


EXC 


394 


EXC 


The  cornice  here  given  to  the  order  is  rendered  less  cold 
and  scanty  than  usual  by  the  addition  of"  a  cyniatiuni  above 
tliu  corona,  ornamented  with  lions'  heads,  that  slightly  break 
Its  ujiper  line.  Much  of  the  peculiar  character  arises  from 
the  unu^ually  lofty  blocking-course,  surmounted  in  the  cen- 
tre by  a  podium  bearing  the  following  inscrijJtion  : — 'Corn 
Exchange,  erected  1828,  according  to  act  of  parliament,  7th 
ticurge  IV.  Chap.  33.'  This  pudium  is,  in  turn,  surint>unted 
by  a  piece  of  sculpture  representing  the  loyal  arms,  grouped 
wall  implements  symbolical  of  agriculture.  Thus  the  upper 
part  of  the  front  acquires  considerable  variety  of  outline,  and 
somewhat  of  a  pyramidal  tiirni,  together  with  distinctly 
maikud  individuality  of  character.  Instead  of  being  at  all 
at  \  ariance  with  the  style  adopted,  the  piart  we  are  now  con- 
sidering is  not  only  consistent  with,  but  seems  to  give  addi- 
tional expression  to  all  the  rest ;  at  the  same  time  that  it 
lakes  away  from  it  that  air  of  direct  imitation  which  it  is  so 
diltieult  to  avoid  without  endangering,  if  not  destroying,  the 
classical  physiognomy  intended  to  be  preserved. 

Whether,  in  his  treatment  of  the  wings,  the  architect  has 
successfully  overcome  this  last-mentioned  difficulty,  is  what 
We  have  now  to  inquire.  As  far  as  regards  the  order  itselfj 
that  is  kept  up  with  sufficient  strictness,  and  the  mode  in 
which  the  ant;e  are  applied,  deserves  commendation.  Had 
these  been  merely  coupled,  after  the  usual  fashion,  the  effect 
Would  have  been  rather  fbrnuil  and  monotonous ;  besides 
which,  it  might  not  improperly  have  been  objected,  that  such 
dujilication  was  at  variance  with  the  arrangement  of  the 
culumns.  But  by  conipouuding,  instead  of  pairing  them, 
and  placing  the  broader  anta  at  the  outer  angle,  while  the 
other  is  made  to  project  slightly  upon  it,  both  a  due  expres- 
sion of  strength  and  solidity  is  kept  up,  a  certain  degree  of 
[ilay  and  variety  is  obtained,  although  there  appears  to  be 
nothing  at  all  new  in  the  idea  itself,  e.vcept  that  here  the  two 
united  faces  arc  of  unequal  breadth — an  irregularity  coii- 
veited  into  a  merit  by  its  obvious  propriety. 

"The  windows,  which  entirely  occupy  the  space  between 
the  anta;,  may  be  considered  as  assuming  the  character  of 
small  loggite,  whose  intercolumns  are  filled  in  with  sashes. 
hi  style,  therefore,  they  harmonize  with  the  general  design 
far  better,  perhaps,  than  anything  else  that  could  have  been 
devised  for  the  same  purpose  ;  the  chief  objection  to  be  made 
in  regard  to  them  is,  tliat  somewhat  less  plainness — not  to 
call  it  severity  of  style — would  not  have  been  amiss,  and 
would  have  prevented  the  small  antte  of  the  windows  from 
appearing  a  repetition  of  the  larger  ones  on  a  diminished 
scale. 

"The  upper  story  of  the  wings,  to  which  we  now  come, 
display  moie  invention  and  decided  novelty  than  any  other 
(larl  of  the  building;  and  although  exhibiting  somewhat  of 
unusual  forms  and  combinations,  tile  style  here  preserves  its 
cliaracLeristic  energy,  boldness,  and  breadth.  Although,  too, 
tile  parts  themselves  are  simple,  they  acjjuire  much  pictu- 
resque complexity  from  the  lofty  position  in  which  the 
windows  are  placed,  being  thrown  further  back,  owing  to 
which  the  pedestals  detach  themselves  with  considerable 
projection.  In  addition  to  the  variety  thus  produced,  we 
have  that  arising  from  the  attic  itself,  if  it  may  so  be  termed, 
being  both  loftier  than  the  pedestals,  and  narrower  than  the 
compartment  of  the  front  below  ;  from  both  which  circum- 
stances result  great  contrast  and  diversity  of  outline. 

"The  intcriijr  calls  for  very  little  description  or  remark, 
the  walls  being  perf\-ctly  plain,  and  their  being  no  other 
decoration  ol'  any  kind  than  the  columns,  which  are  of  very 
slender  proportions,  and  have  deep  capitals,  composed  of 
ears  of  wheat.  Above  the  centre  space  within  the  columns, 
is  a  lantern  with  vertical  lights ;  and  those  ou  each  side  have 


seven  skylight  compartments  in  their  ceilings.  The  north 
wing  conlains  a  tavern  and  cotfee-room,  and  the  opening  in 
tlie  south  wall  of  the  other  wing  communicates  with  the  old 
Corn  Exehaiige." — Public  Buildhiys  of  Lundon. 

The  Coal  Exchange  is  a  new  building  erected  in  Thames- 
street,  near  the  Custom  House,  and  completed  so  lately  as 
the  month  of  November,  1849. 

The  importance  of  the  vast  trade  in  that  precious  mineral 
to  which  Great  Britain  owes  so  much  of  her  prosperitv,  may 
well  demand  that  the  merchants  and  others  trading  in  c<ial, 
should  have  their  own  Exchange.  The  enormous  extent  of 
this  trade  can  hardly  be  conceived,  or  its  value  in  a  pecuniary 
sense  estimated. 

"  hi  respect  to  its  natural  supply  of  coal,"  says  McCulloch, 
"Britain,  among  the  nations,  is  most  singularly  favoured; 
much  of  the  surface  of  the  country  conceals  under  it  con- 
tinuous and  thick  beilsof  that  valualile  mineral,  vastly  more 
precious  to  us  than  would  have  been  mines  of  the  precious 
metals,  like  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico ;  for  coal,  since  ap- 
plied to  the  steam-engine,  is  really  hoarded  power,  applicable 
to  almost  every  purpose  which  human  labour  directed  by 
ingenuity  can  accomplish.  It  is  the  possession  of  her  coal- 
mines which  has  rendered  Britain,  in  relation  to  the  whole 
world,  what  a  city  is  to  the  rural  district  which  surrounds 
it — the  producer  and  dispenser  of  the  rich  products  of  art 
and  industry.  Calling  her  coal-mines  the  coal-ci'llars  of  the 
great  city,  there  is  in  them  a  supply  which,  at  the  present 
rate  of  expenditure,  will  last  for  2,000  years  at  least;  and 
therefore  a  provision  which,  as  coming  improvements  in  the 
arts  of  life  will  naturally  effect  economy  of  fuel,  or  substitu- 
tion of  other  means  to  efii;ct  similar  purposes,  may  be 
regarded  as  inexhaustible." 

The  former  Coal  Exchange  being  quite  unfit  for  the  pur- 
poses required,  and  the  inconvenience  felt  by  the  merchants 
frequenting  it  much  complained  of,  an  enlarged  site  w.as  pur- 
chased by  the  corporation  of  London,  for  the  erection  of  a 
new  Exchange.  This  site  afforded  a  frontage  next  Lower 
Thames-street  of  113  feet,  and  a  similar  frontage  next 
St.  ]Mary-at-Hill.  The  building  is  erected  from  the  designs 
of  Mr.  Bunning,  the  architect  to  the  corporation,  and  is  so 
arranged  as  to  give  an  increased  width  to  tlie  two  thorough- 
fares above-named.  It  presents  two  distinct  elevations,  con- 
nected by  a  tower,  placed  within  the  re-entering  angle  formed 
by  the  two  fronts. 

The  facades  of  the  building  are  of  very  simple,  yet  bold 
and  cflective  design ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  cornice, 
but  few  projections  are  introduced.  The  fronts  in  Thames- 
street  and  St.  Mary-at-Iliil,  are  respccti\ely  about  112  feet 
in  width,  by  01  feet  in  height.  The  unequal  f)rm  of  the  plot 
of  ground  on  which  the  Exchange  stands,  is  skilfully  masked 
at  the  corner  by  breaking  the  mass  of  building,  and  intro- 
ducing the  circular  tower  before  mentioned.  This  tower 
is  109  feet  high  to  the  to]i  of  the  gilded  ball,  and  22  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  lowest  part,  and  is  diviiled  into  three  stories. 
The  lowest  story,  containing  the  entrance  vestibule,  is  of  the 
Koman-Uorie  style  of  architecture;  and  presents  a  striking 
peculiarity  in  the  arrangement,  to  which  we  must  advert. 
The  wall  of  the  tower  not  only  contains  the  vestibule  by  which 
entrance  to  the  hall  or  rotinida  is  attained,  liut  serves  also  as 
a  centre  to  flights  of  steps,  which  lead,  on  either  hand,  to  a 
landing  on  the  first  story  of  the  buildiiiig.  From  this  land- 
ing, a  spiral  staircase  is  carried  up  in  the  tower  to  the  other 
stoiies.  The  first  story  is  of  the  Ionic  order,  carrying  an 
entablature,  and  is  lighted  by  windows.  The  top  story,  15 
feet  in  diameter,  is  ornamented  by  pilasters,  w'ith  windows 
between ;  the  roof  rising  to  a  cone,  and  being  crowned  with 
a  gilded  ball.    The  front  of  the  whole  is  faced  w  ith  Portland 


EXC 


395 


EXC 


stone.  Entering  the  rotumia,  the  attention  of  the  visitoi-  is 
iniMK'dialeiy  arresteii  by  its  beautiful  eiKct.  and  extroniely 
novel  airangenient.  It  foi-riis  a  circle  of  some  00  feet  in 
diameter,  and  is  crowned  with  a  dome,  or,  in  fact,  double 
dome,  as  a  lessor  cupola  rises  from  the  eye  irf  the  great  dome 
to  the  height  of  74  feet  from  the  fl<)or.  The  dome  rests  on 
eight  light  ])iers,  the  space  between  each  pier  being  divided 
by  stanchions  into  three  compartments.  There  are  three 
galleries,  and  from  these  galleries,  entrance  is  obtained  to 
the  numerous  offices  in  the  building.  The  galleries  arc 
pcculiarl)'  constructed,  and  entirely  composed  of  iron,  embel- 
lished with  symbols  of  the  coal  trade.  Ii'on,  indeed,  has 
been  most  extensively  made  use  of;  the  stanchions,  brackets, 
ribs,  and  eye  of  the  dome,  are  all  of  iron,  and  above  300  tons 
have  been  used  in  the  building  in  the  several  parts.  Each 
rib,  of  which  there  are  Si,  is  42  feet  G  inches  long,  is  cast 
in  one  length,  and  weighs  on  the  average  two  tons.  The 
arrangement  of  patera;  in  the  stanchions,  l)rackets,  and 
sollits  of  galleries,  is  original  and  good.  The  ornament 
chiefly  nsed  is  a  cable,  twisted  about  in  various  patterns,  and 
the  balustrade  to  the  galleries  is  of  loops  of  cable,  broken  at 
intervals  by  the  introduction  of  the  City  arms.  'I'his  rope- 
ornament  has  perhaps  been  used  in  too  great  profu>ion,  for 
it  is  displayed  on  the  stanchions,  gallery-railings,  soffits,  and 
every  place  where  it  could  possibly  be  introduced.  The 
frmne-work  to  the  offices  is  of  wood,  and  panelled  with  rough 
plate-glass.  By  this  means,  they  receive  light  from  the 
great  dome  of  the  hall.  The  dome  itself  is  glazed  with  large 
pieces  of  ground  plate-glass  of  great  thickness,  the  glass  of 
the  small  upper  dome  having  an  amber  tint.  The  chief 
public  offices  surrounding  the  liotunda  are  those  appropriated 
to  the  offices  of  the  corporation,  whose  business  it  is  to 
collect  the  coal  dues ;  the  iiictors'  board-room,  the  weighers' 
society,  and  the  merchants'  and  factors',  among  whom  Sir 
James  Duke,  lord-mayor  of  London  at  the  time  of  the 
opening  of  the  Coal  Exchange,  holds  a  very  prominent 
position. 

The  floor  of  the  Rotunda  is  composed  of  inlaid  woods, 
disposed  in  form  of  a  mariner's  compass,  within  a  border  of 
Greek  fret,  and  in  its  appearance  is  beautiful  in  the  extreme. 
In  its  construction  are  employed  upwards  of  4,000  pieces  of 
wood  of  various  kinds,  comprising  black  ebony,  black  oak, 
comnH>n  and  red  English  oak,  wainscot,  white  holly, 
mahogany,  American  elm,  red  and  white  walnut,  and 
mulberry.  The  whole  of  these  materials  have  been  prepared 
by  ^Messrs.  Davison  and  Symington's  patent  process  of 
seasoning  woods,  to  which  we  have  alluded  under  the  word 
Desiccation. 

The  same  desiccating  process  has  been  applied  to  the  wood- 
work throughout  the  building.  The  black  oak  introduced 
is  part  of  an  old  tree  which  was  discovered  imbedded  in  the 
river  Tyne,  where  it  had  unquestionably  lain  between  four 
and  five  centuries.  The  mulberry  wood,  of  which  the  blade 
of  the  dagger  in  the  shield  of  the  City-arms  is  composed,  is 
made  of  a  piece  of  a  tree  planted  by  Peter  the  Great,  when 
he  worked  as  a  shipwright  in  Deptford  dockyard. 

The  coloured  decorations  of  the  Exchange  are  peculiarly 
characteristic,  and  the  entrance  vestibule,  in  particular,  is  ex- 
tremely rich  and  picturesque  in  its  embellishments.  Terminal 
figures,  vases  with  fruit,  arabesque  foliage,  licc;  all  of  the 
richest  and  most  glowing  colours,  fill  up  the  vault  of  the  ceil- 
ing, through  an  aperture  in  which  is  seen  that  of  the  lan- 
tern, adorned  with  a  figure  of  Plenty  scattering  riches,  and 
surrounded  b\  ji(/uriiii.  Over  the  entrance-doorway,  within 
a  sunk  panel,  are  painted  the  City-arms.  Within  the  Rotunfla 
the  polyclnomatic  decorations  immediately  airest  the  eye. 
The  range  of  panels  at  the  base  of  the  dome,  and  the  piers 


whirh  carry  the  dome,  are  all  fidly  and  harmoniously  deco- 
rated. Commencing  with  the  piers  in  the  lowest  story  : — 
It  will  be  seen  that  th^  Iiatraelesi|ue  decorations  are  very 
rich  in  character.  In  each  pier  a  scroll  supp(jrts  and  encircles 
four  compartments ;  the  lowest  are  semi-circular  panels, 
within  which  are  painted  symbolic  figures  of  the  princijial 
coal-bearing  rivers  in  England  :  the  Thames,  the  Mersey,  the 
Severn,  the  Trent,  the  Ilimiber,  the  Aire,  the  Tyne,  &c. 
Small  oblong  panels,  with  marine  subjects,  are  a  little  above 
the  symbolic  figures  just  described  ;  and  above  these  again, 
within  borders  of  flowers  of  every  kind,  are  figures  symbo- 
lical of  Wisdom.  Fortitude,  Vigilance,  Temperance,  Perse- 
verance, Watchfulness,  Justice,  and  Faith.  These  figures 
are  the  most  prominent  objects  in  the  decorations  of  the  pieis 
in  the  lower  story,  and  in  circles  above  them  arc  painted 
groups  of  shells;  whilst  at  the  top,  in  semi-circles  correspond- 
ing with  those  at  the  base  of  the  piers,  snakes,  lizards,  and 
other  reptiles,  are  introduccil.  In  the  first  story,  the  leading 
feature  in  the  arabesques  is  a  scries  of  views  of  coal-mines, 
inchiding  the  air-shaft  at  Wallsend.  Percy  Pit  Main  Colliery, 
Wallscud  Colliery,  Regent's  Pit  Colliery,  &c.  Groups  of 
fruit  and  flowers  are  in  small  circles  just  above  the  views, 
and  in  oblong  panels  beneath  the  latter  the  series  of  nautical 
"  bits"  is  contiiuied.  At  the  base,  in  each  pilaster,  are  repre- 
sentations of  difterent  specimens  of  Sigillaria — a  fossil  found 
in  coal  formations.  In  the  second  story,  the  largest  panels 
contain  figures  of  miners  engaged  in  different  paits  of  their 
laboui-s,  but  these  figures  we  think  are  not  so  well  executed 
as  other  portions  of  the  decorations.  Nautical  subjects,  clus- 
ters(if  fruit  and  flowers,  are  introduced  among  the  arabesques. 
The  third  story  contains,  within  oval  panels,  miners  at 
woik,  picking  the  coal.  &c.  :  flowers  and  small  landscapes 
add  to  the  richness  and  variety  of  the  decorations  on  this 
floor;  and  both  in  this  and  the  lower,  calamites,  (fossils  from 
the  coal  formations,)  are  depicted  amongst  the  arabesques. 
The  twentv-four  panels  at  the  springing  of  the  dome,  of 
which  we  have  before  spoken,  have  oval  compartments 
painted  in  them,  surrounded  by  a  gracefully  flowing  binder 
of  extremelv  rich  and  varied  design,  being  light  ornaments 
on  a  dark  ground.  The  spaces  within  the  oval  borders  are 
coloured  of  a  tmquoise  blue  tint,  on  which  is  painted  a  series 
of  representations  of  different  fossil  plants  met  with  in  the 
coal  formations.  Thisportionof  the  decoration  is  extremely 
striking  and  appropriate  ;  and,  we  need  scarcely  say.  the 
representation  of  the  plants  are  strictly  correct.  These 
were  painted  in  encaustic  by  Mr.  Sang,  from  the  drawings 
of  Mr.  Melhado,  (a  pupil  of  the  architect,)  taken  from  spe- 
cimens in  the  British  Museum.  A  staircase  leads  to  the 
hypocaust,  which  was  discovered  in  excavating  for  the  foun- 
dation, a  remnant  of  the  time  when  the  Romans  ruled  here. 
A  visit  to  this  will  amply  repay  the  lovers  of  antiquity,  and 
its  minute  agreement  with  the  details  of  such  constructions 
given  by  Vitruvius,  should  be  noticed. 

The  artificers'  work  generally  were  performed  by  Mr. 
Trego;  the  iron-work  by  Messrs.  Dewer ;  and  the  wood- 
work was  seasoned  by  Messrs.  Davison  and  Symington's 
patent  desiccating  process.  The  floor  of  the  merchants"  area 
was  laid  down  by  the  first-named  of  these  gentlemen,  Mr. 
Davison. 

The  cost  of  this  Exchange  was  about  £40,000. 

The  Roy.vl  Exchange,  in  general,  has  been  fortunate  in 
finding  historians,  still  the  current  descriptions  are.  fi)r  the 
most  part,  imperfect  and  incorrect,  and  utterly  without  the 
■sanction  of  official  authority. 

Like  everything  in  the  City,  the  existence  of  the  Royal 
Exchange  is  owing  to  individual  enterprise.  This  is  the 
spirit  aiid  essence  of  commercial  prosperity.     The  merchant 


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is  generally  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune ;  his  pursuits 
necessarily  bring  him  into  contact  with  his  fcllow-mon ;  and 
thus,  while  the  principle  of  association  obtains  with  him,  and 
expresses  itself  in  the  guild  and  the  corporation,  in  his  own 
person  he  maintains  a  special  individuality.  To  him  who 
would  induljje  personalities,  and  portray  characteristics,  a 
visit  to  the  City  would  atliird  many  examples — some  strange 
and  odd  enough,  but  all  striking  and  strongly  marked.  In 
other  pursuits  of  life  there  is  more  or  less  of  a  professional 
costume,  which  sinks  the  man  in  the  official ;  but  the  mer- 
chant pleases  himself,  or  acts  upon  early  associations,  in  his 
dress  and  conduct.  His  success  mostly  dejiends,  indeed,  upon 
the  personal.  Gresham,  the  founder  of  the  IJoyal  Exchange, 
is  an  illustrious  example  of  the  truth  of  these  remarks, 
and  another  instance  of  the  great  works  that  may  be  aecom- 
plislied  by  the  zeal,  activity,  and  perseverance  of  an  indi- 
vidual. 

To  Sir  Richard  Gresham,  however,  father  of  the  Sir 
Thomas  Gresham,  whose  name  has  become  a  "  household 
word"'  to  the  citizens  of  London,  the  merchants  of  this  great 
metropolis  are  indebted  for  the  first  serious  attempt  to  found 
an  Exchange.  Before  this  time,  the  merchants  met  together 
in  the  open  air  in  Lombard-street,  exposed  to  the  manv 
inconveniences  of  such  a  place  of  assembling,  hi  the  reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  who  determined 
to  carj'y  into  efi'ect  what  his  father  had  been  unal)le  to  do, 
proposed  to  the  corporation,  in  L5(54,  ''That  if  the  City 
would  give  him  a  piece  of  ground  in  a  commodious  spot,  he 
would  erect  an  Exchange  at  his  own  expense,  with  large  and 
covered  walks,  wherein  the  merchants  and  traders  might 
daily  assemble,  and  transact  business  at  all  seasons,  without 
interruption  from  the  weather,  or  impediments  of  any  kind." 
This  offer  was  accepted,  and  the  new  building,  when  com- 
pleted, was  visited  by  the  Queen,  who  "caused  the  same  to 
be  proclaimed  by  sound  of  trumpet,  the  Rot/all  Exchanye, 
and  so  to  be  called  from  thenceforth,  and  not  otherwise." 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  who  died  in  November,  1579, 
bequeathed  the  whole  of  this  edifice,  and  its  various  appur- 
tenances, after  the  death  of  his  wite,  "jointly  for  ever 
to  the  corporation  of  London  and  the  Company  of  Mercers," 
upon  trust  for  various  purposes. 

The  fabric  erected  by  Gresham  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  great  fire  of  London  in  1666.  Measures 
for  the  erection  of  a  new  building  were,  however,  promptly 
taken,  and  in  October  1667,  King  Charles  IL  laid  the  base 
of  the  column  on  the  west  side  of  the  noith  entrance  of  the 
second  Exchange;  and,  on  the  31st  of  the  same  month, 
the  first  stone  of  the  eastern  column  was  laid  by  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York. 

The  popular  notion  has  always  been  that  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  was  the  architect  of  tliis  Exchange;  this  is  not  the  fact, 
the  architect  was  Edward  Jcrman,  one  of  the  surveyors  to 
the  City  in  1666.  As  this  is  a  matter  on  which  much  dif- 
ference of  opinion  has  existed,  we  think  the  insertion  of  the 
folluwiiig  evidence  from  a  letter  in  "The  Builder,"  will  defi- 
nitively "settle  the  question.  The  writer  states,  that  the 
extiacts  we  have  given  below,  were  taken  from  the  records 
of  the  City,  and  of  the  Mercers'  Company,  and  from  them  are 
obtained  "ihe  following  facts,  which  leave  no  doul)t  whatever 
that  Jerman,  and  not  Wren,  was  the  architect  of  the  late 
Royal  Exohang '. 

'•Thit  on  the  19th 1066,  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  the  work,  s-ummoned  to  iheir  assistance,  Mr.  Mills 
and  Mr.  .lerman.  tho  City  surveyors.  Again  at  a  joint  C(im- 
mittec,  held  on  the  25th'April,  1667,  the  following  minute  is 
recorded  : — 

"The   committee,  concluding   it  very  necessary  at  this 


meeting,  to  make  choyce  of  a  surveyor  for  directing  and 
overseeing  the  building  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  .assisting 
them  in  carrying  on  that  designe  to  the  best  adv.intaiie,  as  to 
substaiuiallnesse,  ornament,  and  frugality  ;  and  forasmuch  as 
Jlr.  Mills,  the  City  surveyor,  hath  declared  that  hee  cannot 
perform  that  worke  .alone,  and  the  committee  being  vrry 
sensible  of  the  greate  burden  of  businesse  lying  upon  him 
for  the  City  all  this  time  ;  .and  considering  that  Mr.  Jerman  is 
the  most  able  knowne  artist  (besides  him)  that  the  Citv  now 
hath:  therefore  the  committee  unanimously  made  choice  of 
Mr.  Jerman,  to  assist  the  committee  in  the  agreeing  for, 
ordering,  and  directing,  of  that  worke;  and,  having  declarc<l 
the  same  unto  him,  hee,  afl;er  much  reluetancv  .and  unwilling- 
ness (objecting,  it  niiuht  bee  thought  ,an  intrenchment  u]i(im 
Mr.  Mills  his  right,)  at  length  accepted,  being  assured  first  bv 
the  Tjord  Mayi)r  and  the  committee,  that  itt  was  no  intrench 
ment.  that  this  wholle  eommittefi,  at  all  times,  would  acquit 
him  from  any  scandall  in  th.at  behalfe ;  then  the  commiti re- 
ordered the  elerke  to  acquaint  Mr.  Jerman  with  .-ill  the  pro- 
ceedinges  of  this  committee  about  the  said  building." 

After  this  appointment  Mr.  jMills's  name  does  not  occur 
again,  and  the  works  evidently  proceeded  with  great  ra])iditv. 
for  they  weie  finished  within  three  years  and  a  half  from  the 
period  of  Jerman's  appointment. 

On  the  9th  December  occurs  the  following  entry.  "  The 
committee  considering  that  ls\r.  .Jerman,  who  was  chosen  sin- 
veyor  for  rebuilding  the  Exchange  in  April  last,  h.ath  not  vet 
received  any  gratification  for  drawing  drafts  and  directing  thr 
building  ;  they  therefore  ordered  that  £50  shall  be  payed 
him  upon  account  until  further  consideration  of  his  merits.'' 

These  extracts,  I  think  you  will  agree  with  me,  prove  that 
Edward  German  (or  lerman  as  sometimes  spelt)  was  the  sole 
architect.  In  these  records  Sir  Christopher  Wren  is  spoken 
of,  under  date  of  the  7th  Jan.,  1670,  as  "  Dr.  Wren,  Surveyor- 
general  of  His  ^Majesty's  workes." 

The  building  erected  by  Jerman,  was  publicly  opened  for 
business  on  the  28th  of  September,  1069,  the  expense  of  its 
construction  having  amounted  to  £80,000.which  was  defrayed 
in  equal  moieties  by  the  City  and  the  Mercers'  Company. 

This  structure  also  was  doomed  to  fall  by  the  same  element 
which  had  proved  fatal  to  its  predecessor,  for  on  the  night  of 
the  lOthof  J.anuary,  1838,  it  was  discovered  to  be  on  fire,  and 
in  the  course  of  the  night,  though  not  entirely  destroyed,  was 
so  much  damaged,  that  for  all  purposes  of  usefulness  the 
destruction  may  be  said  to  have  been  complete. 

The  architecture  of  the  building  thus  destroyed  has  been 
variously  estimated;  by  some  decried,  by  others  praised;  but 
probably  it  merited  the  extr.avagant  praises  of  the  one  party 
.as  little  as  it  deserved  the  severe  criticism  of  the  other. 

The  four  orders  of  the  quadrangle  were  richly  decorated, 
with  the  basements,  arches  of  the  walks,  the  coinices  over 
them,  the  niches,  statues,  pillars,  circular  window.s,  entabha- 
ture,  pediments,  and  balustrade,  all  in  correct  proportion  and 
arrangement.  Its  principal  front  was  towards  Cornhill ;  and 
on  each  side  there  were  Corinthian  demi-colmnns,  supporting 
a  compass  pediment ;  within  each  of  whi(  h  were  niches  coji- 
taining  statues  ofCharles  I.  and  11.  in  Roman  habits,  by  Bush- 
nell.  Within  the  quadrangle  there  were  twenty-four  niches 
in  the  intcrcolumns.  with  statues  of  English  kings  and  queens, 
most  of  the  kings  before  Cliarlcs  11.  being  sculptured  by 
Cibber.  The  centre  of  the  area  had  for  some  time  a  statue 
of  Charles  II.  by  Griidin  Gibbons,  which  was  subsequent'v 
dis[ilaced  for  one  by  Spilecr,  habited  in  the  Roman  stvle.  In 
an  obscure  position  ui>dor  the  piazza,  the  statue  of  Gresham, 
too,  h;id  itsniehe;  and  nigh  to  it.  that  of  one.  whose  modesty 
woidd  have  been  better  content  had  his  merit  received  x\i> 
such  acknowledgment — Sir  John  Bernard  ;  to  whom,  in  nw 


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397 


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lifetime,  the  memorial  was  erected  as  a  mark  of  civic  respert, 
but  who  could  never  bring  himself  to  visit  the  walks 
afterwards. 

The  destruction  of  lliis  building  having  deprived  the  mer- 
chants of  London,  for  the  second  time,  of  tluir  great  place  of 
resort,  thev  were  obliged  temporarily  lo  assemble  in  the  space 
attached  to  the  E\ei-e  Olhrc,  in  ()!d  Broad  Street.  This 
was,  of  course,  attended  with  much  inconvenience  to  those 
accustomed  to  attend  'Cliange,  and  it  bec;ime  therefore  a 
nuvtter  of  ])ressing  importance  to  remove  that  inconvenience 
by  the  erection  of  a  new-  building,  fitted  in  every  respect  for 
its  piU'pose,  and  worthy  the  merciiaiit-princes  of  the  first 
melro[)«)lis  in  the  world. 

In  ju'cparing  to  re-erect  the  Rnyal  Exchange,  many 
interests  had  to  be  considered — those  uf  tiie  Underwriters  of 
Lloyd's,  thii  Royal  Exchange  Assurance  Company,  and  the 
sho|il<oepers  who  had  occtipied  tiie  ground-floor.  An  act  of 
parliament  was  also  necessary  ;  this  was  applied  for,  and 
obtained.  By  this  act,  which  received  the  Royal  assent  on 
the  10th  of  August,  1838,  the  Joint  Gresham  Committee  were 
empowered  \<>  purchase  and  remove  all  the  buildings  to  the 
eastward,  extending  nearly  to  Finch  Lane,  and  to  raise  a  sum 
of  £'ir)0,00()  upon  the  credit  of  the  London  Bridge  Trust. 

After  considerable  delay,  the  Gresham  Committee  issued 
their  advertisements  for  de-iigns  for  the  new'  building,  but  in 
doing  so,  unfortunately  did  not  avoid  the  errors  into  which  so 
many  similarly-constituted  ])ublic  bodies  have  fallen,  under 
similar  circumstances.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the 
Committee  intended  a  fair  and  honest  competition,  but  with 
not  aiiKjtikir  bad  management,  they  so  contrived  matters,  as 
to  Viring  down  on  themselves  a  storm  of  indignation  from  all 
sides,  and  to  disgust  not  only  the  competitors,  but  the  public 
in  general. 

The  system  pursued  of  late  yearsin  the  management  of  archi- 
tectural competitions,  has  been  attended  \vith  manifest  evils, 
and  fraught  with  gross  and  palpable  injustice  to  the  profession. 
Hastily  and  inconsiderately  commenced,  under  the  control  of 
persons  unfitted  to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  various  desigus 
referred  to  their  decision,  they  have  in  too  many  instances 
been  attended  by  results,  as  injurious  to  the  best  interests  of 
art,  as  unfair  and  unjust  to  its  professors. 

In  making  these  remarks  it  is  not  intended  to  attack  the 
principles  upon  which  competitions  are  based  ;  properly  con- 
ducted, their  tendency  is  unquestionably,  nut  only  to  call  out 
the  talent  and  genius  of  the  experienced  artist,  but  to  rouse 
a  spirit  of  emulation  in  the  young  professor,  as  an  assistance 
in  encouraging  I'isiug  merit,  which  without  such  a  stimulus 
might  possibly  remain  undeveloped,  or,  without  sucli  a  means 
of  exercise,  unknown  and  unappreciated. 

There  may  be  many  advantages  attending  architectural 
competitions,  but  there  is  so  total  a  want  of  security,  under 
the  operation  of  the  present  defective  system,  so  general  an 
impression  existing,  whether  justly  or  not,  that  fairness  and 
impartiality  in  the  decisions  caiwot  always  be  relied  upon, 
that  the  great  body  of  the  profession  hold  themselves  aloof 
tVom  entering  an  arena  where  lair  play  is.  to  say  the  least, 
doulitful.  The  competition  for  the  Royal  Exchixnge,  it  is  to 
be  lamented,  aftiirded  another  proot^  if  proof  were  wanting,  of 
the  truth  of  these  obsLTvations. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  enter  on  a  discussion  of  the  merits 
of  a  controversy  which  filled  manv  pages  of  the  periodicals 
more  especially  devoted  to  recording  matters  coimected  with 
arehiiocture  and  bui'diug,  but  we  think  we  cannot  pass  to  a 
description  of  the  New  Exchange  without  slightly  noticing 
the  uumner  in  which  the  design  for  it  was  selected,  or  its 
arehiteet  appointed. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the — 


'■^  Rcsnlulions  of  the  Gresham  Committee,  as  to  Iiislnictions 
to  the  Architects. 

"  \.  That  architects  be  invited  to  offer  designs  for  the  re- 
building of  the  Royal  Exchange,  in  general  competition,  and 
tiiat  premiums  be  offered  for  three  designs  adjudged  by  the 
Committee  to  be  the  best. 

"3.  That  the  new  building  be  of  the  Grecian.  Roman,  or 
Italian  style  of  architecture,  having  each  front  of  stone  of  a 
hard  and  durable  (jnality. 

"  (i.  That  a  spccillcation  bo  required  to  accompany  each 
design,  giving  a  general  description  of  the  building,  and  such 
other  information  as  camiot  be  clearly  shown  on  the  drawings, 
stating  also  what  stone,  or  other  material,  are  proposed  for 
use  in  the  diflerent  ])arts  of  the  building,  and  specifying  par- 
ticularly the  estimated  expense  of  carrying  the  designs  into 
execution  in  the  most  substantial  and  complete  manner  in 
every  respect  for  occupation,  the  expense  not  to  exceed 
£150,000. 

"  10.  That  for  the  do-ign  for  which  the  Committee  sliall 
award  the  first  premium,  the  sum  of  £300  shall  be  given  ; 
that  for  the  second  design  the  stun  of  £200  ;  and  for  the 
third  the  sum  of  £100.  The  successful  competitor,  to  whom 
the  first  premium  is  awarded  shall  not  be  considered  as 
having  necessarily  a  claim  to  be  entrusted  with  the  execu- 
tion of  the  work  ;  but  if  not  so  employed,  and  his  designs 
are  carried  into  execution,  a  further  sum  of  £500  shall  be 
paid  to  him — the  Committee  retaining  possession  of  all  ths 
drawings  for  which  the  premiums  have  been  given. 

"  IL  That  if  reasonable  doubts  should  arise  in  the  minda 
of  the  Committee  as  to  the  practicability  of  carrying  intc 
execution  the  successful  design  for  the  amount  of  the  esti 
united  expense  of  the  building,  the  Committee  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  call  upon  the  party  to  give  sufficient  and  satisfiic- 
tory  j.roof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  calculations,  and  to  with 
hold  the  premium,  and  reject  the  designs  unless  such  proo^ 
be  furnished." 

After  issuing  these  Instructions,  the  Comtnittec  appointed 
three  architects — Sir  Robert  Smirke,  Mr.  Gwilt,  and  Mr 
Hard  wick,  to  examine  and  advise  on  the  designs  which 
might  be  sent  in.  Above  fifty  competitors  appeared,  and 
the  above  gentlemen,  after  due  examination,  made  a  report  to 
the  Committee,  from  which  we  extract  the  following  passages. 
"  In  the  first  class,  those  that  we  think  may  be  executed  for 
£150,000,  w^e  beg  to  report  as  follows  : — 

First No.  86 

Second „     43 

Third „     37 

Fourth     .        .         .        .        .     „    33 

Fifth „     57 

"In  the  second  class,  or  that  in  which  we  consider  the  cost 
would  vastly  exceed  the  sum  of  £150,000,  c(|u;d  impracti- 
cabilities of  execution  with  those  of  the  first  clas-s  are  to  be 
found  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  very  great  talent  they  exhi- 
bit, there  are  circumstances  of  inconvenience  and  unsuitable- 
ness  which  would  bring  them,  as  we  conceive,  into  the  pre- 
dicament of  being  tmadvisable  for  adoption.  We  wish  it, 
therefore,  to  be  understood,  that  we  report  on  them  respec- 
tively as  the  works  of  very  clever  artists,  who  have  produced 
pieces  of  competition  in  which,  besides  the  circumstances 
above-mentioned,  stability  arising  from  solid  bearings  for 
upper  apartments,  and  other  essential  matters,  have  been 
sacrificed  to  grand  architectural  features. 

'■The  designs  in  the  second  class,  in  our  estimation  of  their 
order  of  merit,  are  as  follows  : — 

First         ....  N".  50 

See^md ,40 

Third „     27 


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398 


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"We  again  venture  to  state  to  the  Coinmittee  tlie  difficvil- 
ties  wliirli  have  attondeil  the  making  of  the  report  hiTewith 
subiiiilted,  and  which,  but  for  the  uiiaiiiinous  decision  at 
which  we  have  arrived,  wi;  confess,  iiiiglit  liave  left  dcuibts 
in  our  niiijijs,  if  onr  view  ha<l  not  been  confined  by  tiic  G)m- 
mittee  to  the  expeuditnre  of  a  given  snm." 

On  receiving  this  report,  the  Joint  Committee  met  at  Mer- 
cers' Hall  on  Friday,  llie  IStii  October,  to  consider  the 
report,  and  again  inspect  the  designs,  and  came  to  the  follow- 
ing resolutions  : — 

■'  Resolved, — That  the  premiums  be  awarded  to  the  archi- 
tects who  have  produced  the  plans  numbered  as  luider — 
No.  36  the  first  premium     .     .     .  £300 
„      43  the  second     „  ...  £200 

,,     37  the  third        „  ...  £100 

being  those   reported   by  the  architects   as   the   three    best 
de,-igns. 

'■And  it  was  resolved,  that  Sir  11.  Siiiirke,  and  I.  (jwilt, 
and  P.  ITardwick.  Esqrs.,  having  stated  in  tiieir  report  upon 
the  respective  merits  of  the  plans  selected  by  them,  that  they 
cannot  recommend  anyone  to  be  carried  into  execution,  this 
Committee  doth  request  them  to  take  the  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd 
plans,  as  selected  by  them,  into  consideration,  and  prepare  a 
plan  and  specification  for  a  new  lioyal  Exchange,  such  as  in 
their  judgment  should  be  airried  into  execution,  having 
nfeicnee,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  printed  instructions  issued 
by  this  Committee  to  the  architects." 

The  fuUowiny  were  the  architect.'^  to  ivliom  the  premiums 
were  aJjuthjed. 

No.  3(>,  £300,  to  Me.  William  Grellier,  district  surveyor, 
20,  Wormwood-street. 

No.  43,  £200,  to  M.  Alexis  De  Chateauneuff,  of  Ham- 
burgh ;   and  Mr.  Arthur  Mee,  of  Carlton  Chambers. 

No.  37,  £100,  to  Mr.  Sydney  Smirkc,  of  Carlton 
Chambers. 

The  architects  of  the  remaining  desir/ns  of  the  first  class. 
No.  33,  Messrs.  W'yatt  and  Brandon. 
„     40,  Mr.  Pennethorne. 

The  architects  of  the  second-class  desif/ns^  which  were  con- 
sidered too  expensive. 

No.  50,  Mr.  T.  L.  Donaldson. 
„     40,  Mr.  Kichardson. 
„     27,  Mr.  David  Mocaotta. 

The  next  step  taken  by  the  Committee  was  to  appoint 
Mr.  George  Smith,  the  City-surveyor,  and  ^Ir.  Tite,  to 
inquire  into  the  eligibility  of  some  one  of  the  designs 
selected  by  the  umpires  for  the  premiums.  Mr.  Tite,  how- 
ever, refused  to  act,  and  the  onus  devolved  on  Mr.  Smith 
alone.  This  gentleman  submitted  a  report  to  the  Com- 
mittee, in  which  he  advised  the  rejection  of  the  whole 
of  the  designs;  and  the  Committee  acting  on  this  advice, 
without  ceremony  threw  the  supposed  successful  candi- 
dates overboard,  and  boldly  selected  six  other  arciiiteels, 
whom  they  re(picstcd  to  send  in  designs  for  the  contemplated 
building.  The  gentlemen  so  honoured  by  the  Committee 
were  Sir  U.  Smirke,  Mr.  Barry,  Mr.  Gwilt,  Mr.  llardwick, 
Mr.  Cockerell,  and  Mr.  Tite,  the  whole  of  whom,  excepting 
the  two  last,  declined  accepting  the  invitation,  being  doubtless 
influenced  to  such  course  by  the  bad  faith  observed  to  all 
parties  by  the  Committee.  What  also  added  to  the  public 
dissatisfaction,  was  that  rivalry  or  competition  between  Mr. 
Cockerell  and  Mr.  Tite  was  considered  out  of  the  question, 
from  their  previous  connection.  Thus  the  whole  matter 
evidently  settled  down  in  Mr.  Tite  being  selected  finally  to 
prepare  tht  liesigu  for  the  new  Royal  Exchauife. 

That  design  we  shall  now  proceed  to  describe,  as  given  by 
Mr.  Tite,  himself,  in  his  explanation  to  the  Committee  : — 


Extent  and  Site. 

The  total  length  of  the  building  is  293  feet  0  inches,  from 
the  columns  of  the  portico  on  the  west,  to  the  pila-ters  at  the 
east  end;  the  width  of  the  portico  is  89  feet  (i  inches  ;  the 
extreme  width  at  the  east  end,  at  the  broadest  part,  is 
175  feet,  and  the  width  through  the  centre,  from  north  [o 
south,  is  144  feet. 

The  building  is  placed  in  the  centre  between  the  south 
front  of  the  Bank,  and  a  mean  line  of  the  irregulaiities  ])i('- 
sented  by  the  houses  on  the  south  side  of  Cornhill  ;  the 
east  and  west  fronts  are  at  right  angles  to  the  centre  line,  aiiil. 
of  course,  the  angle  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  north 
and  south  fronts,  with  the  east  and  west  fronts,  is  the  same  ; 
by  this  means  the  building,  thuugh  not  rectangular,  is  regu- 
lar in  the  plan. 

Arrangement. 

Gresham  Cnllegc  occupies  the  north-west  angle  of  the 
building  on  the  principal  story,  and  is  entered  fiom  the 
north. 

The  Royal  E.xchange  Assurance  occupies  the  south-west 
angle,  and  the  space  over  the  west  end  of  the  colonnade,  on 
the  one-pair  floor,  and  is  entered  from  the  suuth  side  of  the 
loggia,  under  the  portico. 

The  London  Assurance  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the 
south  front  on  the  principal  story  and  is  entered  from  the 
south. 

Lloyd's  fills  up  the  remainder  of  the  east  a.nd  north  fronts 
of  the  principal  story,  and  is  entered  in  three  places,  viz., 
from  the  east  and  the  north-east  corner,  and  from  the 
north. 

There  is  a  small  additional  staircase  and  entrance  to  the 
principal  lecture-room  of  the  Gresham  College  (which  I  pro- 
pose to  use  for  the  exit  from  the  lectures  only)  and  this  opens 
into  the  loggia  under  the  portico. 

The  commercial  room  proposrd  to  be  attached  to  Lloyd's, 
and  which,  in  a  letter  fi-om  Mr.  Barnes,  of  the  2(itli  February, 
I  am  requested  so  to  manage  as  that  it  might  he  appropriated 
for  ofl'ices,  if  not  eventually  required  for  the  above  pur[iose, 
has  been  accordingly  placed  by  me  on  the  princi[>al  story  on 
the  north  side.  If  not  required  by  Lloyd's.  I  should  propose 
to  cnnvert  this  room  into  a  double  range  of  offices,  one 
lighted  from  the  street,  and  the  other  lighted  fri)m  the  area 
of  th(!  Exchange,  each  oflice  having  a  room  over  in  a  third 
floor;  the  access  to  these  rooms  would  be  by  a  distinct  stair- 
case and  entrance  on  the  mu'th,  for  which  a  distinct  shop 
must  be  taken.  The  mean  width  of  this  commercial  room 
is  39  feet,  and  its  length  96  feet  ;  allowing,  therefore,  for  an 
8  feet  passage  in  the  middle,  it  would  provide  for  12  sets 
of  oftiees,  each  16  feet  by  15  feet. 

The  shops  and  offices  are  very  material  features  of  any 
design  for  this  building,  for.  nmler  the  02nd  section  of  the 
act  for  providing  a  site  for  the  Royal  Exchange,  the  Gresham 
Committee  are  bound  to  compensate  any  party  holding  a  leasr 
in  any  part  of  the  old  Royal  Exchange,  unless  the  owner  or 
lessee  is  reinstated.  As  reg;uds  the  offices  this  would  pro- 
bably  only  be  the  value  of  the  ditlerence  between  the 
reserved  rent  and  the  actual  rent,  and  not  a  matter  of  uiuch 
importance  ;  but  unless  the  valuable  trades  and  occupations 
round  the  Exchange  are  reinstated,  the  question  would 
become  a  very  important  one,  because  it  would  involve  the 
good-wills  of  the  parlies.  The  mere  question  of  reinstate- 
ment, however,  is  not  the  only  one  ;  for  it  is  clear  the 
revenue  to  be  obtained  from  the  shops,  after  the  expiration  of 
the  present  leases,  nmst  form  a  very  important  item  in  any 
income  to  be  derived  from  the  building.  In  order  to  meet 
these  requirements,  and  still,  I  hof>e,  in  no  way  to  injure  the 
design,  1  have  placed  the  shops  or  otiices  on  a  level  with  the 


EXC 


399 


EXC 


stieet,  round  the  north,  south,  and  east  sides  ;  and,  inasmuch 
a-^  I  lound  that  in  the  old  Royal  Exchange  there  were  shops 
in  three  of  the  entrances,  and  as  I  could  very  conveniently 
arrange  a  few  in  the  east  entrance  of  my  design,  1  have 
placed  six  there.  Let  the  claims,  however,  arise  as  they  may, 
with  this  plan  now  under  discnssion,  there  could  be  no  diffi- 
oultv  in  meeting  them  all,  f  jr  the  area  of  all  the  shops  and 
ofKces  of  all  descriptions,  in  the  ground-floor  of  the  Old 
Exchange,  amounted  to  8,100  feet  only,  whereas,  in  this 
plan,  the  shops  and  offices  provided,  exclusive  of  the  part 
aopropriated  to  Lloyd's,  to  the  Gresham  College,  the  London 
Assurance,  and  the  Royal  Exchange  Assurance,  exceeds  this 
.(iiantity  by  1,087  feet,  the  total  being  9,217  feet.  The 
increaseil  value  of  all  this,  and  the  exact  nature  of  the 
iiiooinmodation,  will,  however,  be  further  explained  under 
oiher  heads  of  this  descriptive  particular. 
Acco7nm(Hlatioii. 

Gresluoii  College. — In  considering  this  department  of  the 
building,  I  was  placed  in  considerable  difficulty,  not  only 
from  the  total  absence  of  instiuctions,  but  because  I  found, 
as  well  amongst  the  committee  as  in  society,  very  consider- 
able ditlerences  of  opinion  on  the  subject. 

After  much  reflection,  I  have,  however,  arranged  what 
I  hope  will  be  considered  a  complete  establishment  for  most 
purposes,  and  it  is  as  follows: — On  the  north  side  of  the 
Exchange,  about  45  feet  iVom  the  west  end,  is  an  entrance 
with  a  small  hall  and  staircase.  In  this  hall  a  porter  would 
be  placed,  who  would  prevent  the  admission  of  improper 
peisons. 

The  entrance-doorway  is  large,  and  over  it  is  placed  a 
shield  containing  the  arms  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham.  This 
entrance  and  hall  are  also  quite  distinct,  and,  like  all  the 
other  parts  or  distinct  portions  of  the  design,  it  is  separated 
by  party-walls.  On  the  first  landing  of  the  staircase  is  a 
porter's  room,  which  would  also  serve  for  umbrellas,  coats, 
or  cloaks. 

On  the  one-pair,  or  principal  floor,  is  a  lecture-room  or 
iheatre,  of  a  horse-shoe  form,  the  dimensions  being  4G  feet, 
(■)  inches,  by  3(5  feet.  To  this  is  added  a  library  or  lesser 
lecture-room,  2-5  feet  by  24  feet ;  a  lecturer's  or  librarian's 
room,  19  feet  by  15  feet  6  inches;  apparatus-rooms,  16  feet 
o  inches,  by  11  feet:  with  a  water-closet  and  washing-room  ; 
and  two  rooms  over  the  librarian's,  and  apparatus-rooms  for 
some  resident  servant. 

The  theatre  would  seat  250  persons  on  the  floor,  and  200 
more  might  be  conveniently'  seated  in  the  gallery.  It  is 
prol)able,  however,  that  for  many  lectures  or  continuous 
courses,  this  might  be  too  much,  but  for  some  it  might  be 
too  little.  I  have,  therefore,  placed  the  library  at  the  back 
of  the  theatre,  by  which,  in  the  latter  ease,  the  accommo- 
dation might  be  increased,  or  in  the  former  it  might  be  suffi- 
cient in  itself  for  such  purposes.  The  result,  theref  )re,  is 
this,  that  for  an  auditory  of  40  or  50  persons,  the  library 
would  be  sufficient;  beyond  that  number,  and  up  to  450 
persons,  the  theatre  would  be  the  proper  place  :  if  a  larger 
number  were  expected,  the  partition  dividing  the  libiary 
from  the  theatre  might  be  removed,  (as  is  shown  in  the  ]iian) 
by  sliding  it  into  the  wall,  when,  by  removing  the  lecture- 
table  a  little  further  back.  50  persons  more  might  be  accom- 
modated. Beyond  this  extent  of  500  persons,  it  is  probably 
undisirable  to  carry  it  farther. 

If,  however,  I  have  erred  altogether,  and  have  provided 
too  much,  it  is  easy  to  diminish  it ;  or  if  it  is  determined  to 
abandon  this  site  for  this  purpose,  the  space  so  complete  and 
isolated  would  readily  let  by  itself,  or  might  be  combined 
with  the  unapjiropriated  offices  in  the  north-west  angle 
immediately  under  the  theatre.  It  remains  to  be  added,  that 


I  have  also  provided  ample  vault-room  in  the  basement  of 
this  establishment,  and  a  second  .staircase  connected  with 
the  theatre,  and  only  intended  to  be  used  on  a  ciowded 
occasion,  for  the  dismissal  of  so  large  an  audience  as  400  or 
500  persons,  and  for  a  private  approach  or  retreat  for  the 
lecturer. 

Moi/al  Ejrhanije  Assiira)ice. — This  establishment  in  the 
old  building  occupied  apartments  in  the  mezzanine,  and  on 
the  one-pair  floor.  The  net  area  being  5,235  feet,  exclusive 
of  passages,  staircases,  water-closets,  kitchen,  and  looms  in 
the  roof  I  have  had  many  meetings  with  the  governor 
on  the  subject,  and  at  Kngth  I  received,  so  late  as  the  4th 
instant,  a  list  of  the  rooms,  of  which  1  have  attached  a  copy 
to  this  description. 

The  total  area  in  this  is  0,284  feet,  but  omitting  the  store- 
rooms and  kitchen  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  the  net  quantity- 
is  5,894  feet.  My  plan  gives  this  so  nearly,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  rooms  also  correspond  so  generally  with  the 
requirements,  that  I  need  not  occupy  the  time  of  the  Com- 
mittee with  any  further  description  ;  but,  in  addition,  Ihave 
added  what  appears  to  me  obviously  necessiiry,  viz.,  strong 
rooms  and  cellars  in  the  basement. 

As  the  heights  of  the  floors  of  this  part  of  the  building 
dift"er  in  some  respects  from  the  general  section,  I  beg  to  add 
them  here,  and  they  are  as  follow.s,  viz.:  The  ground-floor 
is  2  feet  6  inches  al)ove  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  Exchange, 
and  0  feet  above  the  street;  under  this  is  a  lower  ground 
story,  the  height  being  10  feet  with  vaults  under. 

The  ground-floor  will  be  13  feet,  high,  the  mezzanine  10 
feet,  the  one-pair  floor  is  18  feet,  except  where  there  are 
rooms  ovei',  when  this  will  be  13  feet. 

London  Assurance. — I  attach  a  copy  of  the  instructions 
received  from  this  company  to  my  letter  of  the  6th  March, 
addressed  to  Mr.  Barnes.  The  total  quantity  of  space 
required  is  5,553  feet,  exclusive  of  waiting-rooms,  water- 
closets,  <fec. ;  as  some  of  the  rooms  seemed  extravagant  in 
size,  I  have  arranged  them  somewhat  less,  and  the  company 
express  themselves  satisfied  with  my  dimensions,  the  total 
being  4.834  feet. 

Lloi/cPs. — With  regard  to  this  very  important  establish- 
ment, I  beg  a  reference  to  my  letter  to  Mr.  Barnes,  of  the 
6th  instant,  to  which  J  attach  a  copy  of  the  new  instruc- 
tions forwarded  by  their  architect.  The  total  quantity  of 
space  occupied  in  the  old  Exchange  by  this  company,  exclu- 
sive of  staircases,  was  7.914  feet.  The  space  now  required 
is  13,781  feet,  exclusive  of  passages,  staircases,  water-closets, 
urinals.  &c. ;  but  this  includes  the  commercial  room,  which 
is  4,050  feet.  The  dimensions  of  the  several  apartments  in 
my  plan  are  very  nearly  consistent  with  their  requirements, 
and  the  total  result  the  same. 

The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  is  best  understood  by  a 
reference  to  the  plan  of  the  one-pair  fliior,  and  I  believe  it 
to  be  quite  in  accoidanee  with  the  wishes  of  the  Committee. 

Shops. — I  propose  that  each  shop  shall  have  a  cellar  below, 
and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  a  mezzanine  over.  The 
average  height  of  the  shops  will  be  14  feet,  the  basement- 
floor  12  feet,  and  the  mezzanine  10  feet.  Each  shop  will  be 
secured  by  party-walls,  and  roofed  with  iron  beams  and 
arches  under  the  one-pair  floor.  The  water-closets  will  be 
in  the  basements,  there  will  be  a  separate  flue  in  each  shop, 
and  room  for  the  fire-places  ;  and  I  propose  that  each  shop 
and  room  shall  be  warmed  by  an  open,  or  Arnott's  stove,  of 
the  same  pattern. 

The  staircase  will  be  circular,  and  of  cast-iron.  Staircases 
of  this  kind,  though  not  much  known  here,  have  been  exten- 
sively used  in  Paris,  and  are  admirably  adapted  for  such 
purposes.     I  have  paid  every  attention  to  the  mode  of  light 


EXC 


400 


EXC 


iiii;  the  deeper  shcips,  and  I  hope  1  have  succeeded  in  obvia- 
tiiii;  all  reasDiiablo  apprehension  on  that  subject.  Tiie  siiops 
without  inozzanines,  are  one  in  the  south  tiout,  one  in  the 
north  front,  and  (bur  in  the  eastern  entrance  to  tlie  E.\chan<;e. 
Im  the  area,  in  the  hitter  ease,  they  are  left  out,  to  allow  of 
liiiht  being  obtained  over  the  shops  to  the  liaok  parts  of  the 
other  premises. 

Exchange. — The  Exchange  is  entered  fioni  fnvir  aiched 
openings  in  the  centre  of  each  side;  the  form  is  a  paraik'lo- 
i;rain,  and  tlie  inner  area  exactly  a  douiile  square.  'J'his 
tiMin  has  many  advantages,  bolh  in  point  of  convenience  and 
eK'ganee  over  the  old  form,  and  is  also  better  adapted  to  the 
shape  of  the  ground. 

As  to  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  Exchange.  I  ha\e  heard 
many  opinions  ;  but  it  appears  to  me  to  be  of  the  greatest 
importance,  that  it  should  be  as  nearly  level  with  tlie  street 
as  possible.  From  the  natural  fall  of  (he  ground,  howrver, 
which  is  quite  gradual,  but  amounts  to  3  feet  (>  inches  in  the 
length  of  the  building  from  east  to  west,  it  is  iinjiossible  to 
avoiil  a  few  stej)s  at  the  north,  south,  and  west  entrances. 
This  is  an  advantage  at  the  west  end,  as  it  gives  height  and 
character  to  the  facade  or  portico  ;  the  exact  effect  and  extent 
of  this  fall  of  the  ground  is  siiown  in  my  north  and  south 
elevations.  In  the  shops  the  ste[)s  are  avoided,  because 
they  can  follow  the  natural  inclination  of  the  ground. 

Basement. — Much  of  the  basement  (or  vaults,)  is  occupied 
by  the  establishments  over  the  respective  divisions,  and 
I  have  added  some  to  the  lesser  sh'ips,  but  there  is  still 
a  large  space  which  may  be  let  oflj  as  the  basement  of  the 
old  building  was.  I  have  lighted  the  basement  by  area 
gratings  in  the  pavement  of  the  Exchange,  exactly  as 
formerly. 

The  public  vaults  are  approached  by  two  staircases,  which 
are  placed  in  the  eastern  entrance.  The  central  area  is 
proposed  to  be  left  without  a  basement ;  it  would  be  diflicult 
to  keep  it  dry,  and  I  do  not  know  any  use  to  which  it  could 
be  applied  which  would  pay  for  the  cost. 
Style  of  Architecture. 

This  is  naturally  one  of  the  most  important  considerations 
in  the  design,  and  one  in  which  I  have  most  to  regret  the 
limited  time  I  have  had  to  consider  this  most  extensive  and 
difficult  composition.  It  appears  to  me,  that  a  building  for 
essentially  commercial  purposes  should  present  the  character 
of  grandeur,  simplicity,  and  usefulness.  In  this  way,  the 
universally  acknowledged  good  effect  of  the  Bourse  at  Paris 
has  been  obtained.  In  that  building  the  lines  are  simple  and 
unbroken,  and  the  large  arched  windows  s\irrounding  the 
walls  behind  the  columns  have  all  the  character  of  shops  or 
offices.  The  west  front  of  the  Exchange  of  London,  as  in 
that  of  Paris,  nnist  be  the  principal  feature,  the  other  sides 
being  bounded  by  building-s. 

Another  difficulty  arises  from  the  shape  of  the  ground  ; 
because  any  tower  placed  to  agree  with  the  lines  of  the  south 
front  must  disagree  with  the  lines  of  the  east  and  west  fronts, 
which  are  iudillerent  planes;  and  such  an  olyect,  when  seen 
from  a  distance,  or  from  the  area  of  the  Exchange,  would 
produce  an  ctTect  that  would  be  disccjrdant  and  unarchitec- 
tural,  beca\ise  it  would  bring  into  distinct  notice  a  fact 
which  it  should  be  the  business  of  the  architect  to  conceal. 
For  a  long  time  I  contended  with  this  difficulty,  because 
I  was  anxious  to  place  the  tower  or  towers  in  the  south  front, 
but  it  was  impossible  to  get  over  the  irregularity  ;  it  would, 
indeed,  have  been  easy  to  have  concealed  this  defect  in  the 
drawings,  or  have  kept  it  out  of  notice,  but  the  result,  when 
built,  would  only  have  ended,  in  my  judgment,  in  disappoints 
ment  and  failure.  For  these  reasons,  and  willi  these  views, 
I  have  composed  my  design  as  it  is  now  exhibited.     I  have 


placed  a  portico  at  the  west  end,  and  the  tower  at  the  cast. 
The  south  and  north  fronts  exhibit  unbroken  lines  of  entab- 
lature, with  a  repetition  of  arches  of  the  same  character  fir 
the  shops,  offices,  and  entrances.  We  are  deficient  in  Eng- 
land, of  s])ecimens  of  architecture  of  this  unliroken  kind  : 
were  I  to  adduce  instances,  I  should  quote  the  National  Gal- 
lery, as  affording  an  illusti'ation  of  the  bad  effect  of  broken 
and  detached  masses,  and  the  Reform  Club,  of  the  e.xcellent 
effect  of  continuous  and  unbroken  ones. 

The  portico  would  be  very  superior  in  dimensions  to  any 
in  this  country,  and  not  very  inferior  to  any  in  the  world. 
The  width,  fi'om  outside  to  outside  of  the  8  columns,  is  90 
feel,  and  the  height,  from  the  ground  to  the  apex  of  the 
pediment,  is 74  feet  C  inches.  The  portico  of  St.  Martin's 
Church  is  64  feet  wide  and  58  feet  high  ;  that  at  the  Post- 
Office  70  feet  wide  and  07  feet  high  ;  and  from  these  dimen- 
sions a  fair  comparison  may  be  made  of  the  relative  size  of 
the  two  porticos. 

The  height  of  the  order  used  in  this  edifice  is  50  feet,  and 
the  height  of  the  tower,  to  the  top  of  the  vane,  is  170  feet. 
From  the  point  of  view  prescribed  by  the  instructions,  the 
tower  is  not  seen.  Had  I  been  at  liberty  to  have  removed 
the  station  further  to  the  westward,  as  to  ^ransion-IIouse- 
street,  or  the  Poultry,  the  tower  would  have  been  seen  over 
the  portico,  and  the  effect  of  the  composition  thereby  greatly 
impi-oved.  The  sections  and  view  show  the  exact  character 
of  the  interior  of  the  Exchange,  the  lower  story  is  a  colon- 
nade of  the  Doric  order,  the  columns  arc  34  inches  in  dia- 
meter; the  upper  order  is  Ionic. 

Specified  lion  of  the  iiutiire  of  the  work. — The  exami- 
nation of  the  foundations,  which  I  ventured  to  suggest,  Icis 
proved  that  the  nature  of  the  sub-soil  isofthe  best  kind  fur 
supporting  a  large  building.  At  an  average  of  fifteen  feet 
from  the  sui-face,  a  very  compact  gravel  is  found.  For  the 
sake  of  ])erfect  uniformity,  I  should  excavate  sufficiently 
for  a  few  feet  below  this;  and  by  a  unifoi'm  bed  of  concrete, 
of  the  thickness  of  six  feet  over  the  wliole  surface,  a  most 
certain  and  safe  foundation  would  be  made.  The  gravel 
is  full  of  water,  and  therefore  the  drainage  must  be  carefully 
considered. 

Your  conditions  require  a  general  specification,  but,  with- 
out going  into  full  technicalities,  I  am  at  a  loss  to  furnish  a 
specification  of  any  value.  I  intend  everything  to  be  exe- 
cuted in  the  best  manner.  All  external  \vork  to  be  faced 
with  Portland  stone  ;  all  thehorizontal  divisions  that  require 
it,  for  the  purpose  of  security  from  fire,  to  be  constructed 
with  iron  beams  and  brick  arches;  and  the  ceiling  and  floor 
over  the  colonnade  csmstructi'd  in  the  same  manner.  The 
timber  used  to  be  all  Baltic  timber,  English  oak,  or  African 
teak.  Everything  to  be  sufficiently  and  completely  fniished 
in  all  respects. 

Sculpture. — I  have  not  introduced  much  sculpture  into  this 
design,  because  the  estimate  would  not  allow  of  it ;  and  I 
have,  therefore,  aimed  at  a  style  which  did  not  require  it  to 
any  extent.  The  sculjiture  introduced  as  essential  to  the 
architecture,  embraces  the  live  panels  in  the  attic  of  the  south 
front,  and  the  two  figures  at  the  west  end.  The  panels  in 
the  south  front  are  intended  to  represent  Bi  itannia,  supported 
by  the  principal  cities  of  the  empire  receiving  the  represen- 
tatives and  productions  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  ; 
the  two  seated  figures  in  the  west  front,  are  emblctnatical  of 
Peace  and  .\buiidance.  There  are  several  shields  of  arms, 
which  though  not  falling  exactly  imder  the  head  of  scidpture, 
1  think  it  desirable  to  mention,  and  they  arc  as  follows: — the 
escutcheons  on  the  key-stonesof  the  three  great  arches  of  the 
west  front,  are  the  arms  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Charles  the  II., 
and  Queen  Victoria.     These  arms  arc  repeated  in  the  panels 


EXC 


401 


EXC 


of  the  attic  at  llic  eai^t  end.     In  the  north  and  south  fionts, 
on  tlic  keystones  of  the  centie  arches,  the  arms  are  those  of 
the  City,  the  Mercers'  Company,  and  Sir  Thomas  Giesham. 
Estimate. 

I  estimate  the  cost  of  tliis  edifice,  as  thus  described,  inclu- 
ding the  sculpture,  at  the  sum  of  £143,800. 
Income. 

I  have  estimated  with  great  care  the  income  to  be  derived 
from  tiie  various  shops,  offices,  and  public  establishments,  pro- 
posed in  the  several  floors  of  tiie  building,  by  comparing 
dimensions  and  other  circumstances,  with  the  previous 
lettings,  and  by  the  actual  value  derived  from  my  own  expe- 
rience;  and  1  am  of  opinion  that  the  total  net  annual  value, 
if  let  on  lease,  would  amount  to  the  sum  of  £8,718  per 
annum.  In  addition  to  this,  if  the  s^ace  allotted  to  Lloyd's 
commercial  room  on  the  north  side,  and  that  to  the  Loudon 
Assurance  on  the  south  side,  were  arranged  as  offices,  each 
set  having  two  rooms,  one  over  the  other,  as  suggested  in  an 
early  part  of  this  statement,  though  the  estimate  would  be 
increased  £3,000,  I  have  no  doubt  this  annual  income  might 
be  raised  to  the  extent  of  £800  per  annum,  making  a  total 
income  of  £0,500  per  annum. 

Ill  the  drawings  themselves,  I  have  carefully  laboured  to 
follow  out  the  instructions  under  which  I  undertook  this  com- 
petition. The  views  are  strictly  confined  to  the  points  of 
view  prescribed:  in  the  colouring  of  the  views  themselves, 
and  in  the  drawings  of  the  adjoining  buildings,  I  have 
laboured  to  be  accurate,  and  to  give  as  nearly  as  I  could, 
the  actual  eflect  of  this  edifice,  if  it  were  construolcd.  I  can- 
not but  feel  that  a  more  elaborate  style  of  architecture  would 
have  been  productive  of  more  picturesque  etlects,  and  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  have  produced  them  ;  but  I  have 
ventured  to  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  nothing  but  plain 
grandeur  and  elegant  simplicity  is  consistent,  either  with  the 
means  at  the  disposal  of  the  committee,  the  purposes  and  uses 
of  this  building,  or  its  situation  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
City  of  London. 

We  have  given  at  length  Mr.  Tite's  own  description  of  the 
building,  as  afibrding  the  most  perfect  and  complete  expla- 
nation of  every  particular  connected  with  it,  and  also  as 
showing  the  many  requirements  he  had  to  meet,  and  the 
various  interests  he  had  to  provide  for.  It  is  due  to  him  to 
say,  that  he  has  certainly  succeeded  in  satisfying  all  parties,  in 
the  convenience  of  his  arrangements  for  individual  benefit, 
while  he  has  added  to  the  public  buildings  of  London  an 
edifice  in  every  respect  worthy  the  first  community  in  the 
world.  On  one  part  of  the  design  much  discussion  took 
place  at  the  time,  viz.,  whether  the  area  of  the  new  Exchange 
should  or  should  not  be  an  open  court,  as  in  the  old  building. 
In  the  instructions  issued  to  the  competing  architects  by  the 
Gresham  Committee,  this  was  insisted  on,  and,  as  we  are 
informed,  in  compliance  with  the  general  opinion  of  the 
merchants  and  bankers  of  London.  With  submission,  how- 
ever, we  are  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  merchants 
and  the  Gresham  Committee  might  have  left  this  matter, 
with  benefit,  to  the  discretion  of  the  architects  oflering 
designs,  with  whom  it  would  have  remained  to  demonstrate 
the  advantage  or  defects  of  either  mode  of  construction, 
whether  open  or  covered. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Bourse  at  Paris,  and  at 
St  Petersburg,  the  Exchanges  of  Dublin  and  Glasgow,  and 
almost  all  modern  structures  erected  for  a  similar  purpose, 
are,  we  believe,  roofed  in  ;  one  advantage  of  which  is,  that 
the  whole  of  the  area  is  available,  let  the  weather  be  as 
unfavourable  as  it  may,  consequently,  the  same  superficial 
extent  can  accommodate  a  far  greater  number  of  persons  than 
where  it  is  onlv  partially  sheltered,  and  where  a  considerable 
"51 


portion  must  frequently  be  altogether  useless,  as  far  as  actual 
sorviceableness  is  concerned.  The  present  arrangement 
therefore  is  to  be  approved  of  only  where  what  is  thus 
sacrificed,  with  regard  to  mere  convenience  and  utility,  is 
amply  atoned  for  by  what  is  gained  as  to  architectural 
character  and  eflTect. 

We  do  not  deny  that  a  corlile,  whether  surrounded  by 
columns  or  by  arches,  and  whether  partially  or  entirely  so,  is 
favourable  to  scenic  eflVct  and  display,  and,  farther,  admits 
of  very  groat  variety  as  to  plan  and  design.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently testified  by  examples  in  Italian  buildings,  where 
cortiles  frequently  constitute  the  most  striking  and  beautiful 
parts,  generally  picturesque  and  jiiquant,  though  not  always 
unexceptionable  in  design.  Hut  then  it  does  not  exactly 
follow,  that  because  a  cortile  is  beautiful  as  such,  it  is  eligible 
for  a  purpose  requiring  more  than  a  sheltered  corridor  around 
the  open  part ;  for,  although  that  kind  of  shelter  is  rnfficient 
for  a  place  of  ;)ossn(/e  to  and  fro,  it  certainly  does  not  seem 
to  be  sufficient  for  one  intended  for  the  assemblage  of  a  con- 
course of  persons,  not  on  particular  occasions,  when,  in  ease 
of  the  weather  proving  unfavourable,  the  company  may  be 
protected  fi'om  it  by  awnings  provided  for  the  emergency, 
but  daily,  throughout  all  seasons  of  the  year.  When  a 
place  of  the  kind  already  exists,  it  may  conveniently  and 
properly  enough  be  applied  just  as  it  is  to  the  purpose  of  an 
Exchange  ;  its  inconvenience  may,  then,  be  put  up  with  as 
unavoidable.  But  there  is  no  qualifying  circumstance,  to 
reconcile  us  to  a  defect  studiously  adopted,  voluntarily 
and  with  premeditation,  to  the  exclusion  not  only  of  positive 
convenience,  but  likewise  of  originality  of  design.  Either 
our  climate  is  most  unjustly  reproached,  not  only  by 
foreigners,  but  by  ourselves,  or  it  ought  at  once  to  have 
banished  all  idea  of  rebuilding  the  Royal  Exchange  upon  the 
plan  of  the  former  one,  as  regards  that  very  principal  part  of 
it  where  the  merchants  will  daily  assemble,  and  to  which  all 
the  rest  is  to  be  considered  as  merely  supplementary. 

Be  it  any  improvement  or  not,  all  our  lately  built  markets 
arc  flotired  with  flagstone  pavements,  and  covered  in  from  the 
weather,  shaded  from  the  burning  sun  in  summer,  as  well  as 
sheltered  from  rain  and  snow  in  winter;  nor  do  we  believe 
that  either  the  occupiers  of  them,  or  their  customers,  at  all 
regret  the  change  which  has  taken  place.  Nevertheless, 
with  instances  of  that  kind  before  their  eyes,  not  in  the 
Metropolis  alone,  but  at  Liverpool,  Newcastle,  and  other 
places,  the  merchants  of  London  have  decided  that  thej'  are 
to  meet  for  business  as  heretofore,  within  an  area  only 
partially  and  imperfectly  protected  from  the  weather.  Even 
beneath  the  colonnades,  they  must  be  more  or  less  exposed  to 
wind  and  rain,  and  be  inconvenienced  by  the  throng  of 
persons  ;  whereas,  by  converting  the  central  space  into  the 
part  more  particularly  appropriated  to  the  transaction  of 
business,  the  sides,  which  might  still  be  separated  from  it  by 
colonnades,  would  be  left  free  for  persons  passing  in  or  out, 
without  interruption  to  those  engaged  in  business. 

There  mav  possibly  be  contrary  reasons  for  not  adopt- 
ing a  mode  of  building  securing  the  advantages  here  poin^ed_ 
out  by  us;  but  they  have  not  been  brought  forward  by 
others,  nor  can  we  divine  what  they  can  be.  Hardly  can  it 
be  objected,  that  any  plan  of  the  kind  would  destroy  all 
peculiarity  of  character,  by  converting  the  Exchange  itself 
into  merely  a  spacious  hall,  lighted  from  above,  which,  how- 
ever it  might  be  decorated,  would,  in  its  general  effect, 
resemble  any  other  public  apartment  of  the  same  dimensions; 
because,  although  it  would  no  longer  be  a  cortile — an  open 
space  enclosed  by  fafades  of  external  architecture — it  might  be 
kept  altogether  dillerent  from  anything  we  are  accustomed  to, 
in  interior  architecture,  and  appropriately  rendered  sui  aeueris. 


EXC 


402 


K  X  C 


It  will  appear  a  very  singular  pendent  to  the  above  obser- 
vations, that  we  should  have  to  insert  the  following  petition 
to  tin;  Gresiiani  Committee,  from  the  very  parties  to  oblige 
whom  this  ''uncovered'  area  was  insisted  on. 

■'Tlie  undersifjned  ilerchants  of  the  City  of  London  are  of 
opinion,  that,  in  fhe  construction  of  the  new  Ivoyal  Exchange, 
sullicicnt  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  the  comfort  of  those 
who  attend  the  same,  and  beg  most  respectfully  to  submit  to 
the  Gresham  Committee  the  following  alterations,  which  are 
neccssaiy  before  they  can  assemble  there  without  danger  to 
tlieir  iiealth  and  peisonal  comfort.  The  alterations  sug- 
gested are: — 1.  That  the  area  be  covered  in.  2.  That 
some  remedy  be  provided  to  remove  the  cold  damp  from 
the  pavement.  3.  That  a  remedy  be  also  provided  to  protect 
tiiem  from  the  currents  of  air." 

The  above  petition  has  been  signed  by  Messrs.  Barings, 
llothschilds,  Heath,  Morris  Prevost,  Doxat  and  Co.,  Lemme 
and  Co.,  and  some  hundreds  of  the  first  firms  in  the  city. 
After  much  discussion  in  Committee,  the  clerk  was  directed 
to  Communicate  to  the  memorialists: — 

"That  m  the  month  of  September,  in  the  year  1838,  before 
the  Gresham  G>mmittee  took  any  steps  whatever  as  to  the 
erection  of  a  new  building,  they  applied  by  circular  to  most 
of  the  leading  merchants  and  brokers,  requesting  their  opi- 
nion as  to  whether  the  new  Exchange  should  be  a  covered 
hall,  or  partially  open,  as  in  the  original  Exchange  of 
Mr.  T.  Gresham,  and  in  the  one  recently  destroyed;  that 
besides,  the  Committee  took  every  opportunity,  bv  personal 
inquiry,  of  ascertaining  the  wishes  of  their  fellow-citizens  on 
the  subject  ;  that  the  result  of  the  circular,  and  of  these 
inquiries,  was,  that  a  large  majority  wished  the  Exchange  to 
be  partially  open,  as  heretofore,  alleging  the  great  noise 
in  the  Bourse  at  Paris,  and  the  necessity  tor  ventilation  of 
the  most  free  kind,  as  their  reasons  for  the  decision  ;  that 
in  consequence  ot'this  determination,  they  directed  a  part  of 
the  merchants'  area  to  be  left  uncovered  as  before,  but  that, 
for  greater  shelter,  they  further  directed  that  the  covered 
space  should  be  inci-eased  from  one-half,  (the  proportion  of 
the  space  covered  in  the  late  building.)  to  two-thirds;  and 
that  the  architect  of  the  present  edifice  had  strictly  followed 
out  these  instructions  ;  and,  for  these  reasons,  the  Committee 
could  not  comjjiy  with  the  wishes  of  the  merchants;  that, 
with  regard  to  currents  of  air,  the  committee  had  directed 
such  inner  doors  to  be  put  up,  at  the  north  and  south 
entrances,  as  might  check  the  draughts,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
viding that  such  doors  should  nut  interfere  with  the  extensive 
uses  of  the  area  of  the  Exchange,  as  a  thorougiifare  to  all 
the  neighbouring  streets,  the  Bank,  the  Stock  Exchange, 
and  other  important  public  and  private  buildings  of  the 
neighbourhood." 

We  have  given  the  above,  as  apropos  to  the  question  of  a 
roofed  or  unroufed  area,  though  this  is  hardly  the  proper 
place  for  a  petition  delivered  some  months  after  the  Exciiango 
had  been  opened  for  business.  Such  a  petition,  however, 
proves  clearly  the  justice  of  the  observations  we,  in  common 
with  the  great  body  of  tlie  profession,  have  urged  to  the  cen- 
tral space  of  the  building  having  been  left  uncovered. 

To  return  from  this  apparent  digression. — After  much  con- 
sideration as  to  wliether  the  material  employed  should  be 
magncsiiui  limestone,  similar  to  that  used  for  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  it  was  determined  that  the  whole  of  the  exterior 
of  the  building,  with  the  exception  of  the  socle  or  stylobate 
(which  was  to  be  of  granite)  should  be  Portland  stone 
ol'  the  best  quality.  This  point  having  been  decided,  the 
Gresham  Committee  at  length  found  themselves  in  a  position 
to  enter  on  the  contracts  for  the  new  structure.  About 
fourteen  of  the  principal  builders  were  applied  to,  and  sent 


in  tenders  ;  and  those  of  Messrs.  Webb  for  the  first  cont  raet, 
(the  excavation  and  concrete  foiuidation)  ;  and  of  Mr.  J.  Jack- 
son for  the  second  (the  su|)er-structure).— were  accepted.  The 
first  was  for  £8,000— the  last  for  £115.000. 

In  excavating  the  merchants'  area,  (originally  intended  to 
have  been  left  solid.)  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  base- 
ment beneath  that  |iart  of  the  plan  :  a  number  of  antiquities 
were  discovered,  beneath  what  was  the  west  wall  of  the  former 
building  ;  in  particular,  the  remains  of  some  lloman  structure 
were  found,  which  proved,  on  examination,  to  have  been 
built  ou  a  very  large  pit  or  pond,  irregular  in  shape,  but 
about  50  feet  in  length  from  north  to  south,  34  in  breadth, 
and  13  in  depth.  This  pit  was  filled  with  hardened  mud,  in 
which  were  immense  quantities  of  bones  of  sheep,  of  bones 
and  horns  of  stags,  also  numerous  fragments  of  the  red 
Roman  pottery,  usually  called  Sainian  ware,  pieces  of  glass, 
and  glass  vessels,  broken  lamps,  &c.,  and  several  copper 
coins,  two  of  the  emperor  Vespasian,  the  remainder  of  Domi- 
tian — all  of  which  antiquities  were,  by  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, reserved  for  the  Gresham  Committee.  On  Monday 
the  17th  January,  1842,  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  His 
Royal  Highness  Prince  Albert,  with  much  state  and  cere- 
mony, a  full  description  of  which  appeared  in  the  newspapers 
of  the  day  ;  and  tiie  works  then  proceeded  with  such  rapiility, 
that  in  three  years  from  that  date  the  new  iioyal  Exchange 
was  completed — a  very  brief  space  of  time  for  such  a  work, 
especially  considering  that  it  consists  entirely  of  stone. 

On  Monday  the  28th  of  October,  18441  the  Exchange 
was  opened  by  Queen  Victoria  in  person.  The  "pomp  and 
circumstance"  of  such  a  ceremonial  are  not  for  a  work  like  the 
present,  they  have  been  duly  chronicled  by  those  publications 
W'hich  record  so  faithfully  and  so  minutely  events  like  these: 
but  the  following  observations,  which  appi'ared  in  one  of  the 
newspapers  at  the  time,  seem  so  pertinent  to  the  subject,  that 
we  think  their  insertion  here  not  in.appropriate.  "The  pre- 
sent ceremonial,"  says  the  writer,  "  will,  in  many  things, 
resemble  that  which  was  presided  over  by  the  'Virgin 
Queen:'  for  state  and  its  observances  partake  of  the  tradi- 
tional, and  are  transmitted  down  with  comparatively  slight 
changes.  But  in  all  else  how  ditferent !  What  an  empire! 
and  what  a  metropolis !  How  vast  the  increase  in  all  that 
constitutes  the  strength  of  nations,  in  the  England  of  Vic- 
toria, since  it  was  the  England  of  Elizabeth  !  The  empire 
js  one  of  inany  tongues  and  nations ;  the  population  of  its 
chief  city  is  counted,  not  by  thousands,  but  by  hundreds  o{ 
thousands  ;  and  as  for  the  commerce  of  the  realm  and  city 
of  Grcsham's  royal  mistress,  it  was,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  England  and  London  of  to-day,  but  as  the  rivulet  to  the 
ocean  ;  its  development  has  been  as  vast  as  that  wliich  could 
bring  '  Dodona's  forest  from  an  acorn  cup.'  Between  the 
day  on  which  a  Queen  of  England  passed  through  the  Tem- 
ple-Gate to  open  the  first  Royal  Exchange — and  the  hour 
which  will  see  another  Queen  of  the  same  fair  land  pass 
along  the  same  road  on  the  same  august  cirand — great  has 
been  the  destiny  of  England  among  the  nations  of  the  world  ! 
At  this  point  the  mind  naturally  goes  forward  to  the  future, 
and  asks  itself  the  question,  what  will  be  the  state  of  this 
'crowning  city,'  of  the  trafiickers  of  the  earth,  when  three 
centuries  shall  have  passed  over  the  now  white  walls,  the 
lair  chambers,  and  sculptured  portico,  of  the  new  Exchange  1 
What  will  be  the  condition  of  the  empire,  when  the  gene- 
ration that  gazes  on  the  p;igeantry  of  to-day,  shall — with 
many  succeeding  ones — be  mingled  with  the  dust?  They 
are  solemn  questions ;  and,  happily  for  us,  can  (ind  no  answer 
from  human  intelligence.  The  misery  of  Adam,  when  the 
angel,  in  Milton's  immortal  epic,  revealed  to  him  tlie  doom  of 
the  future  race  of  man,  is  but  a  type  of  what  would  be  felt 


EXC 


403 


EXP 


li\  :i'.\.  it'  la'  coiniiiir  time  were  lint,  with  infinite  wisdom  and 
MK!v\.  iiiilden  tVoni  uiir  lien.  Tile  jiast  we  l<now  ;  llie  pro- 
sent  we  ean  govern ;  for  the  future  we  can  only  hope,  making 
oiM  actions  such  as  to  render  a  cheeitul  hope  justiliable. 
Let  the  spirit  of  cnnirnerce,  then,  when  it  lalies  up  its  new 
abode,  work  with  the  energy  and  activity  that  have  always 
marked  it.  Aliovc  all,  let  it  preserve  that  integrity  and 
commercial  honour  which  have  been  so  long  the  pride  of 
the  English  merchant,  and  then  will  it  have  done  the  best  to 
secure  a  still  fuither  development  of  the  wealth,  extent, 
power,  and  numbers  of  that  realm  over  which  Elizabeth 
watched,  and  which  Victoria  now  rules;  (luceiis,  who,  differ- 
ing in  much,  yet  resemble  each  other  in  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  commanded  the  loyalty  and  aUeciion  of  the  people ; 
and  in  this  also — that  the  commercial  activity  of  their  res- 
pective ages  received  the  countenance  nf  bt>th.  In  its 
reference  to  our  history,  the  opening  of  the  New  Koy.^l 
Exchange  by  Queen  Victoria,  is  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing events  of  modern  times." 

We  must  not  conclude  our  description  of  this  magnificent 
liuibling.  without  reference  to  the  sculpture  with  which  the 
new  Royal  Kxchatige  has  been  adorned.  That  by  Mr. 
Richard  Westmacott,  in  the  tympannni  of  the  pediment  at 
the  west  front,  deserves  the  earliest  and  highest  mention,  both 
from  its  position  and  its  merit.  Allegorical  in  subject,  it 
nevertheless  avoids  the  objections  to  which  such  compositions 
are  generally  liable.  It  consists  of  seventeen  figures,  carved 
ill  compact  limestone,  and,  with  two  exceptions,  modelled  as 
entire  and  detached  figures.  The  centre  figure,  which  is  ten 
feet  high,  represents  Commerce  ;  with  her  mural  crown,  lier 
cornucopi.a,  bee-hive,  and  other  accessories.  Her  left  hand 
hiilds  the  charter  of  the  Exchange,  her  right  rests  on  part  of 
a  ship;  two  dolphins  and  a  shell  forming  her  pedestal.  The 
groups  on  either  side  consist,  on  the  right,  of  three  British 
mei-ch.iiits  in  their  civic  robes — as  loid-niayor,  alderman,  and 
common-councilman  ;  two  Asiatics,  a  Hindoo,  and  a  Mahom- 
medan,  in  appropriate  costume;  a  Gieek  bearing  ajar-,  an 
Armenian  scholar,  and  a  Turkish  merchant;  and,  on  the 
left,  of  two  British  merchants  examining  some  woven  fabric 
shown  to  them  by  a  Persian  ;  a  Chinese  ;  a  sailor  of  the 
Levant ;  a  negro  ;  a  British  sailor  cording  a  bale  of  cot- 
ton, &c. ;  a  super-cargo,  or  factor}-  agent.  The  opposite 
angles  are  filled  with  anchors,  jars,  packages,  and  other  nau. 
tical  and  commercial  emblems.  The  arches  of  the  upper 
story  are  decorated  with  the  arms  of  various  nations,  accord- 
ing to  the  order  determined  at  the  congress  of  Vienna — the 
arms  of  England  occupying  the  centre  of  the  eastern  side. 
The  sheltered  walk  for  the  merchants  also  has  the  ceiling  and 
sides  panelled,  painted,  and  emblazoned  with  the  arms  of 
countries  and  monarchs ;  namely,  Edward  the  Confessor, 
Edward  111.,  Elizabeth,  and  Charles  II.  In  the  south-east 
angle  there  is  a  statue  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  the  south- 
west a  statue  of  Charles  II. 

It  only  remains  now  to  speak  of  the  statues  of  Queen 
Victoria  inside  the  building,  and  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
without.  The  latter  is  a  bronze  equestrian  figure,  by 
Chantrey,  and  was  composed  of  the  metal  of  the  guns  taken 
in  battle,  contributed  by  the  government,  and  valued  at 
£1 ,5CX).  The  cost  of  the  statue  itself  was  £900.  It  was  com- 
pleted on  the  anniversary  of  Waterloo,  the  ISth  June,  1844, 
when  the  inauguration  took  place,  at  which  the  King  of 
Saxony,  who  was  in  England  at  the  time,  attended.  The 
marble  statue  of  the  Queen,  by  Lough,  in  the  centre  of  the 
merchants'  area,  was  not  placed  on  its  pedestal  until  the 
27th  of  October,  1845.  An  interesting  fact  is  recorded  by 
historians  respecting  the  statue  of  Gresham.  Durin'o- 
the    raging  of  the   great   fire  of   1666:    "When    the    fire 


was  entered,"  writes  the  old  chrnniflcr.  "how  quickly  did 
it  run  round  the  galleries,  tilling  them  with  flames;  than 
dcscemling  the  -staii-s.  compasseth  the  walks,  giving  forth 
flaming  volleys,  and  filling  the  court  with  sheets  of  fire. 
By-and-by  the  kings  fell  all  down  on  their  faces,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  stoile  building  after  them,  the  founder's 
statue  alone  remoininy.'''' 

It  is  a  remarkable  fiict,  that  this  statue  was  again  saved 
in  the  fire  of  1S:58. 

The  gates  of  the  Exchange  are  exceedingly  handsome. 
They  are  made  of  wrought-iron,  the  decorations  being  cast- 
iron.  In  the  centre  of  the  gates,  on  either  side,  are  the  arms 
of  the  City  of  London,  and  of  the  Mercers'  Company,  with 
the  cipher  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham.  (T.  G..)  very  ingeniously 
introduced.  In  the  ornamental  heads  of  the  gates,  the  rose, 
thistle,  and  shamrock  appear  entwined. 

After  the  publication  of  the  first  portion  of  this  article, 
the  following  paragraphs  appeared  in  The  Times  ;  and  we 
think  we  cannot  better  conclude  our  account  of  the  Exchanges 
of  London,  than  by  recording  so  high  and  so  well-deserved  a 
compliment,  to  the  designer  of  the  Coal  Exchange : — "  A  piece 
of  plate,  weighing  222  oinices  of  silver,  was  presented  to  the 
City  architect,  tor  services  which  are  suflnciently  indicated 
by  the  inscription  :  '  Presented  to  1.  B.  Bunning,  Esq.,  by 
the  coal-factois  and  merchants  of  the  City  of  London,  as 
a  testimonial  of  their  admiration  of  his  genius  and  judgment 
in  the  erection  of  the  Coal  Exchange,  and  of  his  urbanity 
throughout  the  progress  of  the  structure;  which  is  not  more 
approved  of  by  those  for  whose  use  and  convenience  it  was 
designed,  than  by  the  public  at  large,  for  its  taste  and  ele- 
gance as  a  work  of  art.  'Anno  Domini  m.d.cccl.'  The  plate 
was  presented  by  Mr.  Harris,  as  the  organ  of  the  coal- 
factors,  with  an  appropriate  speech.  In  addition  to  this 
pleasing  com]jlinient  to  Mr.  Bunning,  the  coal-factors  and 
merchants  have  signed  a  declaration,  for  presentation  to  the 
Corporation  of  the  City,  of  their  satisfaction  of  all  the  accom- 
raoilations  provided  for  them  by  means  of  the  New  Coal 
Exchange,  which  they  attribute  to  a  union  of  talent  on  the 
part  of  the  architect,  which  has  enabled  him  to  produce  an 
edifice  which,  whilst  it  emliodics  all  the  requirements  of  the 
coal-factors  and  merchants  as  men  of  business,  is.  at  the  same 
time,  in  design,  taste,  and  judgment,  the  admiration  of  the 
numerous  strangers  who  daily  visit  it,  as  one  of  the  chief 
objects  of  interest  and  of  Art  in  the  City  of  London." 

EXEDR^E,  (from  the  Greek  e^edpat,  a  parlour)  among 
the  ancients,  places  wherein  the  philosophers,  sophists,  auil 
rhetors,  held  their  conferences  and  disputes.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  been  recesses  in  the  walls,  or  little  chapels, 
answering  to  what  we  call  chapters  in  the  cloisters  of  monks, 
or  collegiate  churches. 

Also  applied  to  an  apse  or  recess  in  a  building,  or  to  a 
projecting  porch,  in  shoit.  to  any  addition  to  a  iMiilding.  In 
the  early  Christian  church,  the  term  is  applied  to  all  the 
buildings  within  the  consecrated  enclosure  which  were 
detached  from  the  church.  Such  were  the  baptisteries, 
vestries,  diaconica,  schools,  libraries,  and  such  like. 

EXENTRIC,  or  Eccentric,  (from  the  Latin  eccentricus) 
in  geometry,  a  term  applied  to  two  circles  or  spheres,  in 
which,  though  in  some  measure  the  one  is  continued  within 
the  other,  yet  the  two  have  not  the  same  centre,  and  conse- 
quentlv  their  surlaces  are  not  parallel.  The  word  is  opposed  to 
concentric  where  they  are  paialh'l.  and  have  the  same  centre. 

EXOSTRA,  in  the  ancient  theatre,  a  place  where  such 
parts  v{  the  play  were  recited  as  were  supposed  to  be  acted 
privately  in  the  house. 

EXPANSION,  (from  the  Latin,  expando)  that  degree  of 
increment,  which  a  body  is  susceptible  of  extending  in  one 


EXP 


404 


EXP 


or  more  of  its  dimensions  by  heat.  Bodies  of  every  kind, 
as  far  as  we  arc  acqnainted  with  them,  are  expanded  in  bulk 
by  heat,  and  are  contracted  by  cold  ;  and  to  this  law  there 
are  but  few  exceptions,  which  will  be  noticed  in  due  time. 
The  expansions,  or  the  increments  of  bulk,  are  not  exactly 
proportional  to  the  increments  of  heat  in  the  same  body  ;  nor 
are  different  bodies  expanded  alike  by  the  like  elevation  of 
temperature.  Thus,  if  a  quantity  of  water  be  increased  one 
inch  in  bulk  by  the  communicatiim  of  ten  degrees  of  heat, 
the  communication  of  twice  or  thrice  as  mueli  more  heat  will 
not  cause  it  to  expand  two  or  three  inches  more.  Also,  if 
a  rod  of  gold,  and  another  similar  rod  of  glass,  be  heated 
to  the  same  degree,  their  increments  of  bulk,  arising  thereby, 
will  not  be  equal,  the  gold  expanding  more  than  the  glass. 

Of  the  throe  principal  states  of  natural  bodies,  viz.,  solids, 
liquids,  and  elastic  fluids,  the  solids  are  expanded  least;  the 
liquids  are  expanded  more  than  the  solids ;  but  the  clastic 
fluids  are  expanded  a  vast  deal  more  than  the  liquids.  The 
knowledge  of  the  precise  quantities  of  these  expansions  of 
bodies  is  of  great  use  in  philosophy,  in  mechanics,  and  in 
other  scientific  subje-cts  ;  hence  no  pains  have  been  spared 
by  philosophers  to  investigate  and  ascertain  theni ;  various 
instruments  have  been  contrived  for  that  purpose  ;  innumer- 
able experiments  have  been  instituted  ;  and  a  great  many 
useful  results  have  been  obtained.  Of  these  results  we  shall 
now  endeavour  to  give  a  regular  and  distinct  account. 

The  instruments  which  have  been  coiiti'ivcd  for  the  pur- 
pose of  measuring  the  expansions  of  solids  arising  from  an 
elevation  of  temperature,  are  called  pyromcterx.  The 
objects  which  must  be  had  in  view  in  the  constniction  of 
pyrometers,  are  to  form  a  steady  frame,  wherein  solids  of  a 
certain  length  may  be  applied  either  successively,  or  several 
of  them  at  the  same  time  ;  some  contrivance  by  which  those 
metallic  bodies  may  be  heated  to  any  required  degree;  and 
a  mechanism  capable  of  measuring  the  increase  of  bulk  which 
is  caused  by  the  heat;  and  this  maybe  accomplished  by 
means  of  multiplying  wheels,  by  levers,  by  screws,  by  a 
microscopical  micrometer,  or  otherwise. 

Some  of  the  first  determinations  of  the  exp.ansion  of  bodies, 
that  may  be  considered  as  being  sufficiently  accurate,  were 
made  by  Mr.  Ellicot,  with  a  pyrometer  of  his  contrivance. 
Mr.  HUicot  determined  the  proportional  expansions  of  seven 
metallic  bodies  by  the  same  elevation  of  temperature.  They 
are  as  follow  : — 

GoUl.         Silver.         Brass.       Copper.         Iron.         Steel.       Lead. 
73.         103.  95.  89.  60.  56.       149. 

Mr.  Smeaton  contrived  a  nmch  better  pyrometer,  and 
with  it  he  determined  the  expansions  of  several  solids. 
M.  De  Luc  also  contrived  a  pyrometer  of  a  peculiar  con- 
struction; but  Mr.  llamsden's  pyrometer  is  superior  to  any 
other  contrivance  of  the  kind. 

The  f  jllowing  table  shows,  in  parts  of  an  inch,  how  much 
one  foot's  length  of  different  substances  is  expanded  by  180° 
of  heat,  Fahrenheit's  scale,  between  the  freezing  and  the 
boiling  points  of  water.  To  the  first  seven  substances 
(wliicli  were  examined  in  Mr.  Kamsden's  most  accurate 
pyrometer)  there  are  added  the  expansions  for  a  single 
degree  of  heat.  The  others  were  determined  by  Mr.  Smeaton 
with  his  pyrometer. 

Fahrenheit's  Se:»le. 


By  1°  By  180° 

Standard  brass  scale,  supposed  to 

be  Hamburg  brass  ....  0.0001237  .  0.02-2-2616 
English  plate  brass  in  fjrm  of  a  rod  0.0001262  .  0.0227136 
English  plate  brass  in  form  of  a 

trough 0.0001263  .  0.0227386 


Fahrenheit's  Scale. 

, ^_ , 

By  l"  By  180° 

Steel  rod 0.0000763     .     0.0137368 

Cast-iron  prism 0.0000740     .     0.0133126 

Glass  tube 0.0000517     .     0.0093138 

Solid  glass  rod        0.0000539     .     0.0096944 

White  glass  barometer  tube 0.0100 

Martial  regulus  of  antimony 0.0130 

Blistered  steel 0.0138 

Hard  steel 0.0147 

Iron 0.0151 

Bismuth 0.0167 

Copper  hammered       0.0204 

Copper  eight  parts,  with  tin  one  part       .     .     .     0.0218 

Cast  brass 0.0223 

Brass  sixteen  parts,  with  tin  one  part      .     .     .     0.02"29 

Brass  wire 0.0232 

Speculum  metal 0.0232 

Spelter   solder,  viz.,  of  brass   two   parts,  and    of 

zinc  one 0.0247 

Fine  pewter       0.0274 

Grain  tin        0.0298 

Soft  solder,  viz.,  lead  two  parts,  tin  one  .     .     .     0.0301 
Zinc    eight    parts,    with    tin    one,   a    little    ham- 
mered   0.0323 

Lead 0.0344 

Zinc  or  spelter 0.0353 

Zinc  hammered  half  an  inch  pci-  loot       .     .     .     0.0373 

Iron,  instead  of  being  condensed  into  a  smaller  bulk, 
expands  in  its  transition  from  a  fluid  into  a  solid  state;  so 
that  a  quantity  of  iron  occupies  more  riMim  in  the  solid  foi-m 
than  it  does  in  a  fused  state. 

Dr.  Wollaston,  in  order  to  form  some  estimate  of  the  eom- 
]iarative  rate  of  expansion  of  platina  and  palladium,  says, 
'•I  riveted  together  two  thin  plates  of  platina  and  palladium, 
and  observing  that  the  compound  plate,  when  heated,  became 
concave  on  the  side  of  the  platina ;  I  ascertained  that  the 
expansion  of  palladium  is  in  some  degree  the  greater  of  the 
two.  By  a  similar  mode  of  comparison  1  f  lund  that  palla- 
diimi  expands  considerably  less  than  steel  by  heat."  Phil. 
Trans,  for  1805. 

It  must  be  remarked,  with  respect  to  the  expansion  of 
glass,  that  sometimes  glass  tubes  are  extended  more  than 
solid  glass  rods;  their  dilatation,  however,  is  not  constant; 
(or  tubes  of  diflerenl  diameters,  or  of  dilVeront  sorts  of  glass, 
are  expanded  differently  by  the  application  of  like  degrees 
of  heat. 

Wood  is  not  much  expanded  longitudinally,  that  is,  in  the 
direction  of  its  fibres,  by  heat;  and  this  is  particularly  the 
case  with  deal  and  other  straight-grained  wood.  Probably, 
iq)on  the  whole,  the  longitudinal  expansion  of  wood  is  less 
than  that  of  glass.  It  has  been  observed,  (especially  by 
Dr.  Rittenhouse,  Trans,  of  the  American  Phil.  Societi/,)  that 
very  dry  and  seasoned  wood,  if  not  exposed  to  a  very  high 
or  to  a  very  low  temperature,  will  expand  in  length  pretty 
regularly  ;  otherwise  its  cxpattsion  by  heat,  and  its  contrac- 
tion by  cold,  arc  verv  irregular;  for  they  seem  to  depend 
partly  upon  the  heat,  and  partly  upon  the  moisture,  which 
the  wood  acquires  in  certain  circumstances,  and  is  deprived 
of  in  others.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention,  that  the 
solids  of  the  preceding  table  contract  their  dimensions  by 
cooling,  as  much  as  they  are  expanded  by  heating;  thus.  f>r 
instance,  if  a  yard's  length  of  any  partifular  metallic  body, 
by  lieing  heated  100  degrees  above  the  actual  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere,  be  lengthened  cjue-fiftii'lh  part  of  an  inch; 
afterwards,  when   cooled  down  to  the  temperature  of  the 


EXP 


405 


EXP 


atmosphere,  it  will  be  foiuifl  to  have  lost  exactly  thai  fiftieth 
part  ol'an  inch  which  it  had  acrmircd  by  heating. 

Eroin  the  experiments  hitherto  made  on  the  expansions  of 
solids  by  heat,  no  correspondence  has  been  observed  be- 
tween the  expansions  and  the  quantities  ol"  caloric  they  are 
capable  of  absorbing.  The  fusibility  of  metals  seems  to 
coincide  with  the  dilatations;  platina,  the  least  fusible  of  the 
metals,  dilates  the  least;  lead  dilates  most;  and  the  most 
fusible  glass  is  also  the  most  dilatable.  We  may  therefore 
conclude  with  M.  Berthollet,  that  bodies  are  so  much  the 
more  expansible,  the  less  caloric  they  require,  to  change  their 
constitution  from  solid  to  liquid,  and  frnni  liquid  to  gases  or 
vapours. 

There  is  a  substance  which  exjjands  when  lieated,  but  does 
not  contract  when  cooled;  and  of  this  singular  property  Mr. 
Wedgwood  availed  himself  for  the  Ccmstruclion  of  his  in- 
genious thermometer  for  measuring  the  highest  degrees  of 
heat ;  viz.,  those  degrees  which  exceed  the  scale  of  the 
mercurial  thermometer.  The  substance  alluded  to  is  the 
argillaceous  earth  or  clay,  and  it  appears  that  the  above- 
mentioned  j)roperty  belongs,  more  or  less,  to  argillaceous 
bodies  of  every  kind.  This  property  niay  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear to  be  an  unaccountable  exception  from  the  general  law : 
the  difficulty,  however,  will  vanish,  if  it  be  considered  that 
bodies  of  the  argillaceous  genus  contain  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  water,  and  that  the  contraction  of  these  bodies,  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  a  strong  fire,  is  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  the  escape  of  the  water,  and  hence  they  do  not  con- 
tract by  subsequent  cooling. 

EXPERIENCE,  knowledge  derived  from  trials,  long  use, 
practice,  or  a  series  of  observations.  Experience  consists  in 
the  ideas  suggested  by  what  we  have  seen,  read,  or  done : 
we  reflect  on  these  things,  and  the  judgment  forms  for  itself 
a  rule  or  standard,  which  standard  is  experience. 

Authors  make  three  kinds  of  experience :  the  first  is  the 
simple  uses  of  the  external  senses,  whereby  we  perceive  the 
phenomena  of  natural  things,  without  any  direct  attention 
thereto,  or  making  any  application  thereof 

The  second  is,  when  we  jiretneditatedly  and  designedly 
make  trials  of  various  things,  or  observe  those  done  by  others, 
attending  closely  to  all  efifects  and  circumstances. 

The  third  is  that  preceded  by  an  appiehensioii  of  an  event, 
and  determines  whether  the  apprehension  were  true  or  false; 
the  two  latter  kinds,  especially  the  third,  are  of  great  service 
in  philosoph\'. 

EXPERIMENT,  (from  the  Latin  experimeutum.)  a  trial, 
an  act,  or  operation  designed  to  discover  some  unknown 
truth,  principle,  or  etfect,  or  to  establish  it  when  discovered. 
In  philosophy,  it  means  the  result  of  certain  applications,  dis- 
positions, or  combinations,  of  natural  bodies,  made  with 
some  particular  view.  The  history  of  physical  science  from 
the  conimenceinent  of  the  present  century,  strikingly  demon- 
strates how  powerful  an  instrument  experiment  is  in  the 
discovery  of  facts.  Experiments  are  said  to  be  mechanical, 
or  chemical,  or  electrical,  or  magnetical,  i.Vc.,  according  to  the 
subject  to  which  they  more  immediately  belong.  The  object 
of  making  experiments  is  to  ascertain  either  certain  causes 
or  certain  phenomena ;  and  for  the  proper  attainment  of  these 
objects,  cai-c  must  be  had  to  institute  experiments  that  admit 
of  no  equivocal  result,  and  so  as  to  answer  the  purpose  in  the 
quickest  and  most  direct  wa}'.  The  main  object,  however, 
of  the  inquiry  can  seldom  be  determined  by  a  single  decisive 
experiment ;  hence,  in  most  cases,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
divide  the  question  into  parts,  and  to  ascertain  each  part 
separately  by  one  or  more  appropriate  experiments.  When 
the  experiment  is  so  prescribed,  as  to  decide  the  question 
without  any  possible  doubt  or  equivocation,  it  has  in  that 


case  frequently  been  called  expert mentuin  cnici.i ;  a  crucial 
experiment,  meaning  a  capital  or  decisive  experiment;  such 
as  supersedes  the  necessity  of  instituting  more  experiments 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  origin  of  the  expression  experi- 
menlum  crucis  has  by  some  been  derived  from  its  being  a 
kind  of  torture,  whereby  the  nature  of  the  question  is,  as  it 
were,  extorted  by  force.  It  has  been  also  attributed,  by 
others,  though  with  less  apparent  probability,  to  the  guide  or 
instruction  which  it  atlinds,  like  that  of  a  direction-post,  which 
is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  cross. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  give  any  instructions  for  the  right 
performance  of  experiments  in  general ;  for  not  only  every 
subject,  but  every  particular  question  belonging  to  any  sub- 
ject, nnist  be  determined  by  a  jiarticular  mode  of  investiga- 
tion. The  experimenter  can  only  be  insti-ucted  by  practice. 
Tile  nature  of  the  subject,  a  strict  attention  to  every  apparent 
circumstance,  an  accurate  statement  of  particulars,  and  an 
unprejudiced  mode  of  reasoning,  will  easily  suggest  a  proper 
train  of  experiments  which  the  subject  in  question  may 
admit  of  It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  though  in  the 
investigation  of  any  suljject,  the  philosopher  proposes  a  cer- 
tain order  of  investigation,  (and  it  is  always  proper  to  propose 
to  oneself  some  such  plan  or  train  of  experiments;)  yet  it  is 
but  seldom  that  the  proposed  plan  can,  or  deserves  to  be, 
strictly  executed;  for  the  result  of  the  first  or  second  ex[)eii- 
ment  frequently  points  out  a  new  tract,  or  a  more  promising 
road;  in  consequence  of  which,  new  and  difi'erent  trials  mii>l 
be  instituted  ;  it  is  m  the  ready  adoption  of  such  plans  as 
may  be  best  suited  to  the  last  indications,  that  the  genius  of 
the  philosopher  is  rendered  conspicuous. 

Such  mode  may  suffice  for  the  determination  of  any  doubt- 
ful point;  but  when  a  discovery  has  been  made,  and  is  to  be 
explained  toother  persons,  then  it  is  of  use  to  show  the  same 
result  by  ditlerent  experiments;  for  it  is  not  only  a  satisfac- 
tion to  hav(^  seveial  concurring  proofs  of  the  same  proposition ; 
but  it  is  also  rendered  intelligible  to  a  greater  number  of 
readers  or  hearers ;  it  being  seldom  the  case,  that  the  same 
experiment  conveys  an  equal  degree  of  conviction  and  satis- 
faction to  the  mind  of  everybody. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PHILOSOPHY.  Philosophy,  from 
the  Greek  philosophia  {(pikoaotpia,)  literally  signifies  "love 
of  wisdom  or  knowledge,"  and  a  philosopher,  {^(piXoao<()og,)  is 
a  lover  of  wisdom.  Pyth;igoras  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
person  who  called  himself  philosopher,  from  which  appella- 
tion the  word  philosojihy  was  derived,  meaning  the  love  of 
general  knowledge.  The  terms  philosophy,  philosophical, 
philosopher,  are  often  used  in  our  language  apparently  with 
no  great  precision,  though  it  is  not  difficult  to  deduce  from 
the  use  vt'  these  terms  the  general  meaning  or  notion  which 
is  attached  to  them.  We  speak  of  the  philosophy  of  the 
human  mind,  as  being,  of  all  philosophies,  that  to  which  the 
name  philosophy  is  particularly  appropriated  ;  and  so  also, 
by  using  qualifying  terms,  we  speak  of  natural  philosophy, 
e.\periinental  philosophy,  &e. 

If  this  knowledge  or  philosophy  relate  to  the  manners,  the 
duties,  or  the  conduct  of  human  beings,  considered  in  a 
rational  and  social  light,  it  is  called  moral  philosophv  ;  if 
to  the  phenomena  of  natural  bodies — natural  philosophv. 
Experimental  philosophy,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  may 
be  defined  as  the  philosophy  of  proof]  in  contradistinction 
to  the  philosophy  of  opinion,  to  the  manners,  the  duties, 
and  the  conduct  of  human  beings,  considered  in  a  rational 
and  social  light,  or  to  the  phenomena  of  natural  bodies,  so 
it  has  been  called  either  moral  philosophy  or  natural 
philosopiiy. 

The  philosophers  of  the  piimitive  ages,  among  the  Greeks, 
Romans,  &c.,  in  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  nature, 


EXP 


406 


EXP 


such  as  the  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies,  the  rain,  snow, 
frost,  thimdcr  and  lightning,  the  rainbow,  the  conibustion  of 
fuel,  the  production  of  animals  and  vegetables,  and  so  forth, 
generally  otlered  the  inadecjuate  suggestions  of  their  iniagi- 
nations,  which,  though  nu)stly  unintelligible,  and  fret|ucntly 
in  the  greatest  degree  absurd,  were  nevertheless  received 
with  deference  by  their  scholars,  and  were  propagated  with 
fidelity  and  diligence  from  one  generation  to  another.  Their 
acquiescence  rested  merely  on  the  authority  of  the  teacher. 
That  these  explanations  were  geneially  inadequate  and 
absurd,  is  easily  evinced  by  observing,  tliat  ditl'crent  contem- 
porary philosophers  entertained  and  taught  opinions  diametri- 
cally op[)Osite  to  each  other,  though  they  related  to  the  very 
same  question ;  and  that  suhsequiiit  iihilosophi'rs  have,  by 
actual  observations,  and  unerring  demonstrations,  shown 
their  fallacy.  It  may  amuse  an  imjuisitive  mind  to  observe, 
that  whilst  the  exertions  of  the  early  mathematicians,  whose 
productions  have  obtained  the  admiration  of  subsequent  gen- 
erations. Were  strictly  rational  and  correct,  the  investigations 
of  their  contemporary  philosophers  were  conducted  in  a  man- 
ner altogether  slovenly  and  superficial.  This  method  of 
philosophizing  prevailed  for  a  very  long  period,  and  several 
centuries  elapsed,  during  which  the  knowledge  of  nature 
made  no  progress  deserving  of  notice,  excepting  a  few  rare 
and  accidental  discoveries. 

The  15th  century,  which  was  productive  of  the  greatest 
events  and  the  most  consequential  discoveries  that  history 
Ciin  record,  seems  to  have  given  a  new  turn  to  the  subject  of 
natural  philosophy.  The  old  tenets  began  to  be  doubted, 
and  the  energies  of  the  human  mind  began  to  manifest  their 
unfettered  powers.  In  the  next  century,  the  incoherent 
dogmas  of  the  preceding  ages  were  freely  ciunbated ;  the 
authority  of  names  and  sects  was  disregarded,  and,  in  lieu  of 
opinions,  the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena  was  referred 
to  the  evidence  of  actual  experiments.  Then  was  introduced 
the  appellation  oi' experimental pliilosopliy^  by  which  is  meant, 
the  knowledge  of  natural  powers  and  natural  eflects  acquired 
by  means  of  experiments  or  trials.  The  least  reflection 
readily  showed  the  superiority  of  this  new  method  of 
philosophizing;  but,  independent  of  any  other  consideration, 
its  establishment  is  principally  due  to  the  success  with  which 
it  was  attended,  and  which  exceeded  even  the  most  sanguine 
expectations  of  its  fust  promoters.  No  sooner  was  it 
adopted,  than  discoveries  of  importance  were  nuide,  old- 
established  errors  were  detected,  and  the  subject  of  philosophy 
assumed  an  entirely  new  aspect. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  in  this  mode  of  investigation 
the  experiments  must  be  preceded  by  hypothesis,  or  supposi- 
tion ;  for  a  man  cannot  begin  to  make  experiments  without 
the  previous  fornuuion  of  a  certain  plan ;  but  then  the  plan, 
the  sujtposition,  or  the  hypotliesis,  goes  no  farther  than  to 
propose  something,  the  confirmation  or  refutation  of  which  is 
referred  to  the  result  of  experiments,  assisted  by  mathematical 
calculation.  In  the  KJlh  century,  the  necessary  preliminaries 
for  the  improvement  of  natural  knowledge  began  to  be 
made;  viz.,  collections  of  what  then  prevailed  under  the  de- 
nomination of  scientific  knowledge,  natural  knowledge,  secrets 
of  nature,  and  the  like;  and  the  farrago  of  truths,  errors, 
inconsistencies,  doubts,  and  perplexities,  which  these  works 
contain,  is  strange  indeed.  Among  the  few  who  efiectually 
began  to  work  in  the  experimental  mode  of  investigation, 
during  that  century,  Friar  Bacon  held  the  most  distinguished 
place.  His  desire  of  information  was  great;  his  views  ex- 
tensive ;  his  mind  clear  and  capacious  ;  and  he  is  said  to 
have  spent  about  £2,000  (a  sum  very  considerable  at  that 
time)  in  the  performance  of  his  numerous  philosophieal  ex- 
periments.     Baptista  Porta  also  distinguished  himself  for 


similar  pursuits  in  Italy.  This  inquisitive  person  lived  at 
Naples,  and  about  the  year  1500  formed  a  society  of  scientific 
persons,  w  ho  met  in  his  own  house.  The  great  (Jalileo,  who 
was  born  in  Italy,  in  the  year  1564,  became  famous  as  a 
philosopher  and  a  nuuhematician,  towards  the  latter  end  of 
that  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  next.  His  genius, 
superior  to  the  [)rejudices  of  the  times,  investigated  and  estab- 
lished several  leading  propositions  in  natural  philosophy  ; 
and  his  success,  his  example,  and  his  precepts  disseminated 
a  universal  ardour  for  the  true  mode  of  investigating  the 
jiowers  and  the  eflects  of  natural  bodies.  His  successor. 
Torricelli,  was  not  unworthy  of  a  most  distinguished  rank 
amongst  the  philosophers  of  the  age  ;  and  the  Torricellian 
tube,  or  the  barometer,  is  a  magniticeut  monument  of  his 
experimental  inquiries. 

In  England,  as  we  have  already  metilioncd.  Friar  Bacon 
was  the  first  firomoter  of  true  knowledge ;  but  a  great  part 
of  the  work  of  philosophical  reformation  was  accomplished 
by  another  inquiring  genius  of  the  same  name.  Francis 
Bacon,  lord-chaneellor  of  England,  gave  a  fresh  and  vigorous 
impulse  to  the  jirogress  of  experimental  inquiry.  He  recorded 
a  vast  number  of  facts,  proposed  and  executed  a  great  many 
experiments,  and  nothi])g  that  related  to  nature  seemed  to 
be  below  his  notice. 

These  early  reformers  of  philosophy,  besides  other  obvious 
dilficulties,  were  oliliged  to  struggle  against,  and  the  siiceess 
of  their  laboin-s  was  much  impeded  by,  the  erroneous  notions 
which  then  p>revailed,  and  which  had  been  long  rooted  in  the 
minds  even  of  the  most  able  persons  then  living.  Galileo 
was  oppressed  by  the  ignorance  and  jirejudices  of  the  clergy. 
Crichton,  who  flourished  about  the  latter  end  of  the  10th 
century,  wrote  an  able  book  expressly  against  the  vain  jihilo- 
sophy  of  Aristotle,  which  had  long  been  read  in  the  schools. 
The  two  Bacons,  and  other  able  writers,  fre(juently  allude  to. 
and  sli'emiously  endeavour  to  remove,  the  absurd  and  fanci- 
ful notions  of  their  contemporaries.  In  short,  the  demolition 
of  the  old  defective  fabric,  proved  nearly  as  laborious  as  the 
erection  of  the  new  structure. 

The  reform  which  had  been  begun  by  the  above-mentioned, 
and  other  worthy  persons,  was  soon  after  comjileted  by  the 
cxtraordiiuiry  genius  of  Newton.  This  truly  great  man,  like 
a  luminary  of  the  first  magnitude,  illustrated  whatever  came 
within  the  limits  of  his  irotice,  and  his  notice  was  employed 
in  the  greatest  and  most  admired  works  of  the  creation. 
His  method  was  to  institute  experiments,  to  examine  the 
pihenomena  with  accuracy,  and  to  ground  upon  them  the 
strictest  mathematical  reasoning.  The  conviction  which 
such  a  rational  method  conveyed,  and  the  numerous  discov- 
eries with  which  it  was  attendeil,  com|)letcly  exploded  the 
old  tenets,  and  established  tlu>  oidy  true  method  of  investi- 
gating nature. 

The  progress  of  experimental  pliilosopliy  might  have  been 
interrupted  by  the  death  of  a  single  individual;  for  it  does 
but  seldom  occur  that  genius,  health,  opulence,  and  other 
opportunities,  concur  in  the  qualification  of  an  experimental 
j>hilosojiher ;  but  the  danger  was  in  great  measure  averted 
by  the  institution  of  j)hilosophical  societies.  These  societies, 
by  bringing  together  learned  men,  and  concentrating,  as  it 
were,  their  cflbrts  against  the  ignorance  and  pnjudice  of  the 
age;  by  uniting  the  efl'orts  of  several  ingenious  labourers,  by 
furnishing  in  great  measure  the  means  of  investigation,  by 
encouraging  improvements,  and  by  recortling  and  propagat- 
ing the  results,  at  length  succeeded  in  establishing  the  progress 
of  knowledge  in  a  regular  and  permanent  channel. 

The  first  society  of  the  kind  which  we  find  recorded,  is 
that  which  we  have  already  mentioned  at  the  house  of 
Baptista  Porta,  in    Naples,  towards  the  latter  end  of  the 


EXP 


407 


EXP 


lOtli  century.  It  was  calloil  "  AcadLMiiia  Secrctoruin  Naturre." 
Next  tij  this,  and  l)oloie  tlie  end  uf  the  saino  century,  the 
academy,  called  the  Lyncei,  was  founded  at  lujnie,  and  was 
rendered  famous  tinougliout  the  woiMd,  piineipally  by  the 
renown  of  one  of  its  members,  the  great  Galileo.  The 
Academy  del  Cimcnto,  and  several  other  associations  of 
scientific  persons,  were  established  in  the  succeeding,  viz., 
the  17th  century.  Amongst  those  associations  the  first  rank 
must  be  assigned  to  the  lloyal  Society  tif  London.  This 
most  learned  and  distinguished  society  had  its  origin  soon 
after  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  A  few  men  of  learn- 
ing began  to  meet  at  stated  times  at  Wad  ham  college,  Oxford  ; 
and  among  those  jjersons  were  the  following  conspicuous 
characters:  viz.,  Dr.  Ward,  Mr.  Robert  Boyle,  Dr.  Wilkins, 
Sir  William  Petty,  Mr.  Matthew  Wren.  Di:  Wallis,  Dr. 
Goddard,  Dr.  Willis,  Dr.  IJathurst,  Dr.  Christopher  Wren, 
and  Mr.  llooke.  From  Oxford  this  association  transferied 
its  meetings  in  the  year  10.38,  to  Gresham  college,  in  London. 
There  they  increased  their  luimber;  and  s(K)U  after  the  res- 
toi'ation  of  Charles  II.,  the  society  received  a  royal  charter, 
which  established  it  in  the  form  that  has  been  continued 
ever  since. 

The  objects  of  the  universe,  or  the  natural  bodies  which 
aiTect  our  senses,  become  known  and  useful  to  us  by  their 
properties,  some  of  which  aflect  one  of  our  senses,  whilst 
i.ithers  atfect  some  other  sense.  Thus  we  perceive  luminous 
bodies  through  our  eyes,  sound  through  our  ears,  heat  or 
cold  by  the  touch  or  feel,  &c.  Some  of  these  properties  are 
called  general,  like  gravity  and  extension,  because  they 
belong  to  alt  bodies ;  and  others,  like  transparency  and 
fluidity,  are  called  particular,  because  they  belong  to  certain 
bodies  only.  The  better  we  become  acquainted  with  the 
properties  of  natural  bodies,  the  more  extended  the  sphere 
of  our  powers  and  of  our  advantages  becomes;  and  it 
is  for  the  discover}'  of  these  properties,  either  in  simple 
or  in  compound  bodies,  that  experimental  inquiries  are 
instituted. 

In  the  acquirement  of  knowledge,  the  human  being  has  no 
other  assistance  besides  that  of  his  senses,  and  of  his  reason- 
ing faculty.  By  the  first  he  observes  and  acquires  ideas  of 
self  evident  propositions,  or  properties  of  natural  bodies  ;  such 
as  the  human  mind  cannot  dissent  from  without  manifest 
violence  to  its  perceptions  ;  b}-  the  second  he  is  led  from  one 
of  these  evident  simple  propositions,  to  another  strictly 
depending  upon  the  first,  then  to  a  third  strictly  depending 
upon  the  second,  and  so  on,  to  the  acquisition  of  some  idea 
more  complex,  and  less  apparent  at  the  first  anmniciation. 
The  constant  observation  of  philosophers,  with  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  at  their  head,  and  the  dictates  of  plain  reasoning, 
have  furnished  certain  axioms  and  certain  rules  of  philoso- 
phizing, the  propriety  of  which  is  too  evident  to  be 
objected  to. 

The  axioms  of  philosophy,  or  the  axioms  which  have  been 
deduced  from  common  and  constant  experience,  are  so  evi- 
dent, and  so  generally  known,  that  it  will  be  sufiieient  to 
mention  a  few  of  them  only. 

1.  Nothing  has  no  property  ;.  hence 

2.  No  substance,  or  notliing,  can  be  produced  from 
nothing. 

3.  Matter  cannot  be  annihilated,  or  reduced  to  nothing. 
The   propriety   of  the   last  axiom    may   perhaps  not   be 

readily  admitted  by  certain  persons ;  observing  that  a  great 
many  things  appear  to  be  utterly  destroyed  by  the  action  of 
fire;  also  that  water  may  be  caused  to  disappear  by  means 
of  evaporation  ;  and  so  forth.  But  it  must  be  observed,  that 
in  these  cases  the  substances  are  not  annihilated  ;  they  are 
only  dispersed,  or  removed  from  one  place  to  another,  and  by- 


being  divided  into  particles  very  minute,  they  elude  our 
senses,  and  escape  our  innnediate  notice.  Thus,  when  a 
piece  of  wood  is  j)laced  upon  the  fire,  the  greatest  part  of  it 
disappears,  and  a  few  ashes  only  remain,  the  weight  and  bidk 
of  which  do  not  amount  to  the  hundredlh-part  of  the  weight 
and  bulk  of  the  original  piece  of  wood.  In  this  case  the 
piece  of  wood  is  divided  into  its  constituent  principles,  which 
the  action  of  the  fire  drives  diflxjrent  ways.  The  fluid  part, 
for  instance,  becomes  steam,  the  light  coaly  part  either 
adheres  to  the  chimney,  or  is  dispersed  through  the  air,  I'tc, 
so  that  if,  after  the  combustion,  the  scattered  materials  were 
collected,  (which  may  in  a  great  measure  be  accomplished,) 
the  sum  of  their  weights  would  equal  the  weight  of  the 
original  piece  of  wood. 

4.  Every  effect  has,  or  is  produced  by,  an  adequate  cause, 
and  is  proportionate  to  it. 

It  may,  in  general,  be  observed,  with  respect  to  these 
axioms,  that  we  only  mean  to  assert  what  has  been  constantly 
shown,  and  confirmed  by  experience,  and  is  not  contradicted, 
either  by  reasoning,  or  by  any  known  experiment.  But  we 
do  not  mean  to  assert  that  they  are  as  evident  as  the  axioms 
of  geometry  ;  nor  do  we  in  the  least  presume  to  prescribe 
limits  to  the  agency  of  the  Almighty  Creator  of  every 
thing,  whose  power  and  whose  ends  are  too  far  removed 
from  the  reach  of  our  finite  understandings. 

Having  thus  stated  the  principal  axioms  of  philosophy,  it 
is  in  the  next  place  necessary  to  mention  the  rules  of  phi- 
losophizing, which  have  been  formed,  after  mature  consi- 
deration, for  the  purpose  of  preventing  errors  as  much  as 
possible,  and  of  leading  the  student  of  nature,  along  the 
shortest  and  safest  path,  to  the  attainment  of  true  and  useful 
knowledge.     These  rides  may  be  reduced  to  four,  viz. 

1.  We  are  to  admit  no  more  causes  of  natural  things, 
than  such  as  are  both  true,  and  sufficient  to  explain  the 
appearances. 

2.  Therefore,  to  the  same  natural  effects  we  must,  as  far 
as  possible,  assign  the  same  causes. 

3.  Such  qualities  of  bodies  as  are  not  capable  of  increase, 
or  of  decrease,  and  which  are  found  to  belong  to  all  bodies 
within  the  reach  of  our  experience,  are  to  be  esteemed  the 
universal  qualities  of  all  bodies  whatsoever. 

4.  In  experimental  philosophy  we  are  to  look  upon  propo- 
sitions collected  by  general  induction  from  phenomena,  as 
accurately,  or  very  nearly  true,  notwithstanding  any  contrary 
hypothesis  that  may  be  imagined,  till  such  time  as  other  phe- 
nomena occui',  by  which  they  may  either  be  corrected,  or 
may  be  shown  to  be  liable  to  exceptions. 

With  respect  to  the  degree  of  evidence  which  ought  to  be 
expected  in  natural  philosophy,  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that 
physical  matters  are  not,  in  general,  capable  of  such  absolute 
certainty  as  the  branches  of  mathematics.  The  propositions 
of  the  latter  science  are  clearly  deduced  from  a  set  of  axioms 
so  very  simple  and  evident,  as  to  convey  perfect  conviction 
to  the  mind  ;  nor  can  any  of  them  be  denied  without  a  mani- 
fest absurdity.  But  in  natural  philosophy  we  can  only  say, 
that  because  certain  particular  eflects  have  been  constantly 
produced  under  certain  circumstances,  therefore  they  will 
most  probably  continue  to  be  produced  as  long  as  the  same 
circumstances  exist ;  and  likewise  that  they  do,  in  all  pro- 
bability, depend  upon  those  circumstances.  And  this  is  what 
we  mean  liy  liiioa  of  nature,  viz.,  certain  effects  which  are,  or 
have  been  imifurmly,  produced  by  certain  causes,  as  far  as 
our  observations  reach. 

We  mav,  indeed,  assume  various  physical  principles,  and 
by  reasoning  >ipon  them,  we  may  strictly  demonstrate  the 
deduction  of  certain  consequences.  But  as  the  demonstration 
goes  no  farther  than  to  prove,  that  such  consequences  must 


E  X  P 


408 


EXP 


iieei'ssarily  follow  the  principles  whieli  have  been  assumed  ; 
the  consequences  themselves  can  have  no  greater  degree  of 
certainty  than  the  principles  are  possessed  of;  so  that  they 
are  true,  or  false,  or  probable,  according  as  the  principles 
upon  which  they  depend  are  true,  or  false,  or  probable. 

The  foundations  of  ex[ierimental  philosophy,  as  we  have 
already  observed,  are  the  properties  of  natural  bodies,  viz., 
of  all  these  bodii^s,  cither  solid  or  fluid,  which  in  any  way 
mMccI  any  of  our  senses  ;  ami  since  our  senses  are  affected  by 
the  properties  of  these  bodies,  viz.,  by  their  extension,  colour, 
hardness,  transparency,  &c.,  we  cannot  know  any  more  of 
these  bodies  than  what  is  manifested  to  us  by  such  pro])erties 
only  as  we  are  able  to  perceive.  Were  wc  furnished  with 
other  senses,  doubtless  we  might  discover  other  properties 
which  would  make  us  more  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  such  bodies. 

Iluuiau  art  has  not  been  able  to  discover  more  senses 
than  those  which  everybody  knows;  but  it  has,  in  great 
measure,  improved  some  of  those  which  we  possess,  and  this 
alone  is  sufficient  to  point  out  the  limited  nature  of  our  per- 
ceptions. Thus,  for  instance,  the  discovery  of  the  micro- 
scope and  the  telescope  have  shown  us  wonders,  of  which 
our  foietalhers  were  utterly  ignorant ;  and  the  number  and 
variety  of  these  wonders  have  increased,  in  proportion  as  the 
above-mentioned  instruments  have  been  improved.  The 
impiovements  of  these  instruments  have  been  suggested  by 
the  discoveries  that  have  been  made  respecting  the  refi'angi- 
bility  of  iight,  and  the  properties  of  transparent  bodies,  and 
these  have  been  made  in  consequence  of  the  innumerable 
experiments  that  have  been  instituted  by  various  intelligent 
persons,  llius  it  appears,  that  by  means  of  trials  and  obser- 
vations, new  racts  are  ascertained,  which,  besides  their  being 
immediately  usetul  to  the  human  species,  furnish,  at  the  same 
time,  the  means  of  making  farther  discoveries  ;  and  the  trea- 
sures of  the  natural  world  are  far,  indeed,  from  a  state  of 
exhaustion.  Hence  the  improvements  and  the  discoveries 
of  experimental  philosophy  proceed  in  a  kind  of  increasing 
geometrical  progression  ;  unless  they  are  impeded  by  some 
extraordinary  occuri-ence. 

In  contemplating  the  intimate  nature  of  natural  bodies, 
when  our  mind  goes  beyond  the  bounds  of  our  senses,  (and 
our  senses,  even  with  the  assistance  of  instruments  and  rea- 
soning, are  only  capable  of  perceiving  a  few  properties  of 
those  bodies ;)  we  wander  in  the  boundless  field  of  probability 
and  conjecture.  Two  principal  hypotheses  have  been  enter- 
tained with  respect  to  the  primitive  component  particles  of 
bodies.  One  is,  that  the  jiarticles  of  each  peculiar  species 
of  bodies  are  different  from  the  particles  of  another  species  of 
bodies.  Thus  the  primitive  particles  of  gold  are  supposed 
to  be  diftorent  from  the  particles  of  calcareous  earth,  dillercnt 
from  the  particles  of  water,  &c.  The  other  hypothesis  is, 
that  there  is  one  kind  of  primitive,  or  original  particles  of 
matter,  and  that  from  the  dilll-rcnt  arrangement  of  those 
ultimate  particles,  the  various  bodies  arise.  Ex|ierience  shows, 
that  certain  bodies,  which  at  dv^t  sight  appear  to  be  abso- 
lutely difteient  from  each  other,  are,  upon  farther  exami- 
nation, exactly  of  the  same  nature.  On  the  other  hiuid, 
a  vast  number  of  bodies  are  so  distinct  from  each  other,  that 
no  ai't  has  been  able  to  form  one  of  them  from  the  particles 
of  the  other;  thus  gold  cannot  be  convcrti'd  into  a  diamond, 
iron  amnot  be  converted  into  lead,  &c.  The  former  of  these 
observations  seems  to  favour  the  second  hypothesis ;  the  latter 
seems  to  favour  the  first  hypothesis;  but  it  is  not  in  our 
power  to  determine  the  real  state  of  the  matter. 

With  respect  to  the  number  of  bodies,  which,  by  our  not 
being  able  to  change  one  of  them  into  the  other,  are  called 
elementary,  or  primitive  and  distinct ;  it  may  be  remarked. 


that  new  bodies  are  frequently  discovered  in  proportion  as 
new  instruments,  and  the  improvements  of  science  in  general, 
furnish  us  with  the  means  of  discriminating  them  from 
others.  We  arc  thus  naturally  led  to  conclude,  that  in  all 
probability  there  exists  a  vast  number  of  other  bodies,  of 
which  we  at  present  have  not  the  least  suspicion.  Some  of 
these  may  perhaps  be  discovered  hereafter,  others  may  re- 
main utterly  unknown  to  the  human  species  for  ever. 

The  proporties'of  natural  bodies,  which  are  the  objects  of 
research  to  the  experimental  philosopher,  are  either  general, 
or  particular.  The  general  properties,  w'hich  belong  to  all 
kinds  of  bodies,  are,  as  far  as  we  know,  not  more  than  six  ; 
viz.,  extension,  divisibility,  impenetrability,  mobility,  vis 
inertia^  or  passiveness,  and  gravitation.  'We  have  said  that 
these  are  the  general  properties  as  far  as  we  know,  because 
matter  in  general  may  possiess  other  properties  with  which 
we  are  yet  unacquainted.  And  the  same  observation  may 
be  made  with  respect  to  the  universality  of  these  properties: 
foi'  they  are  said  to  be  general,  because  nobody  was  ever 
found  which  wanted  any  one  of  them.  But  mankind  are  not 
acquainted  with  all  the  bodies  of  the  universe,  and  many 
which  are  known  to  exist,  cannot  be  subjected  to  ex- 
periments. 

The  ]ieculiar  pro[)erties,  viz..  those  which  belong  to  cer- 
tain bodies  only,  and  not  to  others,  are  density,  rarity,  hard- 
ness, softness,  fluidity,  rigiditj-,  flexibility,  elasticity,  opacity, 
transparency,  the  properties  of  light,  the  properties  of  heat, 
the  properties  of  electricity,  the  properties  of  magnetism, 
and  three  other  kinds  of  attraction,  (independent  of  gravi- 
tation, of  electricity  and  of  magnetism.)  viz.,  the  attraction 
of  aggregation,  which  the  homogeneous  parts  of  matter  have 
towards  each  other,  or  by  which  they  adhere  together ;  and 
such  is  the  power  by  which  two  small  drops  of  mercury,  when 
placed  contiguous  to  each  other,  rush,  as  it  were,  into  each 
other,  and  form  a  single  drop  ;  the  attraction  of  cohesion,  or 
that  power  by  which  the  heterogeneous  jiarticles  of  bodies 
adhere  to  each  other  without  any  change  of  their  natural 
properties,  such  as  the  adhesion  of  water  to  glass,  of  oil  to 
iron,  &c.  ;  and  the  attraction  of  composition,  or  of  affinity, 
which  is  the  temlency  that  the  parts  of  heterogeneous 
bodies  have  towards  each  other,  by  which  they  combine, 
and  form  a  body,  differing  more  or  less  from  any  of  its 
components. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  of  all  these  properties  we  know 
their  existence  only,  and  some  of  the  laws  under  which  they 
act;  but  we  are  otherwise  utterly  ignorant  of  their  nature 
and  dependence. 

The  investigation  of  some  of  the  above-mentioned  pro- 
perties, whether  general  or  particular,  has  been  carried  much 
farther  than  the  investigation  of  other  properties.  The  results 
of  these  investigations  have  likewise  been  various,  both  in 
point  of  extent  and  of  application.  Some  of  them  are  so 
very  extensive  and  so  useful,  as  to  form  tlie  foundations 
of  very  important  branches  of  science,  or  of  art.  under  peculiar 
appellations.  Thus,  upon  the  mobility,  and  the  vis  iiicrtise 
of  bodies,  the  doctrine  of  motion,  or  dynamics,  is  grounded, 
which  comprehends  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  or  the  mechanical 
properties  of  fluids,  pneumatics,  &C.  Transparency  and  the 
properties  of  li<;ht  fiirin  the  important  foundation  of  optics. 
The  attraction  of  afllnity  is  the  foundation  of  chemistry,  as 
well  as  of  vaiious  arts  ;  and  so  forth. 

The  phenomena  of  the  universe,  are  the  appearances  which 
take  place  in  consequence  of  the  above-mentioned  properties 
t)f  natural  bodies,  together  (respecting  some  of  them  at  least) 
with  some  original  impulse.  The  phenomena  which  take 
place  amongst  the  luminous  celestial  bodies,  projierly  so 
called,  such  as  the  stars,  the  planets,  &c..  are  examined   by 


EXP 


409 


EXT 


a  particular  soieneo,  called  astronoiny ;  the  meteors,  or  the 
phenomena  wiiich  taUo  place  within  tiie  limits  of  the  terres- 
trial atmosphere,  snch  as  shooting  stars,  northern  lights, 
halos,  rain,  togs,  hail,  winds,  &c.,  form  the  snbject  of 
meteorology. 

EXPLOSK  )N,  in  natnral  philosophy,  a  sudden  and  violent 
expansion  of  an  aerial  or  other  elastic  fluid,  by  which  it 
instantly  throws  oil'  any  obstacle  tiiat  may  be  in  the  way. 
it  ditl'ers  from  expansion,  properly  so  called,  in  this,  that  the 
latter  is  a  gradual  and  continued  power,  whereas  the  former 
is  always  sudden,  and  of  only  momentary  duration. 

E.YPLOSION,  in  military  engineeiing.  It  is  a  matter  of 
great  moment,  so  to  load,  and  indeed  to  construct  a  mine, 
that  it  may  explode  with  the  greatest  piecision,  and  with  the 
maximimi  effect.  Numerous  theories  have  been  given  upon 
this  subject,  but  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  notice  the  whole 
of  what  appertains  thereto  in  a  work  like  this. 

In  commencing  operations,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first 
instance  to  ascertain,  so  nearly  as  may  be  practicable,  what 
depth,  and  what  weight  of  soil  is  to  be  removed  by  an 
explosion.  This  being  done,  the  mine  is  forined,  by  con- 
structing a  gallery  leading  to  the  chamber  in  which  the 
powder  is  to  be  placed.  This  must  be  deposited  in  a  very 
strong  chest,  let  into  a  recess,  and  firmly  secured  in  every 
part.  Now,  it  being  the  nature  of  rarefied  air  to  escape  by 
that  part  which  may  be  the  weakest,  it  is  evident,  that  if  a 
mine  is  made  under  a  rampart,  so  as  to  be  within  six  feet  of 
the  sui-face,  while  all  the  sides  are  thicker  by  far  than  that 
measurement,  the  explosion  will  be  directed  towards  that 
part  which  is  thinnest,  and  which,  from  that  circumstance,  is 
called  "  the  line  of  least  resistance." 

But,  in  order  to  direct  the  explosion  to  that  part,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  consider  whether  the  soil  be  everywhere 
alike ;  for  if  the  superincumbent  portion  .should  be  part  of 
a  large  stratified  rock,  while  the  sides  are  of  a  loose,  inad- 
hesive substance,  the  latter,  though  measuring  more  in  dia- 
meter will  give  the  line  of  least  resistance,  which,  in  such 
case,  would  follow  the  intenacity,  and  create  a  false  explosion. 
For  it  must  be  recollected  that  explosions  may  be  lateral  as 
well  as  vertical. 

It  was  formerly  supposed,  that  the  diameter  of  the  enlonnoir, 
or  explosion,  was  equal  to  double  the  line  of  least  resistance  ; 
but  we  find  that  six  times  that  line  may  be  exploded,  by 
allowing  a  load  of  300  lbs.  of  gunpowder,  duly  concen- 
trated, and  fired  in  the  middle  of  the  mass,  for  every  foot 
of  the  line  of  least  resistance.  We  are  not  to  infer  from 
this,  that  oOOlbs.  will  be  requisite  to  lift  one  foot  of  soil ; 
far  from  it ;  for  as  a  cubic  foot  of  excavation  will  contain 
only  75  lbs.  of  powder,  the  above  quantity  (300  lbs.)  would 
require  a  space  of  exactly  four  cubic  feet ;  the  proportion 
would  therefore  be  preposterous.  But  when  we  calculate 
upon  large  masses  of  soil,  such  as  those  prodigious  cones 
thrown  out  from  entonnoirs  of  great  extent,  we  then  find, 
that,  to  produce  the  completest  explosion,  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  powder  must  be  supplied. 

It  is  self  evident,  that  the  power  of  the  powder,  according 
to  the  above  scale,  is  only  computed  to  that  extent  which 
may  be  necessary  towards  the  ordinary  purposes  of  military 
devastation ;  for  if  we  were  to  contribute,  ad  injinitiim, 
3001bs.  of  gunpowder  for  every  foot  in  tlie  line  of  least  resist- 
ance, we  should  be  accumulating  power  only  in  arithinetical 
proportion,  while  the  resistance  would  be  increasing  in  a 
geometrical  ratio  :  of  course  the  power  must  be  in  a  regular 
state  of  compai'ative  diminution,  in  proportion  as  the  line  of 
least  resistance  is  increased;  and  this  must,  after  a  while 
occasion  the  powder  to  be  inert;  or,  if  there  should  be  any 
explosion,  it  could  only  follow  the  track  of  the  train  Its 
52 


ignition,  to  be  sure,  might  be  felt  partially,  like  that  of  a 
slight  earthquake,  but  no  superficial  effects  would  be 
observable. 

It  has  been  already  stated,  that  the  powder  must  be  lodged 
in  bulk ;  and  that  it  should  be  ignited  at  the  centre.  This 
may,  perhaps,  appear  superfluous;  but  all  military  men 
know,  that  much  powder  is  blown  out  of  the  muzzles  of 
pieces  without  ever  being  ignited  ;  and  we  have  a  most 
remarkable  fact  in  modern  times,  one  indeed,  which  shows, 
that,  unless  in  bulk,  powder  is  not  always  sure  to  be  fired 
ill  loto.     The  incident  alluded  to  is  as  follows: — 

In  the  month  of  March,  in  the  year  1809,  a  barge  was 
proceeding  along  the  new  cut,  from  Paddington,  laden  with 
casks  of  spirits  and  barrels  of  gunpowder.  One  of  the  crew, 
it  is  supposed,  allured  by  the  former,  bored  a  hole  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  oft'a  little  wherewith  to  tipple.  Unhappily 
the  action  of  the  gimblet  set  fire  to  the  contents  of  that  barrel, 
which  the  dishonest  navigator  had  mistaken  for  one  of  spirits. 
The  barrel  exploded,  and  drove  eleven  other  barrels,  filled 
with  gunpowder  also,  to  the  distance  of  near  a  hundred  and 
fifty  yards.  It  is  curious,  that  although  the  whole  of  the 
powder-barrels  were  together,  indeed  in  contact,  only  that 
in  question  exploded. 

Vauban  gives  us  the  following  scale  for  exploding  soils  of 
various  descriptions.  He  calculates,  or  perhaps  found  from 
experience,  that  for  a  cubic  fjithom  (six  feet)  of  soil, 
measuring  in  all  216  solid  feet,  the  following  proportions  of 
gunpowder  were  needful. 

lb. 

1.  Light  e.arth,  mixed  with  sand   ...  11 

2.  Common  earth 12 

3.  Strong  sand 15 

4.  Clay,  or  fat  earth 16 

5.  Old,  and  good  masonry IS 

6.  Rock 20 

In  following  this  calculation,  we  are  to  consider  the 
entonnoir  to  be  in  diameter  equal  to  only  double  the  line  of 
least  resistance ;  and  not  according  to  a  maximum  explosion. 

A  new  substance,  gun-cotton,  which  is  cotton  wool  steeped 
in  nitric  or  nitro-sulphuric  acid,  and  dried,  by  which  it 
becomes  explosive,  has  been  lately  introduced  as  a  substitute 
for  gunpowder  in  blasting.  It  is  not  yet  sufficiently  under- 
stood to  have  come  into  extensive  use. 

EXPONENT,  in  algebra,  is  a  number  placed  over  any 
power  or  involved  quantity,  to  show  to  what  height  the  root 
is  raised  ;  thus  2  is  the  exponent  of  a;'  and  4  is  the  exponent 
of  j:*  or  a;  a;  x  x. 

EXPONENTIAL  CURVES,  those  curves  which  partake 
both  of  the  nature  of  algebraic  and  transcendental  ones. 
They  are  algebraical  in  their  nature,  because  they  consist 
of  a  finite  number  of  terms,  though  these  terms  themselves 
are  indeterminate,  and  they  are  in  some  measure  transcen- 
dental, because  they  cannot  be  algebraically  coustructed. 

EXPOSURE,  the  act  of  exposing  or  laying  open  to  view ; 
as  we  say  a  building,  a  garden,  or  a  wall,  had  a  northern  or 
a  southern  exposvre,  and  we  speak  of  its  exposure  or  exposi- 
tion to  a  free  current  of  air,  or  to  the  access  of  light. 

EXTEND,  to  stretch  in  any  direction,  to  continue  in 
length  as  a  line,  to  spread  in  breadth. 

EXTENSION,  in  philosophy,  one  of  the  general  and 
essential  properties  of  matter;  the  extension  of  a  body  being 
the  quantity  of  space  which  the  l)ody  occupies,  the  extremities 
of  which  limit  or  circumscribe  the  matter  of  that  body.  It  is 
otherwise  called  the  inagiiitude,  or  she,  or  bttik  of  a  body. 

A  quantity  of  matter  may  be  very  small,  or  so  as  to  elude 
the  perception  of  our  senses,  such  as  a  particle  of  air,  a  particle 


E  X  T 


410 


EXT 


of  water,  &c. :  vet  some  extension  it  must  have,  and  it  is  by 
the  coiriparison  of  this  extension,  that  one  body  is  said  to  be 
larger  tlian,  equal  to,  or  smaller  than,  another  body.  The 
measurement  of  a  body  consists  in  the  comparison  of  the 
extension  of  that  body  with  some  determinate  extension, 
which  is  assumed  as  a  standard,  such  as  an  inch,  a  foot,  a 
yard,  a  mile ;  hence  it  is  said,  that  a  body  is  a  foot  long,  or 
three  inches  long,  &c. 

The  extension  of  a  body  is  measured  three  dilleront  ways; 
or  a  body  is  said  to  have  length,  breadth,  and  thicliness. 
Thus  an  ordinary  sheet  of  writing  jiapcr  is  about  1(>  inches 
lung,  about  14  inches  broad,  and  ucaily  one  hundredth  part 
of  an  inch  thidv.  Either  of  these  dimensions  might  be  called 
tlic  length,  or  the  breadth,  or  the  thickness;  but,  by  general 
custom,  the  greatest  extension  is  called  the  length,  the  next 
is  called  the  breadth,  and  the  shortest  is  called  the  thicl<ness. 
The  outside  of  ^  body,  its  boundary,  or  that  which  lies  con- 
tiguous to  other  bodies  that  are  next  to  it,  is  called  the 
surface  of  that  body,  and  this  surface  has  two  dimensions 
only,  viz.,  length  and  breadth  ;  but  it  has  no  thickness,  for 
if  it  had,  it  wuuld  not  be  the  outside  of  the  body  ;  yet  a 
surface  by  itself  cannot  exist.  In  matiien-.atics,  however, 
surlaces  are  mentioned,  and  arc  reasoned  upon,  abstractedly 
from  matter.  But  in  these  cases  the  surfaces  exist  in  the 
imagination  only,  and  even  then  our  ideas  liave  a  i-eference 
to  body,  for  our  senses  cannot  perceive  a  surface  without 
a  body. 

As  a  surface  is  the  outside  or  boundary  of  a  body,  so  a  line 
is  the  boundary  of  a  finite  surface.  JSuppose,  for  instance,  that 
a  surface  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  common  boundary  of 
the  two  parts  is  called  a  line  ;  this  has  one  extension  only, 
viz.,  it  has  length. 

The  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  line,  or  the  intersection  of 
two  lines  which  cross  each  other,  is  called  a  2>oin/,  and  this 
has  no  dimensions;  or,  according  to  the  mathematical  defi- 
nition, a  point  is  that  which  has  no  parts  or  magnitude,  its 
use  frequently  is  to  mark  a  situation  only  as  a  point  upon  a 
surliicc  by  the  intersection  of  two  lines,  &c.  Thus,  if  you 
divide  a  line  into  two  parts,  the  division  or  bouudary  between 
the  two  parts  is  a  point. 

Our  senses  are  only  capable  of  perceiving  bodies  which 
have  three  dimensions;  or  rather  the  surfaces  of  bodies, 
which  surfaces  have  two  dimensions,  but  a  surface  cannot 
be  represented  nor  perceived  without  a  body,  and  of  course 
neither  a  line  nor  a  point  can  be  perceived  without  a  body. 
In  the  study  of  geometry,  and  in  a  variety  of  other  branches, 
surfaces,  lines,  and  points  are  represented  uiion  paper,  or 
upon  something  else ;  but  in  those  cases,  the  paper,  or  that 
something  else,  is  the  body  whose  surface  we  perceive,  and 
the  surface  of  a  particular  figure  is  circumscribed,  not  by 
real  lines,  but  by  a  narrow  slip  of  surface,  which  is  sufficient 
to  direct  our  reasoning  with  respect  to  the  geometrical  pro- 
perties of  lines  and  surfaces.  Thus  also,  w^hen  points  are 
represented  by  themselves,  the  marks  are  not  real  points, 
but  very  small  portions  of  the  surfoce  of  a  body. 

Tiierc  is  a  case  in  which  extension  is  often  said  to  be  per- 
ceived without  the  existence  of  a  body,  and  this  is  the  exten- 
sion between  two  bodies.  But,  upon  consideration,  it  will 
easily  be  comprehended,  that  we  may  perceive  the  two 
bodies,  and  that  they  are  separate  from  each  other;  but 
we  Ciinnut  perceive  anything  positive  between  them.  So 
that  in  this  case  the  word  exten^ion  is  used  in  a  figurative 
manner,  as  if  some  other  body  existed  between  the  two 
bodies. 

The  particular  extension,  whether  under  the  name  of 
inch,  foot,  yard,  metre,  league,  i.Vc.,  with  which  other  exten- 
sions are  compared,  or  by  which  they  are  measured,  is  estab- 


lished only  by  the  common  consent  or  agreement  of  persons 
of  a  certain  nation,  or  pvoft'ssion,  and  used  as  standard  mea- 
sure by  them  only.  Hence,  the  measures  of  diffi-rent  nations, 
though  sometimes  they  have  the  same  name,  difTer  consider- 
ably from  each  other.  Great  endeavours  have  been  made  by 
divers  ingenious  persons,  at  ditTerent  times,  for  the  purpose 
of  deterniiiiing  an  unalterable  universal  standard  of  measures; 
those  endeavours,  and  the  results  with  which  they  have  been 
attended,  will  be  found  described  under  the  article  Standahd 
of  Measures. 

Extension  is  usually  described  as  consisting  in  the  situation 
of  parts  beyond  parts  ;  but  to  this  definition  some  authors 
object,  maintaining,  that  we  can  conceive  absolute  extension 
without  any  relation  to  parts. 

If  a  man  consider  the  distance  between  two  bodies 
abstractedly,  and  without  any  regard  to  bodies  which  may 
fill  that  interval,  it  is  called  space ;  and  when  he  considers 
the  distance  between  the  extremes  of  a  solid  body,  it  is  called 
extension. 

Extension  is  frequently  confounded  with  quantity  and 
magnitude;  and,  for  what  we  can  perceive,  without  much 
harm,  the  thing  signified  by  them  all  appearing  to  be  the 
same;  unless  we  admit  a  distinction  made  by  some  authors, 
that  the  extension  of  a  body  is  something  more  absulnte,  and 
its  quantity  and  m;ignitude  more  respective,  or  implying  a 
nearer  relation  to  much  and  little.  The  infinite  divisibility 
of  extension  has  been  a  famous  question  in  all  ages.  It  is  not 
easy  to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of  mathematicians  on  this 
head  with  the  tenets  of  some  philosophers.  Those  who  hold 
that  all  extension  and  magnitude  are  compounded  of  certain 
minima  seiisihi/ia ;  and  that  a  line,  for  instance,  cainiot 
increase  or  decrease,  but  by  certain  invisible  increments  or 
decrements  only,  must,  consistently  with  themselves,  afbrm, 
that  all  lines  are  commensuraVile  to  each  other.  But  this  is 
contrary  to  the  tenth  book  of  Euclid,  who  demonstrates  that 
the  diagonal  of  a  square  is  incommensurable  to  its  side.  And 
further,  if  all  lines  were  composed  of  certain  indivisible 
elements,  it  is  plain  one  of  those  elements  must  be  the  com- 
mon measure  of  the  diagonal  and  the  side. 

Bishop  Berkeley  observes,  that  the  infinite  divisibility  of 
finite  extension,  though  it  is  not  expressly  laid  down,  either 
as  an  axiom  or  theorem  in  the  elements  of  geometry,  is  yet 
throughout  the  same  everywhere  supposed,  and  thought  to 
have  so  inseparable  and  essential  a  connection  with  the  prin- 
ciples and  demonstrations  in  geometry,  that  mathematicians 
never  admit  it  into  doubt,  or  make  the  least  question  of  it. 
And  as  this  notion  is  the  source  from  whence  do  spring 
all  those  amusing  geometrical  paradoxes,  which  have  such 
a  direct  repugnancy  to  the  plain  common  sense  of  mankind  ; 
so  it  is  the  "principal  occasion  of  all  that  nice  and  extreme 
subtilty  which  renders  the  study  of  mathematics  so  difficidt 
and  tedious.  Hence,  says  he,  if  we  can  make  it  appear,  that 
no  finite  extension  ctmtains  inimmerable  parts,  or  is  infinitely 
divisible,  it  follows,  that  we  shall  at  once  clear  the  science  of 
geometrv  from  a  great  number  of  difficulties  and  contradic- 
tions which  have  ever  been  esteemed  a  reproach  to  human 
reason,  and  withal,  make  the  attainment  thereof  a  business 
of  much  less  time  and  pains  than  it  hitherto  hath  been. 

Every  particular  finite  extension,  which  may  possibly  be 
the  object  of  our  thought,  is  an  idea  existing  only  in  the 
mind,  and  consequently  each  part  thereof  must  be  perceived. 
If  therefore,  says  this  author,  I  caimot  perceive  innumerable 
parts  in  any  finite  extension  that  I  consider,  it  is  certain 
they  are  not  contained  in  it;  but  it  is  evident,  that  1  cannot 
distinguisli  iimiuncrable  parts  in  any  particular  line,  surface, 
or  solid,  which  1  either  perceive  by  sense,  or  figure  to  myself 
in  my  mind ;  wherefore,  1  conclude  they  are  not  contained 


ID  IE  TA 1 1.  S  , 


B.TJiiv,; 


V  A  B 


411 


FAC 


in  it.  Nothing  can  lie  pliiiiier  to  mc  than  that  the  extensions 
I  have  in  view  arc  ir>  other  than  my  own  ideas;  and  it  is  no 
le^s  plain,  that  1  cannot  resolve  any  one  of  my  ideas  into  an 
infinite  luiiiiher  of  otiier  ideas;  that  is,  that  they  arc  not 
infinitely  divisible.  If  by  an  infinite  extension  bf  meant 
sonxetliing  distinct  from  a  finite  idea,  I  declare  1  do  nut  know 
what  that  is,  and  so  cannot  affirm  or  deny  anything  of  it. 
But  if  the  terms  extension,  parts,  and  the  like,  arc  taken  in 
any  sense  conceivable;  that  is,  for  ideas;  then  to  say  a  finite 
quantity  or  extension  consists  of  parts  infinite  in  number,  is 
so  manifest  a  contradiction,  that  every  one  at  first  sight 
acknowledges  it  to  be  so. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  observed  by  an  eminent  mathema- 
tician, that  geometricians  are  under  no  necessity  of  supposing 
that  a  finite  quantity  of  extension  consists  of  parts  infinite 
in  number,  or  that  there  are  any  more  parts  in  a  given  mag- 
nitude tiian  they  can  conceive  or  express  :  it  is  sufficient  that 
it  may  be  conceived  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of  parts 
equal  to  any  given  or  proposed  number;  and  this  is  all  that 
is  supposed  in  strict  geometry  concerning  the  divisibilit)'  of 
magnitude.  It  is  true,  that  the  number  of  parts  into  which 
a  given  magnitude  may  be  conceived  to  be  divided,  is  not  to 
be  fixed  or  limited  because  no  given  number  is  so  great,  but 
a  greater  than  it  may  be  conceived  and  assigned  :  but  there 
is  not  therefore  any  necessity  (or  supposing  that  number 
infinite  ;  and  if  some  may  have  drawn  very  abstruse  conse- 
quences from  such  suppositions  they  are  not  to  be  imjiuted 
to  geometry.  Geometricians  are  under  no  necessity  of  sup- 
posing a  given  magnitude  to  be  divided  into  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  parts,  or  to  be  made  up  of  infinitesimals ;  nevertheless 
they  cannot  so  well  avoid  supposing  it  to  be  divided  into 
a  greater  number  of  parts  than  may  be  distinguished  in  it  by 
sense  in  any  particular  determinate  circumstance.  But  they 
find  no  difficulty  in  conceiving  this  ;  and  such  a  supposition 
does  not  appear  to  be  repugnant  to  the  common  sense  of  man- 
kind, but.  on  the  contrary,  to  be  most  agreeable  to  it,  and  to 
be  illustrated  by  common  observation.  It  would  seem  very 
unaccountable  not  to  allow  them  to  conceive  a  given  line,  of 
an  inch  in  length  for  example,  viewed  at  the  distance  of  10 
feet,  to  be  divided  into  more  parts  than  are  discerned  in  it  at 
that  distance  :  since  by  bringing  it  nearer,  a  greater  number 
of  parts  is  actually  perceived  in  it.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  limit 
the  number  of  paits  that  may  be  perceived  in  it  when  it  is 
brought  near  to  the  eye,  and  is  seen  through  a  little  hole  in 
a  thin  plate  ;  or,  when  by  any  other  contrivance  it  is  rendered 
distinct  at  small  distances  from  the  eye.  If  we  conceive  a 
given  line,  that  is  the  object  of  sight,  to  be  divided  into  more 
parts  than  we  perceive  in  it,  it  would  seem  that  no  good  rea- 
son can  be  assigned  why  we  may  not  conceive  tangible  mag- 
nitude to  be  divided  into  more  parts  than  are  perceived  in  it 
by  the  touch;  or  a  line  of  any  kind  to  be  divided  into  any 
given  number  of  parts,  whether  so  many  parts  be  actually 
distinguished  by  sense  or  not.     In  applying  the  reasonings 


and  demonstrations  of  geometricians  on  this  subject,  it  ought 
to  be  remenibeied,  that  a  surface  is  not  considered  by  them 
as  a  body  of  the  least  sensible  magnitude,  but  as  the  termi- 
nation or  boundary  of  a  body  ;  a  line  is  not  considered  as 
a  surface  of  the  least  sensible  breadth,  but  as  the  termination 
or  limit  of  a  snrtace  ;  nor  is  a  point  considered  as  the  least 
sensible  line,  or  a  moment  as  the  least  perceptible  time  ;  but 
a  point  as  a  termination  of  a  line,  and  a  moment  as  a  termi- 
nation of  a  limit  of  time.  In  this  sense  they  conceive  clearly 
what  a  surface,  line,  point,  and  a  moment  of  time,  is;  and  the 
postulata  of  Euclid  being  allowed  and  applied  in  this  sense, 
the  proofs  by  which  it  is  shown,  that  a  given  magnitude  may 
be  conceived  to  be  divided  into  any  given  number  of  parts, 
appear  satisfactory  ;  and  if  we  avoid  supposing  the  parts  of 
a  given  magnitude  to  be  infinitely  small,  or  to  be  infinite  in 
number,  this  seems  to  bo  all  that  the  most  scrupulous  can 
require. 

Dr.  Reid,  in  his  "  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind,  on  the 
Principles  of  Common  Sense,"  considers  that  it  is  absurd  to 
deduce  from  sensation  the  first  origin  of  our  notions  of  exter- 
nal existence,  of  space,  motion,  and  extension,  and  all  the 
primary  qualities  of  bodies;  they  have,  he  says,  no  resem- 
blance to  any  sensation,  or  to  any  operation  of  our  minds, 
and  therefore  they  cannot  be  ideas  either  of  sensation  or 
reflection  ;  nor  can  he  conceive  how  extension,  or  any  image 
of  extension,  can  be  in  an  unextended  and  indivisible  subject 
like  the  human  mind. 

EXTERNAL,  or  Exterior,  (from  the  Latin  cxterinis, 
outward,)  a  term  of  relation,  applied  to  whatever  is  on  the 
surface  or  outside  of  a  body,  and  opposed  to  internal  or 
interior. 

ExTEitxAL  or  Exterior  Angles.     See  Angles. 

EXTRAL~)(_)S,  (from  the  Latin,  extra,  outer,  and  dorsum, 
the  back,)  the  external  surface  of  a  vault.  The  surface 
on  the  iqjper  side  of  the  voussoirs  of  an  arch.  See  Arch, 
Bridge. 

EXTREjSIE,  (from  the  Latin  extremus,  utmost,)  whatever 
finishes  or  terminates  on  one  side  of  a  thing.  The  extremes 
of  a  line  are  points. 

EYE,  (from  the  Saxon.)  a  circular  window  in  a  pediment, 
attic,  the  reins  of  a  vault,  or  the  like. 

Eve,  Bullock^s,  (in  French,  itil  de  bmnf)  a  little  skylight 
in  the  covering  or  roof,  intended  to  illuminate  a  granary,  &c. 
It  is  also  applied  to  the  little  lanterns  in  a  dome,  as  at  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  which  has  forty-eight,  in  three  rows. 

Eve  of  a  Dome,  the  aperture  at  the  summit,  as  that  of  the 
Pantheon  at  Rome,  or  of  St.  Paul's,  London. 

Eye  of  a  Volute,  the  circle  at  the  centre,  from  the  cir- 
cumference of  which  the  spiral  line  commences.  &«  Spiral 
and  Volute. 

Eye,  in  perspective,  the  poiiit  where  the  organ  of  vision  is 
fixed,  in  order  to  view  the  object. 

Eye-Brow,  the  same  as  Fillet,  which  see. 


F. 


FAB 

FABER,  a  workman,  the  Romans  gave  this  name  to 
artisans  or  mechanics  who  worked  in  hard  materials. 

FABRIC,  (from  the  \-.aXm,  fabrica,  French  fabriqiie,  origi- 
nally the  workshop  of  a  mechanic,  a  s!nilh\s  shop  or  fort/e)  the 
structure  cff  construction  of  anything,  particularly  a  building. 

In  Italy,  the  word  is  applied  to  any  considerable  building  ; 
in  France,  it  rather  signifies  the  manner  of  building. 


FAC 

FAQADE,  or  Face,  (from  the  Latin  fades,  the  front)  the 
fitce  or  front  view  of  an  edifice ;  that  portion  of  the  snrfiice 
of  a  building  which  presents  itself  to  the  eye.  Fafade  was 
used  originally  to  denote  the  principal  front  of  a  building; 
and  the  term  Facciata,  used  by  the  Italians,  is,  for  the  most 
part,  applied  to  such  fronts  as  have  a  principal  entrance.  The 
word  is  now  generally  made  use  of  when  speaking  of  archi- 


FAH 


412 


FAR 


tectural  buildings,  as  the  fayade  of  tlie  Louvre,  or  the  fafade 
of  St.  Pcter"s,  &c. 

FACE,  or  Facia  (from  the  Latin)  a  vertical  ineiiiber  in 
the  combination  of  mouldings,  having  a  very  small  projection, 
but  considerable  breadth ;  such  as  the  bands  of  an  areliitrave. 
See  Fascia. 

Face  Mould,  in  the  preparation  of  the  hand-rail  of  a 
stair,  a  mould  for  drawing  tlie  jiropcr  figure  on  both  sides  of 
the  plank  ;  so  that  when  cut  by  a  saw  held  at  a  certain 
inclination,  the  two  surfaces  of  the  rail-piece  will  be  every 
where  perpendicular  to  the  plan,  when  laid  in  their  intended 
position. 

Face  of  a  Stone,  the  surface  intended  for  the  front  of  the 
work.  The  face  is  easily  known  when  the  stone  is  scalped, 
as  being  opposite  to  the  back,  which  is  mngli  as  it  comes 
from  the  quarry.  The  surface  of  the  splitting  grain  ought 
always  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  face. 

FACET,  or  Facette,  a  flat  projection  between  the 
ilutings  of  columns. 

FACIA.     See  Fascia. 

FACING,  in  engineering,  a  small  thickness  of  common 
earth,  soil,  or  stuff  of  a  canal,  laid  in  front  of  the  side  lining 
or  puddle  on  the  sloping  sides.  It  is  of  use  to  hold  up  the 
puddle  while  working  and  chopping,  in  the  act  of  puddling, 
aud  afterwards  to  guard  the  puddle  from  being  penetrated  by 
the  hitchei'8  and  poles  used  by  the  barge-men. 

FACING,  a  thin  covering  of  a  better  material,  to  improve 
the  appearance,  or  add  to  the  strength  of  anything.  Thus 
the  thin  covering  of  polished  stone,  or  the  stratum  of  plaster, 
or  cement  on  a  brick  or  rough  stone  wall  is  called  a  facing. 

Facing,  FA9ADE,  or  Revetement,  in  fortification,  the  por- 
tion of  masonry,  or  rather  building,  given  to  ramparts,  with 
a  view  to  prevent  the  soil  of  which  they  are  composed  from 
crumbling  or  giving  way.  When  the  wall  is  of  masonry,  it 
should  be  .5  feet  thick  at  the  top,  with  tresses,  called  counter- 
forts, at  about  I.')  feet  apart,  to  .strengthen  the  facing.  In 
order  to  prevent  escalade,  the  facing  is  generally  made  full 
27  feet  high,  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  the  cordon. 
AVhcn  the  facing  is  carried  up  as  high  as  the  soles  of  the 
embrasures,  it  is  called  a  iv/wle  revetement ;  but  when  con- 
fined to  the  ditch  only,  it  is  called  a  half  revetement.  These 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  facility  of 
obtaining  materials,  the  time  that  can  be  allowed,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  post,  &c.  When  difliculties  occur,  as  also  in 
temporary  works,  the  facings  are  made  with  turf,  in  which 
case  they  aie  said  to  be  gazoned.  For  field-works,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  conducting  of  sieges,  fascines  or  fiiggots,  made 
of  various  materials,  are  very  generally  employed,  and  answer 
the  intention. 

Facings,  in  joinery,  all  those  fi.xed  parts  of  wood-work 
which  co\  er  the  rough  work  of  the  interior  of  walls,  and 
present  themselves  to  the  eye  in  the  completion. 

FACTABLING.     &e  Coping. 

FAIR  CURVE,  in  ship-building,  a  winding  line,  used  in 
delineating  ships,  whose  shape  is  varied  according  to  the  part 
of  the  ship  which  it  is  intended  to  describe. 

FAIIUEXIIEIT,  the  presumed  inventor  of  the  thermo- 
meter which  bears  his  name.  It  is  quite  unknown  on  what 
grounds  he  made  choice  of  the  fi.xed  points  on  his  scale,  or 
of  the  number  of  graduations  between  them,  but  it  is  sup- 
posed that  one  of  the  fixed  points  was  that  of  boiling-water, 
and  that  the  other,  the  zero  of  the  scale,  was  that  at  which  the 
top  of  the  colunm  stood,  when  the  instrument  was  exposed  to 
an  intense  cold  in  Iceland,  in  1709.  The  extent  of  the  scale 
between  this  last  point,  and  that  of  boiling-water,  is  divided 
into  21'i  parts,  and  the  point  of  freezing  water  is  at  the 
thirty-second  division  from  the  zero  point. 


FALD-STOOL,  a  portable  folding  seat  of  wood  or  metal, 
often  of  elaborate  workmanship,  and  covered  with  rich  hang- 
ings of  silk  or  other  material.  The  term  is  applied  to  the 
Litany  stool,  or  low  desk,  used  in  churches,  from  which  the 
Litany  is  said.  Its  position  is  in  the  middle  of  the  choir, 
near  the  steps  of  the  altar. 

FALL.     See  Measuke,  and  W^eights  and  Measures. 

FALLING  MOULDS,  the  two  moulds  which  are  applied 
to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  rail-piece,  one  to  the  convex,  the 
other  to  the  concave  side,  in  order  to  form  the  back  and  under 
surface  of  the  rail,  and  finish  the  squaring. 

FALLING  SLUICES,  in  engineering,  gates  contrived  to 
fall  down  of  themselves,  and  enlarge  the  water-way,  on  the 
increase  of  a  flood,  in  a  mill-dam,  or  the  pond  of  a  river  navi- 
gation. 

FALSE  ROOF,  of  a  house,  that  part  between  the  upper 
room  and  the  covering. 

FANE.     See  Vane. 

FAN-SIIAPED  WINDOW^  a  window  consisting  of 
rather  more  than  a  scmi-cirele,  the  circumference  of  which  is 
cut  out  in  circular  notches. 

FAN-TKACEliV  VAULTING,  a  mode  of  vaulting 
very  much  in  use  in  late  Pcr|iindieular  buildings.  In  this 
vaulting,  all  the  libs  and  principal  lines  diverge  equally  in 
every  diiection  from  a  point  at  the  springing  of  the  vault, 
every  rib  preserving  the  same  curvature ;  tlie  spaces  between 
the  ribs  are  piled  up  with  panelling  and  rich  tracery.  The 
name  is  applied  from  the  similarity  of  this  kind  of  roof  to  an 
open  fan.  Beaiitiftd  specimens  exist  at  King's  College  Chapel, 
Cambridge ;  St.  George's,  Windsor ;  and  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel, 
Westminster  ;  also  in  many  smaller  erections,  such  as  chan- 
tries, tombs,  &e. 

FANUM,  among  the  Romans,  a  temple  consecrated  to 
some  deity.  The  deified  mortals,  among  the  heathens,  had 
likewise  their  fana :  even  the  great  philosopher,  Cicero, 
erected  one  to  his  daughter  Tullia. 

Fanum  Jovis,  a  temple  of  Jupiter,  in  Asia  Minor,  near  the 
Thracian  Bosphorus  and  the  Syrnffan  promontory. 

FARM.  It  is  not  within  our  province  to  enter  on  the 
subject  of  the  mangement  of  a  farm  ;  but  as  tlie  construc- 
tion of  the  buildings  belonging  to  one  is  frequently  entrusted 
to  architects  and  surveyors,  especially  in  a  country  practice, 
it  is  desirable  to  offer  a  few  observations  respecting  form- 
buildings.  The  directions  of  Vitruvius  are  as  follow  : — 
"  The  magnitude  of  the  buildings  must  depend  wholly  on 
the  quantity  of  land  attached  to  them,  and  upon  its  produce. 
The  number  of  courts  and  their  dimensions  must  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  herds  of  cattle  and  quantity  of  oxen  employed. 
The  kitchen  should  be  situated  in  the  warmest  part  of  the 
court,  and  the  stable  for  the  oxen  contiguous  to  it ;  the  stalls 
should  be  made  to  face  the  hearth  and  the  cast,  because  when 
oxen  are  constantly  exposed  to  light  and  heat  they  become 
smooth-coated.  No  husbandman,  however  ignorant,  will 
sutler  cattle  to  face  any  other  (|uarter  of  the  heavens  than 
the  east.  The  width  of  the  stables  ought  not  to  be  less  tiian 
10,  nor  more  than  15  feet,  their  length  proportioned  to  the 
number  of  yokes,  each  of  which  should  occupy  an  extent  of 
17  feet.  The  scalding-rooms  should  adjoin  the  kitchen,  in 
order  that  the  operation  of  cleansing  the  utensils  may  be 
performed  upon  the  spot.  The  courts  for  sheep,  &c..  should 
be  so  spacious  as  to  allow  not  Jess  than  4A.  nor  more  than 
6  feet,  to  each  animal. 

"The  granaries  should  be  above  ground,  and  made  to 
front  either  the  north  or  the  north-east,  in  order  that  the 
grain  may  not  be  liable  to  ferment ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  by 
exposure  to  a  cold  atmosphere,  may  be  preserved  a  long 
time  :  all  other  prospects  encourage  the  propagation  of  worms 


FEE 


413 


F  I  G 


and  insects  destructive  to  grain.  The  stables  should  be 
built  in  the  warmest  part  of  the  villa,  most  distant  from  the 
hearth  ;  because  when  horses  are  stalled  near  liie  the^'  become 
rough-coated.  It  is  likewise  expedient  to  have  stalls  for 
oxen  at  a  distance  from  the  kitchen,  in  the  open  air;  these 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  front  the  ea>.t,  because  if  they  are 
led  there  to  be  fed  in  winter,  when  the  sky  is  unclouded,  they 
will  improve  in  appearance.  Tlie  barns,  the  iiay-yards,  the 
corn-chambers,  and  the  mills,  ought  to  be  without  the  walls, 
so  that  tiie  farm  may  be  less  liable  to  accidents  by  fire." 
An  excellent  work  on  farm-buildings  has  been  written  by 
Mr.  G   A.  Dean,  of  Stratford. 

FASCIA,  Facio,  or  Face  (from  the  Latin,  facia)  a 
vertical  member,  of  consideral)le  height,  but  with  a  small 
projection,  used  in  architraves  aud  pedestals,  hi  the  Grecian 
Doric,  the  architrave  under  the  band  consists  only  of  a  single 
face;  as  does  also  the  Ionic  on  the  temple  of  the  lllysus,  in 
Attica.  The  Ionic  on  the  temple  of  Erechtheus,  at  Athens, 
has  three  fasciaj;  as  have  several  celebrated  exalnples  of  the 
latter  order.  Vitruvius  allows  only  a  single  face  to  the  Tus- 
can and  Doric  orders:  that  is,  he  makes  it  all  plain,  w'ithout 
any  divisions  or  cantoning  into  parts  or  fasciae. 

In  brick  buildings,  the  jutting  out  of  the  bricks  beyond  the 
windows  in  the  several  stories,  except  the  highest,  are  called 
fuscias  or  fascice.  These  are  sometimes  pilain,  and  sometimes 
moulded  ;  but  the  moulding  is  only  a  sima  reversa,  or  an 
ogee,  with  two  plain  courses  of  brick  over  it,  then  an  astragal, 
and  lastly,  a  boultine. 

FASCINE,  (from  fanLis,  a  bundle,)  in  fortilication,  a 
number  of  small  sticks  of  wood,  bound  at  both  ends  and  in 
the  middle,  used  in  raising  Ijatteries,  in  filling  ditches,  in 
strengthening  ramparts,  and  making  parapets.  Smeaton  and 
other  engineers  have  used  wattled  wood  or  hedae-woik  for 
groins,  &c.,  to  retain  the  pebbles  or  beach,  and  break  the 
waves  on  the  shore. 

FASTIGIUM,  (Latin,  a  (op  or  rid//e)  the  upper  or  crow^n- 
ing  member  of  a  building.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  Pedi- 
ment ;  which  see. 

FATHOil  (from  the  Saxon)  a  long  measure  of  six  feet, 
taken  from  the  extent  of  both  arms,  when  stretched  in  a  right 
line.  It  is  used  in  measuring  the  depth  of  water,  quarries, 
wells,  and  pits.  It  is  also  always  used  in  nautical  matters, 
as  in  heaving  the  lead,  &;c. 

FAUX,  a  narrow  passage  used  as  a  means  of  communica- 
tion between  the  atrium  and  peristylium,  the  two  principal 
divisions  of  a  Roman  house. 

FAVISSA  (Latin)  a  hole,  pit,  or  vault  inider  ground,  to 
keep  something  of  great  value. 

FEATHER-EDGED  BOARDS,  those  of  a  trapezoidal 
section ;  that  is,  thicker  on  one  edge  than  on  the  other :  they 
are  used  iu  the  facing  of  wooden  walls,  and  sometimes  for 
the  covering  of  an  inclined  roof,  by  lapping  the  thick  edge  of 
the  upper  board  upon  the  thin  edge  of  the  lower  one  :  boards 
of  this  description  are  also  employed  in  fence  walls,  but  are 
then  most  frequently  placed  vertically. 

Feather-edged  Coping.     See  Coping. 

FEATHERING,  an  ornament  in  use  in  Early  English,  and 
the  later  periods  of  Gothic  architecture,  consisting  of  an 
arrangement  of  small  arcs  in  juxtaposition,  and  forming,  at 
their  intersection,  projecting  points  or  cusps.  Sometimes 
we  find  a  second  and  even  a  third  series  of  these  ornaments, 
one  within  the  other.     See  Foliation. 

FEEDER,  in  engineering,  a  cut  or  channel,  sometimes 
called  a  carriat/e  or  catch-drain,  by  which  a  stream  or  supply 
of  water  is  brought  into  a  canal  :  sometimes  the  stream  of 
water  itself  thus  supplied,  is  called  a  feeder. 

FEEDINGHOUSE,  or  Shed,  a  building  iu  a  farm,  for 


the  purpose  of  fattening  neat  cattle.  It  should  have  a  dry 
warm  situation,  capable  of  five  ventilation,  and  be  well  sup- 
plied with  proper  conveniences  for  the  reception  of  food  and 
water. 

FELLING,  of  timber,  the  cutting  of  trees  close  by  the 
root,  for  the  purpose  of  building:  the  proper  season  for  this 
purpose,  is  about  the  end  of  April. 

FELT-GRAIN  :  when  a  piece  of  timber  is  cloven  or  split 
towards  the  centre  of  the  tree,  or  transversely  to  the  annular 
rings  or  plates,  that  position  of  splitting  is  called  th(>  fell- 
ffrain ;  and  the  transverse  position,  or  rather  that  whieh  is 
in  the  direction  of  the  annular  plates,  is  called  the  quarter- 
grain. 

FELTING,  the  splitting  of  timber  by  the  fell-grain. 

FEMUR,  the  plane  space  intervening  between  the  chan 
nels  in  the  triglyplis  of  the  Doric  order. 

FENCE,  (from  the  Latin  defendo,  to  defend)  any  sort  of 
construction  for  the  purpose  of  enclosing  land  ;  as  a  bank 
of  earth,  a  ditch,  hedge,  wall,  railing,  paling,  iSjc. 

Fence,  the  guard  of  a  plane,  which  obliges  it  to  work  to 
a  certain  horizontal  breadth  from  the  arris :  all  moulding 
planes,  except  hollows,  rounds,  and  snipes'  bills,  have  fixed 
fences,  as  well  as  fixed  stops ;  but  in  fillisters  and  plows  the 
fences  are  moveable. 

FENESTELLA,  a  niche  on  the  south  side  of  the  altar  in 
churches,  in  which  the  piscina  and  sometimes  credence  table 
also  is  placed.  These  niches  are  of  various  forms  and  degrees 
of  ornamentation  ;  some  of  them  are  very  richly  finished.  In 
some  instances  a  double  niche  is  found,  one  for  the  piscina  and 
the  other  for  the  credence  table.  See  Piscina,  Credence 
Tadle,  Chancel,  &c. 

FENESTRATION,  the  arrangement  of  windows  in  a 
building.  The  term  is  also  used  in  contradistinction  to 
co/u)iuiia/ion,  when  speaking  of  the  design  and  composition 
of  a  building  generally;  the  former  term  being  used  in 
reference  to  an  edifice  in  which  windows  form  the  principal 
feature,  the  latter  to  that  in  which  the  columnar  arrangement 
is  adopted.  Buildings  in  which  both  windows  and  columns 
are  employed,  are  termed  columnarfenestrated. 

FERETORY,  (Latin  fero,  to  carry,)  a  bier,  cofiin,  shrine, 
or  tomb.  The  term  is  more  properly  applied  to  portable 
shrines.  • 

FESTOON,  a  representation  in  sculpture  of  bands  of 
flowers,  draper}',  foliage,  &e.,  looped  up  or  suspended  at 
regular  intervals.  This  decoration  was  used  by  the  ancients 
in  friezes,  d:c. 

FETCHING  THE  PUMP,  the  act  of  pouring  water 
into  the  upper  part  of  a  pump,  to  expel  the  air  contained 
between  the  lower  box,  or  piston,  and  the  bottom  of  the 
pump. 

FIGURE  (from  the  Latin  fgura,  likeness)  in  a  general 
sense,  the  terminating  extremes,  or  surface  of  a  body. 

No  body  can  exist  without  figure,  otherwise  it  would  be 
infinite,  and  consequently  all  space  would  be  solid  matter. 

Figure,  in  geometry,  any  plane  surface  comprehended 
within  a  certain  line  or  lines. 

Figures  are  either  rectilinear,  curvilinear,  or  mixed,  accord- 
ing as  the  perimeter  consists  of  right  lines,  or  curved  lines, 
or  both. 

The  superficial  parts  of  a  figure  are  called  its  sides,  or 
faces,  and  the  lowest  side  its  base ;  if  the  figure  be  a  tri- 
angle, the  angle  opposite  the  base  is  called  the  vertex,  and 
the  height  of  the  figure  is  the  distance  of  the  vertex  from 
the  base. 

Figure,  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  representations  of 
things  made  of  solid  matter,  as  statues,  &c.,  thus  we  say 
figures  of  brass,  of  marble,  of  stucco,  of  plaster,  &c. 


F  1  11 


414 


FIR 


Figures,  in  architecture,  are  said  to  be  detached  when 
they  stand  singly,  in  opposition  to  thosu  compositions  called 
groups. 

FiGUKE,  in  conies,  the  rectangle  under  the  latus  rectum 
and  transvcrsuiu,  in  the  hyperbola  and  ellipsis. 

FiGUKE,  in  fortification,  the  interior  polygon,  which  is 
either  regular  or  irregular.  It  is  called  a  regular  figure,  when 
the  sides  and  angles  are  all  equal. 

Figures  are  either  Circumscribed  or  Inscribed,  Equal, 
Equil.\teual,  Similar,  Regular,  or  Irregular.  See  these 
words. 

Figure  of  the  Diameter,  a  name  given  to  the  rectangle 
under  a  diameter  and  its  perimeter,  in  the  ellipsis  and 
hyperbola. 

Fillet,  (from  the  French  Jilel,a  band)  a  small  member, 
consisting  of  two  planes  at  right  angles,  used  to  separate  two 
larger  mouldings,  to  strengthen  their  edges,  or  to  form  a  cap 
or  crowning  to  a  moulding,  or  sometimes  to  terminate  a  mem- 
ber, or  series  of  members. 

The  fillet  is  one  of  the  smallest  members  used  in  cornices, 
areliitraves,  bases,  pedestals,  &c. 

It  is  called  by  the  French,  rey/el,  hande,  and  haitdelcttc ; 
by  the  Italians,  lUta  or  listella. 

Fillet,  in  carpentry  or  joinery,  any  small  timber  scant- 
ling, equal  to,  or  less  than,  battens  :  they  are  used  for  sup- 
porting the  ends  of  boards,  by  nailing  them  to  joists  or 
quarters,  &c.,  as  in  sound-boarding,  and  in  supporting  the 
ends  of  shelves. 

Fillet  Gutter.     See  Guttering. 

FILLING  -  IN  PIECES,  in  carpentry,  short  timbers, 
less  than  the  full-length,  fitted  against  the  hips  of  roofs, 
groins,  braces  of  partitions,  &c.,  which  interrupt  the  whole 
length. 

FINE-SET,  when  the  iron  of  a  plane  has  a  very  small 
projection  below  the  sole,  so  as  to  taUe  a  very  thin  broad 
shaving,  it  is  said  to  be  Jinc-set. 

FINE  STUFF,  in  plastering.     See  Plastering. 

FiNIAL,  (from  the  Latin, yi'/u'o,  to  finish.)  in  the  pointed 
style  of  architecture,  a  termination  to  a  building,  or  principal 
part,  in  the  form  of  a  flower  or  knop  of  foliage;  used  in 
high-pointed  pediments,  canopies,  pinnacles,  &c.  It  is  usually 
in  the  form  of  a  lily,  trefoil,  acorn,  pomegranate,  endive,  &e., 
or  consists  of  four  or  nuire  of  the  leaves  which  compose  the 
crockets  tied  up  in  one  bunch. 

FINISHING,  a  term  frequently  applied  to  the  termination 
of  a  building,  as  also  to  the  interior,  in  the  plaster-work,  in 
giving  the  last  coat;  and  very  frequently  to  the  joiner's  work, 
as  in  the  architraves,  bases,  surbases,  &c. 

Finishing,  in  plastering.     Sec  Plastering. 

Flli,  (from  the  Welsh  fyrr,)  a  species  of  timber  much 
used  in  building.  The  native  fur  of  this  country  is  called 
Scottish  Jir,  which  is  chiefly  employed  in  out-houses,  oflices, 
&c.  It  is  much  inferior  to  the  Baltic  timber,  which  is  used 
wherever  durability  is  reqviired.     See  Ti.mber. 

Fir,  Wrought,  that  which  is  planed  upon  the  sides  and 
edges. 

Fir,  Wrought  and  framed,  such  as  is  both  planed  and 
framed. 

FiK,  Wrought,  framed,  and  related,  is  what  its  name 
imports. 

Fir,  Wrought,  framed,  rebated,  and  beaded,  is  what  its 
name  imports. 

Fir-Boards,  the  same  as  deal-boards.     See  Deal. 

Fir-framed,  is  generally  understood  of  rough  timber 
framed,  without  undergoing  the  operation  of  the  plane. 

Fir-in-bond,  a  name  given  to  all  timber  built  in  a  wall, 
as  bond-timbers,  lintels,  wall-plates,  and  templets. 


Fir-Poles,  small  trunks  of  fir-trees  from  ten  to  sixteen  feet 

in  length,  used  in  rustic  buildings  and  ontdioiisos. 

FiR-No-i.ABori!,  rough  timber  employed  in  walling,  with- 
out framing  or  planing. 

FlllE-BKICKS,  are  made  from  a  natural  compound  of 
silica  and  alumina,  which,  when  free  from  lime  and  other 
flu.\es,  is  infusible  under  the  greatest  heat  to  which  it  can  be 
subjected.  Fire-bricks  are  brought  to  London  from  Stour- 
bridge and  from  Wales;  they  are  also  made  near  Windsor. 
See  Brick,  and  Windsor  Bricks. 

Fike-Engine,  a  term  formerly  applied  to  the  steam-engine, 
but  now  confined  to  those  machines  wuiih  extinguish  lires 
by  throwing  water  from  a  jet  upon  the  burning  materials. 

FiRE-EscAPE,  a  machine  for  escaping  from  windows  when 
houses  are  on  fire. 

Fire-Place,  that  sp.ace  in  an  apartment  where  the  fuel 
is  consumed  in  communication  with  a  flue  through  which  the 
proceeds  of  combustion  are  carried  away,  in  modern  houses 
the  fire-place  is  usually  taken  out  of  the  space  within  the 
apartment,  and  flanked  by  projecting  walls,  upon  which  is 
carried  up  a  flue,  also  projecting  within  the  apartment,  but 
in  ancient  houses  the  fireplace  and  flue  were  often  taken  out 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  or  projected  outwards  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  building. 

The  most  ancient  fire-places  in  England,  now  existing, 
are  those  at  IJoehester  and  Conisborough  Ca>tles.  which 
date  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  former  is  deeply  re- 
cessed, with  a  semi-circular  back,  while  the  back  of  the 
former  is  flat,  and  not  recessed  at  the  level  of  the  floor,  but 
slopes  backward  as  it  rises;  the  hearth  consequently  projects 
into  the  room,  lint  is  covered  bv  a  hood  which  projects  from 
the  wall  to  collect  the  smoke.  We  have  not  many  specimens 
of  Early  English  work,  but  in  the  later  styles  they  are  more 
frequent.  In  Eai'ly  English  and  Decor.-ited  buildings  fire-places 
are  not  often  very  deeply  recessed,  and  sometimes  not  at  all, 
but  they  are  frequently  covered  with  projecting  hoods.  In 
the  Perpendicular  style  they  are  cenerally  entirely  recessed, 
and  in  that  case  are  without  the  hood  ;  some  sjiecimens  of 
this  period  are  of  a  very  ornamental  description. 

FiRE-piiooF  Houses,  such  as  are  built  without  the  use  of 
any  combustible  matter  :  for  this  purpose,  vaulted  or  c;ist-iron 
floors  and  roofs  should  be  employed  in  every  apartment. 
Vaidtiiig  is  well  adapted  to  the  lower  story  of  a  binlding.  but 
if  used  in  the  upper  stories,  the  walling  must  be  carried  up 
very  thick,  in  order  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the  arches  ;  and 
this  extra  substance  not  only  darkens  the  apartments,  but 
occasions  an  enormous  expense.  The  builder  is  therefine 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  other  modes  of  construction  f 'r 
common  purposes.  The  most  convenient  substitute  is  cast- 
iron  joists,  vaulted  between  with  brick,  or  covered  with  cast- 
iron  boards  flanged  and  keyed  together. 

Mr.  Bartholomew  strongly  recommends  that  roofs  should 
be  so  constructed  as  to  lessen  as  much  as  possible  the  po-;si- 
bility  of  fire.  ''It  should  be,"  he  observes,  "the  architect's 
study,  in  all  roofs,  to  have  as  little  as  possible  that  will  either 
burn  or  rot ;  if  the  roof-trusses  were  made  of  cast-iron,  as 
Mr.  Gwilt  has  made  those  to  his  restoration  of  the  choir  of 
St.  Saviour's  Church,  Southwark  ;  and  if  slight  horizontal 
rafters,  reaching  from  truss  to  truss,  supported  tiles  of  the 
ornamental  description  above  referred  to,  (tiles  made  of  burnt 
earth,  moulded  in  the  firm  of  leaves.  &c..)  all  combustible 
materials  might  be  banished  from  our  invaluable  cathedrals." 
— We  quite  agree  with  Mr.  Bartholomew  in  principle,  V)Ut, 
in  such  cases,"wouid  beg  to  recommend  a  vanltid  stone  roof 
in  preference  to  one  of  iron. 

The  late  Sir  John  Soane  constructed  nearly  all  the  apart- 
ments of  the  Bank  of  England  fireproof,  and  without  any 


FIX 


415 


FLA 


oaipentry  whatever ;  in  his  arches  and  domes,  making  use 
largi'l)'  of  hollow  pots  i;4'  cones  of"  coarse  earthenware  ;  these, 
while  strong  enough  not  to  crush,  Ijy  their  lightness  relieve 
the  walls  in  a  great  measure,  both  from  the  lateral  thrust, 
and  the  pei"pendi«ular  pressure,  caused  by  the  use  of  heavier 
materials. 

A  method  of  rendering  the  floors  of  houses  fire-proof,  has 
been  adopted  with  success  in  many  parts  of  France.  After 
the  joists  ai-e  laid  they  are  lioarded  over  with  rough  boards, 
and  these  covered  with  a  coatiirg  of  plaster  of  about  eight 
inches  in  thickness,  above  which  are  laid  tiles  of  an  orna- 
mental description,  or  sometimes  a  floor  of  parquetry.  In 
some  instances,  the  boards  on  which  the  plaster  is  laid,  arc 
omitted  altogether,  and  the  plaster  inserted  between  the 
joists.  The  staircases  likewise  are  made  of  brick-nogging, 
and  covered  with  tiles. 

It  is  a  cause  of  wonder  and  regret,  that  these  or  similar 
means  for  rendering  buildings  fire-proof,  are  not  adopted  in 
London,  where  so  great  a  loss  is  annually  sustained  by 
neglect  on  this  head  :  tiie  immediate  outlay  would  not  be  very 
much  greater  than  at  present,  and  in  the  end  the  practice 
would  assuredly  prove  the  more  economical.  Our  timber 
partitions,  roofs,  and  staircases  would  seem  to  be  made  for 
the  ]iurpose  of  burning ;  and  when  once  a  portion  of  a  building 
takes  fire,  there  is  little  chance  of  saving  the  remainder ; 
wheieas  if  the  chambers,  or  at  least  the  floors,  were  isolated 
by  fire-proof  partitions,  a  fire  could  readily  be  confined  to 
that  part  of  the  building  where  it  commenced. 

But  perhaps  of  all  parts  of  a  house,  that  which  requires  the 
greatest  care  in  this  respect  is  the  staircase;  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  calculate  how  great  a  loss  of  human  life  has  been 
occasioned  by  recklessness  on  this  point.  The  staircase 
forms  a  shaft  to  carry  up  the  flames,  and  is  one  of  the  first 
things  to  be  destroyed,  thus  cutting  off  the  means  of  escape 
from  persons  above  the  ground-floor :  if  nothing  else  be 
attended  to,  surely  our  staircases  should  be  rendered  fire- 
proof 

Iron  has  of  late  years  been  much  used  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  buildings  more  safe  from  the  efiects  of  fire,  but 
we  are  inclined  to  think  the  success  of  this  application 
doubtful.  This  material  is  generally  used  as  a  substitute  for 
summers,  girders,  or  bond-timber,  in  which  instances  wood 
is  almost  as  secure  as  iron  ;  for  in  the  former  cases,  the 
timbers  are  of  too  great  scantling  thoroughly  to  ignite,  and 
in  the  latter  they  are  well  protected,  and  will  be  seldom  found 
more  than  charred  on  the  exposed  surfaces.  Besides  this, 
iron  has  its  disadvantages,  for  it  is  liable  to  e.\pand  and  con- 
tract under  the  influence  of  heat  and  cold,  and  is  known  by 
this  means  to  destroy  the  brickwork. 

FIRE-STONE,  is  used  in  joinery,  for  rubbing  away  the 
ridges  made  bv  the  cutting-edge  of  the  plane. 

FlUMER,  "  ] 

FORMER,    [   &e  Tools. 

FURMER,     ) 

FISH-POND,  a  reservoir  of  water,  for  breeding,  feeding, 
and  preservnig  hsh. 

FISTUC'.\,  (Latin)  in  antiquity,  an  instrument  of  wood, 
used  in  driving  piles.  It  had  two  handles,  and  being  raised 
by  pullies  fixed  to  the  head  of  large  beams,  was  let  fall 
directly  on  the  piles ;  sometimes  it  was  wrought  by  hand  only. 

FIXED  AXIS,  in  geometry,  the  axis  about  w  hich  a  plane 
•  evolves  in  the  formation  of  a  solid. 

Fixed  Points,  in  carpentry,  the  points  at  the  angles  of 
a  piece  of  framing,  or  where  any  two  pieces  of  timber  meet 
each  other  in  a  truss.  If  a  third  piece  join  the  meeting  of 
the  two,  it  may  be  pushed  or  drawn  in  the  direction  of  its 
length,  without  giving  any  cross  strain. 


Fixed  points  are  of  the  utmost  u.se  in  shortening  the 
bearings  of  the  exterior  timbers  of  the  frame  ;  neither  is 
there  any  other  method  by  which  this  can  be  so  efiectually 
done.  When  two  sides  of  a  frame  are  similar,  any  points  in 
the  length  of  the  pieces  may  be  supported  by  as  many  beams, 
extending  between  the  opposite  |ioints  :  though  this  will  keep 
the  frame  in  eqiulihrio^  it  will  not  prevent  it  from  being 
shaken  by  heavy  winds,  or  lateral  pressure. 

FLAGS,  thin  stones  used  in  paving,  from  one  and  a  h.alf 
to  three  inches  thick,  and  of  various  lengths  and  breadths, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  quarry. 

FLAKE  WHITE,  in  painting,  lead  corroded  by  the 
pressing  of  grapes,  or  a  ceruse  prepared  by  the  acid  of  grapes. 
It  is  brought  to  England  from  Italy,  and  far  surpasses,  in  the 
purity  of  its  whiteness,  and  the  certainty  of  its  standing,  all 
the  ceruses  of  while-lead  made  with  us  in  common.  It  is 
used  in  oil  and  varnish  painting,  for  all  purposes  where  a 
very  clean  white  is  required.  Flake  white  should  be  pro- 
cured in  lumps,  as  brought  over,  and  levigated  by  those  that 
use  it ;  as  that  which  the  colourmen  sell  ready  prepared,  is 
levigated  and  mixed  up  with  starch,  and  often  with  white- 
lead,  or  even  worse  sophistications. 

FLAMBOYANT,  a  name  applied  to  a  style  of  (Jnthic 
anehitecture  prevalent  in  France  in  the  I5th  century,  from 
the  circimistance  of  the  principal  lines  of  the  tracery  con- 
verging together  in  the  shape  of  flames.  This  undulating 
distribution  of  lines  is  the  characteristic  of  the  style,  if  it  may 
be  so  termed.  The  tracery  is  frequently  of  a  very  elaborate 
character,  and  the  (jrnamentation  intricate  and  redundant, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  mouldings  are  meagre.  These 
consist  usually  of  large  hollows  separated  with  small  .ind 
insignificant  members  of  diflerent  contour,  which  gives  the 
whole  an  appearance  of  poverty,  ill  contrasting  with  the  rich- 
ness of  the  tracery.  The  centre  moulding  in  the  mullions 
of  windows,  and  similar  positions,  projects  often  to  an  unusual 
extent,  so  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  weakness.  Pillars, 
piers,  jambs,  and  such  like,  are  often  devoid  of  capitals,  the 
mouldings  of  arches  which  abut  against  them,  dying  into 
them  without  any  finishing  ornament.  The  more  ornamented 
parts,  such  as  foliage,  &c.,  are  very  rich,  and  delicately 
carved,  but  aie  frittered  away  by  the  minuteness  of  their 
parts,  thus  losing  all  boldness  and  even  distinctness  of 
outline. 

FLANK,  (from  the  Yvcx\c\\  fane,)  that  part  of  a  return 
body  which  adjoins  the  front ;  as  flank-walls.  In  town- 
houses,  the  flank-walls  become  party  walls. 

FLANK  WALLS,  in  engineering,  the  same  as  the  wing 
or  return  walls  of  a  lock  or  bridge. 

FLAPS,  folds  or  leaves  attached  to  the  shutters  of  a  win 
dow,  which  are  not  suflieiently  wide  of  themselves  to  cover 
the  sash-frames,  or  to  exclude  the  light. 

FLz\SHES,  in  engineering,  a  kind  of  sluices  erected  upon 
navigable  rivers,  to  raise  the  water  upon  any  shoals  therein, 
while  the  vessels  or  craft  are  passing. 

FLASHINGS,  in  plumbery,  pieces  of  le.ad  inserted  in  a 
wall  for  covering  other  pieces  laid  down  for  gutters,  &c. 

FLAT  CROWN.     See  Corona. 

FLATTING,  in  house-painting,  a  mode  of  painting  in  oil, 
without  any  gloss  on  the  painted  surflice  when  finished.  The 
paint  is  prepared  with  a  mixture  of  oil  of  turpentine,  which 
secures  the  colour;  and  when  used  in  the  finishing,  leaves 
the  paint  quite  dead,  without  gloss.  This  is  of  great 
importance  to  those  who  are  desirous  to  have  their  rooms 
continue  white.  Flatting  is  only  used  for  inside  work, 
and  rarelv  for  any  but  principal  rooms.  Nut  oil  is  some- 
times used  fur  the  purpose,  but  not  often,  on  account  of  its 
high  price. 


FLO 


41t) 


FLO 


As  useful  a  flatting  as  any,  is  such  as  is  ground  in  poppy 
oil.  It  is  pleasant  iu  woiUing,  and  leaves  a  beaiitif'id  white 
fur  some  years ;  but  it  is  rather  expensive. 

FLEMISH  BOND,  that  method  of  laying  bricks  in  which 
headers  and  stretchers  appear  alternately  in  the  length  of 
each  course.  The  appearance  of  this  work  is  generally 
preferred  to  that  of  English  bond,  for  the  external  facings 
of  walls,  but  the  method  of  laying  is  much  more  complicated, 
and  requires  the  insertion  of  a  number  of  small  pieces  in 
carrying  up  the  work,  to  fill  up  the  interstices  between 
the  bricks.     See  Bricklaving. 

Flemish  Bricks,  in  bricklaying,  strong  bricks,  of  a 
yellowish  colour,  used  in  paving ;  their  dimensions  are  about 
(>4-  inches  long,  24-  broad,  and  H  thick;  72  set  upon  their 
widest  sides,  or  100  on  edge,  will  pave  a  yard  square,  allow- 
ing a  quarter  of  an  inch  for  the  joints. 

FLEXURE,  or  Flexion,  (from  the  Latin)  the  opposition 
of  curvature  at  a  given  point,  where  a  straight  line  becomes 
a  tangent,  having  the  curve  on  both  sides  of  it,  one  portion 
of  the  curve  being  concave,  and  that  on  the  other  side  of  the 
point  of  contact,  convex. 

FLKiHT,  in  staircasing,  a  series  of  steps,  whose  treads  are 
Darallel,  and  terminate  against  a  straight  wall. 

Flight,  Leadinn,        \     „     „ 

T-.  D   ^  ■  I     6ef  OTAIRCASING. 

r  light,  Metnrning,     j 

Flight,  is  also  used  in  London  for  a  whole  stair,  between 
two  adjoining  floors. 

FLOAT,  in  plastering.     See  Plastering. 

FLOAT-BOARDS,  the  boards  fixed  to  undershot  water- 
wheels,  to  receive  the  impulse  of  the  stream. 

Float-Stone,  among  bricklayers.     See  Bricklayers. 

Floated  Lath  and  Plaster,  set  fair  for  paper.  See 
Plastering. 

Floated,  Rendered,  and  Set,  in  plastering.  See  Plas- 
tering. 

Floating,  in  plastering.     See  Plastering. 

Floating  Bridge.     See  Bridge. 

Flo.ating  Rcles,  in  plastering.     See  Plastering. 

Floating  Screeds,  in  plastering.     See  Plastering. 

FLOOD-GATE,  a  gate  or  sluice,  that  may  be  opened  or 
shut  at  pleasure,  to  give  passage  to,  or  retain  the  water  of 
a  river  liable  to  be  swollen  by  floods.  Flood-gates  are 
necessary  in  many  situations ;  as,  upon  rivers  where  the 
water  is  retained  for  the  service  of  mills,  canals,  navigations, 
docks,  &c. 

FLOOR,  (fiom  the  Saxon)  the  lowest  horizontal  side  of 
an  apartment,  for  walking,  or  for  performing  different  opeia- 
tions  upon. 

Floors  were  formerly  covered  with  rushes,  carpets  being 
seldom  used  for  such  purposes,  even  at  the  close  of  Elizabeth's 
reign.  In  much  earlier  times,  however,  tapestry-cloths 
were  occasionally  used  to  rest  the  feet  upon.  Most  of 
the  old  dramatists  have  frequent  allusions  in  their  works 
to  the  practice  of  strewing  rushes  in  the  prineipnl  apart- 
ments. 

Floors  are  of  various  kinds,  according  to  the  materials  of 
which  they  are  constructed.  Those  made  of  brick  and  stone, 
are  called  pave7tienls ;  those  of  earth  are  called  earthen  floors; 
those  of  plaster,  lime  floors ;  and  those  of  timber  are  called 
timber  floors. 

Floor,  in  carpentry,  includes  not  only  the  boarding  for 
walking  upon,  but  all  the  timber-work  for  its  support. 
Boarded  floors  should  never  be  laid  till  the  building  is  pro- 
perly covered  in,  nor  indeed  till  the  windows  are  glazed,  and 
he  plaster  dry.  Previous  to  the  lying  of  such  floors,  the 
boards  ought  to  be  rough-planed,  and  set  out  to  season,  a 
twelvemonth  at  least,  before  they  are  used  ;  that  the  natural 


sap  may  be  thoroughly  expelled,  and  the  shrinking  prevented, 
which  so  frequently  takes  place  when  unseasoned  timber  is 
used.  The  best  timber  for  flooring  is  yellow  deal,  well- 
seasoned.  The  quality  of  this  material  is  such,  that  when 
laid,  it  will  be  easily  kept  of  a  good  colour;  whereas  white 
timber  is  liable  to  become  black  in  a  very  short  time. 

Narrow  boards  are  called  battens;  these  should  never 
exceed  seven  inches  in  width,  nor  be  less  than  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

Floors  are  nailed  either  at  both  edges,  or  at  one  edge  ;  the 
longitudinal  joints,  or  those  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  are 
either  square,  ploughed  and  tongued,  or  rebated  and  lapped 
upon  each  other.  Ploughed  and  tongued,  and  rebated  joints 
may  be  used  where  the  apartment  is  required  to  be  air-tight, 
and  where  the  stuft'is  thought  not  sufficiently  seasoned.  The 
heading-joints  are  either  square  or  ploughed  and  tongued. 
In  square  longitudinal  jointed  floors,  it  is  necessary  to  nail 
the  boards  on  both  edges  :  but  where  the  boards  are  dowelled, 
ploughed  and  tongued,  or  rebated,  one  edge  only  may  be 
nailed,  as  the  grooving  and  tonguing,  or  lapping,  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  other  edge  down. 

Battens  used  in  flooring  are  of  three  kinds,  and  are  deno- 
minated best,  second  best,  and  comjnon.  The  best  battens 
are  those  that  are  free  from  knots,  shakes,  sap.  and  cross- 
grained  fibres  ;  the  second  best  are  those  free  from  shakes 
and  sap,  but  in  which  small  knots  are  suffered  to  pass.  The 
common  kind  are  such  as  remain  after  taking  away  the  best 
and  second  best. 

The  best  floors  are  dowelled  and  nailed  only  at  the  outer 
edge,  through  which  the  nails  are  made  to  pass  obliquely  into 
the  joists,  without  piercing  the  upper  surface  of  the  boards, 
so  that  when  laid  no  nails  appear  :  the  heading  joints  of  such 
floors  are  most  commonly  grooved  and  tongued.  Some  work- 
men dowel  the  battens  over  the  joists,  but  it  makes  firmer 
work  to  fix  the  dowels  over  the  inter-joists.  The  gauge 
should  be  run  from  the  under  surface  of  the  boards,  yvhich 
should  be  straightened  on  purpose. 

In  the  most  common  kind  of  flooring,  the  board-3are  folded 
together  in  the  following  manner  :  supposing  one  board 
already  laid,  and  fastened,  a  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  or  other 
board,  is  also  laid  and  fastened,  so  as  to  admit  of  two,  three, 
four,  five,  or  more  boards,  between  the  two,  but  which  can 
only  be  inserted  by  force,  as  the  capacity  of  the  opening 
must  be  something  less  than  the  aggregate  breadths  of  the 
boards,  in  order  that  the  joints  may  be  close  when  they  are 
all  brought  down  to  their  places ;  for  this  purpose  a  board 
may  be  thrown  across  the  several  boards  to  be  laid,  which 
may  be  forced  down  by  two  or  more  men  jumping  upon  it : 
this  done,  all  the  intermediate  boards  are  to  be  nailed  down, 
and  the  operation  is  to  be  repeated  till  the  whole  is  complete. 
This  manner  of  flooring  is  called  n  folded  floor. 

In  folded  floors,  less  than  four  boards  are  seldom  laid 
together.  No  attention  is  paid  to  the  heading  joints,  and 
sometimes  three  or  four  joints  meet  in  one  continued  line, 
equal  in  length  to  the  aggregate  of  the  breadths  of  the 
boards. 

In  dowelled  floors,  the  distances  to  which  the  dowels  are 
set,  are  from  six  to  eight  inches,  generally  one  over  each 
joist,  and  one  over  each  inter-joist ;  and,  as  has  been  already 
observed,  the  heading-joints  of  this  kind  of  floor  are  generally 
ploughed  and  tongued  ;  and  no  heading-joint  of  two  boards 
ought  to  be  so  disposed  as  to  meet  the  heading-joint  of  any 
other  two  boards,  and  thereby  form  a  straight  line  equal  to 
the  breadth  of  the  two  boards. 

In  common  floors,  the  boards  are  always  gauged  from  the 
upper  side,  then  rebated  from  the  lower  side  to  the  gauge 
lines,  and  the  intermediate   part  adzed  down,  iu   order  to 


FLO 


417 


FLU 


bring  thetn  to  a  uiiifurm  thickness.  In  doinj;  this,  wreat 
care  should  be  taUon  not  to  make  them  too  thin,  whioli  is 
freinu'iitly  the  case,  and  then  they  must  be  raised  with  chips, 
which  present  a  very  unstable  resistance  to  a  pressure  upon 
the  fli)or. 

Floorincr  is  measured  by  thmwinstthe  contents  into  square 
feet,  and  dividing  them  by  100,  which  is  called  a  square  of 
Jlooriny  ;  the  number  of  hundreds  contained  in  the  supeiticial 
Contents  in  feet  are  squares,  and  the  remainder  feet. 

The  method  of  measuring  floors,  is  by  squares  of  ten  feet 
on  each  side  ;  the  dimensions  being  multiplied  together,  cut 
off  two  figures  from  the  right  of  the  product,  and  those 
towards  the  left  give  the  number  of  squares,  and  the  two  on 
the  right  are  feet. 

E.VAMPLE. — Suppose  the  length  of  a  floor  28  feet,  and  the 
breadth  "24. 

28 
24 


112 
56 

6.72 


The  product  gives  six  squares,  seventy-tw-o  feet. 

When  a  naked  floor  is  squared,  and  the  contents  found, 
nothing  is  deducted  for  the  chimney,  because  the  e.xtra  thick- 
ness of  the  trimmers  will  make  up  for  that  deficiency. 

Floor,  in  carpentry,  the  timbers  which  support  the  board- 
ing, called  also  naked  Jiuoriiig.  See  Carc.\se  Flooring,  and 
Naked  Flooring. 

Floor  also  denotes  any  portion  of  a  building  upon  the 
same  level :  as  basement-floor,  ground  floor,  one-pair  floor, 
two-pair  floor,  &e.,  but  when  there  is  no  sunk  story,  the 
ground  floor  become-!  the  basement ;  the  e.xpressions  one-pair 
flt)or,  two-pair  floor,  &c.,  imply  the  floor  above  the  first  flight 
of  stairs  above  ground,  the  floor  above  the  second  flight  of 
stairs  above  ground,  &c. 

The  principal  floor  of  every  building  is  that  which  con- 
tains the  principal  rooms.  In  the  country  they  are  generally 
on  the  ground  floor;  but  in  tow'n,  on  the  oue-pair-of-stairs 
floor. 

Floor  Joists,  or  Flooring  Joists,  such  joists  as  support 
the  boarding  in  a  single  floor;  but  where  the  floor  consists 
of  binding  and  bridging-joists,  the  bridgings  are  never  called 
floor-joists. 

Floors  of  Earth,  or  Earthen  Floors,  are  commonly 
made  of  loam,  and  sometimes,  especially  to  malt  on,  of  lime, 
brook-sand,  and  gun-dust,  or  anvil-dust  from  the  forge;  the 
whole  being  well  wrought  and  blended  together  with  blood. 
The  siftings  of  limestone  have  also  been  found  exceedingly- 
useful  when  formed  into  floors. 

Earthen  floors  for  plain  country  habitations  may  be  made 
as  follows  :  take  two-thirds  lime  and  one  of  coal-ashes,  well 
sifted,  with  a  small  quantity  of  loam  clay  :  mix  the  whole 
together,  and  temper  it  well  with  water,  making  it  up  into 
a  heap  :  let  it  lie  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  then  temper  it 
again.  After  this,  heap  it  up  for  three  or  four  days,  and 
repeat  the  tempering  very  high,  till  it  becomes  smooth, 
yielding,  tough,  and  gluey.  The  ground  being  levelled,  lay 
the  floor  with  this  material  about  two  and  a  half  or  three 
inches  thick,  smoothing  it  with  a  trowel  ;  the  hotter  the 
season,  the  better  ;  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  dried,  it  will 
make  a  good  floor  for  houses,  especially  maithouses.  But 
I  should  it  be  required  to  make  the  floor  look  better,  take  lime 
made  of  rag-stones  well  tempered  with  whites  of  eggs,  and 
j  cover  the  floor  about  half  an  inch  thick  with  it,  before  the 
under  flooring  is  quite  dry.  If  this  be  well  done,  and 
53 


thoroughly  dried,  it  will  appear,  when  rubbed  with  a  little  ^ 
oil,  as  transparent  as  metal  or  glass.  In  elegant  houses, 
floors  of  this  nature  are  made  of  stucco,  or  pla-ter-of-paris, 
beaten  and  sifted,  and  mixed  with  other  ingredients.  Well- 
wrought  coarse  plaster  makes  excellent  safe  upper  floors  for 
cottages,  out-houses,  (Sic,  when  spread  upon  good  strong 
laths  or  reeds. 

Very  dry  and  comfortable  floors  may  be  formed  by  cover- 
ing the  area  of  the  rooms  with  a  level  stratum  of  concrete, 
consisting  of  dry  screened  gravel  or  pounded  stone,  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  ground  stone  lime,  or  Portland 
cement,  and  laid  atiout  six  inches  in  thickness  ;  over  this,  and 
before  it  sets,  should  be  sifted  a  few  ashes,  or  some  fine 
gravel  ;  which,  if  worked  in  and  well  finished,  gives  a  hard 
and  even  surface.  This  description  of  floor  is  similar  to  those 
used  in  Devonshire,  which  are  proverbial  for  comfort  and 
durability.  The  ordinary  red  paving  tiles,  12  inches  square, 
make  very  good,  dry,  and  comfortable  floors,  and  they  are 
easily  kept  clean.  Claridge's  asphalte  of  Seyssel,  has  also 
been  used  for  the  floors  of  basement  stories,  and  answers  very 
well,  especially  in  damp  situations.  For  stables,  railway- 
stations,  and  places  of  a  similar  description,  perhaps  there  is 
nothing  better  than  wood.  The  wood-pavement  of  the 
Metropolitan  Wood  Pavement  Company,  has  been  used  with 
great  success  for  such  purposes — in  the  dock-yards  by  govern- 
ment; and  bv  the  railway  companies,  for  their  stations.  &c. 

FLOOKING-CR  AMP,  a  machine  invented  by  Mr.  Andrew 
Smith,  for  laying  down  floors.  This  machine  is  used  with 
great  facility,  and  enables  a  person  accustomed  to  it,  to  get 
through  his  work  with  rapidity  and  ease  ;  making  very  tight 
and  close  joints  in  his  floors,  with  much  less  trouble  than  by 
the  ordinary  method. 

Flooring-Machine,  a  machine  for  preparing  complete 
flooring  boards  with  great  dispatch,  and  in  the  most  perfect 
manner:  the  several  operations  of  sawing,  planing,  grooving, 
and  tongueing,  being  all  carried  on  at  the  same  time,  by  a 
series  of  saws,  jilanes,  and  revolving  chisels. 

FLOOR-TIMBERS,  the  timbers  on  which  a  floor  is 
laid. 

FLORID  STYLE,  in  pointed  architecture,  that  beautiful 
style  which  was  practised  in  England  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.  Its  general  external  character 
consists  of  large  arched  windows,  with  very  obtuse  angles  at 
the  summit,  and  with  numerous  ramifications,  consisting 
of  light  cuspidated  mullions,  filled  with  a  variety  of  polyfoils. 
The  buttresses,  instead  of  having  always  rectangirlar  hori- 
zontal sections,  frequently  have  those  of  polygons,  as  in 
Henry  VII. 's  chapel,  and  are  crowned  with  cupolas.  The 
walls  are  loaded  with  niches,  pinnacles,  and  crockets,  termi- 
nating in  open  rtullion-work,  forming  a  parapet,  or  kind  of 
balustrade,  finished  with  finials  or  spiracles.  The  walls  are 
decorated  interiorly  with  panelling,  moulded  string-courses, 
niches,  canopies,  and  other  kinds  of  tracei-y,  vaulted  over 
with  fan-groins.     See  Gothic  Architecture. 

FLUE^  a  passage  for  smoke  in  a  chimney,  leading  from 
the  fireplace  to  the  top  of  the  shaft,  or  into  another  passage. 
See  Chi.mnev. 

The  same  term  is  also  applied  to  passages  in  walls  made 
for  the  purpose  of  conducting  heat  from  one  part  of  a  build- 
ing to  anothei'. 

Flues  in  hot-houses  and  vineries,  frequently  make  numer- 
ous turns  on  the  floor,  and  then  ascend  to  the  wall  with 
several  horizontal  turnings. 

In  the  Construction  of  a  stack  of  chimneys,  particular  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  drawings  show  distinctly  the  turn- 
ings of  the  flues;  this  will  prevent  mistakes,  and  save  the 
apartments  from  being  incommoded  with  smoke. 


FLU 


418 


FON 


FLUSH,  a  tortn  among  woikmon.  signifying  a  continuity 
of  surface  in  two  lx)die.s  j.iincd  together.  'I'iiiis  in  joinery, 
the  style,  rails,  and  muiinions  are  generallv  niadi'  flii-li ;  th.it 
is,  the  wood  of  one  piece  on  one  side  of  the  joint  docs  not 
recede  fom  that  on  ihe  other. 

Fldsh,  in  masonry  or  bricklaying,  signifies  the  aptitude 
of  two  brittle  bodies  to  splinter  at  the  joints,  when  the 
stones  or  bricks  come  in  contact  when  joined  together 
in  a  wall. 

Flush  and  Bead.  See  Bead  and  Flush. 
FLUTES,  or  Flutings,  prismatic  cavities  depressed 
wiihin  the  snrfiee  of  a  piece  of  architecture  at  regular 
distances,  generally  of  a  circular  or  elliptic  section,  meeting 
each  other  in  an  arris ;  or  meeting  the  surface  in  an  arris, 
and  leaving  a  portion  of  the  surface  between  every  two 
cavities  of  an  equal  breadth;  or  diminishing  in  a  regular 
pio_'ression;  according  as  the  surface  is  plane  or  curved,  or 
appliel  to  a  |irisinatic  or  tapering  body. 

When  a  portion  of  the  snrtiice  is  left  between  every  two 
flutes,  that  ptn-tion  is  called  a,  fillet.  When  the  flutes  are 
parallel,  or  diminish  according  to  any  law,  the  lilletsare  also 
parallel,  or  diminish  in  the  same  degree. 

The  proportion  of  eaeh  fillet  to  a  flute  is  from  a  thi'd  to 
a  fifth  of  the  breadth  of  the  Ante.  That  species  of  fluting, 
in  wh'ch  the  flutes  meet  each  other  without  the  intervention 
of  filets,  isgeneially  applied  to  the  Do' ic  <n'der ;  and  that 
with  fillets,  to  the  shafts  of  the  Ionic  and  (,'orinthian  ordi'i-s. 
The  flutes  most  frequently  terminate  in  a  splierieal  or 
spheroidal  form,  particularly  in  those  which  have  fillets. 
In  the  Ionic  order  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Poliasat  .\thcns, 
the  upper  ends  of  the  fillets  of  the  shafts  of  the  columns 
terminate  with  astragals,  projecting  from  the  surface  of  the 
fi!let:  the  astragals  may  begin  at  a  small  distance  from 
the  top  of  the  shaft,  ascend  upwards,  and  bind  round  the  top 
of  the  flute.  In  the  Corinthian  order  of  the  monument  of 
Lysicrates,  at  Athens,  the  upper  ends  of  the  fillets  break  into 
leaves  ill  a  most  beautiful  manner.  In  the  Doric  examples 
of  the  temple  of  Theseus,  and  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  at 
Aihrns,  and  of  the  portico  of  Philip  king  of  Macedon,  in  the 
island  of  Delos,  the  upper  ends  of  the  flutes  terminate  upon 
the  supcificie-i  of  a  cone  immediately  under  the  annulets,  in 
a  tangent  to  the  liottom  of  the  curve  of  the  echinus  of  the 
capital.  The  same  kind  of  termination  takes  place  in 
tile  temple  of  Apollo  at  Coia,  in  Italy  :  but  in  this  example, 
thi'  conic  termination  of  the  flutes  is  not  under  the  abacus, 
but  a  small  distance  down  the  shaft,  leaving  a  small  part 
quite  a  plain  cylinder,  and  thus  formiiiij  the  hypotroehelean 
or  neck  of  the  capital.  In  other  ancient  e.\am[)les  of  the 
Doric  order,  the  flutes  terminate  upon  a  plane  surface 
perpend. cular  to  the  a.xis  of  the  columns,  or  parallel  to  the 
horizon,  as  in  the  PropyK-a  at  Athens.  Palladio,  and  other 
Italian  authors,  have  terminated  the  flutes  of  the  shafts  of 
their  designs  of  Doric  co'uinns  in  the  segments  of  spheres 
tang 'd  by  the  surfaces  of  the  fluting. 

In  the  temple  of  B  icchus,  at  Teos,  in  Ionia,  the  lower 
extrcnities  of  the  flutes  descend  into  the  scape  of  the 
column. 

The  Greeks  never  applied  fluting  to  any  member  of  the 
D'lric  ordjr,  e.xcept  the  shaft,  and  this  was  their  general 
practice. 

Fluting  was  used  by  the  Rtmians  almost  in  every  plane, 
and  in  every  cylindrical  surface.  See  a  very  fine  specimen 
in  the  corona  of  the  cornice  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator, 
at  Rome. 

The  number  of  flutes  in  the  Doiic  order  is  twenty,  and  in 
the  Ionic,  t'orinth  an,  and  CompO'-ite,  twenty-four.  Flutes 
are  sometimes  filled   with  cables   or  staves,  except  in  the 


Doric  <nder.     The  cables  do  not  reach  higher  than  one-third 
of  the  entire  column.      See  Column,  Cadle. 

FLUXIONS,  in  mathematics,  the  analysis  of  infinitely 
small  variable  quantities,  or  a  method  of  finding  an  infinitely 
small  quantity,  which,  being  taken  an  infinite  number  of 
times,  becomes  equal  to  a  quantity  given.  The  doctrine 
of  fluxions,  first  invented  by  iNewton,  is  of  great  u-e  in  the 
investigation  of  curves,  and  in  the  discovery  of  the  quadra- 
tures of  curvilinear  spaces  and  their  rectificiitions. 

FLYEIIS,  a  series  of  steps  who^e  treads  are  all  parallel. 

FLYI\(;  Bi;iD(iE.     ,S>e  BuiDOE. 

FLYING  iU'TTli  ESSES,  in  pointed  architecture,  arches 
rising  from  the  exterior  walls  up  to  those  of  the  nave  of  an 
aisli'd  fabric,  on  each  side  of  the  edifice,  for  counteracting  the 
lateral  pressure  of  a  groined  or  vaulted  roof 

The  contrivance  of  flying  buttresses  is  due  to  the  architects 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  shows  their  skill  in  the  application  of 
mechanics  to  the  science  of  architecture.     See  Buttuess. 

FOCUS.  (Latin)  in  geometry,  and  in  the  conic  sections, 
a  point  on  the  concave  side  of  a  curve,  to  which  the  ra}  s  are 
rertecti'd  from  all  points  of  such  curve. 

Focus,  an  altar,  a  hearth  or  fire-place  :  the  Latin  motto, 
/iro  firi.s  c<  /f<m,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  this  word. 

Focus,  of  an  ellipsis,  hyperbola  or  parabola,  is  putieularly 
defined  undi'r  the  heads  of  Elliptic  Curve,  IIvi'erbolic 
Curve,  and  Pahabolic  Curve. 

FODDER,  FuDDEB,  or  Fotiier,  (Saxon)  a  certain  quan- 
tity, proportioned  by  wiight. 

The  weight  of  the  fodder  varies,  in  diflercnt  counties, 
from  l!)i  ewt.  to  24  cwt.  Among  the  plumbers  in  Li'iidun, 
the  fodder  is  19i  cwt.,  but  at  the  Custom  House  20  cwt. 
of  I  121b. 

FOILS,  the  small  arcs  in  the  tracery  of  Gothic  windows, 
panels,  &c.,  which  are  said  to  be  trefoiled,  quatrefoiled, 
cinquefiiiled,  multifoiled,  &c.,  according  to  the  number  of 
arcs  which  they  contain.  An  arch  with  foils  in  its  tracery 
is  called  a  foiled  arch.     See  Cusp  and  Foliation. 

Foils,  Foliations,  the  spaces  between  the  cusps  employed 
in  the  oinamentation  of  Gothic  buildings. 

FOLD  !•:  I )  FLOOR.     See  Floor. 

FOLDlNti  IXJORS,  such  as  are  made  in  two  parts,  hung 
on  op|)(jsite  jambs,  and  having  their  vertical  edge  rebated,  so 
that  when  shut,  the  rebates  may  lap  on  each  other.  To 
conceal  the  meeting  as  much  as  possible,  a  bead  is  most 
frequentlv  run  at  the  joint  on  each  side  of  the  doors. 

FOLDING  JOINT,  a  joint  made  like  a  rule-joint,  or  the 
joint  of  a  hinge. 

ISOLDS,  or  Flaps,  of  shutters,  those  parts  that  are  hinged 
to  the  shutters,  and  concealed  behind  when  the  shutters  are 
in  the  boxings,  so  as  to  cover  the  breadth  of  the  window 
when  the  shutter  and  flaps  are  folded  out  in  the  breadth  of 
the  aperture.  Folds  are  necessary  when  the  walls  are  so  thin 
as  not  to  admit  of  shutters  of  sufficient  breadth,  when  put 
together,  to  cover  the  opening. 

FOLL\GE,  in  arciiitecture,  an  artificial  arrangement   of 
leaves,  fruit,  &c.     See  Ornaments. 
FOLI.\TI0N.     See  Foils. 

FONT,  (from  the  Latin /oh.«)  the  vessel  used  in  churches 
to  hold   the  water  consecrated  for  the  purposes  of  baptism. 

In  the  eaily  church,  the  baptistery  formed  a  separate 
building,  mimbered  amongst  the  exhedr.-e  or  (Uitbuildin^s 
which  were  detached  trom  the  church,  but  enclo.sed  witliir 
the  consecrated  area.  Within  the  baptistery  was  the  font 
or  reservoir.  These  separate  buildings  continued  to  prevail 
till  the  sixth  century,  when  all  occasion  for  adult  baptism 
ceased,  and  f  oits  within  the  church  became  general.  Many 
baptisteries,    however,    still  exist   in    various   parts   of  the 


FON 


419 


TOO 


Continent,  althoiigli  there  seem  to  be  no  specimens  in  Eng- 
land unless  iiid.e'l  wo  cun.sidL'i-  as  sich  the  building  surfound- 
ing  the  f  >nt  at  Luton  ihurch.  This  structure  is  octagonal, 
about  tNventv-ciiilit  leei  liigli.  h:u  ingopeu  arches  at  tlic  siiles, 
and  a  stone  roof,  the  tout  being  plac.d  in  the  centre,  thus 
forniing  asindl  o  atory  c.ipible  of  holding  seven  or  eight 
persons.  A  similai'  canopy  occurs  at  Trunch,  Norfolk,  but 
it  is  of  wood,  and  hexagnuil. 

The  ni:itfri,d  in  use  for  fonts,  is  for  the  most  part  of  stone 
lined  with  lead,  but  we  have  some  notice  of  fonts  of  met  il  ; 
that  at  C.intirbury  is  reported  to  have  been  of  silver,  and 
that  taken  from  Hilyrood  Chapel  and  brought  to  St.  Alban's 
was  of  brass.  There  is  also  a  font  at  Chobharn,  Surrey, 
which  consists  of  a  leaden  basin  enclosed  within  a  screen  of 
oak  panelling,  the  date  of  which  is  about  a.d.  1600.  The 
situation  of  the  font  is  within  the  church,  near  the  door, 
either  in  the  ai-le  next  thj  porch,  agiunst  one  of  the  piers 
between  the  aisle  and  nave,  or  in  the  nave  near  the 
west  end. 

The  most  rude  fonts  are  in  shape  little  better  than  large 
stones,  without  any  delinite  external  firm,  but  having  a  space 
hollowed  out  at  thi^  top  in  th.;  sh;ipe  of  a  bason  ;  such  is  that 
in  the  church  of  Little  Sla'plestcad.  Ni>rinau  fonts  are  either 
of  a  cylin Iricil  or  cubical  form  ;  but  which  shape  is  the 
earlier,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide.  In  so  ue  instances  the 
cylintlrical  fonts  taper  towards  the  ba-e ;  an  1  at  St.  iFartiu's, 
Canterbury,  th:  reverse  proportion  is  adopted.  Next  to 
these  forms  came  the  square  stone  ho'lowel  out  in  the 
centre,  supported  on  a  massive  cylindrical  stem,  or  on  a 
central  stem,  and  four  smaller  sh  d'ts,  one  at  each  corner, 
specimens  of  which  form  exist  at  Lincoln  cathedral  and 
llHey  church,  Oxli>rdsliire.  In  all  these  inst  nices,  the  sides 
of  thj  font  are  ornainented  with  ru  le  sculpture  in  low  re'ief, 
frcn'iently  of  groups,  and  soiTietime<  of  single  figures  con- 
tained in  shallow  i>iches,  as  at  Stanton  Fitzwarrcn,  Wilts. 
Symbolical  representations  a''e  frequently  introduced,  as  are 
also  scenes  from  the  S  lered  Wiiting-;,  especially  of  such 
events  as  relate  to  the  subject  of  baptism.  On  the  font  at 
Castle  Frome,  He 'eforlshire,  is  a  representation  of  the 
Baptism  of  Chiist,  which  is  a  very  favourite  subject, 
the  same  occurring  at  I5ridekirk,  in  On  nberlan  I,  and  West 
Haddon,  in  Northamptonshire.  Another  usual  subject  is 
the  Fall  of  Man,  as  at  Eist  Meon,  Hants. 

Eiirly  English  fonts  ari;  in  form  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  preceding  style,  but  they  are  readily  distinguished 
by  their  oniaiuentation,-  which  consists  of  work  peculiar  to 
this  style  ;  the  details  also  are  of  better  execution.  The  oc- 
tagonal was  a  new  foiin  introduced  into  this  style.  Decorated 
and  Perpendicular  fonts  are  for  the  most  part  octagonal,  and 
most  frequently  supporteil  on  a  central  stem  ;  many  of  them 
are  of  most  beautiful  form  and  workmanship.  Those  of  the 
later  period  are  usually  covered  with  panelling,  and  have 
the  sides  filled  up  with  armorial  bearings.  Hexagonal  fonts 
are  sometimes,  though  not  commonly,  found ;  we  have 
instances  at  Carlisle  cathedral,  Farringdon,  Berkshire ;  and 
Bredon,  Worcestershire.  Five  and  seven-sided  fonts  are 
extremely  rare ;  of  the  former  we  have  an  example  at 
Hollington,  Sussex.  At  Patritigton  and  Sajdington,  Leices- 
tershire, we  find  fonts  of  twelve  sides;  and  at  Stainburn, 
Yorkshire,  one  of  fifteen  sides;  but  these  are  purely  excep- 
tions: the  octagonal  form  is  the  most  cominon,  as  it  is  also 
the  inost  appropriate.  The  f  mt  is  usually  raised  on  one  or 
more  steps,  the  sides  or  risers  of  which  are  often  in  the 
later  styles  deccnvitod  with  puiellinu.  quatfofoils,  &c.  Fonts 
were  furnished  with  covers,  whi  h  Edmund,  a'chbishop  of 
Couterburv,  A.n.,  12ot5.  ordered  to  be  locked  down.  Thev 
were  probably  in  the  earlier  periods  merely  flat  lids  of  wood, 


but  in  later  times  they  were  cariied  up  in  the  form  of  a  spire 
to  a  great  iieight,  ornamented  with  pinnacles  and  buttresses, 
with  crockets,  finials,  and  other  ornami-nts  ;  and  not  nnfre- 
quently  the  whole  of  the  sides  were  pierced  with  the  nif'St 
elabiu'ate  panelling. 

FONTANA,  DOMINIC,  a  distinguished  architect,  horn 
in  1543, at  a  village  on  the  lakeof  Conio.  Having  ac<iuir.  d 
the  elements  of  geometry,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  his  eld  t 
brother  John  was  a  stndent  in  architecture.  Here  he  apnlied 
himself  most  diligently  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  antiquity, 
and  at  length  was  employed  by  Cardinal  Montalto.  afterwards 
Pope  SextusV.  Montalto  had  already  begun  ti)  display  the 
magnificence  of  his  character,  by  undertaking  the  construction 
of  the  grand  chapel  of  the  lilanger,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Maria  Maggiore.  The  pope,  Gregory  Xlll..  jealous  of  the 
munificence  of  his  cardinal,  took  from  him  the  means  of  his 
designs,  and  thus  put  a  stop  to  the  works.  Fontana,  with  a 
spirit  worthy  of  a  great  man,  went  on  with  the  building  at 
his  own  expense,  which  so  gratifieil  the  cardinal,  that  when 
he  was  raised  to  the  pontifical  chair,  he  appointed  Fontana 
to  be  his  architect.  The  chapel  and  palace  were  finished  in 
a  splendid  style  ;  but  this  was  a  small  part  of  the  designs 
projected  by  Sextus.  Besiiles  completing  the  dome  of  St. 
Peter's,  he  resolved  to  contribute  to  its  grandeur,  by  con- 
veying to  the  front  of  its  piazza  the  obelisk,  i^f  a  single  piece 
of  Egyptian  granite,  which  had  formerly  decorated  the 
Ciicus  of  Nero. 

This  design  had  been  contemplated  by  some  of  the  pre- 
decessors of  Sextus,  but  none  had  actnally  attempted  it. 
Sextus  stunmoned  "architects  and  engineers  from  all  parts,  to 
consult  upon  the  best  means  of  effecting  his  pnrpo~e ;  Fon 
tana's  plan  obtained  the  preference,  and  he  was  able  to  <xe- 
cute  what  he  had  advanced  iii  theoiy.  This  was  regarded 
as  the  m>st  splendid  exploit  of  the  age;  and  rewards  and 
honours  of  the  most  magnificent  kind  were  be~towed  on 
Fontana  and  his  heirs.  He  was  afterwards  emp!o\  ed  in 
raising  other  obelisks,  and  in  the  embellishment  of  the  piin- 
cipal  streets  of  Rome.  He  built  the  Vatican  library,  and  had 
begun  to  make  considerable  add  tions  to  that  i>lace;  but 
they  were  interrupted  by  the  death  of  Sex  us.  One  of  Fon- 
tana's  great  works  was  the  conducting  of  water  to  Rome, 
the  distance  of  fifteen  miles,  in  an  aqueluet  supported  on 
arcades.  The  successor  of  Sextus,  Clement  Vlll.,  wns  pre- 
judiced against  the  papal  architect,  and  dismissed  him  ;  but 
his  reputation  caused  him  to  be  enjaged  by  th;  viceroy  of 
Naples  as  archirect  to  the  king.  He  accordingly  removed 
to  Naples,  in  laOl,  where  he  executed  many  works  of  con- 
sequence. His  last  efTxts  were  directed  to  a  new  hnrbour 
at  Naples,  but  this  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  died 
at  Niples  in  1607,  in  his  sixty-fourth  year. 

FOOT,  (Saxon)  a  tneasure,  either  lineal,  superfi-ial,  or 
solid.  The  lineal  or  long  foot  is  supposed  to  be  the  length 
of  thef)otofa  mm,  and  consists  of  twelve  equal  paits  called 
inches  ;  an  inch  being  equal  to  three  barleycorns. 

Thus  the  English  standard  foot  (31  Edw.  (.)is=l-2  lineal 
English  inchest  =  36  barleycorns,  =:  16  digits.  =  4  palms, 
=  3  hands.  =  .5^  nails,  =  IJ  spans,  =  1.5151  (innter's 
links,  =  .93S306  f.!et  of  France,  =  .3047  metres  of  France. 

Geoni'triciaus  divide  (he  foot  into  10  digits,  and  the  digit 
into  10  lines,  iScc. 

The  French  divide  their  foot,  as  we  do,  into  12  inches  ; 
and  the  inch  into  VI  lines.   See  Misasures. 

The  foot  square  is  the  same  measure,  both  in  length  and 
breadth,  containing  144  square  or  superficial  inches,  = 
2."205634  squ  ire  links  ;  and  the  glazier's  foot  in  Scotland  is 
=  (St  square  Scottish  inches. 

The  cubic,  or  solid  foot,  is  the  same  treasure  in  all  the 


FOO 


420 


FOR 


three  diinonsions,  containing  1728  cubic  inches  English 
=  (>.128  ale  gailuns  =  3.478309  cubic  links  =  .02&3  cubic 
metres  or  steies  of  France. 

The  foot  is  of  difTcreiit  lengths  in  didirent  countries. 
The  Paris  royal  foot  exceeds  the  English  by  nine  lines  and 
a  h.ilf;  the  ancient  Konian  foot  of  the  Capitol  consisted  of 
four  palms,  equal  to  eleven  inches  and  seven-tenths  English; 
the  Uhinland,  or  Leyden  foot,  by  which  the  northern  nations 
go,  is  to  the  R(jman  foot  as  950  to  1,000.  The  portions  of 
the  principal  feet  of  several  nations,  compared  with  the 
English  and  French,  are  here  subjoined. 

The  English  toot  being  divided  into  one  thousand  parts, 
or  into  twelve  lines,  the  other  feet  will  be  as  follow : 

Th,  I'ts.  Ft.  Inch.  Li. 

London Foot  1000  .  .  0  12  0 

Paris  foot,  the  royal,  by  Gieaves  10G8  .   .  1  0  9.7 

Paris  foot,  by  Dr"  Bernard      .     .  1000  .  .  1  0  9.5 
Paris  foot,  by  Grahum,  fiom  the 

measure  of  half  the  toise  of  ihe 

Chatflet,    the    toise    containing 

six  Paris  feet 1005.416  1  0  9.8 

By  Monnier,  from  the  same  data  1005.351  1  0  9 

From  both  these  it  may  be  ti.ved  at  1005.4  .   .  1  0  9.4 

Amsterdam Foot  942  .  .  0  II  3 

Antwerp 940  ..  0  11  3.57 

Dort 1184  ..  1  2  2 

Rhinland,  or  Leyden     ....  1033  .  .  1  04 

Lorrain      .     .    ' 958  ..  0  11  5 

Mechlin 919  .  .  0  11  0 

Middleburg 991  .   .  0  1 1  10 

Strasburg 920  .  .  0  11  0 

Bremen 904  .  .  0  1 1  6 

Cologne 954  ..  0  11  5 

Frankfort  on  the  Maine     .     .     .  948  .  .  0  11  4 

Spanish 1001  .  .  1  0  0 

Toledo 899  ..  0  10  7 

Roman 907  .  .  0  11  6 

Bononia 1204  .  .  1  2  5 

Mantua 1569  .  .  1  0  0 

Venice 1162  ..  1  111 

Dantzic 944  ..  0  11  3 

Copenhagen     965  ..0116 

Prague       1026  .  .  1  0  3 

Riga 1831  .  .  1  9  11 

Turin 1062  .  .  1  0  8 

The  Greek 1007  .  .  1  0  1 

Old  Roman 970  .  .  0  11  7.6 

Roman  f  >ot,  from  the  monument  of 

Cossutius  in  Rome,  by  Greaves  967  .  .  0  11  7.2 
From  the  monument  of  Statilius, 

by  the  same 972  .  .  0  11  7.9 

Of  Villalpandiis,  deduced  from  the 

congius  of  Vespasian      .     .     .  986  .   .  0  11  9.9 

Mr.  Rapier,  who  industriously  collected  a  variety  of 
authorities  relating  to  the  measure  of  the  old  Roman  foot, 
determined  the  mean  to  be  nearly  968  thousandth  parts  of 
the  London  foot.  And  by  an  examination  of  the  ancient 
Roman  buildings  in  Desgodetz's  Edifices  Antiques  de  Rome, 
Paris,  1082,  he  concluded  that  the  Roman  foot,  before  the 
reign  of  Titus,  exceeded  970  parts  in  1000  of  the  London 
foot;  and  in  the  reigns  of  Severus  and  Diocletian  fell  short 
of  965. 

Ihe  Paris  foot  being  supposed  to  contain  1440  parts,  the 
rest  will  be  as  follow ; — 


the    moulding    above    the    plinth    of    an 


Paris Foot  1440 

Rhinl.ind 1391 

Roman 1320 

London 13.50 

Swedish 1320 

Danish 1403 

Venetian L540| 

Constantinopolitan 3120 

Bononian 1682| 

Strasburg 1282|- 

Nuremburg 134t)|^ 

Dantzic 1721^ 

Halle 1320" 

In  Scotland,  this  measure  of  length,  though  consisting  of 
twelve  inches,  exceeds  the  English  foot,  so  that  185  of  the 
former  is  equal  to  186  of  the  latter.  Accordingly  the  Scot- 
tish foot  =  12  Scottish  inches  =z  12  J^  English  inches, 
according  to  some,  and  i'ij'-^i  English  inches,  according  to 
others.  The  glazier's  foot  in  Scotland  =::  8  Scottish 
inches. 

For  a  farther  account  of  the  foot,  ancient  and  modern,  and 
its  proportions  in  ditferent  countries.     See  Mkasure. 

Foot-Bank,  or  Foot-Step,  in  fortification.  See  Ban- 
quette. 

Foot-  Base, 
apartment. 

Foot-Bridge,  a  narrow  bridge  for  foot-passengers.  See 
Bridge. 

Foot  of  the  Eye  Director,  in  perspective,  that  point 
in  the  directing  line  which  is  made  by  a  vertical  plane  pass- 
ing through  the  eye  and  the  centre  of  the  picture. 

Foot  of  a  Vertical  Line,  in  perspective,  that  point  in 
the  intersecting  line,  which  is  made  by  a  vertical  plane 
passing  through  the  eye  and  the  centre  of  the  picture. 

Foot-Irons,  in  engineering,  pieces  of  iron  plate,  used  by 
navigators,  or  canal-diggers,  to  tie  upon  that  part  of  the  sole 
of  their  shoes  with  which  they  strike  the  top  of  their  spade 
or  grafiing  tool,  in  digging  hard  soil. 

FootPace,  in  hand-railing,  a  flat  space  in  some  stairs, 
always  situated  between  the  starting,  or  first  step,  and  the 
landing.     See  Staircasing. 

Foot  Pace,  the  dais  or  raised  floor  at  the  upper  end  of  an 
ancient  hall. 

Foot-Stall,  the  base  or  plinth  of  a  pillar. 

FOOTING-BEAM,  a  term  used  in  Cumberland,  West- 
moreland,  Somersetshire,  and  perhaps  in  other  counties,  for 
the  tie-beam  of  a  roof. 

Footings,  in  bricklaying  and  masonry,  projecting  courses 
of  stone,  without  the  naked  of  each  face  of  a  superincumbent 
wall,  used  as  a  base  to  the  wall,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from 
sinking  and  rocking  l>y  heavy  winds. 

Footing  Dok.mant,  the  tie-beam  of  a  roof;  the  term  is 
used  in  Westmoreland. 

FORCE,  (from  the  Latin,  for'is,  strong)  in  philosophy, 
the  cau.se  of  motion  in  a  body,  when  it  begins  to  move,  or 
when  it  changes  its  direction  from  the  course  in  which  it 
was  previously  .moving.  While  a  body  n-mains  in  the  same 
state,  whether  of  rest  or  of  uniform  and  rectilinear  motion, 
the  cause  of  its  so  remaining  is  in  the  nature  of  the  bod)', 
which  principle  has  received  the  name  of  inertia. 

Mechanical  fierce  is  of  two  kinds  :  that  of  a  body  at  rest, 
by  which  it  presses  on  whatever  supports  it.  and  that  of  a 
body  in  motion,  by  which  it  is  impelled  towards  a  certain 
point.  The  former  is  called  by  the  names  of  pressure,  tension, 
force,  vis  mortiia,  &c.,  the  latter  is  known  by  the  appellation 
of  moving  force,  or  vis   viva.     To    the    first  of  these   are 


FOR 


421 


FOR 


referred  centrifugal  and  centripetal  furces  because,  though 
they  also  reside  in  the  via  viva,  they  are  honiogeneous  to 
weiglus,  pressures,  or  tensions  of  any  kind.  For  want  of"  a 
true  Itnowledge  of  the  nature  of  force,  wo  are  accustomed 
to  consider  its  measure  by  velocity,  upon  the  supposition  that, 
under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  the  velocity  is  equal 
to  the  force  ;  an  hypothesis  liiyiily  probable,  though  not 
easily  demonstrable.  Velocity  itself  is  a  compound  idea, 
derived  from  a  certain  relation  between  time  employed  and 
space  described.  Thus,  if  two  bodies  be  supposed  to  move 
uniformly  upon  two  dillereiit  lines,  the  distances  which  they 
describe  upon  their  respective  lines  in  any  given  time,  may 
be  measured  and  represented  by  some  standard  measure, 
from  which  we  acquire  an  idea  of  their  relative  velocity  or 
force  ;  and  considering  velocity  as  an  abstract  number,  it  is 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  space,  divided  by  the  time;  and  thus 
we  are  li:d  to  consider  velocity,  or  the  space  described  in  a 
given  time,  as  the  measure  of  force. 

Force  may  also  be  e.xpiessed  by  other  functions  of  velo- 
city ;  for  it  may  be  proportional  to  the  square  or  cube  of 
the  velocity  ;  and  La  Place  has  very  ingeniously  proved 
that  the  ditlerence  between  the  proportionality  of  force  to 
velocity,  if  any  really  e.\ists,  must  be  extremely  sinall ; 
whence  he  argues  it  is  highly  improbable  that  any  does  exist. 
If  there  Were  any  material  variation  in  this  law,  the  relative 
motions  of  bodies  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  would  be 
sensilily  artected  by  the  motion  of  the  earth;  in  other  words, 
the  etl'ect  of  a  given  force  would  vaiy  considerably,  accord- 
ing as  its  direction  coincided  with,  or  was  opposed  to,  that 
of  the  earth's  motion.  The  efiects  of  the  same  apparent 
forces  would  likewise  vary  in  dilierent  seasons  of  the  year  ; 
the  velocity  of  the  earth  being  less  by  about  one-thirtieth  in 
summer  than  it  is  in  winter.  But  as  no  such  variation  is 
discernible,  we  may  justly  conclude  the  prop(jrtion  between 
force  and  velocity  to  be  as  I  to  1  ;  that  is,  there  is  no  differ- 
ence. To  illustrate  this,  suppose  two  bodies  moving  upon 
one  straight  line  with  equal  velocities;  by  impelling  one  of 
them  with  a  force  which  increases  its  original  force,  its 
relative  velocity  to  the  other  body  remains  the  same  as  if 
both  had  been  primitively  in  a  quiescent  state.  The  space 
descrilied  by  the  body,  in  consequence  of  its  original  force, 
and  of  that  which  has  been  added  to  it,  becomes  equal  to  the 
sum  of  what  each  of  them  would  have  c^iused  it  to  have  been, 
described  in  the  same  time;  therefore  the  force  is  propor- 
tional to  the  velocity. 

This  law,  and  that  of  inertia  above  alluded  to,  may  be 
considered  as  derived  froju  observation  and  experiment: 
they  are  simple  and  natural,  and  are  sufficient  to  serve  as  a 
basis  tor  the  whole  science  of  mechanics. 

Early  in  the  last  century,  a  warm  controversy  arose 
relative  to  the  measure  of  force,  which  was  carried  on  with 
considerable  acrimony,  though  it  now  appears  that  the  ques- 
tion was  rather  about  words  than  ficts.  Sir  Isjiac  Newton 
had  defined  the  measure  of  force  to  be  "  the  mass  of  a  body 
niutiplied  into  its  velocity;"  which  deliiiition  was  not  only 
convenient  for  the  philosophical  investigation  in  which  he 
was  engaged;  but  was  really  mathematically  just.  But  in 
another  point  of  view,  in  which  the  effects  of  force  may  be 
said,  without  any  impropriety,  to  depend  on  the  mass  multi- 
plied into  the  square  of  the  velocity,  this  product  has  been 
called  the  v«  viva,  and  was  coiisidt-red  by  Bernouilli  and 
Leibnitz  as  the  tiue  and  universal  measure  of  forci-,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Sir  Isaac's  deHnition  ;  though  it  now  appears  that 
they  were  ledjnto  an  error  by  not  duly  considering  ail  the 
ciicumstances  of  the  question  at  issue.  The  measure  adopted 
by  them,  the  vis  viva,  however,  merits  attention,  as  in  all 
cases  of  practical  machinery  it  is  frequently  the  most  accurate, 


and  always  the  most  useful  ;  at  the  same  time  it  implies  no 
contradiction  to  the  Newtonian  definition.  But  the  force 
thus  measured  ought  to  be  distinguished  by  some  appropriate 
name,  e.  g.  the  vis  meckanica ;  the  Newtonian  measure 
bi!ing  applied  to  the  vis  matrix,  us  suggested  by  Mr.  Wollas- 
ton  in  the  Bakerian  Lecture  for  1805. 

Force,  Direction  of,  the  straight  line  which  it  tends  to 
make  a  body  describe. 

Forces,  Uompoxilion  nf.  If  two  forces  be  conceived  to  act 
on  a  maferial  point,  it  is  evident  that  if  they  both  act  in  the 
same  direction,  they  will  mutually  increase  each  other's 
effect;  but  if  they  act  in  opposite  directions,  the  point  will 
move  only  in  consequence  of  their  difference,  and  it  would 
remain  at  rest  if  the  forces  were  equal.  If  the  directions  of 
the  two  forces  make  an  angle  with  each  other,  the  resulting 
force  will  take  a  mean  direction  ;  and  it  can  be  deinonslr.ited 
geometrically,  that  if,  reckoning  from  the  point  of  intersection 
of  the  two  directions  of  the  forces,  we  take  on  these  directions 
straight  lines  to  represent  them,  and  then  form  a  parallelo- 
gram with  such  lines,  its  diagonal  will  represent  their  result- 
ing force,  both  as  to  its  direction  and  magnitude.  The 
resulting  force  thus  determined,  which  likewise  represents  the 
velocity  of  the  moving  point,  may  therefore  be  substituted 
as  a  force  equivalent  to  the  two  component  forces;  and 
recipro&illy,  for  any  force  whatever,  we  may  substitute  anv 
two  forces,  which  according  to  this  rule  would  compose  it. 
Hence  we  see  that  any  force  whatever  may  be  decomposed 
into  any  two  foices,  parallel  to  two  axes  situated  in  the  same 
plane,  and  perpendicular  to  each  other.  To  effect  this,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  draw  from  the  first  extremity  of  the  line 
representing  the  force,  to  other  lines  puraliel  to  the  axis,  and 
to  forni  with  such  lines  a  rectangle,  whose  diagonal  will  be 
the  force  required  to  be  decomposed.  The  two  sides  of  this 
rectangle,  or  parallelogram,  will  represent  the  forces  into 
which  the  given  f  >rce  may  be  decomposed,  parallel  to  such 
axis.  If  the  force  be  inclined  to  a  plane  in  position,  a  line  in 
its  direction  may  be  taken  to  represent  it,  having  one  of  its 
extremities  on  the  surface  "^f  the  plane,  and  the  perpendicular 
falling  from  the  other  extremity  will  be  the  primitive  force 
decomposed  in  the  direction  perpendicular  to  the  plane.  The 
straight  line,  which  in  the  plane  joins  the  other  extremity  of 
the  line  representing  the  force  with  the  perpendicular  (or  the 
orthographic  projection  of  the  line  of  the  plane)  will  repre- 
sent the  primitive  fiirce  decomposed,  parallel  to  the  plane. 
This  second  partial  force  may  itself  be  decomposed  into  two 
others,  parallel  to  two  axes  in  the  same  plane,  perpendicu- 
lar to  each  other.  Thus  we  see  that  every  force  may  be 
decomposed  into  three  others,  parallel  to  three  axes  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other ;  which  axes  are  termed  rectangular 
co-ordinates. 

Hence  we  have  a  very  simple  mode  of  obtaining  the 
resulting  force  of  anv  number  of  fi>rces  supposed  to  act  on  a 
material  point.  This  method  was  first  adopted  by  Maclaurin, 
followed  by  La  Grange,  in  the  Michanique  Anahitiqne,  and 
also  by  La  Place  in  the  Meclianique  Celeste.  By  decompos- 
ing each  of  these  ft>rces  into  three  others,  parallel  to  the  given 
axes  in  position,  and  perpendicidar  to  each  other,  we  have 
all  the  forces  parallel  to  the  same  axis  reduced  to  one  single 
force,  which  latter  will  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  forces  act- 
ing in  the  same  direction,  minus  the  sum  of  those  acting  in  a 
contrary  direction  :  so  that  the  point  will  be  acted  on  by 
three  forces  perpendicular  to  each. other.  From  the  point  of 
intersection,  or  origin  of  the  co-ordinates,  take  three  right 
lines  to  represent  them  in  each  of  their  directions,  and  on 
such  lines  form  a  rectangular  parallelopipedon,  and  the 
diagonal  of  this  solid  will  represent  the  quantity  and  direc- 
tion of  the  resulting  force  of  all  the  forces  acting  on  the  point. 


V  . )  11 


422 


FOR 


The  principle  i>f  the  coinpnsitiiiii  of  forces  is  of  the  mo^t 
extensive  utility  in  im-eh^iiiics.  and  is  in  itself  siiflicient  for 
deteimininfj  the  law  of  equilibrium  in  every  case.  Thus,  if 
we  successively  compose  all  the  forces,  taking  them  by  two's, 
and  then  take  the  result  as  a  new  f  )rce,  we  obtain  one  that 
is  equivalent  to  all  the  rest,  and  wh'ch,  in  case  of  e(iuilil)riuni, 
must  equal  0,  when  the  system  under  considt'ratiou  has  no 
fixed  point  ;  but  if  the  conditions  of  the  problem  insist  on 
an  immoveable  point,  the  resulting  force  must  necessarily 
pass  tlirough  it. 

Though  it  is  admitted  by  all  writers  on  this  subject,  that 
the  most  abstruse  propositions  may  be  deduced  t'roin  a  few- 
simple  principles,  yet  few  are  found  who  entirely  agree  in 
their  cJioice  of  such  principles.  The  most  advantageous,  and 
indeed  the  most  natural  method,  seems  to  be  that  wherein 
the  relation  between  various  forces  in  a  state  of  equilibiium 
is  fiist  investigated,  and  then  the  consideration  e.xt,ended  to  a 
body  in  motion.  If  a  body  remain  in  equilibrium,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  solicited  by  several  forci'S,  each  force  is 
supposed  to  produce  only  a  tendency  to  motion,  which  is 
measured  by  the  motion  it  would  produce  were  it  not  checked 
by  the  power  of  the  others:  therefore,  after  expressing  the 
effect  of  any  one  of  the  forces  by  unity,  the  relative  fone  of 
the  others  may  likewise  be  expressed  by  words  or  numbers. 

La  Place  merely  assumes  the  two  foregoing  principles,  and 
speaks  of  them  as  experimental  facts;  while  Dr.  Young  does 
not  scruple  to  declare  them  capable  of  demonstration.  (See 
his  Lectures.')  But  this  difference  of  opinion  is  of  little  im- 
port.-uice,  since  the  principles  themselves  are  univeisally 
admitted. 

La  Grange  has  founded  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  ecjui- 
librium  of  forces  on  the  w'cll-known  principle  of  the  lever,  the 
composition  of  motion,  and  the  principle  of  virtual  velocity  ; 
each  of  which  we  shall  here  notice. 

The  principle  of  the  lever  may  be  derived  from  the  com- 
jiosition  of  forces,  or  even  from  much  less  complicated  con- 
siderations. 

Archimedes,  the  earliest  author  on  record,  who  attempted 
to  demonstrate  the  property  of  the  lever,  assumes  the  equi- 
librium of  equal  weights  at  equal  distanct!s  from  the  fulcrum, 
as  a  mechanical  axiom  ;  and  he  reduces  to  this  simple  and 
piiuiitive  case  that  of  unequal  weights,  by  supposing  them, 
wlieu  commensurable,  to  be  divided  into  equal  parts,  placed 
at  eq\ial  distances  on  different  points  of  the  lever,  which  may 
tluis  be  loaded  with  a  number  of  small  equal  weights,  at 
equal  di>tances  frt)m  the  fulcrum. 

The  princi])lo  of  the  straight  and  horizontal  lever  being 
adruitted,  the  law  of  equilibrium  in  other  niaehini!s  may  be 
deduced  from  it.  Though  it  is  not  without  dilliculty  that  the 
inclined  plane  is  referred  to  this  principle  ;  the  laws  relative 
to  which  have  been  but  lately  known. 

Steviuus,  mathematician  to  Prince  Maurice  of  .\assau, 
first  demonstrated  the  principle  of  the  inclined  plane  by  a 
very  indirect,  though  curious  mode  of  reasoning.  He  con- 
siders the  case  of  a  solid  triangle  resting  on  its  horizontal 
base,  whose  sides  then  become  two  inclined  planes  :  over 
these  he  supposes  a  chain  to  be  thrown,  consisting  of  small 
equal  weights  threaded  together;  the  upper  part  of  such 
chain  resting  on  the  two  inclined  planes,  and  the  lower  ends 
hanging  at  liberty  below  the  foot  of  the  base.  His  reason- 
ing is,  that  if  the  chain  be  not  in  cquilibrio,  it  will  begin  to 
slide  along  the  plane,  and  would  continue  so  to  do,  the  same 
cause  still  exi.-.ting,  for  ever ;  thus  producing  a  perpetual 
motion.  Birt  as  this  implies  a  contradiction,  w'e  must  con- 
clude the  chain  to  be  in  cquilibrio;  in  which  case,  as  the 
etVorts  of  all  the  weights  app.ied  to  one  side  wi>u!d  be  an 
exact  counterpoise  to  those  applied   to   the  other,  and  the 


number  of  weights  would  be  in  the  same  ratir)  as  the  lengths 
of  the  planes  ;  he  conclu'les  that  the  weights  will  be  in  eqm'- 
librio  on  the  inclined  phines  when  they  are  to  each  other  ns 
the  lengths  of  ihe  planes;  but  that  when  the  pliineis  vertical, 
the  power  is  equal  to  the  weight ;  and  that  therefore,  in  everv 
inclined  plane,  the  power  is  to  the  weight  as  the  height  of 
the  plane  to  its  length. 

Virtual  velocitij  is  that  which  a  body  in  equilibrium  is 
disposed  to  receive  whenever  the  eq\iilil)rium  is  disturbed  ; 
in  other  words,  it  is  what  a  body  actually  receives  in  the 
first  moment  of  its  motion. 

The  priiiciplepf  virtual  velocity,  in  its  most  general  form, 
is  as  follows:  suppose  a  .system  in  equilibrium  composed  of 
a  number  of  points,  drawn  in  any  direction,  bv  whatever 
forces,  to  be  so  put  in  motion,  as  that  everv  point  shall  de- 
scribe an  infinitely  small  space,  indiciUive  of  its  virtu.il  veloc- 
ity; the  sum  of  the  forces  being  each  multiplied  by  the  space 
described  by  the  point  to  wh  ch  it  is  applied,  in  tlie  direction 
of  the  force,  will  equal  0;  the  small  spaces  described  in  the 
direction  of  the  forces  being  estimated  as  positive,  and  those 
in  a  contrary  direction  as  negative.  Galileo,  in  his  Trcutise 
on  Mechaiiiciil  Scifiice.  and  in  his  Dialo/jne.'),  proposes  this 
principle  as  a  general  propTly  in  the  equilibrium  of  machines; 
he  appears  to  have  been  the  first  writer  on  meehanics.  who 
was  acquainted  with  it.  His  disciple  Toirirelli  was  the 
author  of  another  principle,  which  seems  to  be  but  a  neces- 
sary Cfinsequence  of  Galileo's.  He  supposes  two  weights 
to  be  so  connected,  that  however  placed,  their  centre  of 
gravity  shall  neither  rise  nor  fall  ;  in  every  situation,  there- 
fore, ihey  will  be  in  cquilibrio.  He  contents  hiinself  with 
appl\  ing  this  principle  to  inclined  planes  ;  but  it  equally 
applies  to  all  machines. 

Des  (Partes  deduced  the  equi'ibrium  of  different  forces  from 
a  similar  principle;  but  he  presented  it  under  another,  and 
less  general  point  of  view,  than  Galileo  had  done;  for  he 
argues  that  to  lift  a  given  weight  to  a  certain  height,  pre- 
cisely the  same  force  is  requisite  that  woidd  be  sufficient  to 
raise  a  heavier  to  a  height  proportionally  less,  or  a  lighter  to 
a  height  proportionally  greater;  therefore  two  unequal 
weights  will  be  in  equilibrio.  when  the  perpendicular  spaces 
described  by  them  are  reciprocally  proportioned  to  them. 
In  the  application  of  this  principle,  however,  only  the  spaces 
described  in  the  first  instant  of  motion  are  to  be  considered  ; 
otherwise  the  accurate  lawof  eqniiiln-ium  will  not  be  attained. 

Another  principle,  recurred  to  by  some  authors  in  the 
solution  of  problems  relative  to  the  equilibrium  of  forces, 
arises  out  of  the  foregoing,  viz.  When  a  system  (jf  heavy 
bodies  is  in  equilibrio,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  the  lowest 
possible.  For  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  bf)dy  is  the  lowest, 
when  the  differential  of  its  descent  is  0,  as  can  be  demon- 
strated from  the  principle  de  majrimus  ct  mitiinni.i ;  that  is, 
when  the  centre  of  gravity  neither  ascends  nor  descends  by 
an  inlinitelv  small  change  in  the  position  of  the  system. 

J.  Bernouilli  first  perceived  the  great  utility  of  generalizing 
this  principle  of  virtual  velocity,  and  api)lied  it  to  the  solu- 
tion of  problems  ;  in  w  hich  he  was  followed  by  Varignon,  who 
has  devoted  the  whole  of  the  ninth  section  of  his  Novvelle 
Mechaviquc  to  demonstrate  its  truth  and  exemplify  its  utility 
in  various  cases  in  statics. 

lu  the  Memoirea  de  V  Academic  fi>r  1740,  Maupertuis  pro 
posed  another  principle,  originating  in  the  same  source,  under 
the  title  of  "The  Law  of  Repose;"  which  was  afterwards 
extended  by  Euler,  and  explained  in  ihe  Memoirs  of  the 
Berlin  Academy  for  1751  :  and  the  principle  assumed  by 
Mons.  Courtivron.  in  the  Miinoires  de  /'  Aca  /emie  for  174S-9, 
is  of  the  same  nature:  viz..  that  of  all  the  situations  which 
a  system  of  bodies  can  successively  take,  that  wherein  the 


FOR 


423 


FOR 


sysfeni  must  be  placed  to  remain'  in  equiiibrio,  is  that  in 
will  eh  tlie  via  vivd  is  eitiier  a  niaxinimn  or  a  miniimiin,  because 
the  vis  viva  is  the  sum  of  the  respective  masses  composing 
the  system,  each  multiplied  into  the  square  of  its  velocity. 
•  Of  all  these  meihods,  that  of  virtual  velocity  appears  to  be 
most  rrenerally  useful  ;  indeed  all  the  others  are  derived  from 
it,  and  are  serviceable  in  proportion  as  they  approach  nearer 
to  it.  La  Grange  has  given  practical  examples  of  the  ana- 
1\  ticai  proce>ses  for  determining  general  formula)  or  ecjuations 
for  the  eiiuilibrium  of  any  system  ;  and  La  Place  has  demon- 
strated the  principle  on  which  the  calcidus  is  founded. 

In  the  f  iivgoing  observations,  force  is  sup.posed  to  be  the 
product  of  the  mass  of  a  material  point,  by  the  velocity  it 
would  receive  if  entirely  free.  By  contiiiing  these  conside- 
rations to  the  case  of  a  single  material  point,  the  conditions 
of  equilibrium  will  be  t'ound  to  be  analogous  to  those  above 
spoken  of,  but  much  simplified. 

The  most  elementary  equation  to  express  the  state  of  equi- 
librium of  a  material  point,  acted  on  hy  any  nimTber  of 
forces,  is,  that  every  fijree,  multiplied  by  the  element  of  its 
direction,  ecpials  0  :  thus,  suppose  the  point  to  change  its 
position  in  an  infiMitely  small  degiee  in  any  direction;  then, 
in  the  case  of  equilibrium,  if  every  force  b.'  multiplied  by  the 
elementary  space  approached  to,  or  reced.d  from  l)y  the  point, 
the  force  being  estiiuated  in  its  direction,  the  product  will 
be  0. 

Here  the  point  is  supposed  to  be  free  ;  but  if  constrained 
to  move  on  a  curved  surface,  it  will  experience  a  reaction 
equal  and  contrary  to  the  pressure  which  it  exerts  on  such 
surfice,  but  perpendicular  to  it,  or  in  the  direclion  of  the 
radius  of  the  curve.  This  reaction  may  be  considered  as  a 
new  force,  which,  multiplied  by  the  elements  of  its  direction, 
must  be  added  to  the  former  equation.  But  if  the  variation 
of  position,  instead  of  being  taken  arbitrarily,  be  taken  upon 
the  curve,  so  as  not  to  alter  the  conditions  of  the  problem, 
the  preceding  equation  will  still  hold  good,  because  the 
eleinentary  variation  of  the  radius  is  equal  to  0,  as  is  evident 
from  inspection.  Again,  if  the  magnitude  of  any  force,  or  its 
intensity,  multiplied  by  the  distance  of  its  direction  from  any 
fixed  point,  be  denominated  its  moment,  relatively  to  .such 
point,  it  will  be  foinid  that  the  sum  of  the  moments  of  the 
producing  forces  is  always  equal  to  that  of  the  resulting 
force  ;  and  in  case  of  equilibrium  the  sum  of  the  moments  of 
all  the  Pirees  eipials  0. 

If  the  forces  acting  on  a  point,  or  on  a  system  of  points, 
be  not  so  proportioned  as  to  maintain  the  system  in  equi- 
librium, a  motion  must  necessarily  take  place,  the  laws  of 
which  may  be  deduced  from  an  extension  of  the  principles 
laid  down  for  investigating  the  state  of  equilibrium  ;  a  method 
pursued  by  La  Grange,  and  after  him  by  La  Place.  The 
former  combines  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities  with  that 
of  D'Alembert,  which  is  very  simple,  and,  though  long  unob- 
served, may  be  considered  as  an  axiom.     It  is  as  follows  : 

If  several  bodies  have  a  tendency  to  motion,  in  directions, 
and  with  velocities,  which  they  are  constrained  to  change  in 
consequence  of  their  reciprocal  reaction  ;  the  motion  so 
induced  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  two  others,  one 
of  which  the  bodies  actually  assume,  and  the  other  sui-h,  that 
had  the  bodies  been  only  acted  upon  by  it.  I  hey  would  have 
remained  in  equilibrium.  This  theorem  is  nut  of  itself 
sulTicient  to  solve  a  problem,  because  it  is  always  necessary 
to  derive  some  condition  relative  to  the  equilibrium  from 
other  considerations;  and  the  difficulty  of  determining  the 
forces  and  the  laws  of  their  equilibrium,  sometimes  renders 
this  ariplication  more  difficult,  and  the  process  more  tedious, 
than  if  the  solution  were  performed  upon  some  principle  more 
complex  and  more  indirect.     To  obviate  this  objection,  there- 


fore. La  Grange  attempted  to  combine  the  principle  of 
D'Alembert  with  that  of  virtual  velocity  ;  in  which  he  was 
so  snceessfid,  that  he  was  enabled  to  deduce  the  general 
equations  relating  to  the  forces  acting  on  a  system  of  bodies. 
His  description  of  the  method  is  as  follows: 

To  form  an  accurate  conception  of  the  mode  in  which  these 
principles  are  applied,  it  is  necessary  to  recur  to  the  general 
principle  of  virtual  velocity,  viz.  When  a  system  of  material 
points,  solicited  by  any  force,  is  in  equilibrium,  if  the  system 
receive  ever  so  small  an  alteration  in  its  position,  every  point 
will  naturally  and  consequently  describe  a  small  space  ;  each 
of  which  spaces  being  multiplied  by  the  sum  of  each  force, 
according  to  the  direclion  of  such  force,  must  equal  0. 

Now,  supposing  the  system  to  be  in  motion,  the  motion 
that  each  point  makes  in  an  instant  nuiy  be  considered  as 
composed  of  two,  one  of  them  being  that  which  the  point 
acquires  in  the  f  diowing  instant  ;  consequently,  the  other 
must  be  destroyed  by  the  reciprocal  action  of  the  points  or 
bodies  upon  each  other,  as  well  as  of  the  moving  forces  by 
which  they  are  solicited.  There  wi'U  therefore  be  an 
equilibrium  between  these  forces  ami  the  pressures  or  resist- 
ances resulting  from  the  motions  lost  by  the  bodies  from 
one  instant  to  another.  Th^'refore,  to  extend  to  the  motion 
of  a  system  of  bodies,  the  formulaj  of  its  equilibrium,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  add  the  terms  due  to  the  last-mentioned 
forces. 

The  decrement  of  the  velocities,  which  every  particle  has 
in  the  direction  of  three  fixed  rectangular  co-ordinates, 
represents  the  motions  lost  in  those  directions;  and  their 
inciement  represcnUs  such  as  are  lost  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tions. Therefore,  the  resulting  pressures  or  forces  of  these 
motions  destroyed  will  be  generally  expressed  by  the  mass 
multiplied  into  the  element  of  the  velocity,  divided  by  the 
element  of  the  time;  and  their  directions  will  be  directly 
opposite  to  those  of  the  velocities. 

By  these  means  the  terms  required  may  be  analytically 
expressed,  and  a  general  formula  obtained  for  the  motion  of 
a  system  of  bodies,  which  will  comprehend  the  solution  of  all 
the  pi'obleins  in  dynanncs;  and  a  simple  extension  of  it  will 
give  the  necessary  equations  fur  each  problem. 

A  great  advantage  derived  from  this  formida  is,  that  it 
gives  directly  a  number  of  general  equations,  wherein  are 
included  the  principles  or  theorems,  known  under  the  appella- 
tions of  conservation  of  the  vis  viva  ;  conservation  of  the 
motion  of  the  coUre  of  gravity  ;  conservation  of  equal  areas  ; 
and  l\\6  principle  of  the  least  action. 

Of  these,  the  lirst,  the  conservation  of  the  vis  viva,  w:is 
discoveied  by  Iluygens,  though  under  a  form  somewhat 
dilierent  from  that  which  we  now  give  to  it.  As  employed 
by  him,  it  consisted  in  the  equality  between  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  .several  weighty  bodies, 
which  descend  together,  and  then  ascend  separately  by  the 
force  they  had  respectively  acquired.  But  by  the  known 
properties  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  the  space  it  describes  in 
any  direction  is  expressed  by  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the 
mass  of  each  body  by  the  space  such  body  has  described  in 
the  same  dire<tion,  divi.led  by  the  sum  of  the  masses. 
Galileo,  on  the  olhir  hand,  has  shown  in  his  problems,  thjit 
the  vertical  space  described  by  a  weighty  body  in  its  descent 
is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  acquired,  and  by 
which  it  will  reascend  to  its  firmer  elevation.  The  principle 
of  Huygens  is  theretiire  reduced  to  this;  that  in  the  motion 
of  a  system  of  bodies,  the  sum  of  the  masses  by  the  squares  of 
the  velocities  is  constantly  the  same,  whether  the  bodies 
descend  conjointly,  or  whether  they  freely  descend  separately 
through  the  same  vertical  channel. 

This  principle    had    been    considered    only  as  a  simple 


theorem  of  mechanics,  till  J.  Bernouilli  adopted  the  distinc- 
tiun  establishi'd  by  Leibnitz,  between  siioli  pressures  as  act 
witliout  producing  aciu;ii  motion,  and  tlie  living  furces,  as 
they  were  termed,  wliieh  produced  motion  ;  as  likewise  the 
measures  of  these  forces  by  the  products  of  the  masses  l)y 
the  squares  of  the  velocilies.  Bernouilli  saw  nothing  in  this 
pjinciple  but  a  consequence  of  the  theory  of  the  visvivu,  and 
a  general  law  of  nature,  in  consequence  of  wliich,  the  sum  of 
the  vis  viva  of  several  bodies  preserves  itself  the  same,  as 
long  as  they  continue  to  act  upon  each  other  by  simple  pres- 
sures, and  is  always  equal  to  the  simple  vis  viva,  resulting 
from  the  action  of  the  forces  by  which  the  body  is  really 
moved.  To  this  principle  he  gave  the  name  of  coiiservatio 
viviuni  vivarum,  Had  succe>sfuriy  employed  it  in  the  solution 
of  several  problems  that  had  not  before  been  elfected. 

From  this  saine  principle,  his  son,  D.  Bernouilli,  deduced 
the  law  of  the  motion  of  fluids  in  vases,  which  he  explains 
in  the  Berlin  Memoirs  for  1748:  a  suliject  before  but  little 
understood. 

The  advantage  of  this  principle  consists  in  its  affording 
immediately  an  equation  between  the  velocities  of  the  bodies 
and  the  variable  quantities  which  determine  their  position  in 
space;  so  that  when  by  the  nature  of  the  problem  these 
variable  quantities  are  reduced  to  one,  the  equation  is  of 
itself  sufficient  for  its  solution,  as  in  the  instance  of  the 
problem  relating  to  the  centre  of  oscillation.  In  general, 
the  conservation  of  the  vis  viva  gives  a  first  integral  of  the 
several  dilferential  equations  of  each  problem,  which  is  often 
of  great  utility. 

The  second  principle  above  alluded  to,  conservation  of  the 
motion  of  the  centre  of  gravitij,  is  given  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
in  his  Principia,  as  an  elementary  proposition  ;  where  he 
demonstrates,  that  the  state  of  repose  or  of  motion  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  several  bodies,  is  not  altered  by  the  recip- 
rocal action  of  these  bodies,  in  any  manner  whatever  :  so  that 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  bodies  acting  upon  each  other,  either 
by  means  of  cords  or  of  levers,  or  by  the  laws  of  attraction, 
remains  always  in  repose,  or  move  uniformly  in  a  direct  line, 
unless  disturbed  by  some  exterior  action  or  obstacle.  This 
theorem  has  been  extended  by  D'Alembert,  who  has  demon- 
strated, tliat  if  every  body  in  the  system  be  solicited  by  a 
constant  accelerating  force,  eitlier  acting  in  parallel  lines,  or 
directed  towards  a  fixed  point,  but  varying  with  the  distance, 
the  centre  of  gravity  will  describe  a  similar  curve  to  what  it 
would  have  done,  had  the  bodies  been  free.  And,  it  might 
be  added,  the  motion  of  this  centre  will  be  the  same  as  if  all 
the  .forces  of  the  bodies  were  applied  to  it,  each  in  its  proper 
direction.  Tliis  principle  serves  to  determine  the  motion 
of  the  centre  of  gravity,  independently  of  the  respective 
motions  of  the  bodies;  and  thus  it  will  ever  aliord  three 
finite  equations  between  the  co-ordinates  of  the  bodies  and 
the  times  ;  and  these  equations  will  be  the  integrals  of  the 
dilferential  equations  of  the  problem. 

The  third  principle,  the  conservation  of  equal  areas,  is 
more  modern  than  the  two  former,  and  appears  to  have  been 
separately  discovered  by  Euler,  D.  Bernouilli,  and  U'Arcy, 
about  the  same  period,  though  under  dilferenl  forms. 

Euler  and  Bernouilli  describe  the  principle  thus  :  In  the 
motion  of  several  bodies  round  a  fixed  centre,  the  sum  of  the 
products  of  the  mass  of  each  body  by  the  velocity  of  rotation 
round  the  centre,  and  by  its  distance  from  the  same  centre, 
is  always  indcp(!ndent  of  any  mutual  action  exerted  by  the 
bodies  upon  each  other,  and  preserves  itself  the  same  as  long 
as  there  is  no  exterior  action  or  obstacle.  Such  is  the  prin- 
ciple described  by  D.  Bernouilli  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Acadcmi/,  1740  ;  and  by  D'Alembert, 
in  the  same  year,  in  his  Ojjusciila.     The  Chevalier  D  Ann  . 


also  in  the  same  year,  sent  his  Memoir  to  the  Academy  of 
Paris,  though  it  was  not  printed  till  1752,  wherein  he  says, 
"The  sum  of  the  products  of  the  mass  of  each  body  by  the 
area  traced  by  its  radius  vector  about  a  fixed  point,  is  always 
proportional  to  the  times." 

This  principle,  however,  is  only  a  generalization  of  Sir 
Isaac's  theorem  of  equality  of  areas  described  by  centripetal 
forces  :  and  to  perceive  its  analogy,  or  rather  its  identity  with 
that  of  Euler  and  Bernouilli,  it  is  only  requisite  to  recollect, 
that  the  velocity  of  rotation  is  expressed  liy  the  element  of 
the  circular  arc  divided  by  that  of  the  time;  and  that  the 
first  of  these  elements  multiplied  by  the  distance  from  the 
centre,  gives  the  element  of  the  area  described  about  it.  It 
appears  then  that  this  latter  piinciple  is  only  the  differential 
expression  of  that  of  the  Chevalier,  who  afterwards  gave  the 
same  principle  in  another  form,  which  renders  it  more 
similar  to  the  preceding,  viz.  The  sum  of  the  products  of 
the  masses  by  the  velocities,  and  by  the  perpendiculars  drawn 
from  the  centre  to  the  direction  of  the  forces,  is  always  a 
const.ant  quantity.  Under  this  point  of  view,  M.  D'Arcy  set 
up  a  kind  of  metaphysical  principle,  which  he  denominates 
the  conservation  of  action,  in  opposition  to,  or  rather  as  a 
substitute  for,  the  principle  of  the  least  action. 

But  leaving  these  vague  and  arbitrary  denominations, 
which  neither  constitute  the  essence  of  the  laws  of  nature, 
nor  are  able  to  raise  the  simple  results  of  the  known  laws  of 
mechanics  to  the  rank  of  final  causes,  let  us  return  to  the 
principle  in  question,  which  takes  place  in  every  system  of 
bodies  acting  on  each  other  in  any  manner  whatever,  whether 
by  means  of  cords,  inflexible  lines,  attractions,  &c.,  and  also 
drawn  bv  forces  directed  to  a  centre,  whether  the  system  be 
entirely  free,  or  constrained  to  move  about  it.  The  sum  of 
the  products  of  the  masses  by  the  areas  described  about  this 
centre,  and  projected  on  any  plane,  is  always  proportional  to 
the  time  ;  so  that  by  referring  these  areas  to  three  rectangular 
planes,  we  obtain  three  diHerential  equations  of  the  first  order, 
between  the  time  and  the  co-ordinates  of  the  curves  desci  ibed 
by  the  bodies;  and  in  these  equations,  the  nature  of  the 
principle  properly  exists. 

The  fourth  principle,  that  of  the  least  action,  was  so 
denominated  by  Maupertuis,  and  has  since  been  rendered 
celebrated  by  the  wiitings  of  several  illustrious  authors. 
Analytically  it  is  as  follows:  In  the  motion  of  bodies  acting 
upon  each  other,  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  masses  by 
the  velocities,  and  by  the  spaces  described,  is  a  minimum. 
Maupertuis  has  published  two  memoirs  on  this  principle; 
one  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Academi/  of  Sciences,  for  1744  ; 
the  other,  in  those  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  1740;  wherein 
he  deduces  from  it,  the  laws  of  reflection  and  refraction  of 
light,  and  those  of  the  shock  of  bodies.  It  appears,  however, 
that  these  applications  are  not  only  too  partial  fur  establish- 
ing the  truth  of  a  general  principle,  but  they  are  in  them- 
.selves  too  vague  and  arbitrary  ;  so  that  the  consequences 
attempted  to  be  deduced  become  uncert.iin  :  this  principle, 
therefore,  deserves  not  to  be  classed  with  the  three  foregoing. 
There  is,  however,  one  point  of  view,  in  which  it  may  be 
considered  as  more  general  and  exact,  and  which  alone  merits 
the  attention  of  geometricians.  Euler  first  suggested  the 
idea  at  the  close  of  his  Treatise  on  Jsoperimetricul  Protilems, 
published  at  Lausanne,  in  1744.  wherein  he  shows  that  in 
trajectories  described  by  central  fiirces,  the  integral  of  the 
velocity  multiplied  by  the  element  of  the  curve  is  constantly 
either  a  maximum  or  a  minimum  ;  but  he  knew  of  this 
propertv  only  as  pertaining  to  insulated  bodies.  La  Grange 
extended  it  to  the  motion  of  a  system  of  bodies  acting  on  each 
other,  and  demonstrated  a  new  general  principle,  viz.  That 
til.'  sum  (if  the  products  of  the  masses  by  the  intigials  of  the 


velocities  multiplied  by  the  elements  of  the  spaces  described, 
is  always  a  inaxiiiiiirn  or  a  inininuiin. 

From  a  conibiiialion  of  this  latter  prineiple  with  that  of 
the  coiisei  valion  of  the  vis  viva,  many  difficult  problems 
in  ilynamics  may  be  solved  ;  as  exemplified  by  La  Grange 
in  the  Memoir)!  of  the  Academy  of  Turin,  vol.  ii. 

La  Place,  in  the  Mcchanique  Celeste,  treats  the  doctrine 
of  dynamics  much  in  the  same  manner  as  La  Grange,  but 
he  carries  his  investigations  much  farther.  He  agrees  with 
that  writer  in  adopting  the  principle  of  D'Alembert,  and  in 
resolving  every  motion  into  two  ;  that  which  the  particle 
had  in  the  preceding  instant,  and  that  which  would  have 
niaintainid  it  in  equilihrio:  but  he  differs  from  him  in  not 
admitting  the  principle  of  virtual  velocity  to  be  assumed  as 
a  fundanii'nt.il  axiom  ;  which  he  demonstrates  by  a  regular 
train  of  inductions. 

After  having  established  nearly  the  same  formulas,  or 
dirt"i'rential  equations,  and  dednet-d  all  the  general  principles 
in  the  manner  just  described,  he  introduces  others  in  the 
nature  of  corollaries,  many  of  which  merit  peculiar  considera- 
tion. From  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  areas,  it 
follows,  that  in  ihe  motion  ofa  system  of  bodies  solicited  only 
by  their  mutual  attraction  and  l)y  forces  directed  to  the  origin 
of  the  eo-ordiiiates,  there  exists  a  plane  passing  through  such 
origin,  which  possesses  ihe  following  remarkaliie  properties: 

1.  That  the  sum  of  the  areas  traced  on  the  plane  by  the 
projecticms  of  the  radii  vectores  of  the  bodies,  and  multiplied 
by  their  respective  masses,  will  be  the  greatest  possible. 

2.  That  such  sum  is  also  equal  0  upon  all  the  planes 
perpendicular  to  it. 

As  the  principle  of  the  vis  viva,  and  that  of  areas,  subsist 
relatively  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  even  though  the  latter  be 
supposed  to  have  a  rectilinear  uniP)rm  motion,  it  follows,  that 
a  pl.uie  may  be  determined  as  passing  through  this  moveable 
origin,  on  w  hich  the  sum  of  the  areas,  described  Vjy  the  pro- 
jections of  the  radii  vectores,  and  multiplied  respectively  by 
their  masses,  may  be  the  greatest  possible.  This  plane  being 
parallel  to  the  one  passing  through  the  fixed  origin,  satisfies 
the  same  conditions;  and  another  plane  passing  through  the 
centre  of  giavity.  and  determined  according  to  the  foregoins; 
conditions,  will  remain  parallel  to  itself  during  the  motion 
of  the  system  ;  a  circumstance  of  considerable  utility  and 
importance.  To  this  we  may  add,  that  any  plane  parallel 
to  the  last-mentioned,  and  passing  thnjugh  any  of  the 
bodies,  partakes  of  analogous  properties. 

La  Place  next  exatnines  how  far  these  results  would  be 
changed,  if  other  relations  subsisted  between  the  force  and 
the  velocity.  Force,  he  observes,  may  be  expressed  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways  relatively  to  the  velocity,  besides  that 
of  the  simple  law  of  proportionality,  without  implying  any 
mathematical  contradiction.  Suppose  the  tiirce  to  be  some 
other  function  of  the  velocity,  (analytically  expressed  by 
F  ^  <)!>  v;)  in  this  case  the  principle  of  the  vis  viva  will 
be  found  to  obtain  in  all  the  possible  mathematical  relations 
betw-een  the  f  Tce  and  the  velocity  ;  the  vis  viva  of  a  body 
beins;  the  product  of  its  mass  by  double  the  integral  of  its 
Velocity,  niiiltiplied  by  the  differential  of  the  function  of  the 
velocity  Indicative  of  the  foice. 

The  uniform  rectilinear  motion  of  the  centre  of  gravity  is 
preserved  by  the  law  of  nature  alone  ;  by  which  also  the 
conservation  of  areas  subsists.  But  a  principle  analogous  to 
that  of  the  least  action  will  be  found  to  belong  to  every 
possible  relation  between  force  and  velocity. 

The   principle  of  the  least  action  is  not  so  obvious  as  the 

others  that  have  been  mentioned,  being  more  remote  from 

the  elementary  theorems,  from  which  they  are  all  derived  ; 

nevertheless,  if  it  be  directly  and  mathematically  deducible 

54 


from  the  same  simple  principles,  it  must  immediately  be 
divested  of  all  pretension  to  the  dignity  of  a  final  cause  ; 
to  which  it  can  have  no  greater  claim  than  anv  other 
remarkable  numerical  property  ;  f 'r  the  reverse  wouM  iinply 
a  mathematii-al  contradiction.  The  fact,  which  is  curious, 
may  be  thus  analytically  stated  :  Suppose  a  material  point 
to  move  tnider  the  impulse  of  several  forces  from  one 
point  to  another;  the  curve  which  it  describes  possesses  the 
remarkable  property  of  having  the  integral  or  continued 
product  of  the  velocity  (determined  by  previous  considera- 
tions) when  multiplied  into  the  element  of  the  curve,  less 
than  any  other  curve  passing  through  the  same  points. 

Maupertuis,  who  discovered  this  principle,  carried  it  no 
further  than  to  single  bodies ;  Eulerestablishcd  its  generality  ; 
and  La  Grange  extended  it  to  a  system  of  bodies  acting  on 
each  other,  as  already  noticed.  The  principle  of  the  least 
action  being  therefore  admitted  as  an  estaldished  theorem, 
it  may  be  lesorted  to  for  the  solution  of  problems,  and  for 
determining  the  trajectories  of  bodies  moving  in  space  ;  hut 
in  point  of  practical  utility,  the  necessary  calculations  are  so 
much  more  complex  and  difficult  than  the  more  usual  methods 
ofinvestigation,  that  the  latter  are  greatly  to  be  preferred  to  it. 

Upon  these  leading  principles  (_>f  the  doctrine  of  forces,  as 
laid  down  by  the  most  eminent  writers  on  the  subject,  it  is 
to  be  remarked,  that  they  are  for  the  most  part  mere  develop- 
ments of  theorems  easily  dediicil)le  from  the  Newtonian  laws 
of  motion  ;  and  that  many  of  ihem  were  even  established  by 
Newton  himself  This  generalization  of  mechanical  prin- 
ciples possesses,  however,  the  advantage  of  enabling  ns  to 
take  a  more  enlarged  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject, 
than  we  could  do  by  the  con-ideration  of  a  single  problem. 

Forces,  which  become  the  subject  of  inath<'maiical  compu- 
tation, may  be  appropriately  divided  into  the  three  following 
classes  : 

1.  Such  as  act  instantaneously,  or  for  a  short  interval  of 
time,  and  impart  uniform  motion  to  a  particle  subjected 
to  their  action  ;  provided  it  be  not  solicited  by  any  force, 
and  is  free  to  move  in  any  direction. 

2.  Such  as,  acting  with  a  continued  uniform  intensity, 
oblige  a  material  particle,  at  liberty  to  obey  their  impulse, 
to  describe  its  path  with  a  uniforml}*  accelerated  motion. 

3.  Those,  whose  intensities,  perpetually  varying,  though 
according  to  some  known  law,  produce  a  complicated  action, 
whose  circumstances  can  only  be  investigated  by  means  of 
the  integral  calculus,  or  some  analogous  methods. 

Forces  whose  mode  of  action  is  too  arbitrary  and  uncertain 
to  be  included  in  either  of  these  classes,  may  be  considered 
as  foreign  to  the  present  investigation. 

The  reader  who  wi>hes  to  h.ave  more  scientific  informa- 
tion on  this  subject,  may  refer  to  Gregory's  Mechanics  ; 
Dr.  Jackson's  Theoretical  Mechanics;  and  may  also  con- 
sult Marat's  Mechanics,  Wood's  Mechanics,  or  Whewell's 
Mechanics.  Professor  Leslie  also,  (in  his  Elements  of  Natural 
Philosophy,)  has  given  an  excellent  popular  illustration,  by 
supposing  the  threads  to  act  on  light  spiral  springs  adapted 
tomeasuretheforces,and  commonly  called  sfiring  steel-yards; 
but  he  acknowledges  pulleys  and  weights  have  some  advan- 
tages. By  reversing  the  action  of  the  springs,  they  might 
be  applied,  with  much  advantage,  to  show  the  relations  of 
Compressing  forces,  by  lecturers  on  mechanical  science. 

Force,  Mechanical.  Desaguliers,  in  his  Experimental 
Philosophy,  has  many  curious  and  useful  observations  con- 
cerning the  comparative  forces  of  men  and  horses,  and  the 
best  mode  of  ap|ilying  them.  And  Dr.  Young,  in  his  Lec- 
tures, has  given  a  table  of  a  similar  nature,  compiled  chiefly 
from  the  writings  of  Desaguliers  and  Coulomb,  another  writer, 
who  has  also  displayed  considerable  ingenuity  in  pursuing 


FOR 


426 


FOR 


the  sulijett.     The  following  extract  cannot  fail  of  being  use- 
ful to  all  conoenied  in  piactical  mechanics. 

hi  his  iiitroduetion  to  his  lable,  Dr.  Young  observes,  that 
to  compare  the  (litfvn-nL  estimates  of  moving  powrr,  it  will  be 
convenient  U>  take  an  unit  as  the  mean  etleci  of  the  labour  of 
an  active  man,  and  without  impediment.  This  v\ili  be  found, 
on  a  model  ate  estimation,  suilicient  to  rai>e  101b.  to  the 
hc'ght  of  10  feet  in  a  second,  for  10  hours  in  a  day  ;  or  to 
raise  lOOlb.,  which  is  the  weight  of  twelve  wine  gallons  of 
Mater,  1  foot  in  a  secttnd.  or  JJO  000  feet  in  a  day;  or 
3,G00.0001b.,  or  4:3'2,000  gallons,  1  to(.t  in  a  day.  This  we 
njay  call  a  force  of  1  continued  30,000." 

^^  Immediate  Force  of  Men  without  Deduction  for  Friction. 


A  man,  wei^hin^  KJSlb.  (French)  ascended 
6'J  feet  (Frent-h)  by  steps  in  34",  but  was 
completely  exhausted.     Amontoiiti. . 

A  sawyer  made  2oO  strokes  of  18  inches 
(Freneli)  each,  in  145".  with  a  force  of 
2h\h.  (Krench).  He  could  not  have  gone 
on  above  3  niimitcs.     Amrintonx 

A  iiiaij  can  nise  fidlb.  (Frt-ncli)  1  font 
(FitMich)  in  l",for8  ln-s,aday.  Jicrnotti/ii. 

A  man  of  ordinary  strength  can  turn  a  winch 
■with  a  force  of  301b.  ami  with  a  velocity 
of  :^i  feet  in  1",  for  ten  hours  a  day. 
Jjexatfuiiers 

Two  men  working  at  a  windlass,  with  han- 
dles at  rii^lit  angles.  c;m  raise  7l'lb.  more 
easily  lii;in  <tne  can  rai-^e  yOJ>.  Ihsaijul/ers. 

\  man  can  exert  a  force  of  40lb.  for  a  whole 
(iuy.  with  the  assistance  of  a  fly,  when 
the  foot  ion  is  pretty  quick,  as  about  4  or 
5  feet  in  1".  Desaguliers.  Lect.  IV.  But 
from  tlie  annotation,  it  appears  doubtful 
wliether  the  force  be  40lb.  or  2()lb 

For  a  8  lort  time  a  man  may  exert  a  force  of 
80lb.  with  a  fly,  "  wlien  the  motion  is 
pretty  quick. '     DesaguHera 

A  man  going  np  stairs,  itscends  14  metres  in 
1 '.      Vuulomh 

A  man  goinij  up  stairs  for  a  day,  raises  205 
kilognimine>  to  the  height  of  a  kih»- 
metre.      C'tuloinb 

With  a  spade  a  man  does  ,\i|  as  much  as  in 
ascending  stairs.      Coulomb 

With  a  winch  a  man  dees  ^  as  much  as  in 
ascending  a  staiix      C(ml 

A  man  carr\inii  wood  up  stairs,  raises,  toge- 
ther with  his  rfwn  weight,  109  kilo- 
grammes to  one  kilometre.     Coulomb,  .  .  . 

A  man  weighing  1501b.  (French)  can  ascend 
by  stairs  '.i  feet  (Freneli)  in  1"  f(»r  15"  or 
2u".      Coulomb 

For  half  an  hour.  lOOlb.  (French)  may  be 
rai-ed  1  foot  i,Frenfli)  in  1".      Coulomb., 

Acconiiiig  to  Mr.  liucha'tans  comparisitn. 
the  force  exerted  in  turning  a  winch  being 
made  equal  to  the  unit,  the  forcti  in  pump- 
ing will  be 

In  ringing 

In  riiwing 

Allowing  the  accuracy  of  Enlers  force,  con- 
flnned  by  tSchuUe,  supposjui^  a  man's  ac- 
tion to  be  a  maximum  when  lie  walks  2^ 
miles  an  liour,  wc  have  7^  for  his  greatet 
velocity,  .04  (7^  —  y)2  for  the  force  ex- 
f^teil  with  any  other  velocity,  and  .0160 
i'k  —  '')"'  *"'■  the  actiiai  in  each  case: 
tluis.  when  the  velocity  is  one  mile  an  intur, 
the  action  is 

When  iwM)  miles 

Three    

F(tiir 

And  when  five 


Force. 

Contin- 
uutiou. 

2.8 

34" 

6. 

145" 

69. 

S"- 

1.06 

10" 

1.22 

2. 

3. 

1" 

1.182 

1 

5.22 

20" 

1.152 

30' 

.Bl 

I.:t6 

1.43 

.676 

Mi 

.972 

.784 

.5 

Days' 
Work. 


.552 


1.06 


1.22 


.412 
.391 
.258 

219. 


"And  the  force  in  a  state  of  rest  becomes  2^.  or  about 
7011).;  with  a  velocity  of  two  miles,  30ib. ;  with  three, 
24lb.  ;  iind  with  four,  ISIb. 

"It  is  olpvioiis,  that  in  the  extreme  cases  this  fonmila  is 
inaccurate,  but  for  moderate  velocities,  it  is  probably  a  t<>ler- 
alile  approximation. 

"Oiulomb  makes  the  maximum  of  effect  wher  a  man, 
weighing  70  kilogrammes,  carries  a  weight  of  531b.  up  stairs  ; 
but  this  appears  to  be  too  great  a  load;  he  considers  1-15 
kilogrammes  as  the  greate>t  weight  that  can  he  raised.  He 
ol)serves,  that  in  Martinique,  where  the  thermometer  is  sel- 
dom lielow  68°,  the  labour  of  Europeans  is  reduced  to 
one  half. 

"  Harriot  asserts  that  his  pump,  with  a  horizontal  motion, 
enables  a  man  to  do  one-third  more  work  than  the  commcjn 
pump,  with  a  vertical  motion. 

"Porters  carry  from  2001b.  to  3001b.  at  the  rate  of  three 
miles  an  hour;  chaiimen  walk  four  miles  an  hour  with  a 
load  of  1501b.  each  ;  and  it  is  sai'l  thai  in  Turkey,  there  are 
porters,  who,  by  stooping  forward,  carry  from  700  to  9001b. 
placed  very  low  on  their  back.s. 

"The  most  advantageous  weight  for  a  man  of  common 
strength  to  carry  horizontally,  is  1121b.;  or,  if  he  returns 
unlaclen,  1351b.  With  wheel-barrows,  men  will  do  half  as 
much  more  work  as  with  hods.      Coiilomh. 

'■^Performance  of  Men  by  Machines. 


A  m.in  raised  by  a  rope  anti  pulley,  251b. 
(Fioncli)  220  feet  (Freuch)  ia  145". 
Ainnntnns 

A  mail  Ciin  raise,  by  a  good  comnioa  pump, 
a  lingsliead  of  water  10  feet  high  in  1',  for 
a  whole  day.     Dcmifuliers 

By  tlie  mercurial  pump,  or  another  good 
puiTip,  a  man  may  raise  a  hog.^head  18  or 
20  feet  in  1 '.  for  1  or  2  minutes 

In  a  pile  engine,  65Jlb.  (French)  were  raiseil 
1  foot  (Frencli)  in  1",  for  5  hours  ad.ay.by 
a  rojie  drawn  liorizontiilly.      Coutomb.  . . . 

Rohixon  says,  that  a  feeble  old  nion  raised 
7  cubic  feet  of  water  1 1  i  feet  in  1 ',  for  8 
or  10  hours  a  day,  by  wiilking  backwards 
and  forw;irds  on  a  h'ver.     Enc.  Br 

A  young  man.  wi'ighing  l.SSlb.  and  cairying 
SOlb.  raised  9^  culiic  feet  1 1  i  feet  high, 
for  10  hours  a  day,  witliout  fatigue. 
linhixon 

Wynne's  machine  enables  a  man  to  raise  a 
hogshead  20  feet  in  1  luinule.      Young  . . 

"  Force  of  Horses. 

Two  horses  nttJiched  to  a  plough  on  moderate 
gidunl,  exerted  each  a  force  of  150 
(French.)  Amontons.  We  may  suppose 
th;U  ih.'V  went  a  little  more  than  two  miles 
an  hour  for  8  hours 

A  hor.'ie  draws  with  the  greatest  iidvantaire 
when  tlie  line  of  ilirection  is  level  with  his 
breast  ;  and  he  can  dniw  witli  a  force  of 
20011).  i\  miles  an  hour,  for  8  lioui-s  in 
the  ihiy 

With  a  force  of  240,  only  6  hours.  On  a 
carriage,  indeed,  where  friction  alone  is  to 
be  overcome,  a  middling  horse  will  draw 
lOOOIb.     Semffuliera 

The  meiui  draught  of  four  horses  was  36  my- 
riograiiinies  each,  or  794lb.  Rrcinier. 
This  nnist  have  been  momentary.  Snp- 
posinu'  the  velocity  2  feet  iu  1",  the  action 
woidd  have  been 

Bv  lueaiis  of  pumps,  li  horse  can  raise  250 
"hogsheads  of  water  10  feet  high,  in  an| 
liour.     Sifieatons  Reports i 


.435 
.875 
1.61 
.64 

.837 

1.106 
1.75 

.'1.4 

7.33 
8.8 


15.88 


3.64 


Contin- 
uation. 


145 

1' 
St 


10" 
1' 


8' 


SI- 


1" 
l"" 


Davs' 

Work. 


.875 


.82 


.753 


1.106 


4.32 


5.87 


6.28 


FOR 


427 


FOR 


"  A  horse  can  in  gi-iieral  draw  no  more  up  a  steep  h  II  than 
three  men  can  earn,  tU-.a  is,  fnmi  45(lili.  to  ^SOili,  ;  but  a 
strong  horse  can  d  aw  'iOOOU).  up  a  steep  hill,  that  is  but 
short.  The  woist  w.iy  olapjilyiiig  the  force  of  a  lioisc,  is 
to  make  him  carry  or  draw  upliiil;  tiir,  if  the  hill  be  steep, 
three  luen  will  do  nii-re  than  a  horse,  each  njan  climliing  up 
faster  with  a  bnrden  of  lOOlb,  s\ eight,  than  a  horse  tliat  is 
loaded  with  :.00.b.,  a  diirereiic^  aiising  from  the  posiiion  of 
the  parts  of  the  human  body  being  belter  adapted  to  climbing 
than  those  of  a  horse. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  the  best  way  of  applying  the  force  of 
a  horse,  is  in  an  horizontal  direction,  wherein  a  man  cm  exert 
least  foice :  thus  a  man,  weighing  1401b.,  and  drawing  a 
boat  along  by  means  of  a  rope  com  ng  over  his  shoulders, 
cannot  diaw  above  "iTlb..  or  exert  above  one-seventh  part  of 
the  foice  of  a  hor-e  employed  to  the  same  purpose, 

"Tlie  very  best  and  must  effectual  posture  in  a  man,  is 
that  of  rowing;  wherein  he  not  only  acts  with  more  muscles 
at  once  for  overcoming  the  resistance,  than  in  any  other 
position  ;  but  as  he  pulls  backwards,  the  weight  of  his  body 
assists  by  way  of  lever. — Dexugnliers. 

"The  diameter  of  a  walk  fu-  a  horse-mill,  ought  to  be  at 
least  25  "or  30  feet. — Desu;/iiliers. 

'•Some  horses  have  carried  OoOlb.  or7001b.  seven  oreight 
miles  without  resting,  as  their  ordinary  work  ;  and  a  horse 
at  Stoui  bridge  carried  llewt.  of  iron,  or  I2;J21b.  for  eight 
miles. — Desiigulierx^  Exp.  Philos.  vol.  i. 


"  IVurk  of  Mules. 

Force. 

Contin- 
uatiun. 

D«v's 
Work. 

Cazanel  says,  that  a   mule  works  in  tlie 
West  Indies  two  hours,  out  of  about  18, 
with  a  force  of   about  \iO\h.  walking 
3  feet  in  a  aeconti      

4.4 

oh  in' 

1  2 

-     - 

FoRC,p,  Iiiaiiimote.  "According  to  M.  Couloiub,  a  wind- 
mill with  f  lur  sails,  measuring  60  feet  (French)  from  one 
e.\treiiiity  to  that  of  the  opposite  sail,  and  6  feet  wide,  or  a 
little  more,  is  cipaMe  of  raising  lOOOIb.  (French)  218  feet 
in  1'  and  of  working  on  an  average  8  hours  in  a  day.  This 
is  equivalent  to  the  work  of  34  men,  as  it  has  been  above 
estimated.  25  square  feet  of  canvass  performing  about  the 
daily  woik  of  a  man. 

"  Robison  says,  that  1  cwt.  of  coals  burned  in  a  steam- 
engine  will  raise  at  least  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  24  feet 
high  ;  this  is  equivalent  to  the  daily  labour  of  8.32  men.  A 
steam-engine  in  Li>ndon,  with  a  24-inch  cylinder,  does  the 
work  of  72  horses  and  consumes  a  cha'drou  of  coals  in  a 
day  ;  each  bu-hel  being  equivalent  to  two  horses,  and  each 
square  inch  of  the  cylinder  performing  nearly  the  work  of  a 
man. 

"  If  we  calculate  the  quantity  of  motion  produced  by  gun- 
powder, we  shall  find  that  this  agent,  though  extremely  con- 
venient, is  far  more  expensive  than  .human  labour  ;  but  the 
advantage  of  gunpowder  consists  in  the  great  rarity  of  the 
acting  substance.  A  spring  or  a  bow  can  only  act  with  a 
moderate  velocity,  on  account  of  its  own  weight.  The  air 
of  ihe  atmo-phere,  however  compressed,  could  not  flow  into 
a  vacuum  with  a  velocity  so  great  as  1,500  feet  in  a  second. 
Hydrogen  gas  might  move  more  rapidly,  but  the  elastic  sub- 
stance produced  by  gunpowder  is  capable  of  propelling  a 
very  hiavy  cannon-ball  with  much  greater  velocitv. 

"It  is  said,  that  nine  tons  of  water,  falling  10  feet,  will 
grind  and  dress  a  bushel  of  wheat ;  consequently  a  man  might 
do  ihe  same  in  33'  3tj".'' 

FtjRE-FRO.NT,  the  principal  or  front  entrance  of  a 
building. 


FORE-GROUND,  that  part  of  the  field  of  a  picture 
which  is  nearest  ihe  observer. 

FORE-PLANE,  in  carpentry  and  joinery,  the  first  plane 
used  after  the  -saw  or  axe.     See  Tools. 

FORE-Sn(.)RTEN,  in  perspective,  the  dimiinition  which 
the  representation  of  the  side  or  pait  of  a  body  has  in  one  of 
its  dimensions,  compared  with  the  other,  occasioned  by  the 
obliquity  of  the  corresponding  side  or  pait  of  the  original 
body  to  the  plane  of  projection. 

FOREYN,  an  ancient  term  signifying  a  cesspool  or 
drain. 

FORGE,  a  smith's  furnace. 

FORM  (fiom  the  Latm,  forma')  the  external  appearance, 
or  the  disposition  of  the  surfaces  of  a  body  ;  in  which  sense 
it  is  synonymous  with  Figure,  which  see. 

Form,  in  joinery,  the  long  seats  or  benches  in  the  choirs  of 
churches,  for  the  priests,  canons,  prebendaries,  &c.  to  sil  on. 

Du  Cange  supposes  the  name  derived  from  the  backs  of 
the  seats  being  anciently  enriched  with  figures  of  painting 
and  sculpture,  called  in  Latin /«;jH(e  et  tiipi. 

FORMERETS,  (from  the  French)  the  arches  which  are 
next  the  wall  in  Gothic  groins;  these  ai'e  only  half  the  thick- 
ness of  th  i.se  that  divide  the  vault  into  coniparlments. 

FORM-PIECES,  the  lower  ends  of  the  mullions  of  win- 
dows which  are  \sorked  upon  the  sills.  The  same  as  Stool- 
pieces. 

FORT,  (Latin,  fortis  strong)  a  fortified  building ;  a  building 
strengthened  by  artificial  means.  The  term  is  usually  applied 
to  small  detached  buildings. 

FOliTALlOE.  a  small  castle. 

FORNIX,  (Latin)  an  arch  or  vault.  See  Arch,  and 
Vault. 

Forum,  (Latin)  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  market-place 
for  transacting  the  business  of  the  public  revenue,  bankers, 
merchants,  &c.  The  following  description  of  it  is  given  by 
Vitruvius: 

"The  Greeks  made  their  forums  square,  wilh  large  double 
porticos,  the  columns  close  together,  and  adorned  with  stone 
or  marble  epistyliums,  tnaking  ambulatories  in  the  upper 
stories  :  but  the  cities  of  Italy  tiillow  not  the  same  method  ; 
because,  by  ancient  custom,  the  sh^ws  of  gladiators  are 
usually  given  in  the  forum.  For  this  reason  the  inter- 
columns  aiound  the  area  are  made  wider;  and  in  the  sur- 
rounding poi  ticos  the  shops  of  the  bankers  are  di-posed,  with 
galleries  in  the  upper  floors,  properly  adapted  for  the  use  and 
manairemeiit  of  the  public  revenue. 

"The  maunilnde  of  the  forum  should  be  suitable  to  the 
number  of  the  people,  that  it  may  not  be  too  small  fir  use, 
nor  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  people,  appear  too  large. 
The  proportion  is  so  determined,  that  the  length  being 
divided  into  three  part.s,  two  are  given  to  the  breadth;  for 
thus  it  will  be  of  an  oblong  form,  and  convenient  for  the  use 
of  the  shows. 

"  The  upper  columns  are  made  a  fourth  part  le.ss  than  the 
lower  ;  because,  as  the  inferior  sustains  the  greater  weight, 
it  should  be  stronger  than  the  superior:  also  because  it 
is  proper  to  imitate  nature  ;  for  in  straight-growing  trees, 
such  as  the  fir,  cvpress,  and  [line,  theie  are  none  thicker  at 
the  top  than  at  the  root ;  and  as  they  grow  in  height,  they 
gradually  diminish  to  the  uppermost  point.  Following  there- 
fine  the  example  of  nature,  it  is  proper  that  the  superior 
should  be  made  less  than  the  inferior,  both  in  height  and 
thickness. 

"  The  basilica  should  be  joined  to  the  forum  on  the  warmest 
side,  that  the  negociants  may  confer  togelher,  without  being 
incommoded  by  the  weather.  The  breadth  is  not  made  less 
than  the  third,  nor  more  tliaa  the  half  of  the  length,  unless  the 


FOR 


428 


FOR 


the  nature  of  the  place  oppose-s  the  prr  portion,  and  obliges  the 
syninietrv  to  be  dilRient.  But  if  the  basilica  h;ive  too  inucli 
Iciiglh,  chalciiiiciE  are  made  at  the  ends,  as  they  are  in  the 
basilica  of  Julia  Aqniliana.  The  columns  of  the  basilica  are 
made  as  high  as  the  porticus  is  broad.  The  porticus  is  the 
third  part  of  the  space  in  the  middle.  The  upper  colunms  are 
less  than  the  lower,  as  above  written.  Tlw  pluteum,  w  hieh  is 
between  the  upper  columns,  should  also  be  made  a  fourth  part 
less  than  the  same  columns,  that  those  who  walk  in  the 
floor  above  may  not  be  seen  by  the  negociators  below.  The 
epistylium,  zophorus,  and  corona;,  are  proportioned  to  the 
columns  in  the  manner  explained  in  the  third  book. 

"Nor  will  basilicas  of  the  kind  of  that  at  the  colony  oi 
Julia  of  Fanum,  which  I  designed  and  conducted,  have  less 
dignity  and  beauty  ;  the  proportions  and  symmetry  of  which 
are  as  (bilow  :  The  middle  testudo  between  the  columns  is 
120  feet  long,  and  00  feet  broad.  The  porticus  around  the 
testudo,  between  the  walls  and  columns,  is  20  feet  broad. 
Thr  height  of  the  continued  columns,  inelu<]ing  their  capitals, 
is  50  feet,  and  the  thickness  5,  having  behind  them  parastata; 
20  feet  high,  '2^  feet  bniad,  and  li  foot  thick,  which  sustain 
the  beams  that  bear  the  floors  of  the  porticos.  Above  these 
are  other  parastalie  18  feet  high,  2  feet  broad,  and  1  foot 
thick,  which  also  receives  beams  sustaining  the  canthers  of 
the  porticos,  whieh  are  laid  below  the  roof  of  the  testudo  : 
the  remaining  ^pace  that  is  left  between  the  beams  which  lie 
over  the  parastata;,  and  those  which  lie  over  the  columns, 
is  left  open  in  the  intereoluinns,  in  order  to  give  light.  The 
columns  in  the  breadth  of  the  testudo,  including  those  of  the 
angles  to  the  right  and  lefl,  are  four  ;  and  in  the  length,  on 
that  side  which  is  next  the  forum,  including  the  same  angle- 
columns,  eight.  On  the  other  side,  there  are  but  six  columns, 
including  those  of  the  angles,  because  the  middle  two  on  this 
side  are  omitted,  that  they  may  not  obstruct  the  view  of  the 
pronaos  of  the  temple  of  Augustus,  which  is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  sirlc-wall  of  the  basilica,  looking  tovvards 
the  centre  of  the  forum  and  temple  of  Jupiter.  The  tri- 
bunal in  this  building  is  formed  in  the  figure  of  a  henii- 
cycle :  the  extent  of  this  hemioycic  in  front  is  -itJ  feet,  and 
the  recess  of  the  curvature  inward  15  feet,  so  that  those  who 
attend  the  magistrate  obstruct  not  the  negociants  in  the 
basilica. 

"  Upon  the  columns,  the  compacted  beams,  made  from 
three  timbers  of  two  feet  arc  placed  around  ;  and  those  from 
the  third  columns  which  are  in  the  interior  part,  are  returned 
to  the  antje  that  project  from  the  pronaos,  and  on  the  right 
and  left  touch  the  hemicycle. 

"  Upon  the  beams,  perpendicularly  to  the  capitals,  thepilse 
are  placed,  three  feet  high  and  four  feet  broad,  on  evevy  side. 
Over  these,  other  beams,  well  wrought  from  two  timbers,  of 
two  feet,  are  placed  around  ;  upon  which,  the  transtra;  and 
capreols,  being  placed  coincident  with  the  zophorus,  autre,  and 
■walls  of  the  i)ronaos,  sustain  one  culmen  the  whole  length  of 
the  basilica,  and  another  transversely  fioui  the  miildle  over 
the  pronaos  of  the  temple  :  so  that  it  causes  a  double  dis- 
position of  the  fiistigium,  and  gives  a  handsome  appearance 
to  the  roof  on  the  outside,  and  to  the  lofty  testudo  witliin. 
Also,  the  omission  of  the  ornaments  of  the  epistylium,  and 
of  the  upper  columns  and  plulei,  diminishes  the  labour  of  the 
work,  and  saves  great  part  of  the  expense.  The  columns 
likewise  being  carried  in  one  contiinied  height  up  to  the 
beams  of  the  testudo,  increases  the  magnificence  and  dignity 
of  the  work.'' 

Forum  is  also  used  for  any  place  in  which  the  governor  of 
a  province  convened  the  people,  to  give  judgment  according 
to  the  course  of  the  law. 

FoRDM  also  meant  a  public  standing-place  in  the  city  of 


Rome,  where  causes  were  judicially  tried,  and  orations  deli- 
vered to  tile  people. 

The  Roman  forie  were  of  two  kinds — Fora  Civilia  and 
Venalia;  the  former  were  for  law  and  political  aflliirs.  the 
latter  for  the  purposes  of  trade.  Of  the  Fora  Civilia,  there 
were  at  first  only  three,  viz.,  Romanum,  Julianum,  and 
Auguslum  ;  but  their  number  was  afterwards  increased  to 
six,  by  the  addition  of  the  transitorium,  called  also  palla- 
dium, the  Trajanum,  and  Salusti. 

The  llrst  and  most  eminent  of  these  was  the  forum 
Romant/m,  called  also  forum  vctiis.  In  the  time  of  liorau- 
lus,  this  forum  was  only  a  large  open  space,  without  buildings 
or  other  ornament.  It  wasfirst  enclosed  by  llostilius.  adorned 
with  porticos  by  Tarquin  the  Elder,  and  :it  length,  by  the 
additions  of  succeeding  kings,  consuls,  ami  magistrates,  it 
became  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  noble  places  in  the  world. 
It  was  called  /Ii;mw  Romanum,  or  simply  forum,  by  way  of 
eminence,  on  account  of  its  antiquity,  in  comparison  with  the 
other  fora,  and  from  its  more  general  use  in  public  affairs. 
It  was  also  called  forum  Latiniim,  forum  vwginnn,  and  old 
forum.  The  comitium,  used  some:imes  for  holding  the 
comitia,  was  a  part  of  this  forum,  in  which  stood  the  rostrum, 
a  sort  of  pulpit,  adorned  with  the  beaks  of  ships  taken 
in  a  sea-fight  fi'om  the  inhabitants  of  Antinm.  In  this  the 
causes  were  pleaded,  orations  were  made,  and  panegyrics  were 
delivered  on  the  merits  of  the  dead. 

A  very  beautiful  restored  view  of  the  Forum  Romanum 
was  made  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Cockerell,  and  a  reduced  view  was 
engraved  and  published,  with  his  permission,  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  "  Pompeii,"  published  by  the  Society  for  the 
Diffision  of  Useful  Knowledge,  to  which  we  refer  our  read- 
ers for  an  accurate  notion  of  the  splendour  of  the  accumu- 
lated architecture  of  the  Forum  and  the  Capitol,  and  its 
vicinity. 

The  Julian  forum,  called  also  CcesaPs  forum,  was  built  by 
Julius  Ctesar  with  the  spoils  taken  in  the  Gallic  var.  Its 
area  alone,  according  to  Suetonius,  cost  100.000  sesterces; 
and  Dio  affirms,  that  it  much  exceeded  the  Roman  forum. 

Augustus's  fi)rum,  built  by  Octavius  Caesar,  was  reckoned 
by  Pliny  among  the  wonders  of  the  city.  The  most  remark- 
able curiosity  it  presented  was  the  statues  in  the  two  porticos 
on  each  side  of  the  main  building.  In  one  were  all  the  Latin 
kings,  beginning  with  iFneas.  In  the  other,  all  the  kings 
of  Rome,  beginning  with  Romulus  ;  most  of  the  eminent 
persons  in  the  commonwealth,  and  Augustus  himself  among 
the  rest,  with  an  insoiplion  upon  the  pedestal  of  every 
statue,  descriptive  of  the  chief  actions  and  exploits  of  the 
person  it  represented.  This  forum  was  restored  by  the  em- 
peror Adrian. 

Nerva's  forum  was  begun  by  Domitian,  but  finished  and 
named  by  the  emperor  Nerv.a.  In  this  forum  Alexander 
Severus  set  up  the  statues  of  such  of  the  emperors  as  had 
been  deified,  in  imitation  of  what  Augustus  had  done  in  his 
forum.  This  ("orum  was  called  transitorium,  because  it  lay 
very  convenient  as  a  passage  to  the  others,  and  palladium, 
from  a  statue  of  Minerva  which  was  set  up  in  it.  Scarcely 
anvthing  remains  of  this  forum  except  a  decayed  arch,  which 
the  Italians,  by  a  strange  corruption,  ca\\  NoaVs  ark,  instead 
of  Nerra\  arch. 

Trajan's  forum  was  built  by  the  emperor  Trajan  with  the 
produce  of  the  spoils  taken  in  his  wars.  The  porticos,  which 
were  exceedingly  beautiful  and  magnificent,  were  covered 
with  brass,  and  supported  by  pillars  of  more  than  ordinary 
size,  and  of  exquisite  workmanship. 

The  forum  of  Poinpeii.  which  was  constructed  in  the 
Greek  style,  cannot,  however,  be  altogether  considered,  if  we 
are  guided  by  the   authority  of  Vitruvius,    a   truly  Greek 


FOS 


429 


FOU 


Ajora,  which  this  author  states  was  to  be  made  square  in 
form.  It  lias,  however,  maiiv  Greok  tVaturos.  The  Pom- 
peian  forum  is  of  an  oblong  sha[ie,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
with  rows  of  columns,  forming,  with  the  advanced  columns  of 
the  various  buildings,  a  colonnade  or  ambulatory  ;  above  this 
there  was  a  second,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  remains  of 
stairs  at  several  places  at  the  back  of  the  colonnade.  The 
fourth  side  of  the  forum  is  enclosed  with  two  arches  placed 
on  each  side  of  a  large  hypa;tral  temple,  called  the  temple 
of  Jupiter.  On  the  west  side  arc  the  prisons  and  the  granary, 
before  these,  and  the  tem[)le  of  Venus,  and  the  Basilica,  is  an 
enclosed  court.  On  the  narrow  side,  opposite  the  temple  of 
Jupiter,  are  three  building-;,  generally  considered  to  be  the 
Curias  and  ^Erarium.  On  the  east  side  is  an  enclosure,  (ihe 
use  of  which  has  not  been  determined.)  the  Chalcidicum, 
the  temple  of  Mercury,  the  Senaculum,  and  a  building  sup- 
posed to  be  a  large  ealing-house,  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Pantheon,  in  front  of  w  hich  are  the  Tabernre 
Argentariie.  The  enclosed  area  of  the  forum  was  paved  with 
large  square  pieces  of  marble,  and  the  sides  of  the  area  were 
adorned  with  statues.  Opposite  the  Curi»,  and  a  short  way 
from  them,  is  a  small  triumphal  arch.  Thetbrum  was  closed 
at  night  with  iron-barred  gates,  and  it  does  not  appear  that 
chaiiots  were  admitted  into  it,  as  the  pavement  of  the  streets 
terminates  at  the  back  of  the  colonnade.  The  columns  of  the 
aml)ulatory  are  of  the  Greek  Doric  order,  and  were  being 
restored  in  the  same  style,  though  with  better  materials,  at 
the  time  tiiecity  was  destroyed.  The  columns  werear;eostyle, 
and  the  architraves  were  most  probably  of  wood,  as  we  may 
infer  from  their  being  destroyed,  while  the  frieze  and  comice 
of  stone  remain. 

The  forum  of  Constantinople  was  erected  by  Constantine 
when  he  established  the  city  on  the  commanding  eminence  of 
the  second  hill,  where  he  pitched  his  tfut  during  the  siege 
and  conquest  of  Byzantium.  The  edifice  was  of  an  elliptic 
form  ;  the  two  opposite  entrances  formed  triumphal  arches; 
the  porticos  on  every  side  were  filled  with  statues,  and  the 
centre  of  the  edifice  was  occupied  by  a  lofty  column,  of  which 
only  a  mutilated  fragment  is  now  left,  and  is  degraded  by  the 
appellation  of  the  burnt  pillar.  This  column  was  erected  on 
a  pedestal  of  white  marble,  20  feet  high.  It  was  composed 
of  10  pieces  of  porphyry,  each  of  which  measured  about  10 
feet  in  height,  and  about  33  in  circumference.  On  the  summit 
of  the  pillar,  above  120  feet  from  the  ground,  stood  a  colossal 
statue  of  Apollo,  of  bronze,  which  had  been  transported  hither 
from  Athens,  or  from  ihe  town  of  Phrygia,  and  was  supposed 
to  be  the  work  of  Phidias.  The  artist  had  lepresented  the 
god  of  day,  or,  as  it  was  afterwards  interprt-ted,  the  emperor 
Constantine  himself,  with  a  sceptre  in  his  right  hand,  the 
globe  of  the  world  in  his  left,  and  a  crown  of  rays  glittering 
on  his  head.  This  statue  was  thrown  down  in  the  reign  of 
Alexis  G)innenus. 

FOSSE,  a  trench  or  ditch  excavated  round  a  fortified  place, 
to  secure  it  from  attack. 

FOSSES  D'A1S.\NCES,  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
cesspools  of  Paris.  These  cesspools  are  constructed  of 
materials  sufficiently  impermeable  to  filtration,  so  that  the 
matter  contained  in  them  shall  not  penetrate  through 
the  walls,  to  the  injury  of  the  adjoining  property.  So 
strictly  is  this  condition  observed,  that  any  infilti'ation  to  a 
neighbour's  premises,  according  to  the  French  law,  gives  a 
title  to  damages,  and  the  architect  and  builder  are  held 
respunsible  for  ten  years,  not  only  to  the  proprietor,  but  also 
to  the  neighbours,  should  any  nuisance  arise  from  ijnperfect 
execution  of  ihe  work. 

The  Fo.ine.i  iTAixiinces  are  usually  made  about  10  feet  Ion" 
by  about  5  feet  7  inches  wide,  and  5  feet  in  height  to   the 


springing  of  the  semi-circular  head.  The  material  employed 
in  their  construction,  has  of  late  years  been  meuLhre  or  mill- 
stone, bedded  in  mortar  made  of  lime  and  cement ;  the  inside 
being  well  pointed,  and  rendered  throughout  with  the  same. 
These  cesspools  are  cleansed  out  when  necessary,  under  ih" 
inspection  and  by  the  authority  of  the  board  of  health  of 
the  city  ;  the  carts  employed,  as  well  as  all  the  nialeriel 
of  the  nightmen,  being  under  the  same  surveillance.  The 
work  is  done  between  ten  o'clock  at  night  and  six  o'clock  in 
the  morning.  The  contents  of  the  cesspools  are  generally 
sulficientlj'  fluid  to  allow  of  their  extraction  by  jiumps  ;  biil 
when  this  is  not  the  case,  they  are  conveyed  from  below  in 
small  iron  vessels  ;  and  great  care  is  taken  to  prevent,  .is 
much  as  possible,  the  escape  of  the  noxious  effluvia  dnriig 
the  operations.  When  the  soil  is  pumped  into  carts,  a  small 
furnace  is  placed  over  the  bung-hole  of  the  cart,  to  burn  the 
gas  as  it  rises  ;  and  directly  the  cart  is  filled,  the  bung  is 
plastered  over.  The  lids  of  the  vessels  used  to  remove 
the  more  solid  matter,  are  also  plastered  over  in  a  similar 
manner,  before  they  are  brought  out  of  the  cesspools.  For 
a  fuller  description  of  the  Fosses  d'Aisances,  see  Skweu, 
Sewerage. 

F(JlJi\  D  ATION,  (from  the  French)  the  trench  or  trenches 
excavated  in  the  ground,  in  order  to  rest  jin  edifice  firmly 
upon  its  base.  The  word  also  means  the  superstructure  of 
a  stone  or  brick  wall  under  the  lowest  floor  of  a  building, 
contained  within  the  trenches. 

Foundations,  according  to  Palladio,  ought  to  be  tw-ice  as 
thivk  as  the  walls  to  be  raised  upon  them,  so  that  both  the 
quality  of  the  earth  and  the  greatness  of  the  building  are  to 
be  regarded,  making  the  foundation  larger  in  a  soft  and  loose 
ground,  or  whi're  there  is  a  great  weight  to  be  supported. 
The  plane  of  the  trench  must  be  as  level  as  possible,  so  that 
the  weight  may  press  equally,  and  not  incline  more  on  one 
side  than  the  other.  For  this  reason  the  ancients  were 
accustotiied  to  pave  the  plane  with  Tivertine  ;  but  the 
moderns  most  commonly  lay  planks  or  beams  to  build  on. 
The  foundations  ought  to  diminish  in  widih  as  they  rise; 
but  in  such  a  manner  that  the  middle  of  the  wall  above  inay 
fall  plumb  with  the  middle  of  the  lowest  part;  this  must  also 
be  observed  in  the  diminution  of  walls  above  ground,  because 
by  that  means  the  building  becomes  much  stronger  than  by 
making  the  diminution  any  other  way. 

The  various  methods  of  treating  the  building  of  a  founda- 
tion, according  to  the  heterogeneous  texture  or  uniti)rmity 
of  the  ground,  as  may  happen  in  the  excavation,  will  be 
found  under  Bkicklaving.  Under  the  same  head  also  will 
be  found  ample  directions  for  making  a  foundation  of  Con- 
crete, as  now  so  generally  used  by  builders.  But  should 
the  foundation  prove  unsound,  or  of  that  character  that 
dependence  cannot  be  placed  upon  it,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  piling,  in  the  following  maimer.  Good  sound  piles  must 
be  prepared,  of  such  dimensions,  that  their  thickness  may  be 
about  a  twelfth  part  of  their  length  ;  the  distances  at  w^hich 
those  piles  should  be  disposed,  and  the  momentum  requisite 
to  drive  them,  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  building  to 
be  erected  ;  and  the  weight  they  will  have  to  bear ;  the  weight 
of  the  ram  ought  not  to  bo  more  than  sufficient  for  driving 
the  piles,  as  the  heavier  the  ram,  the  greater  the  number  of 
men  required  to  work  it,  and  consequently  the  greater  the 
expense.  When  the  piling  is  completed,  so  as  to  be  sufficient 
for  supporting  the  intended  structure,  some  builders  lay  a 
level  row  of  cross  bearers,  called  sleepers,  ram  the  interstices 
with  stone  or  brick  up  to  the  level  of  their  faces,  and  then 
plank  them  over.  This  planking,  however,  may  be  dispensed 
with,  if  the  piling  be  sufficiently  attended  to,  and  the  expense 
of  the  tbundaliou  will  thus  be  materially  lessened.    Timber 


rox 


430 


FRE 


shimld  not  be  used  with  its  thickness  staniiin<;  vt-rtical,  as  it 
is  liable  to  shrink,  wtiich  will  in:ike  the  IjuiMiiig  crack  or 
split  at  the  junctions  with  the  letiirii  pa'ts. 

Where  the  ground  is  not  very  soft,  and  where  the  wall 
is  to  be  supported  upon  narrow  piers,  a  piece  of  timber, 
or  balk,  is  sonielimes  slit  in  halves,  and  those  are  either 
laid  ininiediately  at  the  bottom,  or  at  the  height  of  two  or 
three  courses  from  the  bottom  of  the  wall ;  which  will 
frequently  prevent  settlements  when  the  wall  is  to  be  so 
supported. 

Foiced  earth,  or  made  gro\nid,  remains  unfit  for  the  founda- 
tion of  a  wall,  for  a  considerable  time. 

The  breadth  of  a  substructure  should  be  proportioned  to 
the  weight  of  the  superstructure,  and  to  the  softness  of  the 
ground  on  which  it  rests;  if  the  te.xture  of  the  ground  is 
supposed  to  be  constant,  and  the  materials  of  the  same  specific 
gravity,  the  breadth  of  the  foundation  will  be  as  the  area  of 
the  vertical  section  passing  through  the  line  on  which  the 
breadth  is  measuied  ;  thus,  for  e.\ample.  Suppose  a  wall 
40  ft-et  high,  2  feet  thick,  to  have  a  sufticicnt  f  lundatinn 
of  3  feet  in  breadth,  what  should  be  the  breadth  of  the 
foundation  of  a  wall  60  feet  high,  'iA^feot  thick?  By  propor- 
tion, it  will  be  40x2  :  3  ::  00  X  2'.V :  the  ans\ver=:.5J  feet. 
This  calculation  will  give  the  breadth  of  the  fuuidatiou  of 
the  required  wall,  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  insisting  wall 
itself;  when  the  height  of  the  rec|uirfd  wall  is  equal  to  the 
ratio,   which   is   the   first  term   (40  X  2  =  80)   divided   by 

the  second  term  (  3  )  =_=  26f.     Thus  a  wall  of  20|  feet 

3 
would  have  the  breadth  of  its  foundation  ecjual  to  its  thick- 
ness above  the  foundation,  and  less  than  20  j  feet  would  have 
a  thinner  foundation  than  even  the  superstructure.  But 
though  the  calculation  in  this  case  gives  the  foundation  less 
in  breadth  than  the  thickness  of  its  superstructure,  it  must 
be  considered  that  it  only  calculates  the  true  breadth  of  the 
surfiice  that  should  be  opposed  to  the  ground,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  wall  from  penetrating  by  its  weight :  though  the 
rule  gives  all  the  width  that  is  neces>ary,  on  account  of 
the  weight  of  the  insisting  wall,  yet  the  breadth  of  the  foot- 
ing should  always  be  greater  than  that  of  the  superstructure  ; 
as  it  will  sttmd  more  firmly  on  its  base  when  afiected  by 
lateral  pressure,  and  be  less  liable  to  rock  by  the  lilowiiig  of 
heavy  winds.  The  least  breadth  that  is  commonly  given 
to  the  bottom  course  of  stone  walls  is  one  f  )ot  thicker  than 
the  su[)erstructure.  In  damp  situations,  the  superstructure 
should  always  be  separated  from  the  substructure  by  layers 
of  lead,  tarred  paper,  Oiic.  Slate  also  may  be  used  with 
advantage  for  such  purposes. 

FOUNTAIN,  (from  the  French  /o«to;»f,)  literally  signi- 
fies a  spring  or  issuing  of  water  from  the  earth,  but  the  W(jrd 
is  also  applied  to  a  machine  or  artificial  contrivance  bv  which 
water  is  made  to  spout  or  dart  up,  called  by  the  French  a  jet 
d\aii.  There  are  various  kinds  of  artificial  f)untains,  but 
they  are  all  formed  by  siuiie  description  of  pressure  on  the 
water,  that  is,  the  water  of  the  fountain  is  made  to  spout  up, 
by  the  weight  of  a  head  of  water;  by  the  pressure  arising 
from  the  spring  and  elasticity  of  condensed  air,  or  by 
machinery. 

FUX-TAIL  WED(5ING,  a  method  of  fastening  a  tenon 
in  a  mortise,  by  splitting  the  end  of  the  tenon  and  inserting 
a  projecting  weiJge,  then  entering  the  tenon  into  the 
mortise,  and  diiving  it  home;  the  bottom  of  the  mortise 
will  then  resist  the  wed^e,  and  force  it  farther  into  the 
tenon,  which  will  expand  in  width,  so  as  not  only  to  fill  the 
cavity  at  the  bottom,  but  be  firmly  compressed  by  the  sides 
of  the  mortise. 


FRACTION,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra,  is  a  part  or  parts 
of  something  considered  as  a  unit  or  integer.  Fractions  arr 
dis  ingnislud  into  vulgar  fractions  and  decimal  fractions. 
Vulgar  fractions  consist  of  two  parts  or  quantities  written  on(^ 
over  the  other,  thus  |,  f.  &c.  ;  thr  quaniity  above  the  line  is 
called  the  numerator,  and  that  below  the  line  the  denomi- 
nator.     See  Decirixil. 

FRAMIi,  in  carpentry,  a  combination  of  timber-work, 
composed  of  one  or  more  triangular  compartnients,  or  of  a 
mixture  of  triangles  and  qtiadrilaterals,  the  timbers  being 
either  joined  together  by  joggles,  or  by  being  halved  or 
let  into  each  other. 

'J'hree  pieces  of  timber  are  the  least  number  that  can  con- 
stitute a  fame,  f)r  the  same  reason  that  less  than  three 
straight  lines  cannot  constitute  a  space.  See  the  articles 
Flooring,  Naked.  Flooring,  Partition,  Truss,  and 
Truss- Partition. 

Frame,  in  joinery,  an  assemblage  of  various  pieces  of 
wood-work,  fm-ming  ceitain  compartments,  according  to  the 
de--ign.  surrounding  panels  of  wood,  which  are  inserted  in 
groo\es  made  in  every  edge  of  each  compartmentof  the  frame, 
and  thus  lillint;  up  the  interstices.  This  mode  is  a  substitute 
fi)r  a  board,  «  hi(^h  CiHild  not  be  procured  in  one!  breadth  ;  and 
even  if  such  a  board  could  be  obtained,  framing  would  be 
preferable,  as  being  much  lighter,  stronger,  and  less  liable 
to  warp.  The  stilfriess  of  a  frame  in  carpentry  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  triangles  in  its  composition;  but  a  frami' in 
joinery  depends  upon  the  inflexibility  of  the  joints,  taking 
every  two  pieces  separately,  by  which  each  joint  is  formed. 

FRAMINtJ,  of  a  house,  all  the  timber-work,  viz.,  the 
carcase-fiooring,  partitioning,  roofing,  ceiling,  beams,  ash- 
leriusi,  &c. 

FUANKING.  in  sash-making,  cutting  a  small  excavation 
on  the  side  of  a  bar  for  the  reception  of  the  transverse  bar. 
so  that  no  more  of  the  wood  be  cut  away  than  what  is  suffi- 
cient to  show  a  mitre  when  the  bars  are  joined  to  each  other ; 
by  this  means,  the  strength  is  impaired  only  in  the  smallest 
possible  degree. 

FRATEIIY,  OR  FRATER-HOUSE,  the  dining-hall  of 
monastic  buihlings,  otherwise  termed  Refectori'. 

FREEMASON,  iu  ancient  times  was  the  term  applied  to 
a  person  supposed  to  be  skilled  in  the  art  of  building,  more 
particularly  iu  ecclesiastical  construction.  A  freemason 
travelled  from  place  to  place,  and  by  his  learning  in  the 
science,  and  his  taste  in  the  construction  <>f  edifices,  executed 
works  celebrated  for  beauty  and  grandeur.  In  the  present 
day  the  word  is  identified  with  the  society  of  Freemasons, 
wliose  various  ramifications  are  said  to  extend  throughout  the 
known  world. 

FREED.STOOL,  Fridstool,  or  Frithstool,  a  seat 
placed  at  the  east  of  some  churches,  near  the  altar,  for  those 
who  .sought  the  privilege  of  sanctuary.  They  were  usually 
of  stone,  specimens  of  them  in  this  material  are  still  existing 
at  Beverlev  and  Hexham. 

FREIvSTONE.     *f  Stone. 

FREK-STL'FF,  that  which  works  easily  in  the  operation 
of  pl.aniiig,  without  tearing. 

FREEZE,  a  part  of  the  entablature  of  an  order;  more 
correcllv  spelt  Frieze.  «  hich  see. 

FRENCH  CASEMENTS,  windows  turning  npon  two 
vertical  edges  attached  to  the  jambs,  which  when  shut  lap 
together  npon  the  other  two  parallel  edges,  and  are  fastened 
by  means  of  long  bolts  extending  their  whole  height. 

French  casements  are  made  in  thi-  f  u-m  of  the  old  English 
windows,  the  two  meeting  styles,  which  lap  together,  forming 
a  munnion  about  four  inchesin  breadth.  The  knver  part  only 
is  moveable,   the  upper   is   fixed,  and   has  »  corresponding 


FRE 


431 


FRE 


rauntiion,  the  lower  rail  of  the  fixed  part  and  upper  rail  of  the 
inovi';ible  part  foniiiiig  a  transom. 

i'UESCU  PAIiNTLNG,  a  peculiar  mode  of  paintiii;;,  per- 
fiiimed  by  einplo\  iiig  colours  inixid  and  ground  with  water 
upon  a  stucco,  or  plaster,  sufliciently  fi-esh  and  wet  to  imbibe 
and  embody  the  colouis  with  itself.  The  teim  frexco,  as 
applied  to  painting,  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  beciiuse  the 
practice  of  it  is  used  in  the  open  air;  aiulaie  al  fresco  signi- 
fying '"to  take  (he  air,"  or  "walk  abroad  in  the  air:"  but  it 
seems  more  probable  that  another  meaning  of  the  word //fsco 
has  given  rise  to  this  particular  adoption  of  it,  viz.,  new,  or 
flesh,  relative  to  the  state  of  the  plaster  on  which  it  is 
wrought.  Vitruvius  (lib.  vii.  cap.  4.)  calls  it  udo  lectorio. 
It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  practised  in  the  earliest  ages 
of  Greece  and  Rome. 

The  theory  of  the  art  of  painting  extends  its  principles  to 
all  modes  of  execution,  becau-e  theoretic  rules  are  drawn 
from  nature,  which  is  the  object  of  all  imitation,  and  are 
independent  of  the  means  employed  in  producing  the  intended 
ert'ect.  We  propose,  therefore,  in  this  place,  only  to  treat  of 
the  modeof  execution,  and  of  the  materialsetnployed  in  fresco 
painting;  such  obseivations  as  the  recent  re\ival  of  the  art 
has  rendered  necessary,  being  deferred  till  after  our  descrip- 
tion uf  the  practice. 

Previous. y  to  the  commencement  of  a  painting  in  fresco,  it 
is  necessary  that  a  careful  examination  should  be  made  of  the 
fitness  of  the  place  to  receive  it.  The  artist  must  assure  him- 
self, theretnre,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  pcrt'-ct  construction 
of  the  walls,  or  ceilings,  on  which  he  intends  to  employ  his 
genius,  and  entrust  his  reputation  :  abo\;e  all,  he  must  be 
careful  to  make  it  secure  from  damp. 

Satisfied  with  the  construction  of  the  wall,  it  is  then 
necessary  the  artist  should  see  to  the  proper  management  of 
the  tirst  layer  of  plaster  with  which  it  is  covered.  The 
materials  employed  for  building  in  ditferent  countries  will 
vary  according  to  the  natureofthosemost  easy  to  be  obtained  : 
and  therefore  it  will,  of  course,  be  necessary  to  adopt  means 
for  rendering  tho-e  not  peifectly  proper  in  themselves  to 
receive  fresco  painting,  more  so  by  artificial  means.  Brick  is 
certainly  the  one  best  ca  culated  to  hold  the  plaster  perfectly ; 
both  on  account  of  its  absnrbing  quality,  and  from  the  small- 
ness  of  the  size  of  the  bricks  causing  a  number  of  interstices 
between  thi-m;  which  irregularity  in  the  surface  greatly 
assists  in  retaining  the  plaster  in  adherence.  A  wall  built  of 
rough  stones  fidl  of  holes  may  also  be  relied  upon  as  a  good 
foundation  fir  fresco  ;  but  if,  instead  of  that,  it  be  constructed 
of  smooth  or  polished  stones,  it  will  then  be  necessary  to 
render  it  uneven  by  making  holes  in  it,  fastening  nails,  and 
small  wedges  of  wood,  to  hold  the  plaster  tngeiher,  and  pre- 
vent its  falling  oil".  These  precautions  are  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence to  prevent  its  bonding  or  cracking,  which  the  least 
alteration  that  happens  to  the  materials,  or  even  a  change  of 
weather,  producing  alternately  wet  or  dry,  may  occasion. 

The  first  layer  of  plaster  may  be  composed  of  well-washed 
chalk  made  into  a  cement  with  pounded  brick,  or  river 
saiid ;  the  last  is  better,  being  ratlier  the  coarsest,  and  pro- 
ducing therebj'  a  roughness  of  surface  which  will  better  retain 
the  second  coat. 

Tairas,  composed  of  pounded  sea-sand  and  chalk  or  lime, 
would  perhaps  be  better  still.  The  ancients  had  certainly  a 
better  comport  tor  this  purpose  than  that  at  present  known; 
if  we  may  judge  from  that  wliich  still  covers  many  of  their 
buildings;  particularly  the  aqueduct  thi-y  constructed  near 
Naples,  and  the  walls  of  the  ruins  of  Ileiculaneum. 

Before  the  second  layer  is  given,  the  first  must  be  perfectly 
dry,  on  account  of  a  disagreeable  and  noxious  vapour  which 
issues  from  the  lime  in  drying  ;   but  when  it  is  so,  and  you 


proceed  to  give  it  the  second  coating,  upon  which  the  paint- 
ing is  done,  it  must  be  wetted  with  water,  that  the  two  m;iv 
more  completely  incorporate.  This  layer,  which  requires  to 
be  more  carefully  prepared  than  the  first,  is  made  by  mixing 
river-.sand  of  an  even  and  tine  grain  with  chalk,  which  has 
been  burnt  several  months  before,  and  exposed  to  the  air,  as 
by  that  means  the  artist  may  be  more  sure  of  its  general 
decomposition  and  freedom  from  stony  parts. 

It  requires  considerable  skill  in  the  person  who  prepares 
this  ground,  to  lay  it  perfectly  even,  and  he  must  be  very 
careful  in  judging  of  the  quantity  proper  to  be  laid  on  at 
once.  This  ought  not  to  be  inoie  than  the  painter  can  cover 
and  completely  finish  in  a  day  ;  and  it  requires  great  skill  and 
activity  in  spreading,  to  clean  it  from  lumps  and  piili-.h  it 
evenly,  so  as  to  receive  the  painting  with  the  promptitude 
requisite  to  leave  the  artist  as  much  time  as  possible.  The 
painter,  however,  should  himself  superintend  this  part  of  the 
process,  tor  he  alone  can  judge  properly  as  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  he  can  work,  or  the  advantages  he  may  make  of 
accidental  occurrences. 

The  operation  of  laying  on  the  ground  is  performed  with 
a  trowel,  and  in  doing  this,  care  must  be  taken  to  clean  it 
properly,  that  the  surface  may  be  even,  particularly  in  those 
parts  most  exposed  to  view.  The  mason's  labour  is  finished 
by  his  polishing  the  surface  to  receive  the  painting;  this  is 
done  by  applying  a  piece  of  paper  on  the  face  of  the  wall,  and 
passing  the  trowel  over  it.  It  is  very  necessary  that  this 
should  be  well  done,  for  small  inequalities  in  the  surfice 
might,  in  certain  views,  produce  great  irregularities  in  the 
drawing  of  the  work. 

When  the  second  ground  is  thus  prepared,  cleaned,  and 
polished,  in  the  quantity,  and  on  the  part  of  the  wall  which 
the  artist  requires,  he  begins  to  trace  his  desii;n  upon  it,  and 
proceeds  to  the  colouring  of  it;  completely  covering  the 
quantity  prepared,  and  finishing  so  much  of  the  picture  in 
the  course  of  the  day,  in  such  a  manner  that  he  may  not  have 
occasion  to  re-touch  it  when  the  ground  is  dry.  This  is  the 
characteristic  peculiarity  of  painting  in  fresco,  which,  by  this 
mode  of  operation,  is  incorporated  with  the  mortar,  and  dry- 
ing along  with  it,  becomes  extremely  durable,  and  brightens 
in  its  tones  and  colour  as  it  dries. 

From  the  necessity  there  is  in  the  progress  of  this  style  of 
art,  that  it  should  be  executed  with  rapidity,  and  from  the 
impossibility  of  retouching  it  without  injuring  the  purity  ot 
the  work  ;  the  artist,  unless  he  be  endowed  with  very  extra- 
ordinary powers  of  imagination  and  execution  indeed,  is 
obliged  to  prepare  a  finished  sketch  of  the  subject,  wrought 
to  its  proper  hue  and  tone  of  colour,  and  so  well  digested, 
that  there  may  be  no  necessity  for  making  any  essential 
alterations  in  the  design.  This,  which  is  a  very  useful  mode 
of  proceeding  in  all  historic  works  of  painting,  is  absolutely 
indispensable  in  fresco,  to  those  who  are  not  determined  to 
give  the  rein  to  their  ideas,  and  leave  as  perfect  whatever 
may  first  present  itself  There  is  no  beginning  in  this,  by 
drawing  the  whole  of  the  parts  at  one  time,  and  correcting 
them  at  leisure,  as  is  the  custom  in  oil  painting,  where  the 
artist  may  proceed  to  work  without  a  sketch.  Here  all  that 
is  begun  "in  the  morning  must  be  completed  by  the  evening  ; 
and  that  almost  without  cessation  of  labour,  while  the  plaster 
is  wet;  and  not  only  completed  in  forin,  hut  also  (a  difficult, 
nay,  almost  impossible  task,  without  a  well-prepared  sketch,) 
must  be  performed,  viz.,  the  part  done  in  this  short  time  must 
have  -so  perfect  an  accordance  with  what  follows,  or  has  pre- 
ceded of  the  work,  that  when  the  whole  is  finished,  it  may 
appear  as  if  it  had  been  executed  at  once,  or  in  the  usual 
mode,  with  sufficient  time  given  to  harmonize  the  various 
forms' and  tones  of  colour.     Instead  of  proceeding  by  slow 


FRE 


432 


FRE 


degrees  to  illuminate  the  objects,  and  increase  the  vividness  of 
the  colours,  in  a  manner  Mjmewhat  similar  to  the  |)riis;ress 
of  nature  in  the  rising  day,  till  at  last  it  shines  with  all  its 
intended  effect,  which  is  the  course  of  painting  in  oil  ;  the 
artist  working  in  fresco  must  at  once  rush  into  broad  day- 
light ;  at  once  give  all  the  force  in  light  and  shade  and  colour, 
which  the  nature  of  his  subject  requires.  This,  be  it  observed 
also,  must  be  wiihout  the  assistance  (at  least  in  the  commence- 
ment) of  contrast  to  regulate  his  eye;  and  therefore  may  he 
considered  almost  impossible,  as  we  have  before  said,  unless 
he  be  assisted  by  a  well-digested  and  finished  sketch. 

The  sketch  being  compleied,  the  next  process  is  to  prepare 
a  cartoon  or  drawing  of  the  design  on  paper  pasted  together 
to  the  size  of  the  intended  fresco.  This  cartoon  should  be 
pel  footed  in  the  outline  to  save  time,  and  the  artist  has  then 
nothing  to  do  but  to  trace  the  line  of  the  figures  or  other 
objects  which  the  design  may  be  composed  of,  on  to  the 
plaster,  by  either  pricking  with  a  pin  through  the  paper,  or  by 
passing  a  hard  point  over  the  lines  of  the  cartoon.  By  this 
means  he  saves  himself  the  trouble  of  drawing  the  figures, 
and  also  the  time  which  would  be  required  for  doing  it,  and 
proceeds  at  once  to  the  painting;  to  facilitate  the  execution, 
and  ensure  the  success  of  which,  several  precautions  are 
requisite. 

The  colours  being  ground  fine  in  water,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  tints  most  likely  to  be  employed  prepared, 
they  should  be  arranged  in  pots  or  basons,  and  sever-al  pal- 
lettes  with  raised  edges  should  be  ready  at  hand  to  work 
from,  and  assist  in  compounding  the  varieties  of  hues  neces- 
sary for  producing  brilliancy  and  harmony.  A  few  pieces  of 
tile  or  brick,  or  of  any  absorbent  stone,  should  also  be  pro- 
vided, to  pi-ove  the  tints  upon,  because  all  colours  ground  in 
water  become  mirch  lighter  when  dry,  than  ihey  appear  when 
wet.  To  be  certain  theief  ire  of  their  hrre,  before  he  begins  to 
use  them  on  the  picture,  arrd  to  avoid  the  trouble  and  neces- 
sity of  much  ch^irrgirrg  or  labouring  them,  (as  the  painters 
term  the  blending  of  colours,)  the  artist  should  apply  some  of 
each  tint  with  his  brush  to  the  dry  brick,  &c.,  which,  ab- 
sorlring  the  water,  the  colours  immediately  appear  very  nearly 
of  the  same  hue  they  will  be  of  when  the  fresco  is  dry.  Hence 
he  nray  proceed  with  great  security  in  his  work,  and  is  sure 
to  have  it  much  more  fresh  and  vigorous  in  effect,  than  it 
would  be  if  much  labour  had  been  employed  to  obtain  the 
tone  on  the  wall. 

It  will  be  requisite  also  to  have  at  hand  a  vase  or  bason 
of  water,  or  a  wet  spoirge.  and  to  take  care  not  to  begin  to 
paint  till  the  layer  of  mortar  is  hard  enough  to  n'si>t  the 
impression  of  the  linger  :  otherwise  '.he  colours  would  spread 
upon  it,  and  prevent  all  possibility  of  neatrress  or  clearness 
in  the  executiorr,  which  should  be  effected  with  great  rapidity 
and  lightness  of  hand. 

With  respect  to  the  colours  employed  in  fresco,  they  ar-e 
fewer  in  number  than  those  which  irray  be  used  in  oil  [laint- 
ing,  on  account  of  the  combined  action  of  the  lime  ami  the 
air  upon  the  component  parts  of  many  of  the  latter.  Those 
most  generally  in  use  are  the  following,  viz.  : — 

Lime -White. — This,  when  made  of  well-washed  burnt 
chalk  or  lime,  is  the  best  and  most  simple  white  that  can  be 
used  ;  it  mixes  freely  with  all  the  other  colours,  and  works 
in  itself  wirh  a  full  body.  The  preparation  of  it  requires 
that  the  chalk  should  be  slacked  a  twelvemonth  before  it  is 
used,  or  at  least,  six  months.  It  should  then  be  dissolved  in 
common  water,  and  poured  carefully  off,  (after  letting  it  fall 
some  short  time.)  into  a  vessel  to  settle. 

Another  white  is  made  by  mi.ving  one-third  of  white 
marble  powder  with  two-thirds  of  chalk  ;  but  it  must  be  used 
with  caution,  as  it  is  apt  to  change.     If  the  proportion  of 


marble  dirst  be  too  stmng  for  the  chalk,  it  will  become  black. 
The  artist  will  thrrefore  do  well  to  confine  himself  to  chalk 
white,  pr-ovided  it  ha-^  b'cn  well  prepared,  and  kept  a  long 
time.  As  this,  however,  hasfreqirently  been  used,  we  deemed 
it  proper  to  be  mentioned,  that  arti-ts  may,  if  they  choose, 
make  experiments  upon  its  natrrre,  and  endeavour,  if  they 
find  any  peculiarly  valuable  quality  in  it,  to  ensure  its  ctm- 
tinrrance  in  clearness  and  perfection. 

Efin-shell  White.- — There  is  also  a  third  white,  madi-  of 
egg--hells,  which,  though  it  has  not  the  frrll  tt-xtur-e  of  the 
chalk,  is  yet  very  ele.ir  and  good  for  use  in  fresco.  It  is 
made  by  boiling  eggshells  in  water  with  a  little  quick-lime. 
They  are  then  put  into  a  pot,  aird  washed  with  pirre  water. 
Then  pounded  fiire,  washed  again  till  no  tint  is  given  to  the 
water,  and  then  gi-ound  by  the  muller  and  stone  to  the  degree 
fit  f  jr  use  ;  it  is  afterwards  formed  into  little  cakes,  which 
are  dried  in  the  sun.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  the 
powder  of  the  shells  remain  too  long  in  the  same  water,  as  it 
will  exhale  a  fetid  vaporrr  almost  insuppoi-table,  which  cannot 
be  dissipated  birt  by  roasting  it  in  a  close  vessel,  w-ell  luted. 

Red — prodrrced  by  birrnt  vitriol,  in  colour  approacbi'  g  to 
Indian  red,  and  ground  in  spir-its  of  wine,  acts  well  with  the 
lime,  resi-ts  the  action  of  the  air.  and  mixes  cleanly  with  the 
other  coloirrs.  This  forms  an  excelleirt  preparation  to  receive 
the  bright  red  of  cinnabar  or  vermilion,  when  the  whole  wall 
is  covered. 

Colovrx  of  earthy  textures,  such  as  the  ochres,  whether 
burnt  or  not  burnt,  umber-,  both  raw  and  burnt.  Spanish  red, 
V'erd  de  Verona.  Venice  black,  and  blue  b'ack,  made  V>v 
brrrising  vine-stalks,  or  shells  of  peach-nuts,  are  all  excellent 
for  the  pirrposes  of  fresco  painting. 

B/iiet, — The  best  is  the  ultramarine,  »s  it  never  suffers 
any  change.  Smalt  or  enamel  blue  is  good  as  to  preserving 
its  tone,  and,  if  used  early  in  the  work,  will  adhere  ;  but  if 
the  ground  should  become  too  dry  before  it  is  used,  it  is  apt 
not  to  incorporate  strongly  with  it,  but  to  come  off  on  the 
least  friction. 

White  lead,  lake,  verdigr-is,  masticot,  Naples  yellow,  the 
orpiments,  and  bone  black,  are  all  unfit  for  this  purpose, 
being  liable  to  change. 

Painting  in  fresco,  when  carefully  executed,  is  of  all  others 
the  most  durable,  and  therefore  the  most  proper  to  be 
employed  in  adorning  public  brrildings.  The  use  of  it  for 
this  purpose  appears  to  be  very  ancient.  Norden  speaks  of 
pairrtings  in  Egyptian  palaces  80  feet  high,  which  Winkelmnn 
quotirrg.  coircludes  they  were  in  fresco,  from  the  descriprion 
given  of  the  prepared  grounds,  aird  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  colours  appear  to  have  been  used.  And  all  the  paintings 
found  at  Herculaneum.  at  Portici,  and  at  Rome,  of  ancient 
date,  are  of  the  same  materials.  No  other  kind  of  painting 
would  so  eflectrrally  have  resisted  the  action  of  the  air  fir  so 
great  a  length  of  time,  and  more  particularly  the  excessive 
aridity  which  those  of  Herculaneum  must  have  endrrred, 
being  shut  up  entirely  from  the  light,  and  amidst  glowing 
embers  fr'om  Vesuvius,  emitting  of  course,  especially  a:  fir-t, 
an  intense  heat  around  them.  That,  however,  in  one  point 
of  view,  was  favourable  to  the  preservation  of  those  that 
escaped  its  immediate  action  ;  for  damp  is  the  most  powerfirl 
destroyer  of  them,  agairrst  which  no  caution  taken  can  make 
them  too  secure.  In  this  case  of  Herculanerrm,  damp  must 
have  been  eft'ectually  excluded,  first  by  the  heat  of  the  ashes, 
and  afterwards,  as  the  sti-atum  of  those  a^hes  was  so  thick, 
water  from  above  could  not  penetrate  so  low  as  to  the  pictures, 
p.rrticularly  after  the  upper  part  was  covered  with  the  close 
cake  formed  by  the  decomposed  parts,  on  and  near  the 
surface. 

In  ordinary  situations,  the  choice  of  materials  is  the  most 


FRE 


433 


FRE 


impcirtant  part,  to  secure  the  durability  of  the  work,  and  par- 
ticularly the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  the  prepai'ation  of 
the  ground,  and  of  the  wall,  to  cause  it  to  adhere. 

Fresco  painting  has  been  chiefly  employed  in  palaces,  tem- 
ples, and  other  public  edifices.  For  large  and  important 
places  no  other  kind  of  painting  is  so  good.  As  the  artist  is 
obliged,  from  its  nature,  to  proceed  with  rapidity  in  its  pro- 
duction, it  has  necessarily  more  spirit  and  vigour  in  the 
execution,  than  paintings  in  oil,  which  may  be  repeated,  and 
re-touclied,  as  oftin  as  the  artist  fancies  he  can  improve,  or 
heighten  their  cfTcct.  In  fresco  there  is  not  time  to  meddle, 
and  disturb  the  freshness  of  the  colour,  or  the  fulness  and 
freedom  of  the  touch.  But  there  can  be  no  minute  detail  of 
forms,  or  extensive  variety  in  the  gradation  of  tints  ;  the 
beauties  of  neatness,  and  delicacy  of  hnishiiig,  make  no  part 
of  the  excellencies  of  this  branch  of  the  art;  it  will  not  bear 
the  close  examination  which  well-tinished  pictures  in  oil  do  ; 
there  is  something  dry  and  rough  in  its  appearance,  unpleasing. 
to  the  common  observer,  on  too  close  an  inspection.  It  lacks 
the  full  rich  sweetness  of  hue  and  texture  which  oil  paintings 
possess;  and  though  it  has  more  freshness,  and  retains  it, 
yet  from  the  confined  number  of  colours  which  can  be 
employed  in  it,  it  is  not  equal  to  oil  in  the  perfection  of  the 
imitation  of  nature. 

Whoever  seeks  to  be  pleased  with  fresco  painting,  must 
learn  justly  to  estimate  the  best,  and  not  the  most  agreeable 
qualitii'S  of  the  art.  Character,  contour,  expression,  are 
within  its  powers  ;  and  are  the  points  which  the  great  artists 
who  practice  it,  knowing  its  limits,  will  endeavour  most  to 
exhibit  in  their  productions.  Harmony  of  colouring,  chiaro- 
oscuro,  and  the  minute  graces  of  execution,  have  never  yet 
been  rendered  in  it,  or  but  very  partially,  in  comparison  with 
works  in  oil. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  restoration  of  painting,  a  species 
of  fresco  was  the  only  mode  of  practising  the  art,  in  use' 
A  ground  of  chalk  was  prepared  on  tablets  of  wood,  and  the 
colours  laid  on  it,  ground  and  mixed  in  water  only,  or  with 
some  gluten  soluble  in  it.  The  surface  of  the  picture  was 
afterwards  covered  with  a  varnish,  to  secure  it  from  rubbing, 
and  to  give  the  tints  more  force  and  lustre. 

"  Fresco,"  observes  a  writer  in  The  Builder,  "  was  much 
used  in  England  some  four  or  five  centuries  since,  in  both 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  structures  of  importance  ;  the  subjects 
being  chiefly  scriptural,  with  occasional  deviations  in  favour 
of  some  legendary  achievement,  or  as  a  pictorial  record  of 
some  well-contested  battle-field.  With  these  bold  and 
beautiful,  but  unresisting  memorials  of  things  sacred, 
and  deeds  that  redounded  to  national  glory,  the  fanatical 
spirit  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  warred  to 
extermination  ;  neither  the  enrichmentsof  the  temple  bestowed 
by  the  constant  piety  of  our  ancestors,  nor  the  grateful 
reminiscences  of  heroic  services  of  the  state,  were  permitted 
to  escape  the  devilries  enacted  by  the  factitious  saints  of  the 
Puritan  calendar  :  the  frescoes  perished  ;  but  better  taste 
and  better  feelings  have  supervened,  bidding  fair  to  re-estab- 
lish both  the  art  itself,  and  the  influential  purposes  to  which 
it  was  anciently  devoted." 

The  report  of  Mr.  Barry  on  the  proposed  decorations  of 
the  interior  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  is  really  a 
splendid  programme  of  the  association  ofsculpture  and  paint- 
ing, upon  an  occasion  too  so  fertile  in  appliances  and  means, 
that  the  principles  of  taste  will,  it  is  presumed,  be  developed 
in  a  manner  to  serve  as  examples  for  much  of  future  time. 
With  reference  to  painting,  Mr.  Barry  says — "  I  would  that 
the  walls  of  the  several  halls,  galleries,  and  corridors  of 
approach,  as  well  as  the  various  public  apartments  through- 
out the  building,  should  be  decorated  with  paintings,  having 
55 


reference  to  events  in  the  history  of  the  country  ;  and  that 
these  paintings  should  be  placed  in  compartments  formed  by 
such  a  suital)le  arrangement  of  the  architectural  designs  of 
the  interior,  as  will  best  promote  their  effective  imloii  with 
the  arts  of  sculpture  and  architecture.  With  this  view, 
I  should  consider  it  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance,  that  the 
paintings  should  be  wholly  free  from  gloss  upon  the  surface, 
that  they  may  be  perfectly  seen  and  fully  understood  from 
all  points  of  view."  "  By  paintings  wiih'surfaces  free  from 
gloss  or  glaze,  we  understand  those  wherein  the  colours 
employed  are  mixed  in  other  mediums  than  oils  or  varnishes; 
and  though  fresco  is  not  named,  yet  the  magnitude  of  the 
surfaces  to  be  covered,  and  the  exce[ition  to  those  whieh  are 
glazed,  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it  is  intended  to  revive  tbis 
branch  of  art.  Now,  though  the  buildings  to  be  thus  adorned 
are  progressing  with  considerable  rapidity,  much  time  must 
elapse  bcf  piv  the  interior  is  prepared  to  receive  the  embellish- 
ments contemplated  ;  meanwhile,  many  will  have  their  long- 
ings to  share  in  these  distinguished  labours,  and,  generally, 
the  revival  will  open  a  new  field  for  talent,  in  which  there 
will  shortly  be  no  want  of  encouragement  for  those  who  may 
have  successfully  cultivated  it  ;  so  oblivious,  however,  has 
the  art  becoirje,  that  we  have  repeatedly  heard  the  question 
put  as  to  its  nature  and  mode  of  execution,  and  we  think  an 
explanation  will  be  useful  to  many  of  our  readers.  Fresco 
is  the  ar^  of  painting  in  relievo  with  water-colours  on  fresh 
plaster;  the  amalgamation  thus  formed  of  the  decorative 
material  with  the  b(  idy  to  which  it  is  applied,  is  endued  with  un- 
changeablenessandpermanenceofa  very  extraordinary  kind." 

The  appointment  of  "  A  Commission  on  the  Fine  Arts," 
especially  directed  "  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in  which,  by 
means  of  the  interior  decfuations  of  the  Palace  of  West- 
minster, the  fine  arts  of  this  country  can  be  most  effectually 
improved,"  has  no  doubt  led  to  the  revival  of  the  art  of 
fresco-painting.  The  various  reports  of  the  commission 
contain  a  great  deal  of  valuable  inf  )rmation  on  the  subject, 
and  the  employment  of  several  artists  to  furnish  specimens, 
has  brought  forward  some  beautiful  examples  of  fresco- 
painting,  and  elicited  talent  that  might,  but  for  these  circum- 
stances, have  been  lost  to  the  world.  In  addition  to  the 
encouragement  thus  afforded,  the  stimulus  of  a  public  com 
petition,  and  the  distribution  of  rewards  to  the  successful 
candidates.  Her  Majesty  and  Prince  Albert  had  given  the 
advantage  of  their  countenance  to  the  art,  by  ordering 
the  decoration  of  a  summer-house  in  the  gardens  of  Buck- 
ingham Palace  with  fresco  paintings. 

The  idea  of  this  experiment,  for  so  it  must  be  called,  was 
surely  a  happy  one  ;  and  not  the  less  .seasonable,  that  every 
one  who  had  considered  the  subject  (nt  least  every  one  who 
understood  it),  felt  that  it  was  a  method  which  presented 
peculiar  difficulties  to  some  of  the  ablest  and  most  distin- 
guished of  our  painters,  whose  habitual  style  of  treatment  of 
their  subject  and  effect,  had  been  precisely  the  reverse 
of  what  is  required  in  fresco. 

The  application  of  fresco-painting,  it  may  be  observed,  to 
the  decoration  of  architecture  demands  the  adaptation  of  parts 
to  a  whole  ;  a  preconcerted  mode  of  treatment,  in  which  the 
painting  shall  seem  t<i  be  in  union  with  the  original  design 
of  the  edifice  ;  the  harmonious  combination  of  many  minds, 
working  under  the  direction  of  one  mind,  to  one  purpose  ; 
and  with  regard  to  the  mechanical  part  of  the  process,  it 
requires  much  thought  and  study  in  the  preparation  of  the 
materials,  and  great  care  and  precision,  as  well  as  great 
rapidity,  in  the  execution. 

The  summer-house  in  question  is  very  small,  and  is  situated 
on  an  artificial  mount  in  the  gardens,  overlooking  the  orna- 
mental waters. 


FEE 


434 


FRI 


The  entrance  to  the  pavilion  opens  into  the  principal 
apartfnent,  an  octagon  15  feet  9  inches  from  side  to  side, 
and  14  feet  11  inches  in  height,  to  the  centre  of  the  vaulted 
ceiling.  It  is  here,  in  eight  lunettes  at  the  foot  of  the  vault, 
that  the  frescos  from  "Comus"  appear,  of  which  for  the 
most  part  types  have  been  exhibited  in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  by  the  respective  artists.  Over  the  entiance-door, 
is  Staufield's,  illustrative  of  the  following  |)assage  :— 

"  Tet  some  tbere  be  that  by  due  iiteps  a-ipire 
To  lay  thfir  just  Ij.-ukU  on  tliat  golden  key, 
That  opea  the  palace  of  Eternity. 
To  such  my  errand  is."  CoMUS,  v.  12 — 17. 

It  is  admirably  transparent,  and  e,\hibits  more  power  over 
the  material  than  the  majority  of  the  works.  Passing  round 
with  the  sun,  Mr.  Uwiii's  follows,  having  fur  motto, 

"  This  is  the  place  as  well  ;is  I  may  f;iiess, 
Whence  even  now  the  tumult  of  loud  mirth 
Was  rife." 

Then  comes  Leslie :  Ross  follows.  Eastlake's  is  over  the 
mantlepiece  ;  Maclise,  Edwin  Landsoer,  and  Dyce,  complete 
the  eight.  A  copy  of  Mr.  Maelise's  work  was  in  the 
Academy  exhibition  of  1845,  and  will  be  remembered  by  all. 
The  lines  illustrated  are, 

"  If  virtue  feeble  were, 
Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her." 

Maclise  shows  the  lady  spell-bound  in  the  marble  chair, 
and  displays  much  of  his  usual  power.  Mr.  Landseer  has 
fomid  in  the  following  lines  an  opportunity  to  exhibit 
his  great  skill  in  depicting  the  brute  form  :— 

"  Their  human  countenance 
Th'  express  resemblance  of  the  gods,  is  changed 
Into  some  brutish  form  of  wolf  or  bear. 
Or  ounce  or  tiger,  hog  or  bearded  goat" 

CoMUs,  V.  68 — "1. 

Comus,  surrounded  by  his  crew,  is  terrified  by  the  approach 
of  the  brothers,  who  appear  behind  in  the  act  of  rushing 
upon  them.  A  bacchante,  with  a  beautiful  female  form,  and 
the  head  of  a  hound,  has  thrown  herself  in  affright  upon  the 
arm  of  Comus.  Othi^r  monsters,  half  brute,  half  human,  in 
various  attitudes  of  mad  revelry — grovelling,  bestial  insen- 
sibility— confusion  and  terror — are  seen  round  him  ;  the 
pathetic,  the  poetical,  the  horrible,  the  grotesque,  all  wildly, 
strangely  mingled.  In  I  he  .spandrils  are  two  heads — a  grinning 
ape,  and  a  bear  drinking. 

Mr.  Dyce  winds  up  the  illustrations  with  the  presentation 
of  the  lady  and  her  two  brothers  to  their  parents,  who  come 
forth  to  receive  them,  and  he  has  produced  what  must  be 
considered  the  best  fresco,  although  perhaps  wanting  exactly 
the  right  sentiment. 

The  operations  of  the  Fine  Arts  Commission  seem  tohave 
been  highly  satisfactory  to  the  public  in  general,  and,  in 
respect  to  fresco-painting  in  particular,  must  be  viewed  as 
eminently  successful.  The  exhibitions  in  Westminster  Hall 
presented  numerous  paintings  in  this  so  long-disused  art,  of 
a  highly  artistic  character  ;  and  the  number  of  the  prizes 
awarded,  testify  the  great  merit  of  the  productions.  The 
result  of  the  preliminary  competition  was  shown  in  the 
selection  of  several  eminent  artists  to  execute  fresco-paintings 
In  the  new  Palace  of  Westminster,  and  in  the  completion  by 
those  gentlemen  of  some  of  the  finest  pictures  in  this  pecidiar 
style,  that  have  been  seen  since  the  days  of  the  great  painters 
of  former  times. 

It  woidd  extend  this  article  beyond  the  limit  assigned  to 
it,  to  give  a  full  descri|ition  of  these  admirable  works  ; 
we  must  therefore  confine  ourselves  to  a  list  of  the  artists 
selected,  and  tiie  subjects  allotted  to  each  for  illustration. 


The  commissioners  having  decided  that  six  compartments 
in  the  new  House  of  Lords  should te  decorated  with  fresco. 
])aintiiigs,  proceeded  to  allot  the  several  works  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : — 

To  Mr.  Ilorsley,  the  subject  of  Religion. 

To  ^Ir.  Thomas,  the  subject  of  Justice. 

To  Mr.  Maclise,  the  subject  of  Chivalry. 

To  Mr.  Dyce,  the  subject  of  the  Baptism  of  Ethelbert. 

To  Mr.  Redgrave,  the  subject  of  Prince  Henry,  afterwards 
Henry  V.,  acknowledging  the  authority  of  Chief  Justice 
Gascoigne. 

And  to  Mr.  Cope  the  subject  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
receiving  the  Order  of  the  Garter  from  Edward  III. 

In  the  Upper  Waiting  Hall,  or,  as  it  is  to  be  called,  the 
"  Hall  of  Poets,"  the  eight  available  panels  which  it  affords, 
are  appropriated  to  frescoes  illustrative  of  Chaucer,  Spenser, 
Milton,  Shakspere,  Dryden,  Pope,  Byron,  and  Scott.  Such 
of  these  paintings  as  are  finished  at  the  time  we  write,  are 
noble  works,  full  of  power  and  beauty,  and  fully  justifying 
the  commissioners  in  the  selection  they  have  made  of  the 
artists  emplo\'ed. 

The  principal  works  that  have  been  produced  in  former 
times  in  fresco,  are  the  series  of  biblical  and  pvangelical 
liistoric  pictures  which  adorn  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the 
chapel  of  Sixtus  V.  at  R(jme,  by  M.  A.  Buonarotti  ;  the 
chambers  of  the  Vatican,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Stanze  of  Raphael  ;  which  con-ist  principally  of  religious 
histories  interspersed  with  some  legendary  tales,  relative 
to  the  popes;  and  the  cupola  of  the  duomo  of  Parma,  or 
church  of  St.  Giovanni  in  that  city,  by  A.  Correggio.  It 
represents  the  Ascension  of  the  Virgin,  amidst  a  clioir  of 
angels,  and  with  a  number  of  fi;;ures  of  saints  below  regard- 
ing it.  One  beautiful  and  grand  work,  by  Daniel  Ricciarelli, 
commonly  called  Da  Votterra,  at  the  altar  of  the  church  of 
Trinita  da  Monte,  the  subject  of  which  is  taking  Christ 
down  from  the  cross,  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the 
French,  in  their  endeavours  to  remove  it  to  France.  Dorigny 
has  engraved  a  large  print  of  the  design  ;  and  the  picture 
has  been  thought  so  well  worthy  of  .attention,  that  an 
infinite  multitude  of  copies  have  been  made  of  it. 

FRET,  (from  the  Latin,  freliim,)  a  species  of  guillochi, 
made  of  straight  grooves  or  channelures  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  ;  the  section  of  each  channel  being  that  of  a 
rect.angle.  A  fret  is  generally  one  connected  groove  with 
some  of  its  parts  in  the  same  straight  line.  The  labyrinth 
fret  is  that  which  consists  of  many  turnings  or  windings,  but 
in  all  cases  the  parts  are  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  each 
other.  The  prominent  p.arts  or  interstices  arc  generally  of 
the  same  breadth  throughout.  In  several  Grecian  examples, 
intervals  are  left  in  regular  positions  throughout  the  length 
of  the  fret. 

Fret  is  also  el.aborate  carved-work,  the  same  as  Entail. 

FRIARY,  the  building  inhabited  by  a  fraternity  of  friars. 
FRIEZE,  or  Frize,  (called  by  the  Greeks  zooplioriis)  the 
middle  principal  member  of  the  entablature  which  separates 
the  cornice  from  the  architrave. 

The  frieze  was  supposed  to  be  originally  formed  by  the 
transverse  beams,  which  were  necessary  to. prevent  the  walls 
i)r  sides  from  spreading  outwards  by  the  pressure  of  the 
rafters  of  the  roof. 

The  Doric  is  the  only  order  that  has  an  enriched  frieze 
peculiar  to  the  order  itsc4f  The  ornaments  with  which  the 
frieze-;  of  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Roman  orders  are  fre- 
quently dec(U-ated,  are  only  accidental,  and  when  introduced 
are  accommodated  to  the  circumstances  or  use  of  the  build- 
ing. When  the  frieze  is  charged  with  ornament,  it  ought  to 
be  higher  than   when  plain.       Vitruvius  directs  the  fiieze 


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of  the  Ionic  to  be  oiie-foiiith  part  less  than  the  epistyliiun, 
when  it  is  plain;  and  one  fourth  part  greater  when  orna- 
nienled ;  this  seems  reasonable,  iu  order  to  set  off  the 
decorations  to  greater  advantage. 

Ancient  examples  show  no  authority  for  a  general  propor- 
tion in  all  the  ordere.  In  the  Grecian  Doric,  the  frieze  is 
very  high,  being  eqnal  to  the  altitude  of  the  architrave,  and 
each  of  these  greater  than  the  cornice;  the  Corinthian,  on 
account  of  the  numerous  members  of  the  cornice,  has  its 
frieze  less  than  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  entablature. 

Vitruvius  makes  the  line  of  separation  between  the  frieze 
and  tlie  cornice  immediately  under  the  dentils,  and  not  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cymatium,  as  by  Palladio,  Perault,  and 
others;  for  the  frieze  must  have  a  terminating  member  as 
well  as  the  architrave. 

Fkiezes  are  either  convex  or  pulvina ted :  examples  of  the 
latter  are  to  be  met  with  as  follow  :  at  Rome,  in  the  Com- 
posite order  of  the  temple  of  Bacchus  ;  Corinthian  order 
of  the  basilica  of  Antoninus;  and  in  the  Composite  order  of 
the  Goldsmiths'  arch  :  in  all  which  the  curves  are  circular, 
and  r:t  very  prominent.  At  Spalatro,  in  the  Corinthian 
order  of  the  portico  of  the  vestibulum  of  the  Periostilium  ; 
in  the  same  order,  exterior  and  interior,  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter,  and  of  the  entrance  of  the  temple  of  ^sculapius  : 
where  the  curves  are  all  circular,  and  verj'  prominent.  In 
Wood's  Rubix  of  Balhec  (as  represented  in  plate  31)  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  where  the  curve  is  elliptical.  In  the 
Corinthian  order  of  Wood's  Ruins  of  Palmyra,  (plates  23 
and  46).  the  curve  is  elliptical  ;  and  in  plates  33  and  40,  it 
is  circular.  In  the  Ionian  Antiquities ;  (vol.  ii..  plates  27 
and  45)  the  curves  are  of  a  contrary  flexure,  with  the  con- 
cave part  above  ;  and  in  plate  50,  the  curve  is  circular. 

Swelled  friezes  are  to  be  found  among  the  examples  of 
ai.tiquity,  particularly  during  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire  ;  but  these  precedents  ought  not  to  influence  their 
use,  as  they  are  unnatural,  and  defeat  the  purpose  they  were 
intended  to  answer,  namely,  to  form  a  relief  to  the  eye 
between  the  cornice  and  the  architrave. 

Friezr,  Panel,  the  upper  panel  of  a  six-panelled  door. 

Frieze,  Rail,  the  top  rail  but  one  of  a  six-panelled  door. 

Friezes,  Flourished,  such  as  are  enriched  with  reeds  or 
imaginary  foliages,  as  in  the  Corinthian  frieze  of  the  frontis- 
piece of  Nero. 

Friezes,  Historical,  those  which  are  adorned  with  bas- 
relievos,  representing  histories,  or  sacrifices,  as  those  of  the 
Parthenon  and  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  and 
the  arch  of  Titus  at  Rome. 

Friezes,  Marine,  such  as  represent  sea-horses,  tritons, 
and  other  attributes  of  the  sea  ;  or  shells,  baths,  giottos,  &c. 

Friezes,  Rustic,  those  whose  courses  are  rusticated,  as  the 
Tuscan  frieze  of  Palladio. 

Friezes,  Symbolical,  such  as  are  adoi-ned  with  the  attri- 
butes of  religion,  as  the  Coriirthian  of  the  temple  behind  the 
Capitol  at  Rome,  whereon  are  represented  the  instruments 
and  apparatus  of  sacrifice. 

Frieze  of  the  Capital,  the  same  as  Htpotrachelion, 
which  see. 

FRIGERATORY,  (from  the  Latin,  frigidus,  to  cool)  a 
place  in  a  house  intended  to  keep  things  cool  in  summer. 

FRIGID ARIUM,  (Latin)  an  apartment  in  which  to  keep 
things  cool. 

It  also  means  the  cold  bathing-room  in  the  baths  of  the 
ancients,  as  well  as  the  vessel  in  which  the  cold  water  was 
received.  The  word  has  been  likewise  applied  to  the  reser- 
voir of  cold  water  in  the  hypocaustum  or  stove-room,  which 
was  termed  alienuni  friyidarium. 

FRIZE.     See  Frieze. 


FRONT,  (from  the  Latin,  /)-o«s,  the  face,)  any  side  or  face 
of  a  building.  Tlie  principal  front  shoidd  be  that  which 
commands  the  best  prospect,  or  may  be  seen  to  the  greatest 
advantage  ;  and  is  generally  the  entrance-front. 

FIIONTAGE,  the  front  part  of  an  edifice. 

FRONTAL,  the  hanging  suspended  over  the  front  of  tho 
altar.  It  was  made  of  the  richest  material,  silk,  velvet,  and 
cloth  of  gold,  and  worked  in  the  most  costly  manner  in 
embroider-y.     Otherwise  termed  Antependium. 

FRONTON,  (French)  a  pediment,  or  other  ornament 
over  doors,  niches,  &c. 

FROSTED,  a  species  of  rustic  work,  imitative  of  ice 
formed  by  irrogrdar  drops  of  water. 

FROWEY  TIMBER,  such  as  works  freely  to  the  plane 
without  tearing,  and  consequently  has  the  grain  nearly  in 
the  same  direction. 

FRUSTUM,  (Latin)  the  part  of  a  geometrical  parallelogram 
next  to  the  base,  after  cutting  away  the  upper  part,  which 
contains  the  apex.  Thus  we  have  frustums  of  pyramids, 
cones,  conoids,  hemispheres,  &c. 

To  measure  the  frustum  of  a  square  pyramid. 

To  the  rectangle  of  the  sides  of  the  two  bases,  add  one- 
third  of  the  square  of  their  difference;  their  product  being 
multiplied  by  the  height,  will  give  the  solidity. 

Example. — In  the  frustum  of  a  square  pyrumid,  one  side 
of  the  base  a  b  or  b  c  is  3  feet  C  inches,  each  side  of  the  top 
2  feet  3  inches,  and  the  perpendicular  height  n  i,  8  feet 
9  inches,  the  solidity  is  required. 

By  Duodecimals. 

3    •■    6 

Deduct  2    ••   3  the  less  side  of  the  top. 

1    "3  difference. 
1    ••   3 


1 


3-9 
3 


3)1    ••    6    ••   9  square  of  difference. 


6-3 


6 
2 


0 

7 


10 
0 


Add 


7    "10 
6 


3  one-third  of  the  square  of 
the  difference. 


9 

8 


6 
67 


3 

2 


7 
0 


73 


5    ••    7    ••    7  the  solidity  required. 


By  Decimals. 
3    ••    6  =  3.5 
2    ••    3  =  2.25 
8    -•   9  =  8.75 


FRU 


436 


FUS 


3.5 
2.25 

1.25  diflercnce  of  the  two  bases. 
1.25 

625 
250 
125 


3)  1.5625  sq.  of  the  difference  of  the  two  bases. 
.5208 


2.25 
3.5 

1125 
675 

7.875 


Add  .5208  being  J  of  the  squ.  of  the  difference. 

8.3958 
8.75 


419790 

587706 
671604 


73.463250  the  solidity  required. 

To  measure  the  frnslum  of  a  cone. 

To  the  rectangle  of  the  two  diameters,  add  one-third  of 
the  square  of  their  difference  :  multiply  the  sum  by  .7854, 
and  the  product  by  the  length. 

Example. — What  is  the  solidity  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
the  diameter  of  the  greater  end  being  3  feet,  that  of  the 
lesser  end  being  2  feet,  and  the  altitude  9  feet  ? 

3 
2 

1  difference  of  the  diameters. 
1 

1  sq.  of  the  difference  of  the  diameters. 

3 
2 


Add 


Sum  6J 


.7854 
«J_ 

47124 

2618 

4.9742 

9  the  length. 


44.7078  the  solidity  of  the  frustum. 

FULCRUM,  in  mechanics,  that  by  which  a  lever  is 
sustained. 

FUMARIUM,  an  upper  room  used  by  the  Romans  for 
collecting  the  smoke  from  the  lower  ones.  The  Fumarium 
was  chieily  used,  however,  for  smoking  or  ripening  wines. 

FUNNEL,  that  part  of  a  chimney  which  is  contained 
between  the  fire-place  and  the  summit  of  the  shaft.  See 
Chimney. 

FURCATEID,  having  a  forked  appearance. 

FURLONG,  a  measure  of  length,  the  eighth  part  of  a 
mile,  forty  poles. 

FURNITURE,  the  fastenings  of  doors  and  windows  with 
brass  knobs,  &c. 

FURRING,  when  the  edges  of  any  number  of  timbers  in 
a  range  are  out  of  the  surface  they  were  intended  to  form, 
eitlier  from  their  gravity,  or  in  consequence  of  an  original 
deficiency  of  the  timbers  in  their  depth  ;  the  fixing  of  thin 
scantlings  or  laths  upon  the  edges,  so  as  to  form  that  suiface, 
is  called  /'»(T()!,(7.  Thus  the  timbers  of  a  fioor,  thuugh  level 
at  first,  are  often  obliged  to  he  furred :  in  the  reparation 
of  old  roofs,  the  rafters  have  mostly  to  undergo  this  opera- 
tion :  and  the  ceiling  joists,  both  of  new  and  old  floors, 
frequently  require  it. 

FURRINGS,  the  pieces  of  timber  employed  in  bringing 
any  piece  of  work  in  carpentry  to  a  regular  surface,  when 
the  work  is  deficient  through  the  sagging  of  the  timbers,  or 
other  causes. 

FUR-UP.     See  Furring. 

FUST,  (from  the  French)  the  shaft  of  a  column,  or  trunk 
of  a  pilaster. 

Fust,  a  term  used  in  Devonshire,  and  perhaps  in  some 
other  counties,  for  the  ridge  of  a  house. 

FUSTIC,- sometimes  called  Yellow  Wood.  This  wood, 
the  Morus  tinctoria,  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  and 
affords  much  colouring-matter,  which  is  very  permanent. 
The  yellow  given  by  fustic  without  any  mordant,  is  dull 
and  brownish,  but  stands  well.  The  mordants  employed 
with  weld,  act  upon  fustic  in  a  similar  manner,  and  by 
their  means  the  colours  are  rendered  more  blight  and  fixed. 
The  wood  of  this  tree  is  also  used  in  mosaic  cabinet-work 
and  turnery. 

FUSUROLE,  or  Fus.^role,  (from  the  Latin)  a  semi- 
circular memher  cut  into  beads,  generally  placed  under  the 
echinus  of  the  Ionic  and  Roman  capitals. 


GAG 


437 


GAL 


G. 


GABION,  a  hollow  cylinder  of  wicker-work,  resembling 
a  basket,  liut  having  no  bottom.  It  is  formed  by  planting 
slender  stakes  vertically  in  the  ground,  at  intervals  from  each 
other,  on  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  interweaving 
with  them  osiers  or  other  flexible  twigs. 

Such  gabions  are  used  during  a  siege,  in  executing  trenches 
by  the  process  of  sapping  :  for  this  purpose,  they  are  placed 
on  end,  with  their  sides  inclining  a  little  outwards,  on  that 
side  of  the  line  of  approach  which  is  nearest  to  the  fortress; 
and,  being  filled  with  earth  obtained  by  the  excavation  of  the 
trt-nch,  they  fjrm  a  protection  against  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 
After  the  gabions  arc  filled,  the  required  thickness  is  given 
to  the  parapet  of  the  trench  liy  throwing  th5 earth  below 
the  line. 

GABLE,  (from  the  British,  r/ravel)  the  upper  portion  of 
the  end  of  a  building  wall,  which  closes  the  end  of  the  roof, 
in  shape  similar  to  a  triangle,  and  answering,  in  some 
respects,  to  the  term  Pediment,  applied  to  classic  architec- 
ture. The  gable  forms  a  prominent  feature  in  mediaeval  build- 
ings, and  its  shape  confums  to  that  of  the  roof;  which  is 
various  at  dilferent  periods.  In  Norman  buildings,  the  angle 
of  the  roof  is  as  nearly  as  possible  a  right  angle,  while  in 
Early  English  edifices  the  galile  is  frequently  an  equilateral 
triangle.  In  the  Decorated  the  roof  is  somewhat  depressed, 
which  depression  increases  in  the  Perpendicular  and  later 
buildings.  The  finish  to  Norman  gables  was  probably  a  flat 
coping,  to  Early  English  a  moulded  coping,  sometimes  further 
ornamented  with  crockets  and  finials  ;  hut  these  were  more 
frequently  introduced  in  the  later  styles,  in  which  also  the 
galdes  were  sometimes  finished  with  a  pierced  parapet  or 
battlement.  In  Domestic  architecture,  gables  with  over- 
hanging roofs  were  ornamented  with   B.\rge-Boards. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  entire  wall  at  the  gable-end 
of  a  building. 

Gable-roofed,  having  a  roof  abutting  against  a  gable  wall. 
Gable-window,  a  window  in  the  gable  end  of  a  building. 
GABLET,   a  small    gable ;  an  ornament  in   shape    like 
a  gable,  frequently  introduced  over  tabernacles,  niches,  but- 
tresses, &c. 

GAGE,  (French)  in  carpentry  and  joinery,  an  instrument 
for  drawing  one  or  more  lines  on  any  side  of  a  piece  of  stuff", 
parallel  to  one  of  the  arrises  of  that  side. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  gages:  the  common  gage,  the  mor- 
tise-and-tenon  gage,  the  internal  gage,  and  the  flooring  gage. 
The  common  gage  and  the  flooring  gage  are  both  applied  to 
the  drawing  of  a  line  parallel  to  an  anis. 

The  common  gage  consists  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  one  of 
which  passes  through  a  mortise  in  the  other,  and  has  an  iron 
or  steel  tooth  fixed  near  one  of  its  extremities ;  so  that  the 
point  may  be  placed  at  any  distance  from  the  mortised  piece : 
then  the  piece  which  passes  through  the  mortise  is  fixed  by 
a  wedge  also  through  that  piece  :  the  piece  through  which 
the  mortise  passes  is  called  the  head,  and  the  piece  passing 
through  the  mortise,  in  which  the  iron  tooth  is  fixed,  is  called 
the  staff. 

When  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  arris  upon  one  .side,  at 
a  given  distance,  the  head  is  a  fence  that  always  keeps  the 
staff  at  right  angles  to  the  arris,  and  equidistant,  in  moving 
it  to  and  fro. 


The  mortise-and-tenon  gage  is  a  common  gage  with  a  lon- 
gitudinal slider,  moveable  in  a  dovetail  gmnve  :  the  slider 
has  also  a  tooth  fixed  as  near  to  the  end  next  the  tooth  in  the 
end  of  the  stall'  as  possible  ;  so  that  the  teeth  may  be  brought 
almost  to  any  distance  from  one  another. 

The  internal  gage  is  constructed  similar  to  the  staflfof  the 
mortise-and-tenon  gage  :  it  has  a  longitudinal  slider,  the 
whole  length  of  the  staff,  without  a  head,  or  any  other  tooth 
than  that  of  the  slider. 

The  flooring  gage  consists  of  a  head  and  staff  fixed  toge- 
ther, at  a  very  obtuse  angle  :  on  the  head  are  a  number  of 
equidistant  furrows  at  right  angles  to  the  staff:  the  section 
of  each  furrow  is  an  internal  right  angle,  one  side  of  which 
is  in  a  straight  line  with  the  tooth,  and  the  other  becomes 
a  fence  in  the  act  of  gaging. 

This  gage  is  made  to  answer  battens  or  deals  of  various 
widths  :  Each  width  is  numbered,  according  to  the  furrow 
that  is  applied  as  a  fence  ;  so  that  a  flooring  board,  which  is 
not  sufliciently  long,  may  be  extended,  by  a  piece  of  the  same 
breadth,  to  the  length  required. 

GAIN,  the  bevelled  shoulder  of  a  binding-joist  for  the 
puipose  of  giving  additional  resistance  to  the  tenon  below. 
See  TusK. 

GALILEE,  a  porch,  usually  built  at  or  near  the  west  end 
of  the  great  abl)ey-churches,  where  the  monks  collected 
themselves,  and  drew  up  in  returning  from  some  of  their  pro- 
cessions; where  dead  bodies  were  deposited  previous  to  their 
interment;  and  where,  in  certain  monasteries,  females  alone 
were  allowed  to  see  the  monks  to  whom  they  were  related, 
or  to  attend  divine  service. 

Galiloes  exist  in  England  in  the  cathedrals  of  Durham, 
Ely,  and  Lincoln.  In  the  former  instance,  it  is  a  large  chapel 
at  the  west  end  of  the  nave,  measuring  80  feet  by  50,  and 
divided  into  five  aisles  by  semi-circular  arcades  on  clustered 
columns;  it  likewise  contained  three  altars.  The  gal i lee  at 
Ely  is  in  the  same  position,  but  of  much  smaller  dimensions, 
while  that  at  Lincoln  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  south 
transept. 

Many  improbable  conjectures  have  been  formed  concerning 
the  derivation  of  the  name.  The  real  occasion  of  it  seems  to 
be  this  :  when  any  female  applied  at  the  abbey-gate  for  leave 
to  see  her  relative,  who  was  a  monk,  she  was  directed  to  the 
western  porch  of  the  church,  and  told,  in  the  terms  which  so 
frequently  occur  in  the  service  of  the  pascal  time,  alluding 
to  Matt,  xxviii.  10,  and  Mark  xvi.  7,  that  she  should  see  him 
in  Galilee.  This  explanation  is  confirmed  by  a  passage  of 
Gervasius  the  monk  of  Canterbury.  De  Combust,  et  Repar. 
Doroh.  Ecc.  Tivysd.  X.  Script. 

GALLERY,  an  apartment  of  a  house,  not  always  destined 
to  answer  the  same  purpose:  the  term  is  applied,  in  a  general 
way,  to  any  passage  or  apartment,  the  length  of  which  greatly 
exceeds  its  breadth.  A  common  passage  to  several  rooms  in 
one  range,  in  any  upper  story  of  a  house,  is  called  a  gallery  ; 
a  long  room  for  the  reception  of  pictures  is  called  a  gallery  ; 
the  platform  raised  upon  pillars,  or  projected  from  the  wall 
of  a  church,  open  in  the  fiont  to  the  central  space,  for  the 
accommodation  of  a  greater  number  of  people  than  the  body 
of  the  church  would  admit,  is  called  a  gallery.  The  whisper 
in'J-gallery  of  St.  Paul's,  as  also  that  of  the  chapel  of  Green- 


GAO 


438 


GAR 


to  Pal  lad  io)  from 


wieh  Hospital,  are  projected,  and  supported  by  cantalivers 
from  the  wall.  The  whole,  or  a  poition  of  the  uppermost 
story  of  a  theatie.  is  likewise  called  a  gallery.  The  appella- 
tion is  also  frequently  given  to  porticos  formed  with  long 
ranges  of  columns  on  one  side. 

Savot,  in  his  Architecture,  derives  the  gallery  from  Gaul, 
as  supposing  the  ancient  Gauls  to  have  been  the  first  who 
used  them  :  iXicod,  from  the  French,  idler,  to  go;  q.  d.  allerie: 
others  bring  it  from  galh-e,  galley,  because  it  bears  some 
resemblance  thereto  in  respect  of  health. 

The  length  of  galleries  is   (according 
eight  to  ten  times  their  breadth. 

GANG-LADDEIt,  in  canal-making,  a  frame  answering 
the  same  purpose  as  a  horsing  block. 

GANG-WAY,  a  temporary  stair,  made  with  planks  set 
edge  to  edge  of  each  other,  having  transverse  pieces  of  wood 
nailed  over  for  steps;  used  particularly  by  masons,  brick- 
layers, and  carpenters,  for  ascending  or  descending  the  vari- 
ous stories  of  a  building,  before  the  stairs  are  put  up. 

GAOL,  (from  the  French,  yeole,  formed  of  the  Latin, 
geola,  goola,  or  gayola,  a  cage)  a  prison,  or  place  of  legal 
confinement ;   the  word  is  now  generally  written  Jail. 

Every  coLUity  has  two  gaols  ;  one  for  debtors,  which  may 
be  any  house  where  the  -shcrilf  pleases  ;  the  other  for  the 
peace  and  matters  of  the  crown,  which  is  the  county  gaol. 

By  %-Z  and  23  Car.  11.  c.  20,  the  gaoler  shall  keep  debtors 
and  felons  separate,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  his  ollice,  and  treble 
damages  to  the  party  aggrieved;  and  by  31  Geo.  HI.  c.  40, 
transports  are  to  be  kept  separate  from  other  prisoners.  As 
the  gaol  is  intended,  in  most  cases,  for  custody,  and  not  for 
punishment,  it  is  enacted  by  14  Geo.  III.  c.  50,  that  the  jus- 
tices, in  their  several  quarter-sessions,  shall  order  the  walls 
and  ceilings  of  the  several  cells  and  wards,  both  of  the  debtors 
and  felons,  and  of  any  other  rooms  used  by  the  prisoners  in 
their  respective  gaols,  where  felons  are  usually  confined,  to 
be  scraped  and  whitewashed  once  in  the  year,  at  least,  and 
to  be  regularly  washed  and  kept  clean,  and  constantly  sup- 
plied with  fresh  air  by  hand-ventilators  or  otherwise  ;  and 
shall  order  two  rooms  in  each  gaol,  one  for  the  men  and  an- 
other for  the  women,  to  be  set  apart  for  sick  prisoners  ;  and 
order  a  warm  and  cold  bath,  or  comm(jdious  bathi:ig-tub,  to 
be  provided  in  each  gaol,  and  direct  the  prisoners  to  be  washed 
in  such  warm  or  cold  baths,  or  bathing-tubs,  &o.,  and  they 
shall  appoint  an  experienced  surgeon  and  apothecary,  at  a 
stated  salary,  to  attend  the  gaol,  and  to  report, .at  eiieh  quar- 
ter-sessions, the  state  of  the  health  of  the  prisoners;  order 
clothes  for  the  prisoners  when  they  see  occasion,  prevent  their 
being  kept  under  ground,  when  it  can  be  done  conveniently, 
and  from  time  to  time  make  orders  for  restoring  or  preserving 
the  health  of  the  prisoncis;  the  e.xpenses  to  be  paid  out  of 
the  county  rates,  or  out  of  the  public  stock  of  any  city,  fran- 
chise, or  place  to  which  the  gaols  belong.  The  gaoler  is 
subject  to  fine  for  neglect  or  disobedience  of  the  orders  of 
justices,  by  complaint  to  the  judges  of  assize,  or  to  the  jus- 
tices in  their  quarter-sessions.  By  31  Geo.  III.  c.  40,  visit- 
ing-justices are  appointed  for  inspecting  gaols  at  least  three 
times  in  each  quarter  of  a  year,  in  order  to  prevent  abuses, 
(Sec,  and  they  are  to  report  to  the  quarter-sessions.  The  jus- 
tices in  sessions  may  also  appoint  clergymen  to  ofliciate  in 
gaols,  and  allow  them  a  salary  to  be  paid  out  of  the  county 
rates. 

If  a  gaol  be  out  of  repair,  insuflicicnt,  &c.,  the  justices 
of  the  peace  in  their  quarter-sessions  may  agree  with  work- 
men for  rebuilding  or  repairing  it ;  and  by  warrant  under 
their  hands  and  seals,  order  the  sum  agreed  upon  to  bo  levied 
upon  the  several  hundieds  and  divisions  in  the  county,  by 
a  proportionate  rate;  and  the  justices  in  sessions  may  borrow, 


on  mortgage  of  the  said  rates,  any  sum  not  less  than  £50 
nor  more  than  £100,  and  disiharge  the  whole  bv  yearly  pay- 
ments. 11  and  12  Will.  III.  cap.  19.  24  Geo".  Ill.'c.  54. 
See  Prison. 

GAIil),  Pont  du.     See  Aqueduct,  Bridge. 

GARDEN,  Haitr/iiig,  a,  sort  of  ancient  garden,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  formed  in  a  raised  manner,  on  arches,  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  Babylon,  with  the  view  of  gratify- 
ing his  wife  Amyctis,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Astyages, 
king  of  Media.  These  gardens  are  supposed  by  Quintus 
{'urtius  to  have  been  equal  in  height  to  the  city,  w^hich  is 50 
feet.  They  contained  on  every  side  a  square  of  400  feet,  and 
were  carried  up  in  several  terraces,  surmounting  each  other, 
to  which  there  were  ascents  by  different  flights  of  stairs  or 
steps  that  had  10  feet  in  width.  The  arches  that  sustained 
the  whole  of  this  pile  were  raised  above  each  other,  being 
strengthened  \yy  a  wall  on  every  side  of  above  seven  yards  in 
thickness.  The  floors  of  the  several  terraces  were  laid  first 
with  large  flat  stones,  of  considerable  lengths  and  breadths, 
over  which  was  placed  a  -stratum  of  reed  mi.xed  very  fully 
with  bitumen,  then  two  rows  of  bricks  closely  cemented  toge- 
ther with  mortar,  and  the  whole  afterwards  covered  with 
thick  sheet-lead,  upon  which  the  mould  of  the  garden  was 
deposited,  to  such  a  depth  as  to  admit  large  trees  to  take  root 
and  establish  themselves  in  it.  Trees,  plants,  and  flowers  of 
various  kinds,  were  introduced  into  these  gardens.  The 
upper  terrace  was  likewise  provided  with  an  aqueduct  or 
engine,  by  which  the  water  was  drawn  up  from  the  river,  and 
dispersed  over  the  whole  of  the  gardens  when  necessary. 

Some  have  condemned  these  gardens  as  unnatural,  while 
others  have  considered  them  as  deserving  (jf  a  portion  of 
praise  ;  but  whatever  merit  may  have  been  allowed  them, 
they  could  certainly  never  have  had  anything  of  the  natural 
or  rural  character  about  them. 

Garden-Sheds,  erections  for  containing  garden  imple- 
ments, flower-pots,  hot-bed  frames,  and  glass  sashes;  also  for 
working  in,  during  bad  weather.  They  are  best  placed  on 
the  liack-wall  of  the  tool-house,  by  which  means  they  may  be 
made  to  hold  the  furnaces,  fuel,  and  other  articles. 

GARGOYLE,  Gargle,  Gargtle,  and  Gurgoyle,  a 
stone  projecting  from  the  wall  of  Gothic  buildings,  and 
serving  for  a  spout  to  convey  the  water  from  the  roof,  and 
throw  it  ofl'  the  wall.  These  stones  are  more  freijucntly 
carved  into  grotesque  figures  or  animals,  through  the  mouth 
of  which  the  water  passes  ;  sometimes,  however,  the  water  is 
carried  through  a  leaden  pipe  above  or  below  the  figure. 
Their  usual  position  is  in  the  cornice  of  buildings,  but  they 
are  found  also  in  other  positions,  such  as  buttresses,  &c. 

GARLANDS,  (from  the  French,  gnirlande ;  from  the 
Latin,  gurlanda,  or  Italian,  ghirlanda,)  ornaments  of  flowers, 
fruits,  and  leaves,  anciently  used  at  the  gates  of  temples, 
where  feasts  or  solemn  rejoicings  were  held.  Garlands  of 
festoons  were  also  put  on  the  heads  of  victims,  in  the  ancient 
heathen  sacrifices. 

GARNETS,  Cross,  a  species  of  hinge,  used  in  the  most 
common  works,  formed  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  T,  turned 
thus,  H  ,  the  vertical  part  being  fiistened  to  the  style  or  jamb 
of  the  door-case,  and  the  horizontal  part  to  the  door  or 
shutter. 

OAlMiET,  (from  the  French,  garite,  the  tower  of  a  cita- 
del) the  uppermost  story  of  a  house,  when  taken  either  par- 
tially (U-  wholly  from  the  space  within  the  roof 

GARRl*yriNG,  the  insertion  of  small  pieces  of  stone 
between  the  joints  of  rough  masonry,  as  in  rubble  and  flint 
walls. 

GARRISON,  a  fort,  castle,  or  fortified  town,  furnished 
with  troops  to  defend  it. 


GAT 


439 


GEO 


GATE,  a  large  door  for  shutling  the  entrance  of  parks, 
fields,  towns,  castles,  palaces,  or  any  other  considerable 
buildings. 

The  width  of  gates  is  from  eight  to  twelve  feet;  tlie 
height  depends  upon  the  purpose  to  which  they  are  applied. 
See  Door. 

Gate,  in  Rural  Economy,  a  frame  of  wood  constructed 
with  a  number  of  bars,  and  fixed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
swing  upon  hinges,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  convenient 
passiige  into  and  out  of  inclosed  grounds,  or  oilier  places. 

In  the  constructing  of  gates,  of  whatever  liind  or  form 
thev  may  be,  the  materials  should  constantly  be  well  prepared 
by  proper  seasoning  before  they  are  put  together;  as,  where 
this  is  not  the  case,  they  soi>n  become  much  injured  by  their 
constant  exposure  to  the  effects  of  the  sun  and  wind.  They 
also  require  that  the  different  parts  be  put  together  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  and  correctness.  In  respect  to  durability, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  oak  is  by  much  the  best  sort 
of  wood  to  be  employed ;  but  some  of  the  more  light  kinds  of 
wood,  such  as  those  of  the  deal,  willow,  and  alder  sorts, 
answer  the  purpose  extremely  well,  and  are  very  durable, 
as,  on  account  of  their  lightness,  they  do  not  destroy  them- 
selves so  much  in  shutting.  It  is  found  by  experience  that 
the  lighter  gates  can  be  made  in  their  foreparts,  so  that  they 
be  sutticiently  strong  for  the  intended  purpose,  the  better 
they  answer.  For  this  reason,  in  some  cases,  as  where  horses 
are  chiefly  to  be  confined,  the  top  bars,  by  being  left  of  more 
strength,  may  admit  of  the  others  having  less  substance;  but 
if  this  be  not?  done,  they  are  apt  to  be  broken  by  the  hi>rses 
rubbing  tlieii-  necks  upon  them,  unless  where  they  are  made 
of  great  height. 

The  width  of  gates  for  general  purposes  is  mostly  from 
eight  and  a  half  to  nine  feet,  and  the  height  from  five  to  six 
feet ;  the  bars  being  five  or  six  in  number,  and  each  four  or 
five  inches  in  breadth.  Hence  they  are  frequently  denomi- 
nated five  or  six-barred  gates.  In  cases  w  here  fowls  or  other 
small  animals  are  to  be  guarded  against,  it  is  better  to  run 
a  smaller  bar  between  the  two  lowermost  ones,  as  by  this 
means  their  passage  is  prevented. 

Gate,  in  Engineerinr/,  is  applied  to  the  close-boarded  doors 
of  locks  or  sluices  on  canals  or  rivers,  for  penning  up  the 
water  :  in  a  lock  these  are  distinguished  by  upper-gates  and 
lower-gates,  according  as  they  are  placed  at  the  head  or  tail 
of  the  lock. 

Gate-House,  a  building  erected  over  a  gate,  or  that 
through  which  entrance  was  obtained  into  the  main  building. 
Gate-houses  were  very  usual  in  the  erections  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  were  employed  in  all  large  buildings,  ecclesiastical, 
military,  and  civil,  also  as  entrances  to  fortified  cities;  thus 
in  London  we  still  preserve  the  names  of  several  gate-ways 
in  the  old  wall,  as  New-gate,  Bishops-gate,  Lyd-gate,  &c.,  at 
each  of  which  places  was  formerly  a  gate-house,  through 
winch  entrance  was  obtained  within  the  city.  These  build- 
ings were  often  of  an  imposing  character ;  and  in  military 
works  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  large  arch-way  with 
groined  ceiling,  and  a  portcullis  at  each  end,  flanked  by  two 
massive  projecting  towers,  pierced  with  loop-holes,  through 
which  to  annoy  the  enemy,  and  surmounted  by  a  battle- 
niented  parapet.  Those  attached  to  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
buildings  were  generally  of  a  more  ornamental  description, 
sometimes  consisting  of  only  a  square  tower  with  a  turret  at 
one  or  more  angles,  having  a  large  arch-way  in  the  centre 
with  groined  ceiling  and  room  above,  the  window  of  which — 
frequently  an  oriel — formed  a  picturesque  addition  to  the 
elevation.  The  forms  of  these  gate-houses  were,  however, 
various,  and  admitted  of  different  degrees  of  ornamentation. 
In  some  cases,  there  was  a  small  archway  by  the  side  of  the 


principal  one  for  foot-passengers,  and  in  others  a  similar  one 
on  either  side;  they  were  called  posterns.  Remains  .still 
exist  in  most  of  the  old  towns,  amongst  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  are  those  of  Battle  Abbey,  Sussex,  Bristol,  Bury 
St.  Edmund's,  St.  John's  Gate,  Clerkenwell,  and  St.  Augus- 
tine's College,  Canterbury. 

Gate-WAV,  the  passage  through  which  entrance  is  obtained 
into  a  town,  building,  &o. 

GATII-ERI-NG  OF  THE  WINGS,  in  a  chimney,  the 
sloping  part  above  the  fire-place,  where  the  funnel  contracts 
or  tapers  till  it  reaches  the  tube  or  flue. 

GAVEL,  the  same  as  Gable,  which  see. 

GAUGE,  See  Gage. 

Gauge,  a  term  applied  to  signify  the  width  between  the 
rails  on  a  railway. 

GEMMEL,  Gymmer,  or  Cuymol,  an  ancient  term  for  a 
hinge. 

GENERATING  LINE,  or  Plane,  in  geometry,  is  a  line, 
or  plane,  moving  according  to  a  given  law,  either  round  one 
of  its  extremities,  as  a  fixed  point  or  axis,  or  parallel  to 
itself,  in  order  to  generate  a  plane  figure  or  solid,  which  is 
formed  by  the  space  it  lias  gone  over. 

GENESIS,  (from  the  Greek,  yivEai<;,  origin,  or  beginning) 
in  geometry,  the  formation  of  a  line,  plane,  or  solid,  by  the 
motion  of  a  line,  plane,  or  surface ;  thus,  a  sphere  is  con- 
ceived to  be  generated  by  the  motion  of  a  semicircle  revolv- 
ing on  its  diameter,  which  is  called  l/ie  axis  of  circumvolution. 
A  triangle  may  be  conceived  to  be  generated  by  the  motion  of 
a  line  parallel  to  its  base,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  describing 
line  must  be  a  fourth  proportional  to  the  base,  the  altitude, 
and  the  distance  of  the  line  from  the  vertex  of  the  triangle. 

In  the  genesis  of  figures,  the  moving  point,  line,  or  surface, 
is  called  Ihe  describent,  and  the  line  round  which,  or  accord- 
ing to  which,  the  revolution  is  made,  tlie  dirigent. 

GENTESE,  in  Early  English  architecture,  cusps  or  fea- 
therings in  the  arch  of  a  doorway. 

GEOD'ESY,  that  branch  of  applied  mathematics  which 
determines  the  figures  and  areas  of  large  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface,  the  general  figure  of  the  earth,  and  the  vari- 
ations of  the  intensity  of  gravity  in  ditlerenl  regions  by 
means  of  direct  observation  and  measurement. 

GEOLOGY,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  internal 
structure  of  the  earth  as  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  pene 
trate  below  its  surflice,  of  the  arrangement  of  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  composed,  and  of  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  them. 

GEOilETRlCAL,  something  that  has  a  relation  to  geo- 
metry :  thus  we  say,  geometrical  method,  geometrical  genius, 
geometrical  strictness,  geometrical  construction,  geometrical 
demonstration,  &c. 

Geometrical  Locus,  or  Place.     See  Locus. 

Geometkical  Pace,  a  measure  of  five  feet. 

Geometrical  Plan.    See  Plan. 

Geometrical  Plane,  in  perspective,  the  same  as  ground 
plane,  or  original  plane. 

Geometrical  Solution  of  a  Problem,  a  solution  accord- 
ing to  the  strict  principles  of  geometry,  by  lines  that  are 
truly  geometrical. 

In  this  sense,  we  say,  a  geometrical  solution,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  a  mechanical  or  an  instrumental  solution,  where 
the  problem  is  only  solved  by  ruler  and  compasses. 

Geometrical  problems  are  distinguished  into  three  kinds, 
viz.,  plane,  solid,  and  linear. 

Plane  problems  are  such  as  may  be  solved  by  a  right  line 
and  a  circle. 

Solid  problems  are  derived  from  the  consideration  of  a 
solid  that  is  a  cone 


GEO 


440 


GEO 


Linear  problems  are  derived  from  lines  more  compounded. 

Geometrical  Stair,  such  as  is  unly  supported  by  the 
wall  at  the  one  end  of  the  steps,  with  a  continued  string  at 
the  other. 

GEOMETKY,  (from  the  Greek,  yew/te-pta,  formed  of  yea 
or  yrj,  eartli,  and  /terpso),  to  measure)  the  doctrine,  or  science 
of  extension,  or  things  extended,  viz.  of  lines,  surfaces, 
or  solids.  Geometry  has  also  been  defined  in  general  terms 
as  the  science  of  space. 

According  to  Herodotus,  Strabo,  and  Diodorus,  the 
Egyptians  were  the  first  inventors  of  geometr}',  and  it  is 
asserted  by  these  ancient  writers,  that  to  the  annual  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile,  we  are  to  attrilnite  the  first  steps  in  this 
science.  That  river,  in  its  overflowings,  bearing  away  all 
the  bounds  and  landmarks  of  men's  estates,  and  covering  the 
whole  face  of  the  country,  the  people  were  obliged  to  distin- 
guish their  lands  by  the  consideration  of  their  figure  and 
quantity  ;  and  thus,  by  e.xperience  and  habit,  they  formed 
to  themselves  a  method,  or  art,  which  was  the  oiigin  of 
geometry.  A  farther  contemplation  of  the  draughts  of  figures 
of  fields  thus  laid  down,  and  plotted  in  proportion,  might, 
naturally  enough,  lead  them  to  the  discovery  of  some  of  their 
excellent  and  wondeiful  properties;  and  as  these  speculations 
continually  improved,  so  the  art  gradually  improved  also, 
until  it  attained  the  perfection  of  the  [)resent  day.  Josephus, 
however,  seems  to  attribute  the  invention  to  the  Hebrews; 
and  others,  among  the  ancieitts,  make  Mercury  the  inventor. 

From  Egypt,  geometry  passed  into  Greece,  being  carried 
thither,  as  some  say,  by  Thales,  where  it  was  much  culti- 
vated and  improved  by  him'<clf,  Pythagoras,  Anaxagoras  of 
Clazomene,  Hippocrates  of  Chios,  and  Plato.  The  latter 
testilied  his  conviction  of  the  necessity  and  importance 
of  geometry,  in  order  to  the  successful  study  of  philosophy, 
by  the  following  inscription  on  the  door  of  his  academy  : 
'•  Lei  no  one  iyiioraiit  of  geometry  enter  here."  Plato,  con- 
ceiving that  geometry  was  too  metui  and  restricted  an  appella- 
tion for  this  science,  substituted  for  it  the  more  extensive 
name  of  mensuration  ;  and  others  have  denominated  it 
pantometry.  Other  more  general  and  comprehensive  appella- 
tions are  perhaps  more  suitable  to  its  extent,  especially  in 
the  present  advanced  state  of  the  science  ;  and  accordingly, 
some  have  defined  it  as  the  science  of  ini/uiriny,  inventiny, 
anddemonstraliiig  all  the  iiffectionx  of  the  mur/nitude.  Proclus 
calls  it  the  knowledge  of  magnitudes  and  figures,  with  their 
limitations  ;  as  also  of  their  ratios,  afiections,  positions,  and 
motions  of  every  kind.  About  fifty  years  after  Plato,  lived 
Euclid,  who  collected  together  all  those  theorems  which  had 
been  invented  by  his  predecessors  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and 
digested  them  into  fifteen  books,  intitlcd  the  Elements  of 
Geometry;  and  those  propositions  which  were  not  satisfac- 
torily proved,  he  more  accurately  demonstrated.  The  ne.xt 
to  Euclid,  of  those  ancient  writers  whose  w'orks  are  extant, 
is  ApoUoiiius  Perga^us,  who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  Christ, 
and  alx)ut  one  hundred  years  after  Euclid.  The  third  ancient 
geometer,  whose  writings  remain,  is  Archimedes  of  Syracuse, 
who  was  famous  about  the  same  time  with  Apollonius.  We 
can  only  mention  Eudoxus  of  Cuidus,  Architas  of  Tarentum, 
Philolaus,  Eratosthenes,  Aristarehus  of  Samos,  Dinostratus, 
the  inventor  of  the  quadiatrix,  Meneehmus,  his  brother,  and 
the  disciple  of  Plato,  the  two  Aristeuses,  Conon,  Thrasideus, 
Nicoteles,  Leon,  Theudius,  Hermolimus,  and  Nicomedes,  the 
inventor  of  the  conchoid  ;  besides  whom  there  are  many 
other  ancient  geometers,  to  whom  this  science  is  indebted. 

'J'he  Gieeks  continued  their  attention  to  geometry,  even 
after  they  were  subdued  by  the  J\omans.  Whereas  the 
Romans  themselves  were  so  little  acquainted  with  this  science. 


even  in  the  most  flourishing  time  of  their  republic,  that  ihev 
gave  the  name  of  mathematicians,  as  Tacitus  infiirms  us,  to 
those  who  pursued  the  chimeras  of  divination  and  judicial 
astrology.  Nor  were  they  more  disposed  tocultivate  groiuetry. 
as  we  may  reasonably  imagine,  during  the  decline,  and  after 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  case  was  diflerent  with 
the  Greeks  ;  among  whom  we  find  many  excellent  geometers, 
since  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  and  after  the 
translation  of  the  Roman  empire.  Ptolemy  lived  mider 
Marcus  Aurcliiis  ;  and  we  have,  extant,  the  works  of  Pappus 
of  Alexandria,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Thcodosius  ;  the 
commentary  of  Eutocius,  the  Ascalonite,  who  lived  about 
the  year  of  Christ  540,  on  Archimedes'  mensuration  of  a 
circle;  and  the  commentary  on  Euclid,  by  Proclus,  who 
lived  under  the  empire  of  Anastasiris. 

The  consequent  inundation  of  ignorance  and  barbarism 
was  unfavourable  to  geometry,  as  well  as  to  the  other  sciences; 
and  those  few  who  a|iplied  themselves  to  this  science,  or 
indeed  to  any  branch  of  learinng  incomprehensible  bv  the 
vulgar,  were  calumniated  as  magicians.  In  those  times  of 
European  darkness,  the  Arabians  were  distinguished  as  the 
guar-dians  and  promoters  of  science  ;  and  from  the  ninth  to 
the  fourteenth  century  they  produced  many  astronomers, 
geometers,  geographers,  &e.,  from  whom  the  mathcmaticjil 
sciences  were  again  received  into  Spain,  Italy,  and  other 
parts  of  Eirrope,  somewhat  before  the  bcginnirrg  of  the 
fifteenth  cerrtury.  Some  of  the  earliest  writers  after  this 
period,  ar-e  I^eonardtrs  Pisenus,  Lucas  Paciolus  or  de  Burgo, 
and  others  who  flourished  between  1400  and  1500.  After 
this  period  .rppcared  many  editionsof  Euclid, orcommeirtaries 
upon  h\A  Elements ;  e.g.,  Orontius  Fineus,  in  1530.  published 
a  commentary  on  the  si.x  first  books ;  as  did  James  Peletarius 
in  1557;  and  about  the  same  time,  Nicolas  Tartaglia  pub- 
lished a  commentary  on  the  whole  fifteen  books.  We  might 
also  mention  other  editions  or  commentaries;  such  as  those 
of  Commandine.  Clavius,  Billingsly,  Scheubelius,  Harlinus, 
Dasypodius,  Ramus,  Ilerigon,  Stevinus,  Saville,  Barrow, 
Tucquet,  iJechales,  Furnier,  Scarborough,  Keill,  Canu,  Stone, 
and  many  others. 

At  the  revival  of  letters,  there  were  few  Europeans  capable 
of  translatiirg  and  commenting  on  the  works  of  the  ancient 
geometers;  and  geometry  made  consequently  but  little  pro- 
gress till  the  time  of  Des  Cartes,  who  published  his  Geometry 
in  1037.  However,  not  to  mention  all  those  who  extended 
geometry  lieyond  its  elementary  parts,  such  as  Thcodosius, 
in  his  Spherics,  Ser-enus,  in  his  Sections  of  the  Cone  and 
Cylinder  ;  Kepler,  in  his  Nova  Stereometria,  &c. ;  in  1635, 
Bonaventur-c  Cavalerius,  an  Itidian,  of  the  or-der  of  Jesuits, 
published  his  Geometry  of  Indivisibles  ;  Torrieelli,  his  Opera 
Geornetrica  ;  Viviani,  his  Divinationes  Geomelricw.  Exerci- 
tatio  Mathematica,  De  Locis  Sotidis,  De  Maximis  et 
Minimis,  &c.  ;  Vieta,  Effectio  Geornetrica,  &e.  ;  Gregory 
St.  Vincent,  in  1047,  published  his  treatise,  intitlcd  Qiiadra- 
tiira  Circuit  et  JhiperhokK,  a  work  abounding  with  excellent 
theorems  and  paralogisms;  and  Pa^cjil.  about  the  same  time, 
published  his  Treatise  of  the  Cycloid.  Geometry,  as  far-  as 
it  was  capable  of  deriving  aid  and  improvement  from  the 
arithrtretic  of  infinites,  was  indebted  to  the  labours  of  Fermat, 
Barrow,  Wallis,  Mcrcator,  Brounkcr,  J.  Gregory,  Huygens, 
and  others;  to  whom  we  may  arid  Newton  and  Leibnitz. 
But  Sir'  Isaac  Newton  contributed  to  the  progress  of  pure 
geometry  by  his  two  treatises.  De  Qaudratiiru  Curvariim, 
and  Eiiumeratio  Linearum  Tertii  Ordinis :  and  still  farther 
by  his  incomparable  and  immortal  work. intitlcd,  J'liilosophia 
Natiiralis  J'rincipia  Mathematica,  which  will  always  be 
considered  as  the  nrost  extensive  and  successful  application 
of  geometry  to  physics. 


GEO 


441 


GEO 


The  modern  Geometers  are  innimierabic  ;  and  the  names 
of  Cotes,  Maclaurin,  R.  Simi^son,  T.  Sti'wart,  T.  Simpson,  &c. 
not  to  iiieiitioii  living  writers,  will  always  be  lield  in  esteem 
aiul  veneration  by  those  who  arc  devoted  to  the  study  oF 
geometry  and  mathematics. 

The  province  of  geometry  is  almost  infinite:  few-  of  our 
ideas  but  what  may  be  represented  to  tlie  imagination  by 
lines,  upon  whieh  they  become  of  geometrical  consideration: 
it  being  geometry  alone  that  makes  comparisons  and  linds 
the  relations  of  lines. 

Architecture,  mechanics,  astronomy,  music,  and  in  a  word, 
all  the  sciences  which  cxjiisider  things  susceptible  of  more  and 
less,  (.  e.  all  the  precise  and  accurate  sciences,  may  be  re- 
ferred to  geomctr_v  ;  for  all  speculative  tiuths  consisting  only 
in  the  relations  of  things,  and  in  the  relations  between  those 
relations,  they  may  be  all  referred  to  lines.  Consequences 
may  be  drawn  from  them;  and  these  consequences,  again, 
being  rendered  sensible  by  lines,  become  permanent  objects, 
which  may  be  constantly  exposed  to  a  rigorous  attention 
and  examination  :  thus  affording  to  us  infinite  opportunities 
both  of  inquiring  into  their  certainty,  ajid  pursuing  them 
farther. 

Geometrical  lines  and  figures  are  not  only  proper  to 
represent  to  the  imagination  the  relations  between  magni- 
tudes, or  between  things  susceptible  of  more  and  less  ;  as 
spaces,  times,  weights,  motions,  &c.,  but  they  may  even 
represent  things  which  the  miud  can  no  otherwise  conceive, 
for  example,  the  relations  of  incommensurable  magnitudes. 

It  must  be  observed,  that  this  use  of  geometry  among  the 
ancients  was  not  strictly  scienlifical,  as  among  us ;  but  rather 
symbolical  :  they  did  not  argue,  or  deduce  things  and  pro- 
perties unknown,  from  lines,  but  represented  or  delineated 
by  them  things  that  ioere  known.  In  effect,  they  were  not 
used  as  means  or  instruments  of  discovering,  but  as  images 
or  characters,  to  preserve,  or  communicate,  the  discoveries 
already  made. 

The  ancient  geometry  was  confined  to  very  na.rrow 
bounds,  compared  with  the  modern,  ft  only  extended  to 
right  lines  and  curves  of  the  first  order,  or  conic  sections; 
whereas  in  modern  geometry  new  lines,  of  infinitely  more 
and  higher  orders,  are  introduced. 

Geometry  is  commonly  divided  into  four  parts,  or  branches; 
Altimetky,  Stereometry,  Planimetry,  and  Longimetry. 
See  those  words. 

It  is  again  distinguished  into  theoretical  or  speculative^  and 
practical.  The  first  contemplates  the  properties  of  con- 
tinuity;  and  demonstrates  the  truth  of  general  propositions, 
called  theorems.  The  second  applies  those  speculations  and 
theorems  to  particular  uses  in  the  solution  of  problems. 
Speculative  geometry,  again,  may  be  distinguished  into 
etemeutfiri/  and  sublime.  The  former  is  that  employed  in  the 
consideration  of  right  lines  and  plane  surfaces,  and  solids 
generated  froin  them.  The  higher  or  sublime  geometry  is 
that  employed  in  the  consideration  of  curve  lines,  conic  sec- 
tions, and  bodies  formed  of  them. 

The  science  of  geometry  is  founded  on  certain  axioms,  or 
self  evident  truths ;  it  is  introduced  by  definitions  of  the 
various  objects  which  it  contemplates,  and  the  properties  of 
which  it  investigates  and  demonstrates,  such  as  points,  lines, 
angles,  figures,  surfaces  and  solids  : — lines  again  are  con- 
sidered as  straight  or  curved ;  and  in  their  relation  to  one 
another,  either  as  inclined  or  parallel,  or  as  perpendicular : — 
angles,  as  right,  oblique,  acute,  obtuse,  external,  vertical,  &c. : 
— figures,  with  regard  to  their  various  boundaries,  as  triangles, 
which  are  in  respect  to  their  sides  equilateral,  isosceles,  and 
scalene,  and  in  reference  to  their  ansles,  right-angled,  obtuse- 
angled,  and  acute-angled ;   as  quadrilaterals,  which  compre- 

56 


hend  the  parallelogram,  including  the  rectangle  and  square, 
the  rhombus  and  rhomboid, and  the  trapezium  and  trapezoid; 
as  multilatcrals  or  polygons,  comprehending  the  pentagon, 
hexagon,  heptagon,  &c. ;  and  as  circles; — also  as  solids,  in- 
cluding a  prism,  parallelopipedon,  cube,  pyramid,  cylinder, 
cone,  sphere,  and  the  frustum  of  either  of  the  latter. 

For  practical  geometry,  the  fullest  and  most  complete 
treatises  are  those  of  Mallet,  written  in  French,  but  without 
the  demonstrations;  and  ofSchwenter  and  (Jantzlerus,  both 
in  high  Dutch.  In  this  class  are  likewise  to  be  ranked 
Clavius's,  Tacquet's,  and  Ozunam's  Practical  Geometries ; 
De  la  Hire's  AVo/e  des  Arpenteurs ;  Reinholdus's  Geodcssia  ; 
Hajtman  Beyers's  Stercometria  ;  Voigtel's  Geometria  Sub- 
terranea  ;  all  in  high  Dutch  :  Unlsius,  Galileus,  Goldmannus, 
Schcffelt,  and  Ozanam,  on  the  Sector,  &e.  &c.  An  excellent 
treatise  on  practical  geometry,  particularly  with  reference  to 
the  study  of  architecture  and  perspective,  was  published 
some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Peter  Nicholson,  and  still  holds  its 
gi'ound  in  public  estimation,  notwithstitnding  the  numerous 
works  on  the  subject  which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time. 
The  following  short  essay  on  Practical  Geometry,  containing 
the  formation  of  plain  figures  arising  from  straight  lines  and 
circles,  will  also  be  found  exceedingly  useful  in  the  study  of 
architectural  construction.  Curves  of  variable  curvature, 
as  those  arising  from  the  sections  of  a  cone  by  a  plane,  will 
be  found  under  their  respective  heads ;  as.  Conic  Sections, 
Ellipsis,  &c. 

Geometry,  Analytical,  or  Descriptive,  the  method  of 
finding  the  situation  of  a  point  in  a  plane.  See  Descriptive 
Geometry. 

Geometry,  Practical,  the  method  of  reducing  or  applying 
the  rules  of  the  science  to  practice,  examples  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  following  problems. 

Problem  I. — In  a  riyht  line,  a  b,  from  any  given  point,  c 
to  erect  a  perpendicular. 

Figure  1. — When  the  given  point  is  near  the  middle  of  the 
line.  On  each  side  of  the  point  c,  on  the  line  a  b,  take  3:iy 
two  equal  distances,  as  c  rf,  c  e  ;  from  d  and  c,  with  any  radius 
greater  than  o  c/,  or  c  e,  describe  arcs  of  equal  radii,  cutting 
each  other  in  f  ;  through  the  points  f  and  c,  draw  the  right 
line  F  c,  and  it  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 

Figure  2. — When  the  given  point  is  at  or  near  the  end  of 
the  line.  Take  any  other  point,  as  d,  in  a  b;  from  d,  with 
the  distance  dc,  describe  an  arc,  c  ef;  take  the  portion  o  e, 
of  the  are,  at  pleasure,  and  make  the  portion  e/ equal  to  c  c; 
draw  the  chord  c  g  f ;  from  c,  with  the  radius  c  «,  describe 
the  arc^r  e  ii ;  make  e  h  equal  to  e  g  ;  and  through  the  points 
c  and  II  draw  the  right  line  c  h,  which  is  the  perpendicular 
required. 

Figure  3. — Another  method.  Take  any  other  point,  d, 
as  before:  from  c,  with  the  distance  c  d,  describe  an  arc, 
def;  from  d,  with  the  same  radius,  describe  an  arc  at  e ; 
from  e,  with  the  same  radius,  describe  an  arc  at  o  ;  draw  dea, 
and  through  the  points  g  and  c  draw  g  c,  which  is  the  per- 
pendicular required. 

Problem  11. — From  a  given  point,  c,  to  drop  a  perpendicu- 
lar upon  a  given  right  line,  a  b. 

Figure  4. — In  a  b,  take  any  two  points,  /and  g  ;  and  from 
either  point,/  with  the  radius/c,  describe  an  arc,  c  e  ;  from 
g,  with  the  distance  //  c,  describe  arcs  at  c  and  e,  of  equal 
radii ;  and  draw  the  right  line  c  E,  which  is  the  perpendicu- 
lar required. 

Fii/ure  5. — Another  method.  From  the  point  c,  describe 
an  arc,  f  q,  cutting  a  b  at/  and  g  ;  from  the  points/and  g, 
with  any  "equal  radii  greater  than  the  half  ot'/g,  describe  two 
arcs,  cutting  each  other  in  d;  draw  c  d,  and  c  d  is  perpen- 
dicular to  A  B,  and  drawn  from  the  point  c,  as  required. 


GEO 


442 


GEO 


Problem  III. —  To  dravi  a  right  line  parallel  to  a  given 
right  line,  a  b,  at  a  given  dintance,  c  D. 

Figure  6. — Tako  any  points,  as  e  and  f,  in  the  right  line 
A  b;  then,  with  the  distance  c  b,  from  the  points  e  and  f, 
describe  arcs,  a  and  ii,  of  equal  radii ;  draw  the  right  line  c  ii 
to  touch  the  aics  at  g  and  h  ;  and  g  ii  will  be  parallel  to  a  b, 
at  the  distance  c  d,  as  jequired. 

Pkoblem  IV. —  Tlirovgh  a  given  point,  c,  to  draw  a  right 
line  parallel  to  a  given  right  line,  A  B. 

Figure  7. — in  a  b,  take  any  two  points,  as  d  and  e,  and 
draw  erf;  make  the  angle  u  s  f  equal  to  the  angle  b  d  c; 
make  e  f  equal  to  d  c;  and  draw  the  right  line  c  f,  which 
passes  through  the  point  c,  and  is  parallel  to  a  b,  as 
required. 

Figure  8. — Another  method.  Take  any  point,  as  e,  in  a  b, 
and  from  e,  with  the  distance  e  c,  describe  an  arc,  c  d,  cutting 
A  B  in  d ;  fiom  c,  with  the  same  distance,  c  e,  describe  an 
arc,  e  f  ;  make  e  f  equal  to  rf  c  ;  draw  the  right  line  c  f,  and 
it  vviil  pass  through  c,  parallel  to  a  b,  as  required. 

Problem  V. —  To  bisect  a  right  line,  a  b,  bg  a  perpen- 
dicular. 

Figure  9. — Take  any  distance  greater  than  the  half  of  a  n  ; 
from  the  points  a  and  b,  describe  arcs  of  equal  radii,  cutting 
each  other  at  c  and  d  ;  draw  c  u,  and  it  will  be  perpendicu- 
lar to  A  B,  and  bisect  a  b  at  the  point  e,  as  required. 

Problem  VI. — At  a  given  point,  b,  in  a  right  line,  e  f,  to 
make  an  angle  egtiul  to  u  given  angle,  ABC. 

Figures  10  and  1 1. — From  b,  with  any  radius,  describe  an 
are,  as  g  h,  cutting  b  c  at  g,  and  b  a  at  h ;  from  e,  with  the 
same  radius,  describe  another  arc,  i  k,  meeting  E  F  at  i ;  make 
i  k  equal  to  g  h;  draw  the  right  line  e  A  d  ;  and  the  angle 
D  E  F  is  equal  to  theanglc  a  b  c,  as  required. 

Proble.m  Vll. —  To  bisect  a  given  angle,  A  b  c. 

Figure  12. — From  a  b,  cut  oti"  any  part,  as  b  d ;  take  the 
part  B  e  from  b  c,  equal  to  b  rf ;  from  the  points  d  and  e,  with 
any  distance  greater  than  the  half  of  d  e,  describe  arcs  of 
equal  radii,  cutting  each  other  at  f;  draw  f  b,  and  it  will 
bisect  the  angle  a  b  c,  as  required. 

Problem  Vlll. —  To  bisect  a  given  arc,  \BC,ofa  circle. 

Figure  13. — Draw  the  chord  a  c  ;  bisect  a  c  by  a  perpen- 
dicular, b  d;  and  the  point  b  will  divide  the  arc  a  b  o  into 
two  equal  ai'cs,  a  b,  b  c. 

Problem  IX. — A  circle,  a  b  c  a,  and  a  tangent,  d  e,  to  the 
circumference,  being  given  to  find  the  point  of  contact. 

Figure  14. — Let  the  centre,  f,  be  given  ;  draw  f  a  perpen- 
dicular to  D  e  ;  and  the  point,  a,  where  it  cuts  the  tangent,  is 
the  point  recjuired. 

Figure  15. — If  the  centre  be  not  given,  draw  the  chord  f  o, 
parallel  to  the  tangent  D  E;  bisect  f  g  by  a  perpendicular, 
H  A,  meeting  the  tangent  at  a;  then  a  is  the  point  of  contact 
required. 

Problem  X. — An  arc,  a  n  c,  and  a  point  B,  in  the  circumfer- 
ence being  given  ;   to  draw  a  tange^it  through  the  point,  B. 

Figure  10. — From  the  point  b,  cut  otftwo  equal  arcs,  b  d, 
and  B  e  j  draw  the  chord  d  e  ;  through  b,  draw  f  g,  parallel 
to  D  E ;  and  f  g  is  the  tangent  sought. 

Problf.m  XI. — Given  a  circle,  a  b  c,anda  straight  line,D  e, 
equal  to,  or  les.i  than  the  diameter  ;  from,  a  given  point,  a,  in 
the  circle,  to  inscribe  a  chord  equal  to  d  e. 

Figure  17. — From  the  point  a,  with  a  radius  equal  to  d  e, 
describe  an  arc,  culling  the  circumference  at  b  ;  draw  a  b, 
which  is  the  chord  required. 

Problem  XII. — In  a  given  circle,  arc  d,  to  inscribe  an 
equilateral  triangle ;  or  to  divide  the  circle  into  three  equal 
parts. 

Figure  18. — With  the  radius  of  the  circle  cut  off  the  arcs 
A  D,  D  B  ;  join  A  B ;  from  A,  with  the  radius  A  B,  describe  an 


arc,  cutting  the  circumference  at  c  ;  join  a  c,  c  b  ;  and  a  b  c 
is  the  equilateral  triangle  required. 

Problem  Xlll. — In  a  given  circle,  a  b  c  d  a,  to  inscribe 
a  square;  or  to  divide  the  circumference  into  four  equal 
parts. 

Figure  19. — Through  the  centre,  e,  and  any  point,  a,  in 
the  circumference,  draw  the  diameter  a  c  ;  and  the  dianjeter 
BED,  perpendicular  to  a  e  c ;  draw  the  chords  a  b,  b  c,  c  d,  d  a  ; 
and  A  B  c  D  A  will  be  the  square  required. 

Problem  XIV. — In  a  given  circle,  a  b  c  d  e  a,  ?';  inscribe 
a  pentagon;  or  to  divide  the  circumference  into  five  equal 
parts. 

Figure  20. — Draw  the  diameters  a  if  and  g  i  h  at  right 
angles  to  each  other ;  bisect  the  radius  g  i  at  k  ;  from  k,  with 
the  distance  k  a,  describe  an  arc  a  I,  cutting  g  h  at  /;  and 
from  a,  with  the  distance  a  /,  describe  an  arc  cutting  the  circle 
at  n ;  draw  the  chord  a  b  ;  make  the  suoce.ssive  chords,  a  b, 
B  c,  c  D,  D  E,  each  equal  to  a  b  ;  join  e  a,  and  a  b  c  d  e  a  will 
be  the  pentagon  required. 

Problem  XV. — In  a  given  circle,  a  b  c  d  e  f  a,  to  inscribe 
a  hexagon;  or  to  divide  the  circle  into  six  equal  parts. 

Figure  21. — From  any  point,  as  a,  draw  the  successive 
chords  a  B,  B  c,  c  D,  D  e,  e  f,  each  equal  to  the  radius,  and  join 
the  last,  F  A  ;  then  a  b  c  d  e  f  a  will  be  the  hexagon  required : 
or  the  circle  will  be  divided  into  six  equal  parts. 

Corollary. — Hence,  by  the  first  of  the  three  last  pro- 
blems, the  circle  may  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts;  by 
the  second,  it  may  be  divided  into  ten  equal  parts;  and  by 
the  third,  it  may  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  only 
by  bisecting  the  arcs:  and  if  each  arc  be  again  bisected,  each 
circle  will  be  divided  into  four  times  the  number  of  equal 
parts,  as  at  first.  The  above  arc  the  only  truly  geometrical 
methods  of  dividing  circles  into  equal  parts,  no  general  method 
having  been  discovered. 

Problem  XVI. —  Upon  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  to  describe 
an  equilateral  triangle. 

Figure  22. — From  the  points  a  and  b,  with  the  distance 
a  b,  describe  arcs,  cutting  each  other  in  c ;  draw  c  a  and  c  a; 
and  A  B  c  is  the  equilateral  triangle  required. 

Problem  XVII. —  Upon  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  required 
to  describe  a  square,  or-  tetragon. 

Figure  23. — Bisect  a  b  by  a  perpendicular  e  i;  make  e  i 
equal  to  the  half  of  A  b  ;  from  i,  with  the  distance  i  a  or  j  b, 
describe  a  circle  ;  draw  the  chords  b  c,  c  d,  equal  to  a  b;  join 
D  a;  and  a  b  c  d  is  the  square  or  tetragon  required. 

Pkoblem  XVIII. —  Upon  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  to 
describe  a  regular  pentagon. 

Figure  24. — Draw  b/ perpendicular  and  equal  to  the  half 
of  A  B  ;  produce  a/Io  g,  m;\k\ngfg  equal  Io/b;  from  the 
points  A  and  b,  with  the  radius  b  g,  describe  arcs,  cutting 
each  other  at  i  ;  from  i,  with  the  radius  i  a,  or  i  b,  describe 
a  circle;  inscribe  the  successive  chords  b  c,  c  d,  d  k,  each 
equal  to  A  b;  join  e  a;  and  a  b  c  u  e  a  is  the  pentagon 
required. 

Problem  XIX. —  Upo/i  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  to  describe 
a  regular  hexagon. 

Figure  25. — From  the  points  a  and  b,  with  the  distance  a  b, 
describe  arcs,  cutting  each  other  at  //  from  /,  with  the  dis- 
tance c  A,  or  c  B,  describe  a  circle,  a  b  c  d  e  f  a  ;  make  the 
successive  chords  n  c,  c  d,  d  e,  e  f,  each  equal  to  a  b,  and  join 
f  a  ;  and  a  b  c  d  e  f  is  the  he.xagon  required. 

Problem  XX. —  Upon  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  to  describe 
an  octagon,  a  decagon,  or  a  dodecagon. 

Figures  20,  27,  and  28. — Find  the  centre,  i,  of  a  circle, 
by  such  <if  the  three  last  Problems  as  will  contain  a  polygon 
of  half  ihc  number  of  sides  required;  draw  i  k  upwards, 
perpendicular  to  a  b,  equal  to  i  A  or  i  B  ;  and  the  point  k  will 


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be   the   centre    of  a   circle    tluit  will    contain   the  polygon 
required. 

Example  I.  Fi(/»re  20. — For  an  octagon,  find  the  centre, 
t,  as  in  Problem  Xlii. 

Example  II.  Flijiire  27. — For  a  decagon,  find  the  centre, 
t,  as  in  Problem  XIV. 

Example  111.  Figure  28. — For  a  dodecagon,  find  the 
centre,  t,  as  in  Problem  XV. 

Complete  the  remaining  parts  as  above  directed ;  and  thus 
a  circle  may  be  found  to  contain  any  diiplical  multiple  of 
these  sides. 

Problem  XXI. —  Through  three  given  poiuls;  a,  b,  c,  to 
describe  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  provided  the  three 
points  he  not  in  the  same  straight  line. 

Figure  29.  — Join  a  b  and  b  c,  and  bisect  them  by  perprn- 
diculars  meeting  each  other  at  n ;  from  d,  with  the  distance 
A  D,  of  either  point,  describe  a  circle,  and  its  circumference 
will  pass  through  the  other  two  points  b  and  c. 

1'roblem  XXII. —  To  describe  a  circle  of  a  given  radius 
through  two  given  points,  a  and  b,  provided  the  radius  be 
greater  than  half  the  distance  between  the  two  given  points. 

Figure  30. — From  a,  with  the  given  radius,  describe  an 
arc  from  b  ;  with  the  same  radius,  describe  another  arc,  cut- 
ting the  former  at  c  ;  from  c,  with  the  distance  C  a,  or  c  b, 
describe  the  circle  A  B  D ;  and  it  will  be  the  circle  required. 

Problem  XXIII. — To  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through 
two  given  points,  a  and  b,  and  touch  a  straight  line,  c  d  ; 
provided  the  two  points  and  the  straight  line  be  not  in  the 
same  straight  line. 

Figure  31. — Produce  ab  and  d  c,  to  meet  in  e  ;  bisect  the 
angle  a  E  D  by  the  straight  line  e  f  ;  bisect  a  o  by  the  per- 
pendicular 0  F ;  from  the  point  of  concourse,  f,  with  the 
radius  F  g,  describe  a  circle,  G  H  i  K,  which  is  the  circle 
required. 

Problem  XXIV. — To  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through 
a  given  point,  a,  and  touch  two  straight  lines,  b  c  arid  d  k, 
provided  that  the  point  be  situated  between  the  two  lines. 

Figure  32. — Let  the  two  lines,  b  c  and  d  e,  if  not  parallel, 
meet  in  f  ;  join  a  f  ;  bisect  the  angle  b  f  d,  by  the  straight 
line  F  K ;  in  f  K,  take  any  point,  as  o,  and  draw  g  ii,  perpen- 
dicular to  b  c  ;  from  g,  with  the  distance  g  h,  describe  an 
arc,  H  I,  cutting  a  f  at  i ;  join  i  g,  and  draw  a  k  parallel  to 
I  G  and  K  L  parallel  to  g  h;  cutting  b  f  at  l  ;  from  k,  with 
the  radius  k  l,  describe  a  circle  lam,  which  will  be  the 
circle  required.' 

Problem  XXV. — To  describe  a  circle  that  shall  touch 
three  straight  lines,  a  b,  c  d,  e  r,  provided  all  the  three  lines 
be  not  parallel. 

Figure  33. — Produce  the  lines,  so  that  one  of  them,  as 
c  D,  may  meet  the  other  two,  a  b  and  e  f  ;  and  let  the  meet- 
ing of  A  B  with  c  D,  be  at  o,  and  of  c  d  with  e  f  at  h  ;  bisect 
the  angles  b  g  n  and  g  h  f  by  the  straight  lines  e  i  and  h  i  ; 
from  I,  drop  a  perpendicular,  i  c,  to  any  one  of  the  three 
lines,  c  d;  from  i,  with  the  distance  i  c,  describe  a  circle, 
and  it  will  touch  the  three  straight  lines  a  b,  c  d,  e  f,  as 
required. 

Problem  XXVI. —  To  describe  a  circle  that  mag  touch  a 
straight  line,  \ -a,  at  a  given  point,  c,  and  pass  through  an- 
other given  point,  d. 

Figure  34. — Draw  c  /  perpendicular  to  a  b  ;  join  c  d, 
which  bisect  by  a  perpendicular,  e  /;  from  /,  with  the 
distance  /  c,  describe  a  circle,  which  will  be  the  circle 
required. 

Problem  XXVII. — To  describe  a  circle  that  shall  touch 
a  straight  line,  A  B,  at  a  (jiven  point,  e,  and  another  straight 
line,  b  X),  provided  that  the  two  straight  lines  be  not  in  the 
same  straight  line. 


Figure  35. — Make  b/  equal  to  b  e  ;  draw  e  g  perpen- 
dicular to  A  B,  and  /'g  perpendicular  to  B  u;  from  g.  with 
the  radius  e  g,  or/o.  descjibe  ihe  arc,  h  e/i,  and  it  will 
touch  A  B  at  E  and  b  d,  as  required. 

Problem  XXVlll. — To  describe  an  arc  that  shall  touch 
a  given  circumference,  a  b  c,  ujul  a  straight  line,  d  e,  in 
a  given  point,  f. 

Method  I. — Figure  36.  Draw  f  i  perpendicular  to  d  e; 
from  F  I,  produced  if  necessary,  cut  off  f  o,  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  circle  a  b  c;  join  k  g,  which  bisect  by  a  per- 
pendicular cutting  PI  at  i ;  fnun  i,  with  the  radius  if, 
describe  an  arc,  or  cireumterence,  a  f  ii,  which  is  the  arc 
required. 

Method  11. — Figure  37.  Draw  p  i  perpendicular  to  d  e, 
and  a  g  parallel  to  f  i ;  draw  a  f  b  and  big;  from  i,  with 
the  distance  i  f,  oi'  i  b,  describe  an  arc,  f  b  h,  which  is  the 
arc  required. 

Problem  XXIX. —  With  a  given  radius,  g  ii,  to  describe 
an  arc  or  circumference  that  mai/  touch  a.  given  arc  or  cir- 
cumference, cab,  iind  jjiiss  through  a  given  point,  D. 

Figure  38. — From  g  h  cut  off  g  i,  ei|ual  to  the  radius  of 
the  given  circle;  from  f,  with  the  distance  i  h,  describe  an 
arc;  from  d,  with  the  distance  g  h,  describe  another  arc, 
cutting  the  former  at  e  ;  from  e,  with  the  distance  e  a  or  e  d, 
describe  an  arc.  gad,  .-md  the  problem  is  solved. 

Problem  XXX. — In  a  given  sector,  a  b  c  d,  to  inscribe 
a  circle. 

Figure  39. — Bisect  the  angle  bad  by  ago;  draw  e  c  f 
tangent  to  the  circle;  produce  a  n  to  e,  and  a  d  to  f;  bisect 
the  angle  e  a  f  by  a  6,  and  the  angles  a  e  f  by  e  g  ;  from  g, 
with  the  radius  g  c,  describe  a  circumference,  c  h  i,  which  is 
the  solution  required. 

Problem  XXXI. — In  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  any  num- 
ber of  equal  parts.  • 

Divide  the  given  circumference  into  as  many  equal  parts 
as  the  number  of  inscribed  circles:  from  the  points  of  divi- 
sion, draw  radii,  and  the  circle  will  be  divided  into  equal 
sectors;  in  any  one  of  these  sectors  inscribe  a  circle  by  the 
last  Problem  ;  bisect  the  angle  contained  by  each  two  radii ; 
from  the  centre  of  the  given  circle,  with  the  distance  of  the 
centre  of  the  circle  inscribed  in  the  sector,  describe  a  circum- 
ference, cutting  the  lines  which  bisect  the  sectorial  angles; 
and  the  points  so  cut  are  the  centres. 

examples. 

Figure  40. — The  given  circle  contains  six  equal  inscribed 
circles. 

Figure  41. — The  given  circle  contains  eight  equal  inscribed 
circles. 

Figure  42. — The  given  circle  contains  twelve  equal  in- 
scribed circles. 

Problem  XXXII. — Awj  three  straight  lines  a  b  c,  being 
given,  to  fimi  a  fourth  proportional. 

Figure  43. — Make  any  angle,  as  d  e  f;  on  the  straight 
line  E  D,  make  e  g  equal  to  a,  and  e  d  equal  to  b  ;  on  the 
straight  line  e  f,  make  e  h  equal  to  c  ;  join  g  h  ;  draw  d  f 
parallel  to  g  h  ;  and  e  f  is  the  fourth  proportional  sought;  or 
eg:ed::eh:ef;  that  is,  a  :  b  :  :  c  :  e  f. 

N.B.  When  the  lines  B  and  c  happen  to  be  equal,  the 
result  or  fourth  term  is  called  a  third  proportional ;  therefore, 
suppose  B  equal  to  c,  then  a  :  b  :  :  b  :  E  f.  So  that  findkig 
a  third  proportional  is  the  same  as  finding  a  fourth,  and  may 
be  considered  as  only  a  particular  ease  of  it ;  and  in  this  con- 
struction E  D  and  E  H  would  be  equal. 

Problem  XXXlll. — To  divide  a  straight  line,  a  g,  in  the 
same  proportion  as  another  line,  a  d,  is  divided  bg  the  points 
B  and  c,  &c. 


GEO 


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Figure  44. — Join  d  g  ;  draw  b  e  and  c  f  parallel  to  d  g, 
cutting  A  G  at  e  and  f;  then  will  a  g  be  divided  l)v  e  and  f, 
as  A  D  is  by  B  and  c ;  or  a  e,  E  f,  f  g  are  to  one  anotlier  and 
to  the  whole  a  g,  as  a  b,  b  c,  c  d  are  to  one  another  and  to 
the  whole  a  d.  In  the  same  manner  may  any  given  line  be 
divided  into  equal  parts. 

Prohlkm  XXXIV. — Between  two  straight  lines,  a  and  b, 
to  find  a  mean  jiroportional. 

Figure  45. — Draw  the  straight  line  c  d  e  ;  make  c  d  equal 
to  A,  and  D  E  equal  to  b  ;  bisect  c  e  in  /;  from  /,  with  the 
distance/ c  or/E,  describe  the  semi-eircle  c  g  e  ;  draw  d  o 
perpendicular  to  c  e  ;  and  d  g  is  the  mean  proportional 
required.  Then  c  d  :  d  g  :  :  d  g  :  d  f  ;  that  is,  A  :  d  g  :  : 
D  g  :  B. 

Problem  XXXV. — To  divide  a  straight  line,  a  b  c  d,  har- 
monicaUy  in  the  given  ratio  ofitOK. 

Figure  46. — Draw  any  straight  line,  as  e  a  g  f;  make  A  e 
and  A /each  equal  to  i,  and  a  g  equal  to  k  ;  join /A  d  ;  draw 
g  h  parallel  to  a  d,  and  h  c  parallel  to  ef;  join  A  Be;  then 
a  D  :  D  c  :  :  a  B  :  b  c. 

Pkoblem  XXX\'I. — Any  three  straight  lines,  a  b  c,  being 
given,  to  describe  a  triangle,  provided  the  sum  of  any  two  be 
greater  than  the  third. 

Figure  47. — Draw  the  straight  line  d  e  equal  to  a  ;  from 
D,  with  the  distance  b,  describe  an  arc;  and  from  e,  with  the 
distance  c,  describe  another  arc,  cutting  the  former  at  f; 
draw  D  F  and  e  f  ;  and  0  e  f  is  the  triangle  required. 

Problem  XXXVII. — Given  the  base,  a  b,  of  a  triangle, 
the  angle,  B  A  c,  and  the  ratio,  E  to  F,  of  the  other  two  sides, 
to  describe  the  triangle,  provided  that  e  be  to  F  in  a  greater 
ratio  than  the  radius  to  the  sine  of  the  given  angle  b  a  c. 

Figure  48. — Make  a  h  equal  to  e  ;  from  h,  with  the  dis- 
tance F,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  a  b  at  i ;  draw  i  h,  and  b  c 
parallel  to  i  h  ;  and  a  b  c  will  be  the  triangle  required. 

Problem  XXXVIII. — To  make  a  rectilinear  figure  equal 
and  similar  to  a  given  rectilinear  figure. 

Rule. — Divide  the  given  rectilinear  figure  into  triangles, 
by  lines  drawn  from  some  one  of  its  angles ;  take  any  one 
of  its  sides,  and  make  a  straight  line  in  any  situation  equal 
thereto;  upon  the  straight  line  thus  posited,  constitute  a  tri- 
angle, equal  to  the  triangle  on  the  corresponding  line  of  the 
given  figure;  upon  the  side  of  the  triangle  which  is  to  form 
a  diagonal  of  the  figure  required,  constitute  another  triangle, 
equal  to  the  corresponding  one  of  the  given  figure;  proceed 
to  form  triangles  on  each  succeeding  diagonal  in  the  same 
manner,  till  all  the  triangles  are  constructed;  and  the  figure 
thus  composed  will  be  equal  and  similar  to  the  given  figure. 

Problem  XXXIX. —  To  make  a  quadrilateral  equal  and 
similar  to  a  given  one,  a  b  c  d. 

Figure  41). — Divide  the  given  quadrilateral  into  two  tri- 
angles, by  the  diagonal  a  c  ;  make  e  f,  equal  to  a  b  ;  and 
describe  the  triangle  e  f  o,  having  its  sides  respectively  equal 
to  the  triangle  a  b  c ;  upon  e  g,  as  a  base,  di  scribe  another 
triangle,  e  g  ii,  equal  to  a  c  d  ;  and  the  quadrilateral  e  f  o  u 
is  equal  and  similar  to  the  given  one,  a  b  c  d,  as  rc(|uired. 

Prcjble.m  XL. — To  make  a  rectilinear  figure  similar  to  a 
given  one,  m  n  o  p  q,  &c.,  upon  a  given  straight  line,  a  b  ;  the 
extremity,  a,  being  given,  but  unlimited  towards  b. 

Figures  50  and  51. — From  the  extremities,  m,  of  the  side 
of  the  given  figure,  corresponding  to  the  given  point,  a,  draw 
diagonals  to  every  angular  point;  cut  oil'a  pari,  A  n,  equal  to 
the  corresponding  side,  m  n,  of  the  given  figure  ;  upon  A  n 
construct  a  figure,  a.  n  o  p  q,  &c.,  equal  and  similar  to  the 
given  figure,  m  n  o  p  q.  d;c.,  by  the  preceding  problem  ;  from 
A  B  cut  off  A  D  equal  to  the  side  of  the  rei'ti linear  lignre  to 
be  descriljcd  ;  draw  n  e  jiarallel  to  n  o,  cutting  the  diagonal 
A  E  at  E ;  draw  e  f  parallel  to  op,  cutting  the  diagonal  a  f 


atF;  proceed  in  this  manner  to  draw  each  successive  side 
parallel  to  the  corresponding  side  of  the  figure  constructed; 
from  the  extremity  of  the  last  diagonal,  cut  the  next  dia- 
gonal, and  from  the  last  diagonal,  in  the  same  manner,  to  the 
other  side,  adjoining  the  given  point  a;  and  the  figure 
A  D  E  F  G,  thus  constructed,  will  be  similar  to  the  figure 
M  N  o  p  Q,  &c.  as  required. 

Problem  XLI. —  Given  two  adjoining  sides,  a  b,  b  c,  of 
a  'parallelogram  in  jwsition  and  magnitude,  to  describe  tlie 
jMrallelogram. 

Figure  52. — From  c,  with  the  opposite  side  a  b,  describe 
an  arc;  from  a,  with  the  opposite  side  n  c,  describe  another 
arc,  cutting  the  former  at  n ;  join  a  d  and  d  c,  and  a  b  c  d 
is  the  parallelogram  required. 

N.B.  If  the  angle  c  b  a  be  given  in  quantity,  but  not  in 
position,  make  it  equal  to  the  given  angle  by  Problem  VI. 

Problem  XLII. — Given  two  sides,  a  and  n,  of  a  rectangle, 
to  describe  the  rectangle. 

Figure  53. — Draw  a  straight  line,  c  d,  equal  to  a  ;  draw 
c  F  perpendicular  to  c  d;  and  make  c  f  equal  to  b;  then 
proceed  as  in  the  last  Problem,  and  the  parallelogram  c  d  e  f 
will  be  the  rectangle  required. 

Problem  XLlil. —  Given  the  diagonal,  a  v,  of  a  rectangle, 
and  one  of  the  sides,  not  exceeding  the  diagonal,  to  describe 
the  rectangle. 

Figure  54. — On  the  diagonal  a  b,  describe  the  circum- 
ference a  c  B  D  A ;  make  the  chords  a  c  and  b  d  equal  to  the 
given  side  ;  join  a  d  and  b  c  ;  and  a  d.b  c  a  is  the  rectangle 
required. 

Figure  55. — If  the  rectangle  be  a  square,  bisect  the 
diameter  a  b  by  another,  c  d  ;  and  draw  the  four  equal  chords, 
which  will  form  the  square  rcquii-cd. 

Problem  XLIV. — To  make  a  triangle  equal  and  similar 
to  a  given  trupezium,  a  b  c  d. 

Figure  50. — Draw  the  diagonal  b  d,  and  draw  c  e  parallel 
to  B  D,  meeting  the  side  a  b  produced  at  e;  join  d  e,  and  a  d  e 
will  be  the  triangle  required. 

Problem  XLV. —  To  inake  a  triangle  equal  to  any  given 
right-lined  figure,  abode. 

Figure  57. — -Produce  a  b  on  both  sides  of  its  extremities 
towards  f  and  g  ;  draw  the  diagonals  a  d  and  b  d  ;  through 
E  draw  ef,  parallel  to  a  u ;  and  through  c  draw  c  g  parallel 
to  b  D ;  join  D  F  and  d  g,  then  d  f  g  is  the  triangle  required. 

Problem  XLVI. — To  reduce  a  triangle,  a  b  c,  to  a 
rectangle. 

Figure  58. — Bisect  the  altitude  c  g  in  d;  through  d  draw 
E  F  parallel  to  a  n,  and  from  b  draw  b  f  perpendicular  to  a  b  ; 
draw  A  E  and  b  f  perpendicular  to  a  b  ;  then  a  b  f  e  will  be 
the  triangle  required. 

Problem  XLVil. — To  make  a  rectangle,  having  a  side 
equal  to  a  given  straight  line,  a  b,  equal  to  a  given 
rectangle,  c  d  e  f. 

Figure  59. — Produce  the  sides  c  f,  d  e,  r  e,  and  c  d  of  the 
rectangle  ;  make  e  o  equal  to  a  b  ;  through  g  draw  l  h 
parallel  to  f  e,  cutting  cf  produced  at  l;  draw  l  e,  the 
diagonal,  which  (iroduce  to  cut  c  d  at  k;  draw  k  n  parallel 
to  E  G,  and  E  I  II  G  will  be  the  rectangle  required. 

Problem  XL\'1I1. — To  make  a  ]xtrallelogra7n  with  a 
given  angle  equal  to  a  given  parallelogram,  a  B  o  D. 

Figure  CO. — Make  the  angle  b  a  e  equal  to  the  given  angle, 
and  let  a  e  cut  c  d,  produced  if  necessary  at  e  ;  draw  b  f 
parallel  to  a  e,  cutting  d  c  at  f;  then  will  the  parallelngram 
A  n  F  K  be  equal  to  the  given  parallelogram,  a  b  c  d. 

Problem  XLIX. —  To  make  a  square  equal  to  a  given 
rectangle,  a  b  c  n. 

Figure  (il.- — Produce  a  b,  the  side  of  the  rectangle,  and 
make  b  e  equal  to  b  c  ;  bisect  a  e  in  i  ;  on  i,  as  a  centre,  with 


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the  raLliiis  i  e  or  i  a,  describe  a  semicircle,  a  h  e  ;  produce 
tlu  other  side,  c  b,  of  the  rectangle,  to  cut  the  circle  in  ii ; 
describe  a  square,  n  u  g  f,  upon  n  ii ;  tiien  b  h  g  f  is  the 
square  required. 

Prodlem  L. —  To  make  a  square  equal  to  two  given 
squares. 

Figure  62. — Let  a  and  b  be  the  two  given  squares.  Con- 
struct tile  riglit-angied  triangle  cab;  let  one  of  the  sides, 
c  a,  containing  the  right  angle,  be  equal  to  the  side  of  the 
square,  a;  and  let  the  other,  a  b,  be  equal  to  the  side  of  the 
square  b.  Oil  c  b,  desci'ibe  the  square  c,  which  is  the  square 
required. 

in  the  same  manner  may  a  circle  be  made  equal  to  two 
given  circles ;  for,  if  c  a,  a  b,  be  considered  as  diameters,  or 
radii  of  the  two  given  circles,  c  b  will  be  a  diameter  or  radii 
of  a  circle, 'equal  in  area  to  them  both:  and  also  in  the  same 
manner,  if  two  similar  rectilinear  figures  be  given,  a 
rectilinear  figure  may  be  found  similar  to  either,  and  equal 
to  both  ;  for,  if  c  a  and  a  i  be  considered  as  homologous 
sides,  that  is,  those  which  are  opposite  to  the  equal  angles, 
c  b  will  be  the  homologous  side  of  the  figure  required. 

Problem  LI. —  To  make  a  square  equal  to  three  given 
squares. 

Figure  03.- — -Let  A,  b,  c,  be  three  given  squares.  Make 
a  right  angle,  c  a  b ;  let  a  c  be  equal  to  the  side  of  the 
square  a,  and  a  b  equal  to  the  side  of  the  square  b  ;  join  h  c, 
and  it  witl  be  the  side  of  a  square  equal  to  a  and  b.  Draw 
6  d  perpendicular  to  b  c,  and  make  6  d  equal  to  the  side  of 
the  remaining  square  c ;  join  d  e,  and  it  will  be  the  side  of 
a  square  equal  to  the  three  given  squares,  a,  b,  c,  as  was 
required. 

From  this  process,  it  is  evident  that  a  square  may  be 
found  equal  to  any  given  number  of  squares,  by  first  finding 
one  equal  to  any  two  of  them,  and  then  another  equal  to 
the  square  found,  together  with  one  of  the  remaining  squares ; 
then  find  another  equal  to  the  square  last  found,  together 
with  one  of  the  other  remaining  squares;  and  so  on,  till 
all  the  squares  are  made  use  of'  and  the  last  square  found 
will  be  equal  to  all  the  given  squares. 

Scholium. — It  frequently  happens  in  the  description  of 
the  segment  of  a  circle,  when  the  height  of  the  segment  is 
very  small  in  proportion  to  the  chord,  that  there  is  no  room 
to  find  the  centre  ;  the  following  problems  show  how  to 
describe  the  arc  without  finding  the  centre  : 

Problem  LII. — Having  the  cliord  and  height  of  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  to  describe  the  segment  without  finding 
the  centre. 

Figure  64. — First  Method. — Let  a  b  be  the  chord  of  the 
segment,  and  c  d  its  height ;  join  d  a  and  d  b  ;  make  an 
instrument,  e  f  g,  so  that  the  angle  e  f  g  may  be  equal  to 
the  angle  a  d  b,  and  the  sides  p  e  and  r  o  at  least  equal  to 
the  chord  a  b;  put  a  pin  at  a,  and  another  at  b  ;  slide  the 
instrument  along  the  pins,  keeping  the  side  f  e  close  to  the 
pin  a,  and  f  g  to  the  pin  b  ;  a  pencil  being  held  at  the 
angular  point  f  will  describe  the  are  a  f  b,  as  \vas  to 
be  done. 

Figure  65. — Second  Method. — Join  d  b,  and  draw  d  h 
parallel  to  b  a;  make  an^nstrument,  e  f  g,  so  that  the  angle 
E  p  G  may  be  equal  to  the  angle  n  d  b,  and  the  sides  E  f  and 
K  G  at  least  equal  to  the  half  chord  u  b;  put  pins  in  the 
points  A  and  d,  and  Hiding  the  instrument  along  them,  a 
pencil  at  p  will  describe  half  of  the  are;  and  by  moving  the 
pin  out  of  A,  and  putting  it  in  b,  the  other  half  witl  be 
described  in  the  same  manner. 

The  former  of  these  Problems  depends  on  Prop.  XXI. 
b.  iii.  Euclid,  viz.,  that  all  the  angles  in  the  same  segment 
of  a  circle  are  equal ;    and    the   latter,  on    Prop.  XXXII. 


b.  iii.  Euclid,  viz.,  that  if  a  straight  line  touch  a  circle,  and 
from  the  point  of  contact  a  straight  line  be  drawn,  cutting 
the  circle,  the  angles  ira;le  by  such  line  with  the  line  touch- 
ing the  circle,  will  be  erual  to  the  angles  in  the  alternate 
segments. 

Either  of  these  instruments,  in  the  description  of  flat  seg- 
ments, may  be  applied  occasionally ;  but  the  latter,  by  reason 
of  the  obtuseness  of  the  angle,  slides  with  less  friction  along 
the  pins,  takes  up  much  less  room,  and  can  be  applied  in 
any  cases  where  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  other. 

N.B. — If  c  0  is  very  small,  tlie  instrument  may  be  made 
in  one  piece. 

Besides  the  methods  here  shown  for  the  description  of  the 
segment  of  a  circle  from  the  rules  of  geometry,  the  following 
arithmetical  rule  will  be  found  eligible  on  many  occasions, 
particularly,  where  there  is  a  want  of  a  floor  to  draw  the 
lines  upon,  or  a  want  of  space  at  the  ends  of  the  curve. 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  half  chord  by  the  versed 
sine,  or  height  of  the  segment;  add  the  height  of  the  seg- 
ment to  the  quotient ;  then  half  the  sum  is  the  radius  of  the 
circle. 

Example. — Suppose  the  chord  of  the  segment  of  a  circle 
to  be  24  feet,  and  the  versed  sine  or  rise  of  the  segment  5 
feet;  the  radius  of  the  circle  is  required. 

2)24 

12  half  chord. 
12 


5)  144 


28.8 
5 

2)  33.8 


16.9  the  radius  required. 

This  is  derived  from  Prop.  XXXV.  b.  iii.  Euclid,  where 
it  is  shown,  that  if  two  straight  lines  in  a  circle  cut  each 
other,  the  rectangle  under  the  segments  or  parts  of  the  one, 
is  equal  to  the  rectangle  of  the  "segments  of  the  other;  and 
consequently,  if  the  segments  of  one  of  the  lines  be  equal  to 
each  other,  the  rectangle  under  the  parts  of  the  other  line 
will  be  equal  to  the  square  of  either  part  of  the  line,  which 
is  divided  equally;  but  the  contents  of  a  rectangle,  divided 
.y  one  of  its  sides,  gives  the  other  side ;  or  the  area  of  the 
.  square,  which  is  equal  to  the  rectangle,  being  divided  by  the 
given  side  of  the  rectangle,  gives  the  other  side  of  the  rect- 
angle ;  and  adding  the  versed  sine,  gives  the  diameter. 

The  method  of  dividing  the  circumference  of  a  circle  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts,  or  to  inscribe  any  polygon 
therein,  according  to  the  approximation  of  Renal-dinus,  will 
be  found  under  the  article  Circle,  Figure  5. 

The  various  methods  of  describing  the  ellipsis  upon  a 
plane,  will  be  found  under  the  article  Ellipsis  ;  but,  besides 
what  is  there  shown,  the  following  problems,  concerning  this 
curve,  will  also  bo  found  j.e.cssary  in  the  art  of  perspective 
delineation. 

Problem  LIII. —  Given  the  'rapezium,  a  b  c  d,  and  a 
point,  E,  in  one  of  the  sides,  to  find  a  point  in  each  of  the 
other  sides,  so  that  if  an  ellipsis  were  to  be  inscribed,  it  woula 
touch  the  trapezium  in  those  points. 

Fiqxire  66. — Produce  the  sides  of  the  trapezium  till  they 
meet  at  k  and  l;  then  draw  the  diagonals  a  c  and  b  d,  cut- 
tintr  each  other  at  F  ;  produce  b  d,  till  it  cut  k  l.  at  m. 
Through  F,  and  the  given  point  e,  draw  e  g,  cutting  b  c 


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at  G ;  and  from  m,  through  tho  points  f.  and  o,  draw  m  h  and 
H  G,  culling  the  other  two  sides  in  the  points  l  and  ii,  then 
E,  H,  G,  I,  will  be  the  (bur  points  required. 

Problem  LIV. — A  trapezium,  x  b  c  d,  being  given,  and  a 
point,  E,  in  one  of  the  sides,  to  Jind  i.'ie  centre  of  an  ellipsis 
that  mag  be  inscribed  in  the  trapezium,  and  pass  through  the 
point  of  contact,  E,  V)ithout  drawing  ang  part  of  the  ellipsis. 

Figure  67. — Find  the  points  of  contact  ii,  g,  i,  e,  as  in  the 
last  Pioblein.  Join  the  points  o  and  e,  by  the  right  line 
G  e;  bisect  it  in  m,  and  from  k,  where  the  opposite  sides  a  d 
and  n  c  meet,  an^  through  tho  point  m,  draw  k  m  indefinitely  ; 
also  join  any  other  two  points  of  contact,  as  ii  i;  bisect  n  i 
and  N  from  l,  where  the  opposite  sides  b  a  and  c  d  meet; 
draw  L  N,  meeting  k  m  at  p;  then  p  will  be  the  centre  of  the 
ellipsis  required. 

In  like  manner,  if  the  points  g  and  h  were  joined,  and 
bisected  at  q,  and  a  line  being  drawn  from  b,  where  the 
opposite  sides  a  b  and  c  b  meet,  through  q,  it  would  also 
meet  in  p,  the  centre,  &c. 

Problem  LV. —  Given  a  trapezium,  a  b  c  d,  and  a  point, 
E,  in  one  of  the  sides,  to  find  the  two  axes  of  an  ellipsis  that 
may  be  inscribed  in  the  trapezium,  and  pass  through  the  point, 
E,  witliout  drawing  ang  part  of  the  elli/)sis. 

Figure  68. — Find  the  op>posite  points  of  contact,  ii,  e.  f,  g, 
by  Pioblem  LIII. ;  from  thence,  find  tho  centre,  p,  l)y  tho 
last  Problem.  From  e,  and  tlircjugh  the  centre  p,  draw  E  M, 
making  p  m  equal  to  p  e  ;  and  through  ii  or  any  other  point 
of  contact,  draw  ii  k,  parallel  to  d  c,  cutting  e  m  at  k;  then 
K  H  is  an  ordinate  to  the  diiuneter  e  m.  Through  p,  the 
centre,  draw  p  u  parallel  to  h  k  ;  then  find  the  o:xtremities, 
K  and  s,  of  the  diameter  r  s,  by  Problem  3,  of  Ellipsis. 
The  conjugate  diameters,  e  m  and  r  s,  being  now  found,  then 
find  the  two  axes,  v  w  and  x  y,  by  Problem  4.  of  Ellipsis. 

GIBLEA  CHEQUE,  Gible  Check,  or  Jiblet  Cheek, 
a  recess  made  by  cutting  away  the  right  angle  formed  by 
the  front  and  returns  of  the  aperture  of  a  stone  door-case,  in 
the  form  of  a  rebate  or  reveal,  so  as  to  make  the  outside  of 
the  door,  or  closure,  flush  with  the  face  of  the  wall.  The 
term  is  used  by  stonemasons  in  Scotland. 

GIGANTIC  ORDER,  a  name  given  by  Scamozzi  to  the 
Tuscan  order. 

GILDING,  the  art  of  applying  to  various  substances  an 
extremely  thin  coating  of  gold,  if  the  substances  to  be  gilt 
be  metallic,  this  is  eliected  by  simple  adhesion  of  the  sur- 
faces, but  if  not,  the  gold  is  attaclied  by  means  of  some  adhe- 
sive medium.  The  use  of  gilding  in  the  ornaments  and 
decorations  of  an  apartment,  adds  greatly  to  the  richness  of 
its  appearance,  but  unless  applied  judiciously,  and  sparingly, 
it  is  ajit  to  have  a  tawdry  effect,  most  offensive  to  good  taste. 

GILL,  a  measure,  the  fourth  part  of  a  i)int.  The  imperial 
gill  now  in  use  contains  8.06481"2o  cubic  inches. 

GlML?jr,  or  Gimblet,  (from  the  French)  a  piece  of  steel 
of  a  semi-cylindrical  form,  hollow  on  one  side,  having  a  cross 
handle  at  one  end,  and  a  worm  or  screw  below  at  the  other : 
its  use  is  to  bore  a  small  hole  in  a  piece  of  wood.  The  screw 
draws  the  instrument  forward  into  the  wood  while  it  is 
turned  by  the  handle,  and  tht  evcavated  part,  forming  a 
sharp  angle  with  the  exterior,  cuts  the  fibres  across,  and 
contains  the  core  of  wood  cut  out. 

GIN/ECONITES,  (Greek)  apartments  in  the  surrounding 
porticos  of  the  Greek  houses,  which  contained  the  family 
rooms  tricliniums  and  eubiculums.     See  House. 

GIOCONDO,  an  architect,  who  flourished  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Veiona,  where  he  first  taught 
languages  for  a  subsistence,  and  was  also  well  <)ualified  in 
mathematical  learning.  On  visiting  France,  he  was  employed 
to  build  two  bridges  over  the  Seine,     lie  very  soon  al'ter- 


wards  obtained  the  title  of  architect  royal  to  the  French 
king,  but  did  not  live  long  after;  the  exact  period  of  his 
death  is  inicertain.  He  published  several  works  which  did 
him  much  credit  as  a  writer,  and  extended  his  fame  as 
an  artist.  Amongst  others,  an  edition  of  Pliny's  £//istles, 
and  a  correct  edition  of  Vitruvius,  illustrated  with  figures, 
the  latter  he  dedicated  to  Pope  Julius  II.  lie  assisted  in 
eiiting  many  other  works  of  the  ancients,  and  was  the  first 
person  who  gave  a  design  for  Caisar's  bridge  over  the  Rhine, 
in  150(1,  he  wrote  tour  dissertations,  addressed  to  the  magis- 
tracy of  Venice,  concerning  the  waters  of  that  city.  He 
was  employed  with  Raphael  and  San  Gallo,  in  superintend- 
ing the  enetion  of  St.  Peter's.  His  last  work  was  probably 
the  relinilding  of  the  stone  bridge  at  Verona. 

GIliANDOLE,  (Italian)  a  chandelier;  a  large  kind  of 
branched  candlestick. 

GIRDEl-t,  (from  the  Saxon)  alarge  beam,  either  ofone  entire 
piece,  or  consisting  of  several,  in  order  to  shorten  the  joists 
of  a  floor,  which  would  otherwise  have  too  gieat  a  bearing. 

When  girders  arc  made  double,  they  should  be  tinned  the 
contrary  way  to  that  in  which  they  were  sawn,  that  the 
stronger  end  may  support  the  weaker.  If  it  be  found  neces- 
sary to  truss  girders,  the  truss  should  be  similar  to  that  of 
a  roof.  The  best  form  of  girder  for  floors  of  moderate 
dimensions,  consists  of  two  braces  and  a  straining  piece, 
having  one-third  of  the  whole  length,  excepting  the  part  at 
each  end,  which  is  necessary  for  the  butmeiit  or  wall-hold. 

The  two  braces  are  strained  by  means  of  queen-bolts,  and 
resisted  at  the  other  end  by  iron  but  ments,  which  are  formed 
to  the  same  section  as  the  braces,  and  are  made  to  go  through 
on  each  side,  so  as  to  have  a  bolt  at  either  end;  the  braces 
and  straining  jiioce  being  let  into  each  beam. 

When  girders  have  a  very  great  bearing,  and  have  only 
the  depth  of  a  suigle  piece,  it  is  well'  known  that  the  strain 
at  the  joggles  and  abutments  is  prodigious  :  girders  of  long 
bearing  should  thejefore  be  made  into  two  flitches,  one  above 
the  other,  and  braced  as  above. 

By  this  [)lan,  the  de[ith  allowing  of  an  upper  and  lower 
beam,  the  giriler  will  be  infinitely  more  stiff  than  one  of  the 
depth  of  a  single  piece,  and  consequently  more  able  to  sup- 
port the  naked  floorijig  and  boarding. 

No  summers  or  girders  should  be  over  the  heads  of  doors 
or  windows. 

No  summer  or  girder  should  lie  less  than  ten  inches  into 
the  wall ;  nor  joists  less  than  eight  inches. 

The  ceiling  joists  ought  to  be  framed  about  half  an  inch 
Dclow  the  girder,  and  the  girder  ought  to  be  furred  to  the 
level  of  the  ceiling  joists. 

Girders  ought  to  be  made  of  heart  wood,  as  free  from 
knots  as  possihle,  because  they  destroy  the  continuity  of  tho 
fibres,  and  impair  the  strength  of  the  girder. 

The  following  rules  for  finding  the  scantlings,  are  given 
by  Tredgold  in  his  JSlcnienlary  I'ri)iciplcs  of  Carpentrg. 

"  Case  1. — To  find  the  depth  of  a  girder  when  the  length 
of  bearing  and  breadth  of  the  girder  are  given. 

"  Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet,  by  the 
breadth  in  inches;  and  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient  multi- 
plied by  4.2  for  fir,  or  by  4.34  for  oak,  will  give  the  depth 
required  in  inches. 

"  Case  2. — To  find  the  breadth  when  the  length  of  bear- 
ing and  depth  arc  given. 

'■•Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet,  by  the 
cube  of  tiic  depth  in  inches;  and  the  quotient  multiplied  by 
74  for  fir,  or  by  82  for  oak,  will  .give  the  breadth  in  inches. 

'■•Example  to  Case  2. — Let  the  bearing  be  20  feet,  and  the 
dei>th  13  inches;  to  find  the  breadth,  so  that  the  girder  shall 
be  sufliciontly  stiff. 


G  E  O  M  IE  T  mx 

PRACTICAL 


PLATE    III 


N  M  B      D     «  A 


n^  S3 


Fi^  54 


E  B 


T)^  58. 
G 


Tiff.59. 


K              / 

\ 

\ 

/ 

D 

\ 

A                             t 

1 

H 

X 

/' 

E 

Tiff.60- 
E       D T 


Tig  as, 


Drawn .  bv.  MAJVu^ison 


GLA 


447 


GLA 


The  cube  of  the  depth  is  2197,  and  the  square  of  the 
length  is  400;  therefore  ^^sT  X  74  =  13.47  inches,  the 
breadlh  required. 

"hi  these  rules,  the  girders  are  supposed  to  be  10  feet 
apart,  and  this  distance  should  never  be  exceeded ;  but 
should  the  distance  apart  be  less  or  more  than  10  feet,  the 
brcadlh  of  the  girder  should  be  made  in  proportion  to 
the  distance  apart. 

"  When  the  Ijcaring  exceeds  about  22  feet,  it  is  very 
dilUcult  to  ol)tain  timber  large  enough  for  girders  ;  and  it  is 
usual,  in  such  cases,  to  truss  them.  The  methods  in  general 
adopted  for  that  purpose,  have  the  appearance  of  much 
ingenuity  ;  but  in  reality,  they  are  of  very  little  u.se.  If 
a  girder  be  trussed  wilh  oak,  all  the  strength  that  can 
possibly  be  gained  b}'  such  a  truss,  consists  merely  in  the 
dillerence  between  the  compressibility  of  oak  and  fir,  which 
is  verj'  small  indeed;  and  iniless  the  truss  be  extremely  well 
fitted  at  the  abutments,  it  would  be  much  stronger  without 
trussing.  All  the  apparent  stiffness  produced  by  trussing 
a  beam,  is  procured  by  forcing  the  abutments,  or,  in  other 
words,  by  cambering  the  beam.  This  forcing,  cripples  and 
injures  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  timber;  and  the  con- 
tinual spring  from  the  motion  of  the  floor,  upon  parts  already 
crippled,  it  may  easily  be  conceived,  will  soon  so  tar  destroy 
them  as  to  render  the  truss  a  useless  burden  upon  the  beam. 
This  is  a  fact  that  has  been  long  known  to  many  of  our  best 
carpenters,  and  which  has  caused  them  to  seek  for  a  remedy 
in  iron  tru.sscs;  but  this  method  is  quite  as  bad  as  the  former, 
unless  there  be  an  iron  tie  as  an  abutment  to  the  truss;  for 
the  failure  of  a  truss  is  occasioned  by  the  enormous  com- 
pression applied  upon  a  small  suiface  of  timber  at  the  abut- 
ments. The  defects  of  ordinary  trussed  girders  are  very 
apparent  in  old  ones,  as  it  is  not  simply  stiength  that  is 
required,  but  the  power  of  resisting  the  imceasing  concussion's 
of  a  St  raining  lijrce,  capable  of  producing  a  permanent  derange- 
ment in  a  small  surface  at  every  impres>ion."  Girders  of 
wrought  and  east  iron  are  now  used  extensively  in  railway 
and  canal  works,  for  bridges,  &c. 

G(RDIN(}  BICAM.     &c  Girder. 

GIRDLE,  (from  the  Saxon)  a  circular  band  or  fillet  sur- 
rounding a  part  of  a  column. 

GIRT,  the  same  as  Fillet,  which  see. 

Girt,  in  timber  measuie,  according  to  some,  the  fourth 
part  of  the  circumference,  and  is  generally  taken  for  the  side 
of  a  square,  equal  in  area  to  the  section  of  the  tree  cut  through 
where  the  perimeter  is  taken  in  order  to  obtain  the  girt. 

GIVEN  DATUM,  a  term  frequently  used  in  mathe- 
matics, signifying  a  thing  supposed  to  be  known,  whether 
in  position  or  magnitude ;  which  is  accordingly  said  to  Ik- 
given  in  position,  ov  inrnuijnitude,  ov  both,  as  one  or  the 
Other,  or  both,  are  known. 

GLACIS,  (French)  an  easy  slope  or  declivity. 

GLASS,  (from  the  Saxon,  7/(/(;4)  a  hard,  brittle,  transparent 
laetitious  sulistanee,  formed  by  the  fusion  of  silicious  matter, 
such  as  powder  flint  or  fine  sand,  blended  with  alkaline  earth, 
metallic  oxide,  and  other  snlistances.  In  building,  glass  is 
used  in  thin  transparent  plates  for  window's,  which  admit 
light,  while  they  exclude  wind  and  rain. 

The  time  at  which  glass  was  invented,  is  very  uncertani. 
"  It  was  known,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  to  the  Phunicians,  and 
constituted  for  a  long  time  an  e.xclusive  manufacture  of  that 
people,  in  consequence  of  its  ingredients,  (natron,  sand,  and 
fuel,)  abounding  upon  their  coasts.  It  is  probable  that  the 
more  ancient  Egyptians  were  unacquainted  with  glass,  for 
we  find  no  mention  of  it  in  the  writings  of  Moses.  But, 
according  to  Pliny  and  Strabo,  the  glass-works  of  Sidon  and 
Alexandria  were  famous  in  their  times,  and  produced  beautiful 


articles,  which  were  cut,  engraved,  gilt,  and  stained  of  the 
most  brilliant  colours,  in  imitation  of  precious  stones.  The 
Uomans  emjjloyed  glass  for  various  purposes;  and  have  left 
specimens  in  TIerculaneum,  of  win<!ow-glass,  which  must 
have  been  blown  by  methods  analogous  to  the  modern.  The 
Phcnician  processes  seem  to  have  been  learned  by  the 
Crusaders,  and  transferred  to  Venice  in  the  13lh  century, 
where  they  were  long  held  secret,  and  formed  a  lucrative 
commercial  monopoly.  Soon  after  the  middle  of  the  11th 
century,  Colbert  enriched  France  with  the  blown  mirror 
glass  manufacture." 

The  application  of  glass  to  the  glazing  of  windows,  is  of 
comparatively  modern  introduction,  at  least  in  northern  and 
western  Europe.  In  674,  artists  were  brought  to  England 
from  abroad  to  glaze  the  church  windows  at  Wearmouth  in 
Durham  ;  and  even  in  the  year  1507,  this  mode  of  excluding 
cold  from  dwellings  was  confined  to  large  establishments, 
and  by  no  means  universal  even  in  them.  An  entry  then 
made,  in  the  minutes  of  a  survey  of  Alnwick  Castle,  the 
residence  of  the  Duke  of  Noithumberland,  informs  us  that 
the  glass-casements  were  taken  down  during  the  absence  of 
thi'  family  to  preserve  them  from  accident.  A  century  after 
tliat  time,  the  use  of  window-glass  was  so  small  in  Scotland, 
thatonlv  the  upper  rooms  in  the  royal  palaces  were  furnished 
with  it,  the  lower  part  having  wooden  shutters  to  admit  or 
exclude  the  air. 

At  an  early  period  of  its  history  in  this  country,  the  glass- 
manufacture  became  an  object  of  taxation,  and  duties  were 
from  time  to  time  imposed  on  it,  which  operated  most  inju- 
riously, not  only  on  the  manufacture  itself,  but  on  building 
generally,  by  preventing  the  more  extensive  use  of  so  orna- 
mental an  article.  Within  the  last  few  years,  however, 
a  more  enlightened  policy  has  prevailed  ;  and  so  great  a 
reduction  of  the  duties  on  glass  has  been  granted,  that  an 
enormous  increase  in  the  manufacture  and  use  of  it  has  taken 
place.  The  result  is  seen  in  the  improved  appearance  of  our 
dwelliiiii-housps.  in  the  great  superiority  of  the  quality  of 
the  glass  used  at  present,  and  in  the  magnificent  plate-glass 
windows  now  so  generally  adopted   in  shop-fronts. 

Of  the  glass  used  in  building,  there  are  three  qualities  in 
Ccimmon  use,  denominated  hesl,  second,  and  third.  The  best 
is  that  which  is  of  the  purest  metal,  and  free  of  blemishes, 
as  blisters,  specks,  streaks,  &c.  The  second  is  inferior,  from 
its  not  being  so  free  of  these  blemishes.  The  third  is  still 
inferior,  both  in  regard  to  quality  and  colour,  being  of  a 
greener  hue.  They  are  all  sold  at  the  same  price  per  crate, 
but  the  number  of  tables  is  difierent,  according  to  the 
quality:  best,  12  tables;  second,  15  tables;  third,  18 
tables. 

These  tables  are  circidar  when  manufactured,  and  about 
four  feet  in  diameter;  in  the  centre  is  a  knot,  to  which,  in 
the  course  of  the  process,  the  flashing  rod  was  fixed,  but,  for 
the  safety  of  carriage  and  convenieiiey  of  handling,  as  well  as 
utility  in  practice,  a  segment  is  cut  off^  about  four  inches 
from  the  knot:  the  large  piece  with  the  knot,  still  retains 
the  name  of  table,  the  smaller  piece  is  technically  termed  a 
slah.  From  these  tables  being  of  a  given  size,  it  is  reason- 
aide  to  suppose  that  when  the  dimensions  of  squares  arc  such 
as  cut  the  glass  to  waste,  the  price  should  be  advanced. 

Crown  glass  is  the  best  description  of  window-glass.  It 
is  made  without  any  mixture  of  metallic  oxide,  and  is  both 
specificallv  lishtcr,  and  much  harder,  than  flint  glass.  Broad 
glass  is  an  inferior  kind  of  window-glass,  made  with  a  cheaper 
kind  of  alakli.  Plate-glass  is  superior  in  quality  and  in 
appearance  to  all  other  glass.  From  the  quantity  of  metal 
it  contains,  it  must  be  almost,  if  not  altogether,  colourless — 
that  sort  which  is  tinged,  being  of  an  inferior  quality.     It  is 


GLA 


448 


GL  \ 


bath  blown  and  cast.  Plates  which  are  blown  are  limited 
in  dimensions,  while  those  that  are  cast  are  made  of  very 
grout  size,  the  limit  being  caused  by  the  expensivenessof  the 
machinery  required  for  the  management  of  very  large  masses 
of  the  material.  Plate-glass  is  necessarily  costly,  because  of 
the  numerous  and  laborious  operations  which  it  undergoes, 
and  of  the  risks  of  fracture  while  subjected  to  them.  In 
sashes  it  has  a  magnificence  peculiar  to  itself;  objects  seen 
thiough  it  are  not  distorted  ;  and  objects  seen  in  it.  have  the 
same  fiir  appearance.  It  is  now  made  of  very  lai-ge 
dimensions. 

Glass  has  also  been  introduced  as  a  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  pipes.  Mr.  James  Hartley,  of  Bishopwearmouth 
Glass  Works,  has,  after  extensive  experiments,  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  practicability  of  making  glass  pipes,  suitable 
for  the  conveyance  of  gas  or  water,  and  has,  it  is  also  said, 
pi-oved  that  pipes,  stronger  than  the  oi-dinary  metal  ones, 
and  much  cheaper,  may  be  made  of  glass. 

A  still  more  novel  application  of  this  material  is  noticed 
in  The  Builder,  viz.,  the  importation  from  Antwerp  of  a 
small  parcel  of  glass-tiles.  These  tiles  ar-e  similar  in  form 
to  the  common  clay-tile  for  roofing  buildings,  the  advantage 
held  out  Vjciiig  their  lightness,  aird  being  pervious  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  The  latter  quality  is  presumed  to  render  them 
suitable  for  the  roofs  of  gr-een-houses,  as  they  will  not  inter- 
rupt the  heal  and  light,  whilst  they  are  sulficieutly  strong  to 
resist  the  etleets  of  hail-storms,  which  will  much  reduce  the 
cost  of  insurance  on  green-houses.  They  have  the  appear- 
ance of  the  common  green  glass,  they  vary  in  price  fr'om 
eleven  to  sixteen  shillings  per  dozen,  aceor-ding  to  their 
thickness  and  weight.     See  Stained  Glass. 

GLAZING,  the  business  of  the  glazier,  consisting  in  fitting 
glass  in  sashes,  frames,  and  casements,  and  fixing  it  either  in 
putty  or  lead. 

It  may  be  classed  under  the  denominations  following : — 
Sash-work,  lead-ioork,  and  fret-work. 

The  tools  necessary  for  sash-work  are,  a  diamond,  a 
ranging-lath,  a  short-lath,  a  square,  a  rule,  a  glazing-knife, 
a  cuttirrg  chisel,  a  beading  hammer,  duster,  and  sash-tool  ; 
and  in  addition,  for  stopping-in  squares,  a  hacking  knife  and 
hammei'.  The  diamond  is  a  speck  of  that  precious  stone, 
polished  to  a  cutting  point,  and  set  in  brass  in  an  iron  socket, 
to  receive  a  wooden  handle,  which  is  so  set  as  to  be  held  in 
the  hand  in  the  cutting  direction  ;  the  top  of  the  handle  goes 
between  the  root  of  the  fore-finger  aird  nriddle-fingei',  and 
the  under  part,  between  the  point  of  the  fore-finger  and 
thumb;  there  is,  in  genenil,  a  notch  in  the  side  of  the 
socket,  which  should  be  held  next  the  lath.     See  Diamond. 

Some  diamonds  have  more  cuts  than  one. 

Plough  diamonds  have  a  square  nut  on  the  end  of  the 
socket  next  the  glass,  which  on  running  the  nut  square  on 
the  side  of  the  lath,  keeps  it  in  the  cutting  dir'cction.  Glass 
benders  have  these  plough  diamonds  without  long  handles, 
as,  in  cutting  their  curious  productions,  they  cannot  apply 
a  lath,  but  direct  them  by  the  point  of  their  middle  finger 
gliding  along  the  edge  of  the  glass.  The  ranging  lath  must 
be  long  enough  to  extend  rather  beyond  the  boundary  of  the 
table  of  glass.  Ranging  of  glass,  is  the  cutting  it  in  breadths, 
as  the  work  may  require,  and  is  best  done  by  one  uninter- 
rupted cut  from  one  end  to  the  other.  A  short  lath  is  applied 
to  stripping  the  square  to  suit  the  rebate  of  a  sash  ;  as  in 
ranging,  they  are  generally  cut  full.  A  square  is  used  in 
cutting  the  squares  from  the  range,  that  they  may  be  more 
certairrly  cut  at  right  angles.  The  carpenter's  chisel  is  used 
in  paring  away  some  of  the  rebate  of  the  sash,  when  the  glass 
does  not  lie  so  flat  as  to  allow  a  proper  breadth  for  fr'ont 
putty.      The  glazing  knife  is  used  for  layiiig-in  the  putty  in 


the  rebates,  for  bediling-in  the  glass,  and  for  firrishing  the 
front  puttv.  A  bradding-hammer  is  made  with  a  Inad  in 
the  form  of  a  small  paiallelnpiped,  with  a  socket  for  the 
harrdle.  rising  at  an  obtuse  angle  from  the  middle  of  one  of 
its  sides  ;  the  square  edges  of  the  head  drive  the  brads  in  a 
horizorrtal  position,  and  is  less  liable  to  accident  than  if  per'- 
formed  by  another  tool :  some  use  the  basil  (jf  the  chisel. 

Brass  poiirts  are  esteemed  the  best ;  small  cut  brads  are 
also  used.  All  new  work  should  be  bradded,  to  prevent 
the  glass  being  moved  out  of  its  bed. 

The  duster  is  used  in  brushing  up  the  front  pulleys,  and 
taking  oft'  the  oil  from  the  glass.  The  sash-tool  is  used  in 
taking  off  the  oil  from  the  inside,  after  the  back  pulleys  are 
cleaned  ofli",  and  is  genei-ally  used  wet.  The  hacking-knife 
is  for  cleaning  out  the  old  putty  from  rebates,  where  squares 
are  to  be  stopped  iir.  The  use  of  the  rule  needs  no  explairation. 
N.B. — Glaziers'  rules  are  two  feet  long,  in  four  diflerent 
pieces.  Lead-work  is  used  in  inferior  offices,  and  is  in 
general  practice  throughout  the  couTitry. 

Frames  are  made  to  receive  these  lights,  w  ith  bars  across, 
to  which  the  lights  are  fastened  by  leaden  bars :  these  bars 
ai-e  called  saddle  bars,  and  where  openings  are  wanted,  a 
casement  is  inti-oduced,  either  of  wood  or  iron.  Sometimes 
a  sliding  frame  answers  the  same  purpose.  Church  windows 
are  in  general  made  in  this  maimer, in  quarries  or  in  squares. 
The  tools  which  this  work,  in  addition  to  the  former,  require, 
are  these  :  a  vice,  with  different  cheeks ;  and  cutters,  to  turn 
out  the  differ-ent  kinds  of  lead,  as  the  magnitude  of  the  win- 
dow or  the  squares  may  I'equire. 

In  common  there  is  broad  and  narrow  lead.  The  German 
vices  are  esteemed  the  best,  and  turn  out  a  variety  of  lead  in 
different  sizes. 

There  are  moulds  belonging  to  these  vices,  in  which  bars 
of  lead  are  cast;  in  which  form  the  mill  receives  them,  and 
tur-ns  them  out  with  two  sides  par-allel  to  each  other,  and  about 
Ihi-ee-eighths  of  an  inch  broad,  with  a  partition  connectirrg 
the  two  sides  together,  about  an  eighth  of  an  .iireh  wide, 
forming,  on  each  side,  a  groove  nearly  j^  by  i  of  an  inch, 
and  about  six  feet  long. 

The  remainder  of  the  tools,  besides  a  vice  and  moulds, 
are,  a  setting-boaid,  a  latterkin,  setting-knife,  rosin-box,  tin, 
glazing-ir'ons,  and  clips. 

The  setting-boar-d  is  that  on  which  the  ridge  of  the  iight 
is  mai-ked  and  divided  into  sqiiai-es,  and  struck  out  with  a 
chalk  line,  or  dr-awn  with  a  lath,  which  sei-ve  to  guide  the 
workman.  One  side  and  end  ar-e  squared,  with  a  projecting 
bead  or  fillet. 

The  latterkin  is  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  pointed,  and  so 
formed  as  to  clear  the  gr-oove  of  the  lead,  and  wideir  it  for 
the  more  readily  receiving  the  glass. 

Tlie  setting-knife  is  a  blade  with  a  round  point,  loaded 
with  lead  at  the  bottom  of  the  blade,  with  a  long  square  hairdle. 
The  square  end  of  the  handle  serves  to  force  the  squares  home 
tiiiht  in  the  lead  ;  being  loaded  with  lead,  it  is  of  greater 
weight,  and  also  cuts  off  the  ends  of  the  lead  with  greater 
ease,  as,  in  the  course  of  working  these  lights,  the  lead  is 
always  longer  than  necessary,  till  trimmed. 

Tlie  rosin  box  contains  powdered  rosin,  which  is  put  on 
all  the  joints  pr-evious  to  soldering. 

Tin  is  for  preparing  the  glazing  before  soldering. 
The  clips  are  for  holding  the  irons. 

All  the  intersections  are  soldered  on  both  sides,  except  the 
outside  joints  of  the  outer  side,  /.  e.  where  they  come  to  the 
outer  edge.  These  lights  should  be  cemented,  which  is  done 
by  thin  paint  being  run  along  the  lead  bars,  and  the  chasm 
filled  with  drv  whiting,  and  after  it  has  stood  a  short  time, 
till  the  oil  is  secreted  a  little,  a  small  quantity  of  dry  red  or 


GLU 


449 


GOB 


white  lead  is  dusted  over  it  again  ;  it  tiien  dries  hard,  and 
will  resist  the  weather  well. 

Fret-wiirk  is  the  ornamental  part,  and  ronsists  of  working 
ground  and  stained  glass,  in  line  lead,  into  diflerent  patterns. 
hi  many  eases,  family  arms  and  other  devices  are  worked  in 
it.  It  is  a  branch  capable  of  great  improvement,  but  at 
present  neglected. 

Old  pieces  are  very  much  esteemed,  and  valued  high.  The 
same  expense  would,  doulitless,  were  it  not  for  prejudice,  fur- 
nish elegant  modern  productions.  They  are  placed  in  halls, 
and  stair-case  windows,  or  in  some  particular  church  win- 
dows ;  in  many  instances,  they  are  intioduced  where  there  is 
an  otliiusive  aspect  in  a  place  of  particular  or  general  resort. 

Glaziers  clean  windows;  and  in  London  it  is  a  great  part 
of  their  work. 

GLOBE,  (French)  a  spherical  body,  more  usuall)  called  a 
sphere.      See  Shhere. 

GLUE,  (from  the  French)  a  tenacious  viscid  matter,  made 
of  the  skins  of  animals,  for  cementing  two  bodies  together. 

Glue  is  bought  in  cakes;  and  is  better,  as  the  skin  of  the 
anim:d  from  which  it  is  made  is  older:  that  which  swells 
much  when  steeped  in  water,  without  dissolving  in  it,  is  of 
the  best  quality. 

To  prepare  glue;  break  the  cakes  into  small  fragments  of 
convenient  size  :  soak  them  in  as  much  water  as  will  just 
cover  them;  after  it  has  remained  about  twelve  hours,  Ijoil 
the  whole  in  a  copiper  or  leaden  vessel,  over  a  gentle  fire,  till 
the  glue  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  stirring  it  constantly  with 
a  wooden  stick  ;  it  should  then  be  poured  through  a  sieve,  to 
separate  it  from  the  scum  and  other  filth  :  and  lastly,  it 
should  be  l)oiK'd  over  a  smart  fire,  and  put  into  a  wooden 
vessel,  in  which  it  is  to  remain  for  use. 

To  make  good  glue  for  e.xternal  work  :  grind  as  much 
white  lead  w'ilh  linseed  oil  as  will  just  make  the  liquid  of  a 
whitish  colour,  and  strong  hut  not  thick;  and  it  will  then 
be  fit  for  use. 

The  following  is  given  by  Jfr.  Clennel  as  a  good  method 
of  making  glue.  The  materials  above  enumerated  are  "first 
digested  in  lime-water,  to  cleanse  them  from  grease  or  dirt; 
they  are  then  steeped  in  clean  water  with  frequent  stirring, 
and  afterwards  laid  in  a  heap,  and  the  water  pressed  out. 
They  are  then  boiled  in  a  large  brass  cauldron  with  clean 
water,  scumming  off  the  dirt  as  it  rises,  and  it  is  farther 
cleansed,  by  putting  in,  after  the  whole  is  dissolved,  a  little 
melted  alum,  or  lime,  finely  powdered.  Tlie  scumming  is 
continued  for  some  time,  after  which  the  mass  is  strained 
through  baskets,  and  suffered  to  settle,  that  the  remaining 
inqiurities  may  subside.  It  is  then  poured  gradually  into  the 
kettle  again,  and  farther  evaporated  by  biiiling  and  scum- 
ming, till  it  becomes  of  a  clear  dark-brownish  colour.  When 
it  is  thought  to  be  strong  enough,  it  is  poured  into  frames  or 
nxjulds  about  si.\  feet  long,  one  broad,  and  two  deep,  where 
it  gradually  hardens  as  it  cools,  and  is  cut  out  when  cold  by 
a  spade  into  square  cakes.  Each  of  these  is  placed  in  a  sort 
of  wooden  bo.\,  open  in  three  divisions  to  the  back  ;  in  this, 
the  glue,  while  yet  soft,  is  cut  into  three  slices,  by  an  instru- 
ment like  a  bow,  with  a  brass  wire  for  its  string.  The  slices 
are  then  taken  out  into  the  open  air,  and  dried  on  a  kind  of 
coarse  net-work,  fastened  in  moveable  sheds,  four  feet  square, 
which  are  placed  in  rows  in  the  glue-maker's  field.  When 
perfectly  dry  and  hard,  it  is  fit  for  sale." 

Mr.  Austin,  of  Ilatton  Garden,  some  time  since,  took  out  a 
patent  for  "  a  new  mel/ioihifff hieing  or  ceinenliiir/  certain  mate- 
rials for  biiildiiKi  and  other  piir/joses."  The  mode  of  manufic- 
ture  and  applying  it,  is  thus  described  in  the  specification  : — 

"The  cement  used  by   the  patentee  is  made  by  mixing 
India-rubber  with  cold  naphtha,  in  the  proportion  of  ei"ht 
57 


ounces  of  India-rubber  cut  into  small  pieces,  to  each  g:illon  of 
naphtha,  stirring  it  from  time  to  time,  unlil  the  India- 
rubber  is  dissolved  ;  then,  to  one  part,  by  weight,  of  this 
mixture  two  parts  of  lac  are  added,  and  the  whole  is  tho- 
roughly blended  together  by  the  aiiplication  of  heat,  accom- 
panied with  occasional  stirring.  When  greater  elasticity  is 
required,  o  larger  proportion  of  the  India-ridiber  solution 
is  used  ;  if  greater  hardness  is  necessary,  a  larger  proportion 
of  lac  is  euqiloyed  ;  and  where  the  India-rubber  W'ould  be 
liable  to  injury  from  great  exposure  and  pressure,  a  m\ich 
less  proportion  is  used,  and  it  is  sometimes  dispensed  with 
altogether;  asphalte,  pitch,  or  resin,  or  other  materials  of  that 
nature,  may  in  some  instances  be  sulislituted  for  the  lac. 

The  materials  for  building-purposes  to  which  this  cement 
is  applied  are,  slate,  tiles,  stone,  glass,  and  metal-plates. 
When  being  used,  the  cement  is  kept  in  a  heated  state  in  a 
dish  or  vessel  containing  a  narrow  trough,  termed  a  stamper, 
w'hich  slides  up  and  down  therein  between  guides ;  the  slate 
or  other  material  is  brought  to  the  heat  of  150  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  placed  upon  the  dish,  and  the  stamper  being 
then  raised,  imprints  or  stamps  a  margin  of  cement  thereon. 
The  requisite  margins  of  cement  for  forming  overlapping 
joints  being  thus  applied  to  the  slate  or  other  material,  the 
cemented  portions  or  margins  are  laid  in  contact  with  each 
other,  and  in  a  short  time  become  firmly  united,  forming 
water-tight  surfaces.  Sometimes,  to  expedite  the  process,  a 
coating  of  naphtha,  or  other  spirit  that  will  act  upon  the 
cement,  or  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  the  cement  in 
naphtha  or  other  spirit,  is  applied  to  the  cemented  portions,  or 
margins.  The  cement  may  also  be  used  for  securing  the 
above  materials  to  the  building,  as  well  as  to  each  other." 

'•  The  patentee  connects  pieces  of  glass  together  with  the 
above  cement  when  making  skylights,  conservatories,  frames 
for  horticultural  purposes,  &c. ;  he  also  cements  slate,  stone, 
metal,  and  manufactured  clays  and  cements,  together,  or  to 
wood,  or  to  woven  and  other  fabrics,  to  wood  for  building  or 
other  purposes ;  he  likewise  cements  pieces  of  leather  for 
making  boots  and  shoes,  and  hose  or  pipes  for  fire-engines  ; 
also  leather  and  cork  together,  or  to  wood,  metal,  or  woven 
or  other  fabrics,  and  woven  and  other  fabrics  to  wood,  for 
the  manufacture  of  trunks,  portmanteaus,  packing  cases,  and 
other  [lurposes.  When  joining  these  materials,  the  parts 
must  be  dry  and  free  from  dust,  and  should  be  warmed  pre- 
vious to  receiving  a  coat  of  the  ceirient,  in  order  that  it  may 
not  be  chilled  at  the  moment  of  application.  If  the  joint  is 
to  be  made  at  once,  the  parts  must  be  expeditiously  put 
together  and  pressed,  as  the  cement  rapidly  loses  its  heat, 
and  becomes  solidified,  but  the  junction  may  be  efTected  at 
any  subsequent  period  by  the  application  of  heat,  or  the  spirit 
or  solution  before  described." 

GLYPH,  any  canal  or  cavity  used  as  an  ornament;  hence 
the  tablets  in  the  frieze  of  the  Doric  order  are  called  triijli/jjhs, 
from  their  having  three  vertical  channels;  that  is,  two  whole 
ones  and  a  half  one  at  each  edge  of  the  triglyph. 

GNEISS,  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  great  mountain  forma- 
tions, being  reckoned  the  oldest  of  the  stratified  rooks.  It  is 
composed  of  the  same  substances  as  granite,  viz. :  quartz,  mica, 
and  feltspar.  In  gneiss,  however,  they  are  not  in  granular 
crystals,  but  in  scales,  so  as  to  give  the  mass  a  slaty  structure. 
It  abounds  in  metal-lie  treasures. 

GOBELIN,  the  term  applied  to  the  celebrated  tapestry, 
intioduced  into  France  by  the  brothers  Gobelin.  In  the 
year  1677,  Colbert  purchased  the  dye-houses  from  the  Gobe- 
lin femily,  in  virtue  of  an  edict  of  Louis  XIV.,  styled  it  the 
Hotel  Royal  des  Gobelins,  and  established  on  the  ground  a 
o-reat  manufactory  of  tapestry,  similar  to  that  of  Flanders. 
The  celebrated  painter  Le  Brun  w'as  appointed  director-in- 


( ;  o  T 


450 


GOT 


chief  of  the  weaving  and  dying  patterns.  Under  his  adininis- 
tratiiin  were  produced  many  magiiifici  nt  jiicces  of  tapestry, 
which  have  ever  since  iaeen  the  adniiiation  of  the  world  ; 
such  as  Alexander's  battles,  the  four  seasons,  the  four 
elements,  and  the  history  of  the  principal  events  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  There  is  an  academy  within  the  Gobelins 
lor  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  various  branches  of  the 
fine  arts,  in  physical  science,  and  mccharrics,  subservient  to 
the  irrrprovement  of  the  mairufacture. 

GNOMONIC  COLUMN,  *<•  Column. 

Gnomonic  Projection  of  titk  Spiikue,  that  in  which  the 
eye  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  .sj)here,  and  prxijecls  all 
the  circles  upon  a  plane  tourhirrg  its  srrrface. 

It  is  evident,  that  in  this  jirojeetinn,  all  the  great  cir'cles  of 
the  sphere  are  projected  info  sti'aij;ht  lines,  since  ihey  all  jiass 
tluMrigh  the  centre  of  the  sjiliere.  Every  lesser-  cii'ckrjtarallel 
to  the  plane  of  projection  is  projected  irrti)  a  crrvle.  and  any 
lesser  circle  not  parallel  to  the  plaire  of  jiriiji.clion,  is  projected 
into  one  of  the  corric  sections. 

A  ver-y  excellent  ti'act  rr[)on  the  prcijeetion  of  the  sphere, 
by  Mr-.  Emerson,  contains  lire  frrll  tirrory  of  the  guonromca! 
projection. 

GOCCIOLATOIO,  Sec  Corona. 

GOL.\,  GoLA-DlRETTA,  GuLA-RoVESCIA,  ScC  CvMATIU.M. 

GOLDMAN,  an  anhitectirral  writer,  as  also  a  mathema- 
tician, Ijorn  at  Breslaw,  in  Silesia,  in  the  year  1023,  aird  died 
at  Le\den,  IOCS.  lie  published  his  Elementa  Arcliilectura 
Milikii-ix,  1(543:  another  treatise  of  his,  on  the  same  subject, 
was  published  in  1696,  aeeoirrpanied  with  numerous  engra- 
vings, and  a  life  of  the  author. 

GONKJMErER,  (iVorn  yoyvia,  an  aiKjIc,  and  ^lerpoj,  I 
tneastire)  an  iiistnmient  for-  irreasuring  solid  angles.  A  most 
convenient  instrunrent  fur  this  pmpose  was  invented  by 
Dr.  Wollastcn. 

GONIOMETKICAL  LINES,  lines  used  in  order  to 
determine  the  (juarjtity  of  an  angle.  Srreh  are  the  lines  of 
sines,  tangents,  and  secants,  commonly  placed  upon  plane 
scales,  the  sector,  Guriter's  scale,  &c. 

GORGE.  (French)  a  concave  moulding,  much  less  recessed 
than  a  scotia,  useil  chiefly  on  frames,  chainbranles,  &c. 

GoHOE  is  sometimes  used  for  the  (atrra  recta.  It  is  used 
for  the  necU  of  a  column;  but  it  is  more  ])ioperly  called  col- 
lariiio,  (/orr/eriii,  or  gortje. 

GC)IIGER1N  or  Gorge,  in  architecture  the  little  frieze  in 
tne  Doric  capital,  between  the  astragal  at  the  top  of  the  shaft 
of  the  column,  arrd  the  airnulets.  Some  call  it  coliarino. 
Vitruvius  gives  it  the  name  of  hvpotrachelium. 

GOTHIC  ARCIIirECTURE,  a  title  generally  nnder- 
stood  in  the  present  day  to  apply  to  that  style  of  buililing  in 
which  the  Pointed  ai'ch  is  the  most  j)roniincirt,  though  not 
the  orrly  eharacteri>tic.  The  term  has  been  variorrsly  applied 
at  ditferent  tinres,  and  by  dillervnt  writers,  whether  contem- 
poraneous or  otherwise;  indeed,  so  gi'eat  is  the  cotrfusinn  on 
the  subject,  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  define  the  class  of 
brrildrrrgs  alluded  to  under  this  title.  Some  .■inlhors  inelrrde 
under  the  term  all  style>  of  buildirrg  which  dilfer  fVorri  those 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  and  Rorrrans,  embracing  all  modes  of 
buildirrg  which  wei'e  in  vngue  from  the  decline  of  Classical 
architecture  to  its  revival  in  the  sixteeirth  centur-y.  Olliei's 
limit  the  phrase  to  those  modes  which  prevailed  from  the 
decline  nf  Rumari  art  to  the  iritrodrietioit  of  thi^  Poirrlrd  arch, 
includirrg  lire  Romanesque,  I.ombrrrdic,  Saxon,  and  Norririnr 
styles,  in  ail  of  which  the  semi-circular  arch  was  employed. 
A  thii-d  class  of  writers  apply  the  natrre  solely  to  tlu^  Poirrted 
style,  under  which  restriction  the  term  is  f(>r  the  most  part 
emjiloyed  in  the  present  day.  though  some  would  still  farther 
limit  the  application  by  adopting  it  solely  for  that  division  of 


Pointed  architecture  which  is  by  most  writers  designated 
Pure  or  Dee^irated  Gothic. 

The  term  Gothic  seems  to  have  been  first  brought  into  irse 
by  the  Italirms,  who  applied  it  to  all  styles  of  btrilding  then 
prevalent  which  deviated  from  the  Classic.  Vasari,  an  Italirrn 
architect  who  lived  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  after  speaking  of  Greek  orders,  says,  "there  is  an- 
other kind  called  Gothic  (Tedesca)  which  differs  materiallv 
both  as  to  ornament  and  proportion  from  that  of  ancietrl  and 
modern  date.  So  deficient  is  it  in  systematic  nrles,  that  it 
may  be  deemed  the  order  of  confusion  and  inconsistency.  The 
portals  of  this  descriptioir  of  bnildings,  which  has  so  mrteh 
infested  the  world,  ai'c  adorned  with  slender  columns  eir- 
twined  like  vine-branches,  and  rrnequal  to  sustain  the  weight, 
however  light,  which  is  )i!aeed  above  them.  Indeed,  the 
whole  exterior,  with  its  other  decorations,  its  profusion  of 
canopied  niches  r-aised  above  one  another,  with  so  nnmv  pyra- 
mids, leaves,  and  poitrts,  renders  it  apparcntlv  impossible,  not 
oirly  that  they  shoirld  be  durable,  hut  that  it  shorrld  strpfiort 
itself" — giviirg  the  whole  an  air  of  being  made  of  (la-^teboaril 
rather  than  of  stone  ••md  mrrrble.  This  stvie  was  inveirted  by 
the  (ioths,  who  spread  the  contagion  through  Italy.  May 
God  deliver  every  coirntry  in  future  from  the  ado]iti<iir  of 
platrs,  that  snbstitutiirg  deformity  for  beauty,  are  nnworthy 
of  firrther  attention." 

From  the  description  which  he  gives  in  this  p.issage,  it  will 
be  very  reasoirably  inferred,  that  he  i-efers  to  the  Pointi-d 
stylo  of  architectrtre,  but  it  is  evident  that  he  also  inclrrdes 
the  modes  adopted  on  the  decline  of  Roman  art,  for  he  cites, 
as  examples,  the  palace  of  Theodorie  at  Paventra.  and  the 
churches  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  and  of  St.  Vititlis. 
in  the  same  city,  as  also  other  Itrrildirrgs  of  Lcmiliardic  and 
Byzantine  architecture.  Amongst  the  first  writers  who  inti'o. 
duced  the  term  into  Errgbrnd  was,  we  belii'Ve.  Evelyn,  and  he 
gives  the  following  description  : — "  Gothic  architecture,"  snvs 
he,  "is  a  congestion  of  heavy,  dark,  irrelancholv,  m(>nki>h 
piles,  withorrt  arry  jirst  proportion,  art,  or  beauty  ;"  and  else- 
where he  describes  it  as  "  a  fairtastical  light  species  of  brrild- 
ing."  Sir  Christopher  Wren  confirms  the  use  of  this  term, 
for-,  after  descrilring  edifices  erected  after  this  mode  of  litrild- 
ing  as  "  moirntains  of  stone,  vast  gigantic  buildings,  but  not 
worthy  the  rrame  of  architectme,"  he  says,  "This  we  now 
call  the  (icithic  iriamrer ;  so  the  Italians  called  what  was  irot 
after  the  Roman  style."  In  another  place  our  author  applies 
the  term  Saracenic  to  buildings  in  the  Pointed  .style,  sii|i. 
posing  that  form  of  arch  to  have  been  brought  from  the  I'^ast 
by  the  Crrrsaders.  But  to  show  what  vague  notions  he  held 
upon  the  sniiject,  we  must  add,  that  he  attributes  the  catlr.-- 
dral  of  \Vinehe>ter',  and  the  church  of  St.  Cross,  to  a  period 
preceding  the  Norman  conquest.  Warton's  ideas  upon  rhis 
head  imrst  have  been  also  very  indefinite,  for  he  makes  his 
earliest  division  of  the  style  to  commence  about  A.  D.  ICOO, 
which  he  calls  Gathic  Saxon,  as  distinguished  froiri  the  trrre 
Gothic,  of  which  he  makes  tracery  in  the  window-heads  the 
chief  chai'aeteristic.  ITi^  even  denies  the  title  of  Gothic  to 
Salisbury  cathedral,  which  he  includes  under  the  term  (Jolhie 
Saxon.  Bishop  Warburton  gives  the  name  of  Ni)nn(in  to 
Pointed  arehitecttne,  reserving  thatof  &j-o«  for  those  sty  les 
in  which  the  seirri-circular  arch  picviuled. 

Captain  Grose,  a  few  years  later,  adverting  to  the  n-e  of 
the  title  in  ijuestion,  says,  "  Most  of  the  writer-s  who  mentr..ir 
onr  ancient  buildirrgs.  particularly  the  religious  ones,  trotwitlr- 
staniling  the  strikirrg  difference  in  the  styles  of  their' constrrre- 
tiorr,  class  them  all  under  the  corrrmon  derrominatioir  of 
Gtrthic;  a  general  appellation,  by  them  applied  to  all  build- 
ings not  exactly  coirforniable  to  some  one  of  the  five  orders 
of  architecture.     Our  modern  antiquaries  more  accurately 


GOT 


451 


GOT 


divide  them  into  Saxon,  Norman,  and  Saracenic  ;  or  that 
species  vulgarly,  though  improperly,  called  Golhio." 

Mr.  Bcnlham,  acotemponirv,  jemarks  upon  the  same  suh- 
jeet  as  follows: —  -'The  term  Gothic,  applied  to  architecture, 
was  much  used  liy  our  ance>tor.s  in  the  last  century,  when 
they  were  endeavouring  to  recover  the  ancient  Grecian  or 
Roman  maimer;  whether  they  had  then  a  retrospect  to  those 
particular  times  when  the  Goih-  ruled  in  the  empire,  or  only 
used  it  as  a  term  of  reproach  to  stigmatize  the  productions 
of  ignorant  or  liarliarons  times,  is  not  certain  ;  but  1  think 
they  meant  it  of  IJoman  Architecture:  not  such  certainly  as 
had  been  in  the  :ige  of  Augustus,  but  sirch  as  prevailed  in 
more  degenerate  times,  when  the  art  itself  was  almost  lost, 
and  particularly  after  the  invasion  of  the  Goths  :  in  which 
state  it  continued  many  ages  without  much  alteration.  Of 
this  kind  was  our  Saxon  and  earliest  Norman  maimer  of 
building,  with  circular  arches  and  strong  massive  pillars,  but 
really  liomau  architecture,  and  so  was  called  by  our  Sa.xon 
ancestors  themselves.  Some  writers  call  all  our  ancient 
architecture,  without  distinction  of  round  and  pointed  arches, 
Gothic  ;  though  1  find  of  late  the  fashion  is  to  apply  the 
term  solely  to  the  latter,  the  reason  for  which  is  not  very 
apparent.  The  word  Gothic,  no  doubt,  implies  a  relation 
some  way  or  other  to  the  Goths;  and  if  so,  then  the  old 
Roman  way  of  building  with  round  arches  above  described, 
seems  to  have  the  clearest  title  to  that  appellation  ;  not  that  I 
imagine  the  Goths  invented  or  brought  it  with  them  ;  bulthat 
it  had  its  rise  in  the  Gothic  age,  or  about  the  time  the  Goths 
invaded  Italy.  The  style  of  building  with  pointed  arches  is 
modern,  and  seems  not  to  have  been  known  in  the  world  till 
the  Goths  ceased  to  make  a  figure  in  it.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  thought  this  should  rather  be  called  the  Saracen  way 
of  building  ;  the  first  appearance  of  it  here  was  certainly  in 
the  time  of  the  Crusades  ;  and  th.it  might  induce  him  to 
think  the  archetype  was  brought  hither  by  some  who  had 
been  engaged  in  those  expeditions,  when  they  returned  from 
the  Holy  Land." 

After  these  remarks,  no  one  will  wonder  at  Dr.  Milncr 
complaining  of  the  confusion  and  difficulty  with  which  the 
study  of  Gothic  architecture  had  been  surrounded  by  the 
vague  and  unsettled  manner  in  which  terms  had  been  em- 
ployed by  his  predecessors  and  cotemporaries  who  had  written 
upon  the  subject. 

The  employment  of  the  term  and  its  application  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  an  idea  entertained  by  the  Italians,  that  the 
style  of  building  to  which  they  applied  it  was  introduced  by 
the  Goths  after  their  incursion  into  Italy  ;  this  is  evident 
from  the  expressions  of  Vasari.  above  quoted.  Now.  if  the 
use  of  the  title  were  restricted  to  those  buildhigs  with  round 
arches  which  were  prevalent  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  there  might  be  apparently  some  grounds  for  its 
a>sumptinn,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case  even  with 
the  Italians,  and  certainly  not  with  our  own  countrvmen, 
aUhongli  .Some  of  them  doubtless  thought  that  the  Pointed 
arch  was  an  invention  of  the  Goths,  in  illustration  of  which 
we  quote  a  passage  on  the  subject  from  Sir  Henry  Wolton. 
He  says  : — "  As  for  tliosc  arches  w  hich  our  artisans  call  of  the 
third  and  fourth  point,  and  the  Tuscan  writers  de  tergo  and 
de  quarto  aculo  ;  because  they  always  concur  in  an  acute 
angle,  and  do  spring  from  a  division  of  the  diameter  into 
three,  four,  or  more  parts  at  pleasure.  I  say,  such  as  these, 
both  for  their  natural  imbecility  of  the  sh.irp  angles  them- 
selves, and  likewise  for  their  very  uncoineliness,  ought  to  be 
exiled  from  judicious  eyes,  and  left  to  their  first  inventors  the 
Goths  or  Lombaids,  amongst  other  reliques  of  that  barba- 
rous age. 

Whether  the  Pointed  style,  or  that  previously  existing,  be 


considered  as  invented  by  the  Goths,  the  notion  in  either 
case  is  false  and  without  foundation.  The  Goths  had  no 
architecture  of  their  own  ;  and  not  only  arc  (hey  innocent  of 
introducing  any  new  style  into  Italy,  but  more  than  that,  they 
do  not  seem  to  have  caused  any  alteration  in  the  old.  What 
ch;inges  did  take  place  arose  very  naturally  from  the  gradual 
decline  of  art.  It  is  not  our  intention  in  this  place  to  enter 
into  any  discussion  on  the  origin  of  Gothic  Architecture  ;  we 
defer  that  fm-  a  future  paper  on  Pointed  AnciiriECTi  ke  ; 
all  we  desire  to  state  at  present,  is  that  neither  the  Pointed 
style  nor  that  preceding,  in  which  the  semi-circular  arch  ci>n- 
tinued  to  be  employed,  were  introduced  by  the  Goths  ;  and 
that,  iherefiire,  the  term  Gothic  could  not  justly  be  ap|)lied 
to  them  on  that  score. 

By  many  writers  the  teim  is  doubtless  used  as  a  term  of 
reproach,  and  is  intended  as  e(fuivalent  to  the  words — unci- 
vilized, barbarous  ;  on  which  account,  many  persons  of  the 
present  day  have  objected  to  its  continued  use.  At  the  time 
of  the  revival  of  classical  architecture,  or  rather  of  the  adap- 
t<vtion  of  classic  orders  and  details  to  modern  architecture,  the 
excellencies  of  Pointed  architecture  were  but  little  under- 
stood or  appreciated  ;  and  hence  the  desire  to  stigmatize  it  as 
barbarous.  Since  then,  however,  the  prejudice  for  the  orders 
has  ceased,  and  Gothic  art  is  viewed  with  a  more  favour- 
able, and,  we  may  add,  more  experienced  eye,  and  men  are 
desirous  of  rescuing  it  from  any  stigma,  even  though  it  be 
but  a  ncmiinal  one. 

From  this  cause,  many  names  have  been  suggested  in  lieu 
of  the  contemptuous  Gothic,  amongst  which  we  may  eiiume 
rate  the  following — Christian,  Calliolic,  English,  and  Pointed 
— as  being  the  most  usual.  It  is  true  the  word  Gothic  is 
ill-devised,  insignilicant,  and  entirely  inapplicable,  yet  we 
cannot  think  that  any  of  the  terms  proposed  are  sufficiently 
expressive  to  explode  a  title  of  so  long  standing  and  such 
universal  acceptation.  The  term  was  originally,  without 
doubt,  employed  as  a  mark  of  reproach,  but  uow-adays  no 
such  meaning  is  implied  by  it,  and  no  one  is  misled  by  its 
use.  In  applying  the  term  now,  no  one  ever  thinks  of  its 
original  intention,  but  considers  it  solely  as  a  phrase  descrip- 
tive of  a  certain  class  c)f  buildings,  of  which  each  man  forms 
his  opinion,  quite  independently  of  its  appellation.  Even 
supposing  we  were  to  explode  this  expression,  what  could  be 
substituted  in  its  place  :  no  one  term  has  been  universally 
agreed  upon  ;  and  we  should  have  a  general  scramble,  each 
partisan  seeking  to  adopt  his  own  peculiar  title,  and  probal)ly 
maintaining  it  to  the  utmost  of  his  power;  so  that  instead  of 
one,  we  should  have  several  titles,  each  striving  for,  but  none 
obtaining  universal  adoption. 

We  submit,  that  it  is  better  to  have  one  term  well  cstab 
lished,  even  though  it  be  confessedly  a  very  incorrect  one, 
than  several  exceptionable  ones  of  only  partial  nse. 

Sir  James  Hall  speaks  to  the  point  when  he  says  :  "  In 
the  present  unsettled  state  of  public  opinion,  both  with 
respect  to  the  origin  and  the  history  of  this  style,  I  have 
judged  it  best  to  attemjit  no  innovation  in  this  iivalter,  and 
have  made  use  of  the  name  of  Gothic  ArcliHeclitre  ;  which, 
though  certainly  no  less  objectionable  tlian  many  of  those 
that  have  been  ofieied  to  the  public,  has  the  advantage  of 
being  universally  known  and  understood  amongst  us." 

The  two  first  names  which  we  have  mentioned  as  proposed 
substitutes  for  the  word  Gothic,  namely.  Christian  and 
Catholic,  are  objectionable,  on  the  grounds  that  this  is  not 
the  only  style  which  is  entitled  to  such  designations.  Both 
Lombardic  and  Byzantine  were  styles  adopted  by  the  Chris- 
tian church  ;  nay  more,  in  a  certain  sense  ihey  may  be  saicj 
to  have  been  of  Christian  growth.  !Mr.  Pngiu  contends,  that 
although  other  styles  have  been  employed  in  eaily  ages,  they 


(iU  1' 


452 


( ;  o  T 


were  rather  cif  Pagan  origin,  or  arose  from  unsuccessful 
imitations  of  Pagan  buildings  ;  in  fact,  tliat  tlioy  were  mere 
maive-sliifis.  used  only  for  a  temporary  purpose,  until  a  more 
perfect  system,  and  one  more  tliomuglily  Cliiistian,  should 
arise.  We  are  most  willing  to  admit  liiat  Gothic  architecture 
is  the  perfection  of  Christian  art,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
cannot  injustice  allow  its  e.xclusive  title  to  that  term.  The 
tjjird  term  can  only  be  of  partial  application,  and  only  then 
correctly  employed  when  applied  to  the  style  as  practised  in 
our  own  country  :  the  theory  that  Gothic  architecture  origi- 
nated in  this  country,  hiis,  we  believe,  been  long  since 
e.xploded.  The  term  Pointed,  thongh  on  many  accounts  a 
Very  correct  one,  is  still  open  to  similar  objections  to  those 
ui-god  against  the  two  first,  inasmuch  as  it  would  naturally 
include  other  styles  besides  the  one  to  which  it  is  intended  to 
be  applied. 

Ill  the  quotjitions  which  we  have  above  introduced  from 
writers  of  the  last  two  centuries,  we  have  been  necessitated 
to  admit  some  contemptuous  and  opprobrious oi)servations  on 
the  merits  of  Gothic  buildings,  when  compared  with  those  of 
Greece  and  Rome  ;  but  we  cannot  permit  such  remarks  to 
pass  by  unheeded.  At  the  period  of  what  is  called  the  revival 
of  classic  art,  such  unworthy  opinions  ;ls  those  we  have 
alluded  to  were  far  from  uncommon  ;  indeed,  it  was  feshion- 
able  in  those  days  to  stigmatize  everything  belonging  to  the 
middle  ages  as  dark  iind  barbarous,  and  no  (jne  could  give 
better  proof  of  his  admiration  of  classic  antii^uity  than  by 
reviling  and  sneering  at  every  other  kind  of  art,  more  espe- 
cially at  that  which  thiealened  a  most  dangerous  rivalrv. 
The  quotations  which  we  have  already  given  on  this  head 
have  been  taken  from  Vasaii,  Wotton,  Evelyn,  and  Wren  ; 
we  will  now  give  some  more  extracts  of  the  same  teiidincv, 
taken,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  writings  of  the  last-named 
architect.  In  his  Parcnlalia,  he  says  :  '•  It  was  after  the 
irruptions  of  swarms  of  those  truculent  people  from  the  north, 
the  Mnors  and  Arabs  from  the  south  and  east,  overimmiiig 
the  civilised  world,  that  wherever  they  fixed  themselves,  thev 
began  to  debauch  this  noble  and  useful  ait,  when  instead  of 
those  beautiful  orders  so  majestical  and  proper  f  jr  their 
stations,  becoming  variety,  and  other  ornamental  accessories, 
they  set  up  those  slender  and  misshapen  pillars — or,  rather 
bundles  of  staves  and  other  incongruous  props — to  support 
incumbent  weights  and  ponderous  arched  roofs,  without 
entablature  ;  and  though  not  without  great  industry,  not 
all  ogether  naked  of  gaudy  sculpture,  trite  and  busy  carvings; 
it  is  such  as  gluts  the  eye,  rather  than  gratifies  and  pleases 
with  any  reasonable  satisfaction.  For  proof  of  this,  without 
travelling  far  abroad,  I  dare  report  myself  to  any  man  of 
judgment,  and  that  has  the  least  taste  for  order  and  magnifi- 
cence, if,  after  he  has  looked  a  while  upon  King  Henry 
VII.'s  chapel  at  Westminster — gazed  upon  its  sharp  angles, 
jetties,  narrow  lights,  lame  statues,  lace,  and  otiier  out- work 
and  crinkle-erankle,  and  shall  then  turn  his  eyes  on  the 
Banijueting  House,  built  at  Whitehall  by  Iiiigo  Jones,  after 
the  ancient  maimer  ;  or  on  what  his  majesty's  surveyor  has 
done  at  St.  Paul's,  and  consider  what  a  glorious  object  the 
cupola,  porticoes,  colonnades,  and  other  parts  present  to  the 
beholder;  let  him  well  consider  and  compare  them  judicially, 
without  partiality  and  prejudice,  and  then  pronounce  whieh 
of  the  two  manners  strikes  the  understanding,  as  well  as  the 
eye,  with  more  majestic  and  solemn  greatness,  though  they, 
in  so  much  plainer  and  more  simple  dres.s,  conform  to  the 
respective  orders  and  entablature,  and,  accordingly,  determine 
to  whom  the  preference  is  due.  Not,  as  we  have  said,  there 
is  not  something  solid,  and  oddly  artificial,  too,  after  a  sort ; 
but  the  universal  and  unreasonable  thickness  of  the  walls, 
clumsy  buttresses,  towers,  sharp-pointed  arches,  doors,  and 


other  apertures,  without  proportion  ;  nonsensical  insertions 
of  various  kinds  of  marbles  impertinently  placed;  turrets  and 
piniiacU-s.  thick  set  with  monkeys  and  chimeras,  and  abun- 
dance of  busy-work  and  other  incongruities,  dis-ipate  and 
break  the  angles  of  the  sight,  and  so  confound  it  that  one 
cannot  consider  it  with  any  steadiness  where  to  begin  (u-  end  ; 
taking  off  that  noble  air  and  grandeur,  bold  anil  graeefiil 
maimer,  which  the  ancients  had  so  well  and  judiiiouslv 
established."  "  Nothing  was  thought  magnificent  that  was 
not  high  beyond  measure,  with  the  (lutter  of  arch-but tre>;ses 
— so  we  call  the  sloping  arches  that  poise  the  higher  vaulting 
of  the  nave.  The  Romans  always  concealed  their  butmeiits; 
whereas  the  Normans  thought  them  ornamental.  Those,  [ 
have  observed,  are  the  first  things  that  occasion  the  ruin  of 
cathedrals  ;  being  so  much  exposed  to  the  air  and  weather, 
the  coping,  which  cannot  defend  them,  first  felling,  anil,  if 
they  give  way,  the  vault  must  spread.  Pinnacles  are  of  no 
use,  and  of  little  ornament.  The  pride  of  a  very  high  roof 
raised  above  a  reasonable  pitch  is  not  fiir  duration."  Else- 
where s|)eaking  of  their  coii>t ruction,  he  says  :  "Few  stones 
were  used  but  what  a  man  might  carry  up  a  ladder  on  his 
back  from  stallold  to  scairiid,  though  they  had  pulleys  and 
spoked  wheels  upon  ooeasiim  ;  but  having  rejected  cornices, 
they  had  no  need  of  great  engines.  Stone  upon  stone  was 
easily  piled  up  to  great  heights,  therefore  the  pride  of  their 
work  was  in  pinnacles  and  steeples."  "The  Gothic  way 
carried  all  their  mouldings  perpendicular,  so  that  they  had 
nothing  else  to  do  but  spire  up  all  they  could."  "They 
aflfected  steeples,  though  the  Saracens  themselves  used 
cupolas." 

We  do  not  feel  so  much  surprised  at  such  expressions 
escaping  men  unattached  to  the  profession,  or  even  Vasari, 
for  he  was  an  Italian,  and  therefore  naturally  biassed  in  f  ivour 
of  classic  art  ;  but  to  hear  such  opinions  from  a  man  like  Sir 
Christopher,  must  ever  be  a  subject  for  wonder  and  regret. 
Wren  was,  without  controversy,  a  man  of  great  talents  and 
high  attainments  ;  of  considerable  taste,  and  of  unusual 
scientific  knowledge  ;  nor  was  he  ignorant  either  of  the  nature 
of  Gothic  architecture — for  he  had  made  a  special  profes- 
sional examination  of  its  finest  examples — or  of  its  princi- 
ples ;  for  as  we  believe,  he  learned  much  from  them,  and 
applied  them  in  his  own  buildings.  That  prejudice  shou'd 
have  extorted  from  sueh  a  man  such  unhappy  tirades  in  con- 
demnation of  Mediaeval  art,  is,  we  repeat,  at  once  a  matter 
for  wonder  and  regret.  It  is  pitiable  to  hear  such  a  man 
challenging  his  predecessors  with  so  great  self-satisfaction, 
and  inviting  a  comparison  between  his  own  works  and  theirs; 
complaining,  too.  of  their  faulty  construction  and  useless 
ornaments,  when  he  himself  received  no  little  scientific  infor- 
mation .at  their  hands  ;  and  as  regards  the  useless  ornamenis 
— if  indeed,  we  do  not  give  him  too  much  credit  for  con- 
structive skill — was  not  only  aware  of  their  practical  utility, 
but  even  adopted  their  prineipic,  though  in  a  less  skilful 
manner,  in  his  own  vaunted  Cathedral.  But  we  will  not 
rest  satisfied  with  our  own  authority.  Since  Wrens  time, 
!Medi;cval  art  has  met  with  less  pu-ejudiced  juilges  ;  and  many 
writers  of  hii;hst:uiding,  and  architects  of  well  known  abilitv, 
have  given  ample  testimony  in  its  favour.  It  is  now  more 
fully  understood,  and  its  beauties  better  appreciated  ;  in 
short,  Gothic  art  is  now  what  Classic  was  in  Wren's  days — - 
the  "  fashion."  But  ere  we  proceed  to  bring  forward  any 
more  favourable  witnesses,  let  us  do  Wren  justice,  and  give 
another  extract  from  his  works,  which  tends  in  some  measure 
to  quality  his  previous  language. 

Even  he  recognizes,  in  some  few  buildings  of  this  style, 
"  a  discernment  of  no  contemptible  art,  ingenuity,  and  geo- 
m.'trical  skill,  in  their  design  and  execution."     Also — "  Thus 


GOT 


453 


GOT 


the  work  required  fewer  materials,  and  the  workmanship  was, 
for  the  most  part,  performed  by  flat  moulds,  in  which  the  war- 
dens could  easily  instruct  hundreds  of  artificers.  It  must  be 
confessed,  this  was  an  ingenious  compendium  of  work  suited 
to  these  northern  climates  ;  and,  1  must  also  own,  that  works 
of  the  same  height  and  magnificence  in  the  Roman  way, 
would  be  very  much  more  expensive  than  in  the  other 
(iothic  manner,  managed  with  judgment." 

But  to  pass  on  to  later  writers — Rev.  J.  Milner,  alluding 
to  Evelyn  and  Wren"s  remarks,  says — "  Every  man  who  has 
an  eye  to  see,  and  a  soul  to  feel,  on  entering  into  York  Min- 
ster and  (/hapter- House,  or  into  King's  College  or  Windsor 
Chapel,  or  into  the  cathedrals  of  Lincoln  or  Winchester,  is 
irresistibly  struck  with  mingled  impressions  of  awe  and  plea- 
sure which  no  other  buildini;s  are  capable  of  producing;  and 
however  he  may  approve  of  the  Grecian  architecture  for  the 
purposes  of  civil  and  social  life,  j'et  he  instinctively  expe- 
riences in  the  former  a  frame  of  mind  that  fits  him  for  prayer 
and  contemplation,  which  all  the  boasted  regularity  and  mag- 
nificence of  Sir  Christopher's  and  the  nation's  pride,  I  mean 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  cannot  communicate,  at  least,  in  the  same 
degree." 

Bishop  Warburton  says — "  Our  Gothic  ancestors  had 
juster  and  manlier  notions  of  magnificence  on  Greek  and 
Roman  ideas,  than  those  mimics  of  taste  who  profess  to  study 
only  classic  elegance  ;  and  because  the  thing  does  honour 
to  the  genius  of  those  barbarians,  1  will  endeavour  to 
explain  it." 

.Mr.  Dallaway  .says — "Certain  it  is,  that  the  Gothic 
churehcs,  whatever  be  the  peculiar  manner  of  their  era, 
piesent  their  beauties  to  every  eye.  We  cannot  contemplate 
them  without  discovering  a  majestic  air  well  worthy  of  their 
destination,  with  a  knowledge  of  what  is  profound  in  the  sci- 
enci;and  practice  of  building,  and  a  boldness  of  construction, 
of  which  classic  antiquity  furnishes  no  examples." 

The  f  illowing  words  of  Coleridge  are  remarkable  :  in  com- 
paring the  Classic  and  Gothic  modes  of  architecture,  he  says, 
— "The  Greek  art  is  beautiful.  When  I  enter  a  Greek 
church,  my  eye  is  charmed  and  my  mind  elated  ;  I  feel  exalted, 
and  proud  that  I  am  a  man.  But  the  Gothic  art  is  sublime. 
On  entering  a  cathedral,  1  am  filled  with  devotion  and  with 
awe  ;  1  am  lost  to  the  actualities  that  surround  me,  and  my 
whole  being  expands  into  the  infinite;  earth  and  air,  nature 
and  art,  all  sweep  up  into  eternity,  and  the  only  sensible 
impression  left  is,  that  1  am  nothing." 

Whewell,  referring  to  the  use  of  the  word  Gothic  as  a  term 
of  reproach,  says — "  If  we  would  employ  the  term  barbarous 
with  any  significance,  it  is  not  to  be  applied  to  one  style  of 
art  merely  because  it  differs  from  another.  A  Gothic  build- 
ing is  no  more  barbarous  than  a  Grecian  one,  if  the  ideas 
which  govern  its  forms  be  fully  understood  and  executed  : 
hut  those  attempts  rather  are  to  be  called  barbarous,  which 
imitate  the  features  .)f  good  models,  and  which,  not  catching 
the  principle  of  the  art,  e.xhibit  such  parts  incongruously  com- 
posed and  imperfectly  developed.  In  writing  Greek,  an 
Anglicism  is  a  barbarism  ;  but  we  shall  not  be  willing  to  allow 
English  to  be  barbarous,  because  it  is  not  Greek  ;  and  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two  is  equally  barbarous,  whether  it  pretends  to 
be  one  or  the  other." 

Mr.  Poole,  a  recent  writer  on  the  subject,  is  very  warm  in 
his  admiration :  he  says — "But  there  arose  in  the  west  in 
the  middle  ages  a  style  of  architecture  growing  in  all  its  parts 
and  characters  out  of  the  wants  of  the  church;  and  adapting 
itself  to  the  expression  of  the  very  things  which  she  desires 
to  express  in  all  her  methods  of  embodying  herself  to  the 
eyes  of  the  world,  and  to  the  hearts  of  her  sons.  And  so 
entirely  did  this  style  arise  out  of  the  strivings  of  the  church 


to  give  a  bodily  form  to  her  teaching,  that  it  seems  to  have 
clothed  her  spirit,  almost  as  if  the  invisible  things  liad  put 
forth  their  unseen,  but  powerful  and  plastic  ener;;ies,  and 
gathered  around  them  on  all  sides  the  very  forms  and  figures 
which  might  best  serve  to  embody  them  to  the  eye  of  sense. 
A  Gothic  church  in  its  perfection  is  an  exposition  of  the  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  of  Chiistianity,  clotlied  upon  with  a  i-uite- 
rial  form;  and  is,  as  Coleridge  has  more  forcibly  expres.-ed, 
'  the  petrifaction  of  our  religion,'  or,  as  it  has  been  expressed 
by  a  mind  essentially  differing  from  Coleridge's,  which  makes 
the  coincidence  the  more  remarkable,  '  the  divine  order  and 
economy  of  the  one  seems  to  be  emblematically  set  forth  by 
the  just,  plain,  and  majestic  architecture  of  the  other;  and  as 
the  one  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  parts  united  in  the  same 
regular  design  according  to  the  truestar!  and  most  exact  pro- 
portion, so  the  other  contains  a  decent  suliordination,  various 
sacred  institutions,  sublime  doctrines,  and  solid  precepts  of 
morality,  digested  into  the  same  design,  and  with  an  admi- 
rable concurrence  tending  to  one  view, — the  happiness  and 
exaltation  of  human  nature.' 

"  Much  has  been  said  about  the  proper  designation  of  this 
style.  The  term  Gothic  has  use  on  its  side  to  so  great  a 
degree,  that  it  will  never  be  superseded,  and  though  it  has 
no  truth  in  it  at  all,  and  was  at  first  given  in  ignorant  derision, 
one  would  scarce  wish  it  altered  ;  the  style  wiiich  it  desig- 
nates is  exclusively  Christian,  and  it  is  nothing  new  or  dis- 
pleasing to  that  which  is  distinctively  Christian,  to  take  a  name 
from  a  scorner,  and  to  convert  the  opprobrium  into  a  glory. 

"  Such  then  is  Gothic  architecture  : — theological,  ecclesi- 
astical, and  mystical,  in  all  its  parts  and  characters.  It  grew 
to  its  perfection  both  in  general  design,  and  in  more  minute 
details  of  ornament  and  execution,  during  many  successive 
generations;  and  although  we  have  few  churches  entire  and 
unmixed  of  its  earliest  forms,  we  have  remains  more  or  less 
perfect  in  almost  every  variation  in  its  style,  from  the  Nor- 
man of  the  twelfth  century,  to  the  elaborate  perpendicular  of 
the  Tudor." 

We  conclude  with  the  following  remonstrance  from  Mr. 
Pugin,  a  gentleman  to  whom  we  are  pre-eminently  indebted 
for  his  perseverance  in  the  study  and  defence  of  Media'vai  art, 
and  to  whose  "  Contrasts,"  although  somewhat  overdrawn, 
we  would  beg  to  refer  the  reader,  as  apropt)s  to  the  question 
before  us. 

Mr.  Pugin  says — "  Before  true  taste  and  Christian  feelings 
can  be  revived,  all  the  present  and  popular  ideas  on  the  sub- 
ject must  be  utterly  changed.  Men  must  learn,  that  the 
period  hitherto  called  dark  and  ignorant,  far  excelled  our 
age  in  wisdom,  that  art  ceased  when  it  is  said  to  have  been 
revived,  that  superstition  was  piety,  and  bigotry  faith.  The 
most-celebrated  luimes  and  characters  nuist  give  place  to 
others  at  present  scarcely  known,  and  the  fanwus  edifices  of 
modern  Europe  sink  into  ma.sses  of  deformity  by  the  side 
of  the  neglected  and  mouldering  piles  of  Catholic  antiquity. 
If  the  renunciation  of  preconceived  opinions  on  this  subject, 
and  the  conse(iuent  loss  of  the  present  enjoyment  derived 
from  them,  be  considered  as  a  great  sacrifice,  does  not  the 
new  and  <rlorious  field  that  is  opened  offer  far  more  than  an 
equivalent?  What  delight,  to  trace  a  race  of  native  artists 
hitherto  vniknown, in  whosedespised  and  neglected  firoductions 
the  most  mystical  feeling  and  chaste  execution  is  to  be  f.und, 
and  in  whose  beautiful  eompositions  the  originals  of  many  of 
the  most  celebrated  (lictures  of  more  modern  schools  are  to 
be  traced!  what  exquisite  remains  of  the  sculptor's  skill  lie 
buried  under  the  green  mounds  that  mark  the  site  of  once 
noble  churches  !  what  oriuinality  of  conception  and  mastiTly 
execution  do  not  the  details  of  many  rural  and  parochial 
churches  exhibit !     There  is  no  need  of  visiting  the  distant 


GOT 


454 


GOT 


shores  of  Greece  and  E;iypt,  to  make  discoveries  in  art. 
Ensjland  alone  abounds  in  hidden  and  unknown  antiquilies, 
of  surpassing  iutc-rest." 

Of  the  peiuliar  effect  produced  upon  the  mind  by  Gothic 
edifices,  and  of  the  principles  upon  which  its  excellencies 
depend,  Milner  fjives  us  the  following  explanation: — "The 
eye  is  quickly  satiated  by  any  object,  however  great  and  miig- 
niliceiit,  which  it  can  take  in  all  at  once,  as  the  mind  is  with 
what  it  can  completely  comprehend;  but  when  the  former, 
having  wandered  through  the  intricate  and  interminable 
length  of  a  [loiiited  vault  in  an  ancient  cathedral,  discovers 
two  pa'allel  linesof  eipial  length  and  richness  wiih  it;  thence 
proceeding  discovers  the  transepts,  the  side  chapels,  the  choir, 
the  sanctuary,  and  the  ladye  chapel,  all  equally  interesting 
for  their  desii;n  and  execution,  and  all  of  them  calculated  for 
different  jiurposes;  the  eye,  1  say,  in  these  circumstances  is 
certainly  much  more  entertained,  and  the  mind  more  dilated 
and  giatiticd,  than  can  possibly  be  effected  by  any  single 
view,  even  though  our  modern  architects  should  succeed  in 
their  attempts  to  make  one  entire  swe^p  of  the  contents  of  a 
cathedral,  in  order  to  show  it  all  at  a  single  view,  and  to  make 
one  vast  empty  room  of  the  whole." 

Mr.  Poole  adds — '•  But  surely  some  part  of  the  effect  of  a 
Gothic  catheilral  resides  in  that  very  excess  of  length  over 
breadth,  atfoj-ding  a  long  perspective,  directing  the  eye 
towards  the  altar,  through  an  avenue  of  oft-repealed  similar 
parts,  and  creating,  as  it  were,  an  arlifieial  infinite.  The  roof 
as  Well  as  the  walls  of  a  Gothic  building  is  so  composed  as  to 
help  this  effect  to  the  utmost.  Groin  beyond  groin,  boss 
beyond  boss,  pendant  beyond  pendant,  is  seen, — first  of  all 
each  distinct  and  clear,  but  by  degrees  approaching  and 
touching  one  another  in  the  perspective,  and  at  last,  lost  in 
the  complexity — not  confusion,  but  complexity — of  the  whole. 
The  plain  becomes  obscure,  the  defined  indefinite,  in  the  long- 
drawn  distance. 

"  Even  irrc'gul.-u'ity  of  structure  lends  its  aid  to  produce 
this  erteet,  and  irregularity  is  a  beauty  purelv  G"thic.  The 
eye  that  wanders  in  an  oblique  direction,  travels  thiough  the 
nearer  arches  to  some  unexpected  aisle  or  chapel,  and  seems 
lost  in  an  undefined  distance.  It  is  scared  v  possible  to  exag- 
gerate the  effect  of  this  combination  of  elevation,  length,  and 
irregularity,  so  averse  from  the  Grecian  concinnity  and  uni- 
formity ;  especially  when  they  are  helped  by  the  dim  religious 
ligiit  poured  ihiough  the  painted  windows. 

"  Fancy  yoursi'lf  f()r  a  moment  standing  just  within  the 
great  western  entrance  of  one  of  our  cathedrals,  and  you  will 
feel  what  is  meant  by  breadth  in  architectural  efieet.  The 
eye  is  of  cour.sc  directed  eastward,  and  there  it  has  its  point  of 
repose  ;  and  the  great  east  window  limits  its  view,  at  a  dis- 
tance, which,  with  all  the  accessories  before  mentioned-,  seems 
indefinite.  But  the  aisles  at  either  hand  have  absolutely  no 
termination  to  the  mind's  eye.  For  a  while  you  see  through 
the  intervening  arches  ;  but  you  see  less  and"  less  at  each 
interval,  and  long  before  the  actual  termination  of  the  aisle, 
the  piers,  approaching  one  another  in  the  perspective,  close 
upon  the  unfinished  view.  The  mind's  eye  goes  forward, 
while  the  eye  of  sense  is  arrested.  The  limit  is  as  effectual 
as  if  it  had  been  abrupt ;  but  it  is  so  gradual  that  yon  scarce 
feel  where  it  occurred.  There  is  a  perfect  consciousness  of 
the  length  beyond,  notwithstanding  the  absolute  impossibility 
of  discerning  it." 

Thus  much  for  the  impngners  and  apologists  of  Gothic 
architecture; — it  will  a|)pear  somewhat  incredible  that  so 
great  a  difiereiice  of  opinion  should  exist  amongst  men  all 
eminent  for  taste  and  judgment,  but  such  is  the  case;  what 
in  Wren's  time  was  considered  barbarous,  is  now  upheld  as 
scientific  and   beautiful.     We  follow  the  taste  of  our  age, 


which  we  believe  to  be  correct,  and  maintain  the  superiority 
of  Gothic  over  Classical  art,  not  only  as  regards  its  general 
effect,  but  also  in  scientific  construction,  correct  and  tasteful 
ornamentation,  accommodation,  and  gi'neral  convenience.  In 
our  previous  extracts  we  have  alluded  more  especi.illy  to  the 
general  effect  of  the  two  styles,  we  will  now  touch  upon  each 
of  the  other  qualities  seriatim,  and,  in  doing  so,  we  shall  give, 
as  before,  greater  prominence  to  the  opinions  of  those  who 
have  arrived  at  a  high  standing  in  their  profession,  and  prin- 
cipally of  those  who  have  devoted  their  time  specially  to  this 
subject,  than  toany  observations  of  ourown  ;  as  we  deem  their 
authority  will  carry  more  weight  with  it  than  anything  we 
can  say.  We  neeff  only  mention  the  names  of  Pngin  and 
Bartholomew,  Willis,  and  Whew  ell,  to  obtain  an  attentive 
perusal,  and  would  refer  our  readers  for  more  extensive 
information  on  the  subject  than  our  space  will  allow  of,  to 
the  standard  works  of  those  gentlemen. 

In  some  of  the  (extracts  from  the  Pareii/alia,  previously 
given,  we  hear  Wren  inveighing  a-.'ainst  the  Mcdiicval  builders 
on  account  of  their  rude  and  unskiHul  construction;  we  con- 
trast their  remarks  with  some  others  on  the  same  subject  by 
the  late  Mr.  Bartholomew,  than  whom  we  could  scarcely 
havea  more  impartial  judge  fir  while  on  ihe  one  hand  he  is 
a  great  adnurer  of  the  Medi;uval  architects,  he  is  no  hss  pre- 
disposed in  favour  of  Wren,  on  whose  scientific  skill  in  con- 
struction, he  is  continually  [lOuring  firth  the  most  warm — we 
had  almost  said  the  most  extravagant — encomiums.  Let  us 
hear  what  are  his  opinions  in  this  controversy  ;  thev  are 
expressed  as  follows: — 

"  During  the  middle  ages,  geoitietrical  science  w-as  applied 
to  architecture  in  the  loveliest  manner ;  ihegeueral  plan,  the 
columns,  the  arches,  the  doors,  the  windows,  the  galleries, 
the  vaulting,  the  flying  buttresses,  every  panel,  every  com- 
partment, the  most  minute  ornament,  exhibited  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  that  profound  and  masterly  science,  without 
which  building  becomes  vicious,  cumbrous,  expensive,  mean, 
fragile,  absurd  and  disgusting. 

"  ,\fter  the  decline  of  (ioihie  architecture,  a  foolish  notion 
went  abro.ad  in  the  world,  that  enmbrousness  and  extrava- 
gance of  material  were  char.acteristics  of  (iothic  architec- 
ture;  even  that  great  and  talented  man,  John  Evelyn,  who 
possessed  a  very  superior  knowledge  of  architecture,  enter- 
tained the  then  current  opinion  :  but  of  late,  mankind  have 
become  strangely  tnideceive.d  on  this  point ;  and  the  plans 
and  sections  of  ancient  and  moileru  buildings,  brought  toge- 
ther in  parallel,  now  fill  the  mind  with  astonishment,  that  so 
comparatively  small  a  quantity  of  materi.ils,  and  those  fre- 
quently of  minor  quality,  could  have  been  piled  up  to  exist, 
with  little  failure  or  decay,  such  a  long  course  of  time.  It  is 
not  that  Gothic  buildings  are  always  perfect  in  construction, 
but  in  general  they  are  nearly  so  ;  in  fact,  so  light  are  some 
of  them,  that  they  need  move  substance,  as  well  as  harder 
materials,  to  resist  the  mere  operation  of  time  upon  their  sur- 
faces. The  (Jothic  architects  always  built  with  the  greatest 
economy  :  when  scjuare  stone  w.is  easily  procurable,  tliey 
formed  their  walls  very  thin  ;  but  when,  from  thelength  of  the 
carriiige  of  it,  it  became  costly,  they  used  for  their,  walls  the 
most  ordiiniry  rubble-stone  of  the  country,  and  they  then 
gave  to  their  walls  thickness  sufficient  to  prevent  them  from 
rending  and  rolling  apart  from  the  fluent  nature  of  their 
materials." 

Elsewhere  he  says — "Now  the  Mediasval  Christian  builders 
arrived  to  such  a  delicate  and  intimate  acquaintance  with 
architectural  dynamics,  that,  by  the  discovery  of  the  way  in 
which  all  the  particles  of  their  materials  are  atfected  by  gra- 
vity, they  were  enabled,  by  merely  subjecting  them  to  fran- 
gibility  caused  by  compression,  so  to  economize  them  and 


GOT 


455 


GOT 


reduce  their  quantity,  that  many  members  of  Gothic  eilifices 
aftoi  five  hiimlrod  ye:irs' devastation  by  time,  are  more  sound 
than  c<'rres|Hindiiig  meniljors-  of  our  modern  buildings  whieh 
have  not  subsisted  fifty  years,  and  whieh  contain  five  times 
tiieir  proportion  of  materials. 

"  It  was  this  scientific  economy  which  enabled  those  real 
jiagicians  to  rear  up  securely  their  works  so  high  towards 
heaven  in  the  beauty  of  architectural  holiness  ;  it  was  this 
Scientific  economy  wiiich  left  them  money  enough  to  cover 
their  sweet  fabrics  within  and  without  with  the  richest 
intaglio,  and  the  goldsmith's  work  of  heaven,  while  their 
patrons  grumbled  not,  nor  grudged  the  rich  profusion,  but 
joined  heart  and  soul  in  the  goodly  work,  and  the  wise  and 
noble  f:d)ricalor  neeiled  none  of  that  kind  of  over-persuasion, 
or  cajolery,  or  intentional  misunderstanding,  or  tasteful  out- 
witting, by  which  alone  the  modern  architect  is  frequently 
enabled  to  wiing  from  his  etnployer  other  than  bare  walls; 
this  scientific  economy  rendered  unnecessary  the  rabble  of 
cement-makers  and  sand-concreters — those  spendthrift  em- 
pirics, whieh  suck  out  the  brains  of  architecture,  rifle  her 
pockets,  violate  her  chastity,  bruise  her  face  to  a  minnmy, 
and  then  cover  it  with  oil-plasters  and  cosmetics  of  white- 
wash and  iron  oxide. 

'■So  admirable  in  general  is  the  skill  displayed  in  the 
dynamic  disposition  of  the  material  of  a  Gothic  cathedral ; 
so  shrewdly  are  the  forces  of  its  gravitation  reduced  to  sim- 
ple compression,  that  the  whole  is  like  a  wonderful  piece  of 
shoring,  sublimely  and  permanently  imitated  in  stone.  He 
who  compares  its  flying- buttresses  to  a  piece  of  wood-scafitjld- 
ing,  at  once  confesses  that  it  is  raised  with  that  art  which 
emanates  fiom  the  workman's  most  delicate  and  anxious 
caution." 

In  truth,  the  erections  of  this  style  are  but  the  embodi- 
ments of  constructive  science,  not  only-  does  the  main  form 
and  general  outline  depeml  thereon,  l)ut  even  those  pecu- 
liarities which  an  unpractised  eye  would  be  tempted  to  esteem 
mere  decoration  :  but  those  who  have  made  themselves  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  are  well  aware  that  the  Medieeval 
architects  never  constructed  decoration,  but  decorated  con- 
struction ;  they  made  their  building  perfect,  and  then  applied 
their  ornament  with  most  correct  judgment  and  refined  taste. 
A  (iothic  building  is  a  practical  illustration  of  the  principle 
of  the  arch,  and  of  its  ap|i|ication  in  the  most  perfect  firm. 
We  had  almost  termed  it  the  extension  and  perfection  of 
Roman  architecture,  for  they  were  the  first  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciple, but  only  in  a  partial  and  imperfect  manner  ;  the  idea 
was  new  to  them,  and  they  did  not  fully  comprehend  it,  they 
did  not  understand  its  universal  applicability,  and  therefore 
only  partially  adopted  it.  In  their  buildings  many  of  the 
forms  of  Grecian  architecture  still  remained  ;  they  were  fet- 
tered by  its  rules,  by  its  influence,  and  thereljy  prevented 
from  bringing  their  new  theory  to  perfection.  They  had 
been  used  to  the  forms,  they  knew  of  no  others,  and  hence 
arises  their  inconsistency.  Roman  architecture  was,  so  to 
speak,  a  transition,  and,  so  far,  imperfect  style  ;  in  it  we  see 
the  new  and  old  principles  struggling  for  the  mastery,  yet 
each  maintaining  a  certain  influence  ;  we  have  indeed  the 
arch,  but  there  still  remains  the  entablature,  which  was  in 
this  place  totally  useless  and  inconsistent,  they  were  each  the 
exponent  and  characteristic  of  its  own  theory,  and  as  the  two 
systems  were  repugiuuit  the  one  to  the  other,  so  was  their  in- 
troduction into  I  he  same  building  liable  to  the  charge  of  incon- 
sistency. The  entablature  in  the  one  case  answered  the  same 
purpose  as  the  arch  in  the  other,  and  therefore,  where  the 
one  prevailed,  the  other  should  have  disappeared ;  but 
this  we  know  was  not  at  first  the  case,  it  was  lell  to  the 
Mediaival  architects  U)  bring  the  new  svstem  to  perfection. 


Roman  architecture  is  but  the  germ,  Gothic  its  complete 

development. 

We  cannot  forbear  offering  one  or  two  instances  of  the 
scientific  skill  of  the  Gothic  architects,  as  exemplified  in  their 
mode  of  construction.  It  is  a  matter  which  has  been  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  other  works,  but  one,  we  think,  without 
which  any  treatise  on  Gothic  architecture  would  be  imper- 
fect. It  was  their  custom,  as  we  all  know,  to  cover  their 
large  buildings  with  vaults  of  masonry,  a  method  of  roofing 
in  which  they  greatly  excelled  their  predecessors.  The 
Romans  were  acquainted  with  this  method,  and  applied  it  in 
many  instances,  yet  their  specimens  of  vaulting,  when  com- 
pared with  the  MediiBval,  appear  but  clumsy  expedients  ;  they 
were  confined  to  the  use  of  the  common  cylindricjd  and  quad- 
ripatrite  vaulting,  or  that  of  which  each  compartment  con- 
sisted of  four  cells  only,  the  latter  kind  being  caused  by  the 
intersection  of  two  cylindrical  vaults  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  But  even  in  this  simple  kind  of  groining  they  foinid 
a  difliculty,  for  when  the  intersecting  vaults  were  of  diflerent 
span,  and  of  the  same  elevation,  their  arches  being  (ronfined 
to  the  semi-circular  form,  they  were  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed. 
In  Gothic  architecture,  the  difficulty  is  entirely  obviated  by 
the  employment  of  the  Pointed  arch,  and  by  its  application 
the  Mediaeval  builders  were  en.abled  to  construct  vaults  of  so 
elaborate  and  varied  a  character,  such  as  the  Romans,  with 
their  forms,  dared  never  to  have  dreamed  of  But  this  is  not 
the  only  improvement  our  ancestors  eflected  in  vaulting;  the 
Roman  vaulting  consisted  entirely  of  large  stones,  and  was 
therefore  of  very  great  weight,  a  circumstance  which  was 
very  detrimental  to  its  application,  for  as  the  wall  had  to  bear 
the  entire  burden,  it  was  absolutely  requisite  that  they  shoidd 
be  of  extraordinary  strength.  Now,  our  Gothic  builders 
obviated  this  difficulty  likewise  in  a  most  scientific  manner ; 
they  made  their  vaults  equally  secure  with  a  much  smaller 
consumption  of  material,  by  which  means  they  not  only  saved 
the  walls  an  undue  pressure,  but  also  considerably  reduced 
their  expenditure  throughoutthe  building.  This  they  managed 
in  the  following  manner.  In  their  large  works,  such  as  cathe- 
drals, in  which  vaulting  was  more  frequently  applied,  it  was 
their  custom  to  carry  up  a  pier  or  bearing  shaft  on  the  fice 
of  the  nave-shafts,  either  springing  directly  from  the  ground, 
or  supported  on  a  corbel  at  some  point  immediately  above 
the  piers.  From  the  top  of  these  shafts,  as  points  of  bearing, 
were  extended  ribs  or  arches  across  the  nave  from  the  bear- 
ing-shafts on  the  one  side  to  those  on  the  other,  in  three  or 
more  directions;  in  the  more  simple  f  )rms,  each  compartment 
of  the  vaulting  consisted  of  six  entire  arches,  enclosing  fi>nr 
cells  or  spaces  between  the  ribs,  which  were  arranged  in  this 
manner  ; — from  each  of  the  f  jur  bearing-shafts  sprang  three 
arches ;  one,  the  longitudinal,  extending  to  the  next  shaft  on 
the  same  side  of  the  nave,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  building;  another,  the  transverse,  stretching 
at  rifht  angles  to  the  longitudinal  to  the  shaft  immediately 
opposite  on  the  other  side  of  the  nave;  and  a  third,  the  dia- 
gonal, extending  between  the  most  distant  shafts  fiom  one 
angle  of  the  bay  to  the  opposite.  These  diagonal  ribs  inter- 
sect each  other,  and  at  the  point  of  intersection  butt  against 
a  key-stone,  which  generally  extends  below  the  level  of  the 
vault,  and  is  sculptured  in  the  form  of  foliage  or  some 
other  ornament  ;  this  key-stone  locks  the  system  together 
securely.  The  ribs  formed  the  constructive  portion  of  the 
vault ;  they  were  the  skeleton,  as  it  were,  on  which  the 
covering  or  cuticle  was  stretched  :  they  were  the  only  por- 
tions of  the  vault  in  which  large  stones  were  used,  the  cells 
beiiiCT  filled  up  with  much  smaller  stones,  and  they  of  less 
pond'erous  material,  by  which  means  the  whole  vaulting  was 
rendered  lighter  and  more  secure.   In  this  way  did  they  gain 


GOT 


456 


GOT 


an  incalculable  advantage  over  the  Romans;  nor  did  their 
skill  cease  here  ;  having  so  far  reduced  the  forces  of  the 
enemy,  they  prepared  to  carry  the  remaining  thrust  of  the 
vault  away  from  the  walls  of  the  clere-story,  and  conduct  it 
safely  to  the  foundations,  and  this  they  accomplished  with 
equal  or  even  greater  skill.  From  that  point  of  the  clere- 
story wall,  where  the  thrust  of  the  vaulting  was  collected,  the 
force  was  carried  over  the  aisles  hy  means  of  an  arch  termed 
a  flying-huttress,  which  rested  at  its  lower  extremity  on  the 
pillar  buttresses  attached  to  the  aisle-walls.  But  here  it  is 
necessary  to  notice  one  or  two  peculiarities  which  might  be 
likely  to  escape  the  observation  of  a  transient  observer.  Hav- 
ing collected  the  active  force  of  the  vaulting  to  one  spot  by 
means  of  the  ribs,  they  there  spread  out  the  flying-buttress 
in  the  same  manner  as  now-a-days  we  place  a  board  against 
a  wall  in  casesoftemp(u-ary  shoring, and  sometimesplaccdone 
arch  below  another,  the  two  being  separated  at  the  wall,  but 
uniting  ere  they  reach  the  wall-buttress,  liy  which  method  the 
force  was  concentrated  at  that  point,  while  the  whole  of  the 
clere-story  wall  was  equally  supported.  Having  conducted 
the  drift  to  this,  point,  it  remained  to  bring  it  safely  to  the 
ground  ;  and  how  could  this  be  effected  1  The  method,  whii'h 
would  at  once  naturally  have  suggested  itself,  would  have  been 
to  extend  the  buttresses  from  the  wall  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  receive  the  thrust  within  its  mass  until  it  reached  the 
earth  ;  but  this  would  necessitate  a  very  great  projection,  and 
therefore  a  large  consumption  of  space  and  materials.  This 
difficulty  they  met  and  nullified  in  the  most  skilful  manner, 
and  by  a  most  simple  contrivance.  It  was  by  merely  super- 
adding a  pinnacle  to  the  wall-buttress  above  the  point  at 
w'hich  the  force  was  collected.  We  have  now  another  force 
in  operation,  that  of  the  downward  pressure  or  gravity  of  the 
materials  composing  the  pinnacle,  and  this  combining  with  the 
thrust  of  the  vault,  changes  the  direction  of  that  force  so  as 
to  make  it  more  nearly  perpendicular,  and  bring  it  within 
a  buttress  of  moderate  projection,  which,  be  it  remembered, 
served  a  further  puri)Ose  of  strengthening  the  aisle- walls  and 
diminishing  their  thickness,  for  it  is  well  known,  that  a  wall 
with  buttresses  at  intervals,  is  as  strong,  or  stronger,  than 
a  mere  wall  of  the  combined  thickness  of  the  wall  and  but- 
tress.  In  this  numner  did  they  press  everything,  whether 
fiiendly  or  inimical,  into  their  active  service,  and  succeeded 
in  rearing  edifices  of  the  most  skilful  construction,  most  rigid 
economy,  and  chaste  and  delicate  decoration. 

llow  Wren  could  have  inveighed  against  the  construction 
of  our  Gothic  buildings  we  cannot  understand,  especially  as 
he  seems  to  have  imitated  them  in  several  particulars,  though 
not  certainly  with  equal  taste  or  skill.  lie  has  used  very 
similar  means  to  those  above  described,  in  resisting  thi> 
thrust  of  his  vaulting,  in  his  vaulted  Cathedral  ;  buttresses 
are  carried  over  the  aisle  to  the  outer  wall,  and  are  concealed 
by  a  scieen  running  round  the  building,  and  having  the 
appearance  of  an  additional  story,  which  certainly  gives 
the  building  a  more  imposing  appearance  on  the  exterior, 
but  at  the  expense  of  truth,  and,  like  the  dome,  creates  a  feel- 
ing of  disappointment  when  you  enter  the  interior.  To  this 
circumstance  Mr.  Pugin  alludes  in  a  passage  which  we  shall 
have  occasion  hereafter  to  quote.  As  regards  Wren's  objec 
tion  respecting  the  size  of  the  stones  used  in  Gothic  edifices, 
we  need  say  nothing,  It  refutes  itself,  for  surely  if  a  building 
can  be  raised  with  equal  security  by  the  use  of  small  stones 
which  a  man  can  carry  on  his  back,  it  is  much  superior,  at 
least  in  point  of  economy,  to  one  raised  with  large  blocks 
which  require  ponderous  machinery  to  move  them  to  their 
destined  positions. 

We  leave  Sir  James  Hall  to  answer  objections  made  on 
the  score  of  false  proportions ;  he  deals  with  them  in  a  way 


no  less  summary  than  it  is  decisive.  After  speaking  of  the 
principles  of  Gothic  architecture,  he  says: — "  This  view 
furnishes  a  complete  answer  to  the  common  objection  made 
to  the  Gothic  style,  of  wanting  proportions,  for  that  accusa^ 
tion  has  always  been  the  consequence  of  judging  the  Gothic 
by  Grecian  rules,  in  which  case  it  could  not  fail  to  appear 
absurd  and  disjiropoj  tioned  ;  whereas  when  tried  by  its  own 
laws,  it  will  be  found  completely  consistent  and  harmonious 
in  all  its  parts  ;'"  of  course,  if  persons  commence  by  assuming 
Grecian  proportions  to  be  the  acme  of  peifection,  and  all 
that  differs  fiom  them  to  be  folse  and  barbarous,  we  may  at 
once  yield  the  argument,  for  the  question  is  decided  ere  we 
commence. 

Mr.  Pugin  alluding  to  the  same  subject  says  : — "  Under 
the  head  of  architectural  propriety,  we  have  also  to  consider 
the  scale  and  proportions  of  buildings.  Without  vastness  of 
dimensions  it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  grand  and  imposing 
effect  in  architecture  ;  still,  unless  these  be  regulated  on  true 
principles,  they  may  destroy  their  effect  by  their  very  size; 
and  here  I  wish  to  draw'  your  attention  to  a  point  which  will 
prove  the  great  superiority  of  the  Christian  architecture  of 
the  middle  ages,  over  that  of  classic  anti(iuity,  or  of  the 
revived  pagan  style.  In  Pointed  architecture  the  different 
details  of  the  edifice  are  multiplied  with  the  increased  scale  of 
the  building;  in  classic  architecture  they  are  only  magnifii;d." 
This  principle  of  multiplying  parts  with  the  increased  size  of 
the  building,  is  a  characteristic  of  the  style,  and  is  one  in  our 
opinion  in  which  it  greatly  excels  its  rival. 

It  now  only  remains  to  touch  upon  two  subjects  of  com- 
parison ;  the  first  as  regards  the  application  of  ornament,  and 
the  last  as  to  convenience  and  accommodation.  The  writers 
of  W^ren's  time  were  too  apt  to  consider  (Jothic  architecture 
as  a  system  of  decoration,  gaudy  and  puerile  ;  a  system  in 
which  useless  ornament  was  the  chief  aim  and  object, 
and  in  w-hich  it  was  introduced  without  reason  or  modera- 
tion, and  hence  they  termed  it  meretricious  and  barbarous. 
Investigation  has  taught  us  differently  ;  and  where  they  saw- 
naught  but  confusion  and  redundancy,  we  detect  order  and 
sound  judgment.  Ornamentation  was  seldom  introduced  by 
our  old  chuich-architects  without  a  cau.se  or  without  a  mean- 
ing :  we  do  not  mean  to  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  such 
was  never  the  case,  but  we  do  say  that  there  was,  for  the 
most  part,  a  nice  adaptation,  a  propriety,  in  their  decoration  ; 
the  parts  to  be  enriched  were  not  introduced  without  a  specific 
object,atid  their  manner  of  enrichment  was  made  subservient 
to  that  object ;  for  in.stanee,  look  at  the  projecting  string- 
course, the  weather-mouldings  of  the  heads  of  windows,  to 
conduct  the  nioisture  from  the  enriched  and  delicate  part  of 
their  work,  so  as  to  preserve  it  from  injury,  and  the  termi- 
nating dripstone  to  throw  it  off  the  walls.  Each  part  was 
decorated  so  as  at  once  to  delight  the  eye,  and  answer  an 
useful  end  ;  each  moulding  was  beautifid  and  appropriate  to 
its  own  peculiar  duty  ;  their  contours  varied,  not  from  any 
wild  fancy  or  exuberant  imagination,  but  simply  to  make  it 
efficient  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  employed.  Look 
iigain  at  their  buttresses,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded, 
and  the  gorgeous  pinnacles,  not  a  mere  decoration,  as  our 
forefathers  woidd  have  it.  but  a  most  useful  and  indispensable 
addition.  But  we  can  almost  forgive  them  for  seeing  only 
the  beauty,  at  least  where  they  acknowledge  so  much,  for  the 
graceful  finish  given  to  the  buttress  thereby,  is  sufficient  to 
justify  such  an  addition,  even  supposing  it  served  no  other 
purpose  than  mere  ornament,  and  we  need  not  wonder  at 
their  resting  satisfied  with  it  as  a  moans  of  decoration  with- 
out looking  to  any  further  purpose.  The  buttresses  them- 
selves likewise  were  equally  agreeable  to  the  eye,  as  they 
were  useful  and  essential   to  the  construction  ;  by  them  we 


GOT 


457 


GOT 


obtain  a  bold  and  pleasing  variety  in  the  main  outline  of  the 
building,  and  that  [ilay  of  light  and  shade  which  adds  so 
gieatly  to  the  appearance  of  u  Gothic  edi(i<e.  l^ookiiigonce 
more  at  the  sniailer  n)cruber>,  we  find  niches,  corbels,  bosses, 
vaulting  ribs,  each  answering  two  ends,  one  useful,  the  other 
omauiental.  What  objects  can  be  more  beautiful  than 
some  of  the  Gothic  niches,  especially  of  the  later  styles,  and 
yet  what  nK)re  necessary  in  a  climate  like  ours;  on  the  ex- 
terior of  buildings,  more  especially,  the^-  serve  to  protect  the 
higher  branches  of  carving  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
Weather,  and  in  the  interior  from  accident  or  injury;  but  it 
was  probalily  their  uimsual  elegance  rather  than  their  useful- 
ness, which  caused  their  introduction  as  a  means  of  internal 
decoration.  In  short,  the  Medieval  artists  did  not  construct 
ornament,  but  ornameuted  construction.  On  this  subject  we 
add  the  fidlowing  remarks  from  Pugins  Principles  of  Pointed 
Architecture : — 

"The  two  great  rules  for  design  are  these: — 1st.  That 
there  should  be  no  features  about  a  building  which  are  not 
necessar}-  for  convenience,  construction,  or  propriety  ;  2nd. 
That  all  ornament  should  consist  of  enrichment  of  the  essen- 
tial construction  of  the  building."'  "  In  pure  architecture  the 
smallest  detail  should  have  a  meaning,  or  serve  a  purpose; 
and  even  the  construction  itself  should  vary  with  the  material 
in  which  they  are  executed."  "Strange  as  it  may  appear  at 
first  sight,  it  is  in  Pointed  architecture  alone  that  these  great 
principles  have  been  carried  out;  and  I  shall  be  able  to 
illustrate  them,  I'rom  the  vast  cathedral  to  the  simplest 
erection.  Moreover,  the  architects  of  the  middle  ages  were 
the  first  who  turned  the  natural  properties  of  the  various 
materials  to  their  t'ull  account,  and  made  their  mechanism  a 
vehicle  for  thi'ir  art." 

Pointed  architecture  does  not  conceal  her  construction,  lint 
beautifies  it:  classic  architecture  seeks  to  conceal,  instead  of 
decorating  it. 

"The  clumsy  vaults  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  mere  coffered 
semi-arches  without  ribs  or  intersections,  have  their  flying 
buttresses:  but  as  this  style  of  architecture  does  not  admit 
of  the  great  principle  of  decorating  utility,  these  buttresses, 
instead  of  being  made  ornamental,  are  concealed  by  an  enor- 
mous screen,  going  round  the  building:  so  that  in  fact  one- 
half  of  the  edifice  is  built  to  conceal  the  other.  Miserable 
expedient!  worthy  only  of  the  debased  style  in  which  it  has 
been  resorted  to." 

"An  architect  should  exhibit  his  skill  by  turning  the  diffi- 
culties which  occur  in  raising  an  elevation,  from  a  convenient 
plan,  into  so  many  picturesque  beauties;  and  this  constitutes 
the  great  diflerence  between  the  principles  of  Classic  and 
Pointed  domestic  architecture.  In  the  former  he  would  be 
compelled  to  devise  expedients  to  conceal  these  irregularities; 
ill  the  latter  he  has  only  to  beautify  them  But  i  am  quite 
assured  that  all  the  irregularities  that  are  so  beautiful  in 
ancient  architecture,  are  the  result  of  certain  necessary  diffi- 
culties, and  were  never  purposely  designed  ;  for  to  make  a 
building  inconvenient  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  irregularity, 
would  be  scarcely  less  ridiculous,  than  preparing  working- 
drawings  for  a  new  ruin.  But  all  these  inconsistencies  have 
arisen  from  this  great  error; — the  plans  of  buildings  are 
designed  to  suit  the  elevation,  instead  of  the  elevation  being 
made  subservient  to  the  plan." 

The  last  oliservation  of  Mr.  Pugin's  leads  us  very  naturally 
to  the  con-ideration  of  the  next  subject.  The  Greeks  were 
conlined  to  one  plan  in  their  edifices,  the  parallelogram;  and 
in  their  application  of  this  form  they  had  but  little  choice, 
the  main  variation  consisting  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ex- 
ternal colonnade.  It  was  a  form  well  enough  adapted  to  their 
religious  observances,  and   restricted    to   buildings  of  that 


nature.  Their  edifices  were  chaste  and  grand,  but  chargea- 
ble at  the  same  time  with  sameness  and  monotony;  the  one 
idea  was  universally  resorted  to,  atid  probably  because  they 
had  no  occasion  for  any  other.  The  IJomans,  however,  did 
not  restrict  themselves  to  this  form,  their  wants  were  more 
extensive  than  those  of  the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  borrowed 
the  main  idea  of  their  architecture;  they  wanted  something 
more  than  temples;  in  short,  they  were  a  more  secular  people 
than  the  Greeks,  and  thought  their  secular  buildings  worthy 
of  as  costly  magnificence  as  the  temples  of  their  gods.  To 
this  circumstance  we  owe  the  introduction  of  the  practice  of 
grouping,  as  it  is  termed,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  plans  of 
the  buildings  to  the  various  purposes  of  life;  the  Romans 
broke  through  the  ancient  rules  of  uniformity,  and  struck 
out  into  a  wider  and  bolder  path,  which  led  by  many  direc- 
tions to  a  great  variety  of  results.  But  even  the  Romans 
were  but  tyros  in  this  new  system,  which  they  left  to  after- 
ages  to  bring  to  perfection.  The  old  Greek  style  w'as  but 
little  adapted  to  this  altered  state  of  things;  and  as  much  as 
the  Romans  gained  in  convenience,  by  so  much  they  lost  in 
appearance;  the  old  principles  could  but  ill  brook  their  forced 
adaptation  to  new  rules,  and  in  process  of  time  they  died, 
(if  we  may  be  allowed  the  expression,)  a  natural  death.  The 
principles  of  Gothic  architecture  took  their  rise  from  the 
wants  of  the  times,  and  gave  completeness  to  that  of  which 
the  Romans  had  originated  the  idea;  and  the  style  has  this 
superiority  over  every  previous  one,  that  it  can  easily  adapt 
itself  to  any  purpose.  No  matter  what  shape  you  require 
your  plan,  nay,  it  matters  not,  though  it  be  of  no  acknowledged 
or  describable  shape  at  all,  you  may  rear  upon  it  an  eleva- 
tion in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  the  style,  and  one 
which  only  requires  a  skilful  hand  and  practised  eye  to  make 
it  at  once  tastefiil  and  convenient.  Sir  James  Hall  has  the 
following  trite  remarks,  which  are  very  much  to  the  point; 
he  says : — 

"  In  order  therefore  to  apply  Grecian  architecture  to  our 
purposes,  it  has  been  found  necessary  very  much  to  alter  the 
old  Greek  plan  ;  but  this  having  but  little  variety,  could  not 
easily  admit  of  any  change.  And  a  Grecian  colonnade  being  of 
itself  a  most  perfect  form,  we  cannot  well  conceive  how  any- 
thing should  be  taken  from  it  or  added  to  it  without  injury; 
at  least,  to  do  so  would  require  a  hand  no  less  dexterous  than 
that  by  which  it  was  originally  designed.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
wonderful,  that  our  artists,  employing  Grecian  architecture 
for  new  purposes,  and  introducing  without  ceremony  forms 
unknown  to  the  Greeks,  should  produce  works  devoid  of  those 
beauties  for  which  theirs  are  so  highly  distinguished. 

"  The  greatest  detriment  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
the  introduction  of  windows,  for  which  the  old  Greek  masters 
had  made  no  regular  provision,  but  which  are  indispensable 
in  most  of  our  buildings.  For  by  thus  obtruding  a  new  form 
upon  the  old  style,  its  unity  of  design  must  be  violated. 
The  more  so,  that  a  set  of  windows  partake,  by  their  form 
and  arrangement,  of  the  regularity  of  a  colonnade,  and  con- 
sequently occasion  more  disturbance  of  the  general  effect, 
than  if  there  had  been  no  resemblance  between  them. 

"The  necessity  among  the  moderns  of  forming  edifices 
spacious  within,  has  been  a  source  of  great  confusion  ;  for 
the  old  Greek  masters  not  having  need  of  room,  have  left  us 
no  good  examples  of  the  kind,  and  our  own  artists,  in  pursuit 
of  that  object,  have  piled  order  upon  order,  and  have  joined 
together  various  parts  in  the  same  building,  which,  though 
each  may  be  beautiful  in  itself,  have  no  connection  together, 
and  can  only  deserve  the  name  of  more  or  less  elegant  pieces 
of  patch-work. 

Thus  Grecian  architecture,  though  rich  in  ornamental 
details,  was  siisceptilde  of  little  variety  in  the  general  plan. 


Li  OT 


458 


GOT 


It  luis  therefore  failed  when  applied  to  our  purposes,  though 
ill  the  h:inds  of  tlie  old  Greek  masters,  and  employed  in  the 
eon^truction  of  works  suited  to  the  wants  of  that  people,  it 
ii:is  far  surpassed  any  other  style.  Gothic  architecture,  on 
tiie  other  hand,  with  great  variety  of  ornamental  details, 
admitting  of  the  greatest  latitude  in  the  jieneral  ])lan  and 
dl~lril)ntion  of  the  parts,  and  being  susceptible  of  almost  any 
>hape,  is  applicable  to  every  purpose,  and  might  be  suited 
111  the  inaiuieis  of  every  nation. 

"  A  Gnthic  edifice  receives  and  accommodates  an  immense 
multitude  of  people,  and  furnishes  an  unbounded  supply  of 
light  in  a  manner  which  constitutes  one  of  its  princiiiai  oriiii- 
mcnts.  And  this  advantage  seems  to  belong  to  the  Gothic 
exclusively  ;  for  it  does  not  appear,  that  in  any  other  style 
of  architecture,  a  provision  has  been  made  for  the  jirovision 
of  light  in  an  ornamental  manner.  It  possesses,  in  the  highest 
degree,  several  difleieiit  and  seemingly  incunipatible  qualities. 
\\  lu-n  entire  in  all  its  parts,  everywhere  clean  and  fresh,  and 
enlightened  by  a  bright  sunshine,  we  admire  its  airy  light- 
ness and  lively  elegance ;  but  when  clothed  in  a  majestic  veil 
of  obscurity,  or  reduced  to  ruins  and  overgrown  with  moss 
and  ivy,  we  are  struck  with  awe  by  its  solemn  grandeur. 

"It  results  from  this  comparison,  that  the  Grecian  style 
excels  in  all  those  qualities  of  elegance  and  grace  which  de- 
pend upon  the  nice  adjustment  and  masterly  execution  of 
detiiils.  Whereas  the  Gothic  style,  which  with  great  truth 
has  been  comiiarec)  to  the  genius  of  Sliakspeare,  is  lively, 
picturesque,  and  sublime,  qu.-diiies  which  are  derived  from  the 
bold  variety,  and  often  from  the  wild  irregularity,  of  its  forms." 

With  this  passage  we  luiturally  close  our  comparison  ;  we 
have  stated  our  own  opinitins  on  the  subject,  ;uid  producted  au- 
thorities on  both  sides — the  reader  must  tor  in  his  own  decision. 

We  tiow  proceed  to  a  description  and  ariaiigemeiil  of  the 
style,  but,  before  doing  so.  it  will  be  JieedtuI  to  take  some 
notice  of  those  styles  which  immediately  preceded  it.  Soon 
after  the  disruption  of  the  Koman  empire,  we  find  architecture, 
lap-iug  into  barbarism,  still  retaining  strong  characteristics 
of  the  previous  style,  but  exhibiting  only  a  clumsy  imitation. 
The  buihiings  of  this  age  weie  but  heaps  of  discordant  parts, 
put  together  without  reference  to  unity  of  design  or  iirrange- 
meiit.  Out  of  this  medley  arose  a  style,  which,  however 
barbarous  it  may  be  deemed,  can  still  boast  some  title  to 
consistency,  liir,  by  this  time,  architects  had  broken  through 
the  tiammels  of  the  old  methods  which  had  hitheito  t'etteivd 
them.  The  style,  known  by  some  under  the  general  title  of 
llomanesque  and  by  others  divided  according  tosome  marked 
pei-uliarity,  or  to  the  countries  in  which  it  was  adopted,  into 
Bvzantine.  I^ombaidic,  and  Norman,  was  the  immediate  pre- 
cursor of  the  Gothic  or  Pointed  style.  It  differs  essentially 
from  the  lioman  method  in  many  respects,  and  presents  us 
w  ith  several  new  principles,  amongst  which  may  be  enumer- 
ated the  entire  disuse  of  the  entablature,  the  arches  springing 
directly  from  the  capital  of  the  pier  or  column;  the  total 
di-regard  of  classic  proportions,  and  an  unusual  variety  and 
license  in  this  respect,  some  columns  being  of  the  average 
height  of  the  Classic  orders,  others  much  stunted,  and  others 

Mr.  Rickman,  to  whom  we  are  so  much  indebted  for 

detailed  comparison 
Grecian. 
The  general  running  lines  are  horizontal 
Arches  not  necessary. 

An  entablature  absolutely  necessary,  consisting  always  of 
two,  and  mo>tly  of  three,  distinct  parts,  having  a  close 
relatii'ii  to.  and  its  character  and  ornaments  determined 
by,  the  columns. 


again  exceedingly  extended,  more  especially  those  attached 
to  walls  or  piers,  which  become  little  better  than  vertical 
mouldings;  the  practice  of  including  two  or  more  arched 
openings  under  one  common  arch;  and  some  fewotlhT  par- 
ticulars, w hich  it  is  not  necessary  to  mention.  We  give  the 
following  description  of  the  buildings  of  the  period  to  which 
we  allude,  as  laid  down  by  one  of  the  writers  already  quoted. 
It  will  be  seen  to  differ,  in  some  respects,  from  our  own 
account,  but  this  may  arise  from  his  more  especially  alluding 
to  some  particular  class  of  buildings,  or  because  he  was  de- 
sirous of  making  a  nuirked  di^tinctiioi  between  the  erections 
of  this  style,  and  of  that  which  fiillowed  it,  the  Gothic.  He 
gives  notice  of  some  jiarticulars  which  we  have  omitted. 

"The  arches,"  he  says,  "are  round;  one  supported  on 
pillars  retaining  traces  of  the  Classical  proportions;  the 
pilasters,  cornices,  and  entablatures  have  a  correspondence 
and  similarity  with  those  of  Classical  architecture:  there  is  a 
prevalence  of  rectangular  faces  and  square-edged  projections; 
the  openings  in  walls  are  small,  and  subordinate  to  the  sur- 
faces in  which  they  appear,  the  members  of  the  architecture 
are  massive  and  heavy  ;  very  limited  in  kind  and  repetition  ; 
the  enrichments  being  introduced  rather  by  sculpturing  sur- 
faces, than  by  multiplying  and  extending  the  component 
parts.  There  is  in  this  style  a  predominance  of  horizontal 
lines,  or  at  least  no  predominance  and  elongation  of  vertic^ 
ones.  For  instance,  the  pillars  arc  not  prolonged  in  corres 
ponding  mouldings  along  the  arches;  the  walls  have  no  pro- 
minent liuttresses,  and  are  generally  terminated  by  a  strong 
horizontal  tablet  or  cornice." 

The  style,  although  an  approach  in  that  direction,  differs 
in  many  material  points  from  the  later  Gothic;  but  as  we 
have  occasion  to  notice  the  main  features  of  distinction  be- 
tween the  Roman  and  Gothic  modes  of  building,  and  have 
also  noticed  the  differences  between  the  former  and  the 
Romanesque  styles,  we  do  not  deem  it  necessary  to  insti- 
tute a  detailed  comparison  between  the  intermediate  and 
Gothic  systems. 

Sir  Christopher  W^ren  t.nkes  notice  of  the  variations  of  the 
two  extreme  styles,  and  although  his  deductions  as  to  ques- 
tions of  merit  cannot  justly  be  assented  to,  his  comparison  as 
to  principles  is,  for  the  most  part,  correct.     He  says: 

"In  this  they  essentially  differed  from  the  Roman  way, 
who  laid  all  their  mouldings  horizontally,  which  made  the 
best  perspective;  the  Gothic  way,  on  the  contrary,  carried 
all  their  mouldings  perpendicularly  ;  so  that  the  ground-work 
being  settled,  they  had  nothing  else  to  do  but  to  spire  all  up 
as  they  could.  Thus  they  made  their  pillars  a  bundle  of  little 
tori,  which  they  divided  into  more  when  they  came  to  the 
roof,  and  these  tori  split  into  many  small  ones,  and,  travers- 
ing one  another,  gave  occasion  to  the  tracery  work,  as  thi'y 
cjili  it.  They  used  the  sharp-headed  arch,  which  would  rise 
with  little  centering,  required  lighter  key-stones  and  less 
butnient,  .Hiid  yet  would  bear  another  row  of  doubled  arches, 
rising  from  the  key-stone,  by  the  diversifying  of  which  they 
erected  eminent  structures,  such  as  the  steeples  of  Vienna, 
Strasburg,  and  many  others." 

his  researches  on  this  subject,  gives  the  following  more 
in  a  tabular  form : — 

English. 
The  general  running  linos  are  vertical. 
Arches  a  really  fundamental  principle,  and  no  pure  English 

building  or  ornament  can  be  composed  without  them. 
No  such  thing  as  an  entablature  composed  of  parts;  and 
what  is  called  a  cornice  bears  no  real  relation  to  the  shafts 
which  mav  be  in  the  same  building. 


GOT 


459 


GOT 


Grecian.  EnfiUsh. 

The  columns  can  support  nothing  bnt  an  entalilatni-c,  and  no      The  shafts  can  only  support  an  arched  moulding,  and  in  no 

arch  can  spring  directly  from  a  column.  case  an  Imrizontal  line. 

A  flat  column  may  be  called  a  pilaster,  which  may  be  used      Nothing  analogous  to  a  pilaster;  every  flat  ornamented  pro- 
as a  column.  jected  snrfiice  is  cither  a  series  of  panels  or  a  buttress. 
The  arch  must  spring  from  a  horizontal  line.                                No  horizontal  line  necessary,  and  never  any  but  the  small  cap 

of  a  shaft 
Gilumns  the  supporters  of  the  entablature.  Shaft  bears  nothing,  and  is  only  ornamental,  and  the  round 

pier  still  a  pier. 
No  projections  like  buttresses,  and  all  projections  stopped  by      Buttresses  essential  parts,  and  stop  horizontal  lines. 

horizontal  lines. 
Arran"ement  uf  pediment  fixed.  Pediment  only  an  ornatnontcd  end-wall,  and  may  be  of  almost 

any  pitih. 
Openings  limited  by  the  proportions  of  the  column.  Openings  almost  unlimited. 

Regularity  of  composition  on  each  side  of  a  centre  necessary.      Regularity  of  composition  seldom  fotnid,  and  variety  of  orna- 
ment universal. 
Cannot  form  good  steeples,  because  they  must  resemble  un-      From   its  vertical,  lines  may  be  carried  to  any  practicable 
coiuiected  buildings  piled  on  each  other.  height,  with  almost  increasing  beauty. 

]Mr.  ^ViIlis,  in  the  anne.\cd  table,  treats  the  subject  in  a  somewhat  diflerent  form,  referring  rather  to  rules  of 

principles,  than  details  of  practice : — 

Classical  sli/les.  MiMle-Age  sitihs. 

Difli-nent  planes  of  decoration  av<nded,  and  never  exceeding      Ditferent  planes  of  decoration  placed  behind  each  other  to 
two  in  an  entire  composition.  any  number,  and  in  every  possible  degree  of  variety,  even 

in  a  single  member,  as  in  an  arch. 
Superincumbent  weights  united  as  far  as  possible,  by  resting      Superincumbent  weights  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  pes. 
on  the  horizontal  cornice,  which  combines  them  into  one  sible,  and  then  given  to  independent  props, 

mass. 
Arch,  foreign  to  this  style,  and  when  introduced  its  diagonal      Arch,  the  essential  feature;  its  diagonal  pressures  studiously 
pressure  excluded  from  the  decoration,  manifested,  and   the  rest  of  the  composition  harmonized 

with  them  by  other  inclined  lines. 
Artifices  of  construction  concealed,  as  impairing  the  sinipli-      Every  artifice  of  construction  displayed. 

city  of  efl'ect. 
Chamfered  surfaces  inadmissible,  and  mouldings  can  only      Chamfered    surfaces   universal  ;    mouldings   are  applied  to 
stop  against  a  surface  perfiendicular  to  their  course.  them,  and  may  die  against  them  or  any  other  surface  at 

any  angle. 
Panels  mere  supeificial  ornaments.  Panels  are  apertures  between  the  parts  of  the  decorative 

frame  of  the  buihling. 


Elsewhere  he  adds  : — 

"These  decorative  features  differ  in  many  respects  fi-om  the 
Classical,  but  the  leading  principle  is  to  be  found  in  the 
increased  multiplicity  of  parts,  and  in  a  system  which  affected 
to  support  them  all  independently,  arranging  them  in  groups, 
in  o]iposition  to  the  Classical  scheme,  in  which  the  parts  are 
simple,  and  bound  together  by  the  dominant  cornice." 

"  It  is  suggested  to  ine  by  a  friend,"  says  the  Rev.  W,  Whe- 
well,  author  of  Architectural  Notes  on  German  Churches, 
'■  that  this  distinctive  principle  of  construction  in  the  Gothic 
architecture,  appears  to  be  the  admission  of  oblique  pres- 
sures and  inclined  lines  of  support ;  in  Greek  architecture, 
the  whole  edifice  consists  of  horizontal  masses  reposing  on 
vertical  props.  In  Gothic  buildings,  on  the  contrary,  the 
pointed  areh  is  always  to  be  considered  as  formed  by  two 
sides,  leaning  against  each  other  at  the  top,  and  pressing  out- 
ward at  their  lower  ends.  The  ey-e  recognizes  this  statical 
condition  in  the  leading  lines  of  the  edifice,  and  recpiires  the 
details  to  conform  to  it.  We  have  thus  in  the  Grecian  buildings 
nothing  but  rectangular  forms  and  spaces,  horizontal  lines 
with  Vertical  ones  subordinate  to  them.  The  pediment  is 
one  mass  with  its  horizontal  cornice,  and  does  not  violate 
this  lule.  Arches,  when  they  occur,  are  either  subordinate 
parts,  or  mark  the  transition  style,  in  which  the  integrity  of 
the  principle  is  no  longer  preserved.  In  Gothic  works,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  arch  is  an  indispensable  and  governing 
feature:  it  has  pillars  to  support  its  vertical,  and  buttresses 


to  resist  its  lateral  pressure  ;  its  summit  may  be  carried 
upwards  indefinitely,  by  the  joint  thrust  of  its  two  sides.  All 
the  parts  aaree  in  this  character  of  infinite  upward  extension, 
with  an  inclination  or  flexure  toallow  of  their  meeting  at  top; 
and  they  obviously  require,  and  depend  on  pressures  acting 
obliquely." 

He  adds  the  following  particulars  in  a  more  tangible  and 
systematic  form. 

"  1.  The  arch  is  essential,  the  entablature  is  not,  and  the 
columns  support  arches  instead  of  entablatures. 

"  2.  There  are  any  number  of  planes  of  decoration  one 
behind  the  other.  When  we  have  in  this  way  several  arches 
under  one,  we  are  led,  as  Mr.  Willis  has  shown,  to  tracery  ; 
when  we  have  arches  of  diflerent  forms  one  under  another, 
we  are  led  to  foliation. 

"  3.  The  weishts  aredivided  into  as  many  parts  as  possible, 
and  these  are  <.'iven  to  inde[iendent  props;  whence  we  have, 
among  other  results,  clustered  piers  and  pillars. 

"4.  The  diagonal  pressures  of  the  arch  are  displayed, 
whence  we  have  buttresses  and  pinnacles. 

"5.  And,  generally,  the  runninsi  and  dominant  lines  are 
vertical  in  this  style,  as  they  were  horizontal  in  the  ancient 
styles:  the  characteristic  forms  of  the  one  being  horizontal, 
reposing,  definite  ;  of  the  other,  vertical,  aspiring,  indefi- 
nite."  ° 

We  do  not  feel  it  incumbent  upon  us  to  add  anything  to 
the  above,  the  subject  having  been  fully  treated  of  by  each 


(JO  r 


400 


GOT 


writer,  the  difference  of  treatment  which  may  have  been 
noticed,  arising;  tVoin  the  fact,  that  some  of  the  writers  have 
looked  at  the  grand  principles  of  the  two  styles,  while  the 
others  have  confined  themselves  to  a  c<)m|)arison  of  the 
results  of  such  principles,  as  applied  in  practice. 

ILivini;  thus  given  a  general  description  of  the  Gothic 
style,  and  its  main  characteristics,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Classical  and  succeeding  modes  of  building,  we  will  now  pro- 
ceed, in  order  to  give  a  more  detailed  account  of  it  as  a  dis- 
tinct style,  without  any  reference  to  other  systems.  In  order 
to  do  this,  it  will  be  requisite  to  adopt  some  systematic 
arrangement  in  connecting  and  subdividing  the  various 
cvamples,  so  as  to  arrive  at  some  clear  notion  of  the  rules 
which  guided  the  Mediteval  architects  in  the  cre^:tion  of  their 
buildings;  and  in  doing  this  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the 
methods  usually  employed,  not  only  because  they  are  well 
established,  but  further,  because  they  have  been  determined 
upon  with  great  judgment. 

Amongst  the  earlier  writers,  there  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  much  attention  given  to  this  part  of  the  subject;  VVarton, 
however,  in  his  tract,  attempts  a  classification,  in  which  he 
thu-i  distributes  the  diffeient  varieties: — bi  thi;  first  division, 
which  he  denominates  Gothic  Sii.toii,  as  not  fully  entitled  to 
the  iiaineofGothic,  but  having  a  decideiJ  tendency  to  that  stylo, 
he  places  Salisl)ury  Cathedral,  and  gives  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury as  the  epoch  of  that  division.  The  next  division,  which 
he  terms  Absolute  Ootliic,  he  extends  over  the  fourteenth 
and  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  he  lays  down  as  the 
characteristic  feature,  the  ramification  of  the  decoration  in 
the  window-heads,  and  gives  as  an  example,  the  body  of 
Winchester  Cathedral.  To  the  third  division  he  gives  a 
duration  of  only  forty  yairs,  from  a.  d.  1441,  to  1480,  at 
which  latter  period  he  places  the  commencement  of  the 
Florid  Gothic,  the  third  division  having  the  title  of  Oriia- 
meiUfil  Gothic  ;  of  the  latter  he  gives  King's  College  Chipel, 
as  a  specimen;  and  of  the  firmer,  the  chapels  of  St.  George, 
Windsor,  and  of  Henry  Vll.,  Westminster. 

Mr.  Dallaway  arran<.'es  the  styles  as  follows: — 

A.  D.  Diiriiis;  tlie  rcigu3  of 

Semi  or  Mixed  Noiman..  1170— 1220.  .Henry  II.,  Ricliard  L,  <t  John 
Lancet-arch  Gothic 1220— 1300.  .Hi-ury  IH.,  &.  Edward  I. 

Transitloa  or  Pure  Gothic  1300— 1400..  i  ^'^^f'^,  ^■\  U"    ^    "^■'  ^ 

{  Kicliard  II. 

Decorated  Gnthic 1400— li60.  .Henry  IV.,  V.,  &  VI. 

Tudor  or  Florid  Gothic.    1460— 1540.  .ISdwaid  IV.,  to  Henry  VIII. 


But  the  arrangement  which  most  modern  writers  have  fol- 
lowed, is  that  of  Uickman,  which  is  more  simple,  consisting  of 
only  three  divisions,  viz.  : — 

A.    D. 

Early  Kngli.sli 1189- l.SOT 

Decorated    Kugli.sh 1  ;i07 — 1 377 

Perijeudicular  English 1377 — 1G30 

Mr.  Bloxam  subdivides  the  Early  English  into  two  dis- 
tinct styles,  and  in  this  he  agrees  with  Mr.  Dallaway,  but  he 
names  the  earliest  division  Semi-  or  Mixed  Norman,  and  the 
later  Early  English.  He  also  subdivides  the  period  allotted 
by  liickman  to  the  Perpendicular  style,  restricliiig  that  title 
to  those  examples  erected  befire  A.  D.  1.540,  and  to  the  later 
buildings  applying  the  term  Debased. 

Others  again  have  retained  the  tripartite  division  of  Rick- 
man,  but  h.ive  used  other  titles,  denomiiiatiiig  the  first  divi- 
sion First  Pointed,  the  second  Middle  I'ointel,  and  the  last 
Third  Pointed. 

The  diHieulty  in  classifving  the  examples  of  this  style 
arises  mainly  from  the  gradual  development  of  each  particular 
division,  the  one  merging  into  the  other  by  such  imperceptible 


degrees,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  where  the  one  com- 
mences and  the  other  ends,  although  whi-n  each  style  is  seen 
in  its  matured  and  perfect  form,  it  is  readily  distinguishable 
from  its  neighbour.  The  most  prominent  characteristics  of 
each  style  are  to  be  seen  in  the  windows,  whire  the  distinc- 
tion is  usually  very  manifest;  the  shape  of  the  arches  al-so, 
forms  another  principal  feature  by  which  the  d.ate  of  a  build- 
ing may  he  to  a  certain  degree  determined,  although  not  very 
accurately,  for  the  same  shaped  aivhes  are  used  In  dill'erent 
styles.  Perhaps  the  most  certain  distinctive  marks  are  to  be 
observed  in  the  mouldings  and  matters  of  detail  ;  and  these, 
taken  together  with  the  more  prominent  -features,  will  in 
general  lead  to  a  tolerably  accurate  decision.  We  shall  con- 
sider the  peculiarities  of  each  style  in  a  systematic  and 
detailed  form,  dividing  a  building  into  its  several  component 
parts,  and  comparing  them,  as  it  were,  analyticdiy.  Before 
entering  on  this  task,  however,  we  deem  it  advisable  to  refer 
to  the  nomenclature  and  system  of  classilication  in  the  des- 
cription i>f  particular  buildings,  recommended  by  Islr.  Willis  ; 
so  that  should  any  of  his  terms  occur  in  the  following  pages, 
they  may  be  correctly  understood.  We  must  recommend 
them  for  adoption,  as  afiiirding,  fir  the  inost  part,  a  simple, 
intelligible,  and  systematic  mode  of  arr.angement. 

In  the  description  of  a  Iniilding,  he  advises  that  one  bay 
of  the  interior  should  be  taken  as  an  example  ;  divided  into 
it*  several  parts,  and  each  of  these  treated  fully  and  syste- 
matically. This,  with  a  specification  of  the  numl)er  of  bays, 
will  form  a  description,  generally  speaking,  of  the  main  por- 
tion of  the  building,  unless  any  ditferences  occur  in  the  other 
bays,  and  in  such  case  it  will  bo  requisite  of  course  to  note 
the  variation.  The  same  course  is  to  be  pursued  on  the 
e.\terior  of  the  building,  but  here  it  will  be  requisite  to  note, 
ni  a  more  especial  manner,  the  arrangement  and  decoration 
of  the  principal  fayades,  as  also  of  the  towers  and  spires,  if 
there  be  any,  and  of  any  other  similar  addition. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  terms  employed 
by  him  in  his  nomenclature. 

Iiii/)ost,  the  line  or  surface  of  common  section  between 
the  arch  and  the  support  upon  which  it  rests ;  not,  as  hereto- 
fore ex[)lained,  the  mouldings  or  capital  t'rom  which  the  arch 
springs,  but  the  plane  upon  which  the  arch  and  pier  meet. 

('onliiiHons  imp'tsts,  those  in  which  the  mouldings  of  the 
arch  are  continued,  without  interruption,  to  the  ground. 

Discontinuous  imposts,  where  the  mouMings  of  the  arch 
die  into  the  pier  without  any  band  of  mouldings. 

Corbelled  imposts,  where  the  mouldings  of  the  arch  spring 
from  a  corbel  without  being  continued  to  the  ground. 

Arches  ho  divides  into  simple  and  compound,  the  latter 
term  being  applied  to  .such  as  consist  of  several  ditTcrent 
surfaces  projecting  one  beyond  another,  or  such  as  may  be 
resolved  into  a  number  of  concentric  archways  successively 
placed  within  and  behind  each  other. 

Shafted  iirrhw(i)/s  are  those  in  which  the  horizontal  sec- 
tion of  the  shaft  dilfcrs  from  that  of  the  arch. 

Bunded  archways,  those  in  which  the  horizontal  sections 
of  the  pier  aiiil  those  of  the  arch  coincide,  but  which  have 
impost  mouldings  or  capitals. 

Shal'ts  are  divided  as  follows  : — 

Vaulting  shafts,  those  which  sustain  the  ribs  of  vaulting. 

Bearing  shafts,  those  which  sustain  the  whole  superincum- 
bent weight. 

Si(h  shafts,  such  as  sustain  arches  of  which  the  upper  side 
is  united  to  the  sollit  of  the  next  arch  or  wall. 

Fare  shafts,  such  as  sustain  ari-hcs  of  which  the  back  only 
is  united  to  the  wall,  and  which  appear  as  though  placed 
upon  the  face  of  the  wall. 

Edge  shafts,  those  which   support   arches  united  by  their 


GOT 


4U1 


GOT 


sides  and  back  to  the  nearest  wall  or  arch,  so  as  to  appear  to 
sup|Hii't  the  edge  only. 

JVouk-  shdfis,  are  similar  in  plan  to  edge  shafts,  but  the 
rib  difl'iTs  from  an  odgc-iib  in  not  being  united  to  the  con- 
tiguous wail,  but,  like  the  shaft,  nestled  into  the  re-tnteiing 
angle  formed  by  the  side  and  face  of  the  contiguous  arches. 

The  same  terms  are  applied  to  the  arches  which  are  sus- 
tained respectively  by  the  above-named  piers ;  thus  we  have 
siih-arche.i,  face  arches.  &e.  Shafts  which  sustain  vaulting 
ribs  are  termed  l)y  Mr.  Wiiewell  Building  pillars  ;  and  com- 
pound piors,  pilaster  masses. 

When  an  arch  is  indented  with  foils  or  cusps,  it  is  said  to 
be  foiled,  but  when  it  has  another  foiled  arch  below  the 
simple  one,  it  is  said  to  he  f  dialed. 

Thus,  in  describing  an  archway,  it  is  first  designated  as 
simple  or  compound,  and,  if  compound,  it  is  described  as 
consisting  of  so  many  orders,  according  to  the  number 
of  arches  it  consists  of,  or,  in  other  words,  according  to  the 
number  of  the  diflercnt  soffits  or  projections,  and  thereupon 
each  order  is  de.seribed  separately  in  leference  to  the  nature 
of  the  import,  whether  continuous  or  discontinuous,  as  to  the 
position  of  the  shafts  and  arches,  as  sub-shafts,  face  shaft.s, 
&c.,  and  so  on,  in  accordance  with  the  nomenclature  above 
given. 

Mr.  Whewell  describes  the  arches  of  a  vault  as  lonf/i- 
tndinal,  transoerse,  and  diagonal,  the  first  term  being  applied 
to  those  running  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  build- 
ing; the  second,  those  carried  at  right  angles  to  the  longitu- 
dinal ;  and  the  last,  to  those  carried  diagonally,  intersecting 
each  other  at  the  centre,  and  connecting  the  extreme  angles 
of  the  sever}-. 

Vaulting  is  also  described  a,?,  quadripartite,  sexpartite.  octo- 
partile,  &c.,  according  to  the  number  of  cells  contained  in 
each  bay. 

Mr.  Willis  divides  the  intersections  of  vaults  into  ^^roi/is 
and  ridges,  the  former  term  being  applied  to  those  forming 
an  external  angle  or  edge,  and  the  latter  to  those  forming  an 
internal  angle  or  nook.  Hence  we  have  groin  ribs,  ridge  ribs, 
and  surface  ribs,  the  last  expression  applying  to  those  spread 
over  the  surfaces  of  the  vaulting  cells. 

It  will  be  further  necessary  ere  proceeding  to  the  parti- 
cular description  of  the  styles,  to  give  some  account  of  the 
various  kinds  of  arches  e?nployed  in  Gothic  buildings.  This 
is  especially  necessary,  as  the  arch  forms  a  very  strong  cha- 
racteristic of  the  style,  and  is  of  very  great  assistance  in 
deciding,  by  its  shape  and  formation,  the  period  to  which 
any  particular  example  may  belong. 

The  arches  in  use  in  Me  liteval  buildings,  are  the  triangular, 
circular,  and  pointed.  Of  these,  the  first,  composed  of  two 
straight  lines  inclined  towards  each  other,  and  forming  two 
sides  of  a  triangle,  are  almost  peculiar  to  the  Saxon  style, 
but  are  oceasional'y,  though  rarely,  foinid  at  a  later  period  ; 
the  second,  the  outline  of  which  consists  of  a  curve  of  con. 
slant  curvature,  or  some  portion  of  a  circle,  may  be  divided 
into  three  dillercnt  kinds,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the 
circle  which  it  includes. 

The  most  simple  of  these  three  kinds,  and  that  which  is 
the  more  frequently  used,  is  the  semi-circular,  comprising 
one  half  of  the  circle,  the  centre  of  which  is  in  the  springing 
line  of  the  arch.  This  form  was  in  general  use  from  the 
time  of  its  introduction  by  the  Romans,  until  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Gothic  style,  from  which  it  was  almost  discarded  ; 
s.  mie  few  instances  are,  however,  still  to  be  found,  in  exam- 
ples posterior  to  that  period. 

The  horse-shoe  arch,  as  it  is  called,  containing  a  larger 
portion  than  the  half  of  the  circumference,  and  having  the 
centre  of  the  circle  above  the  spring-line,  is  of  very  rare 


occurrence  at  any  period.  The  segmental,  on  the  contrarv, 
which  contains  a  portion  of  a  circle  only,  and  which  springs 
above  its  centre,  is  of  occasional  employ  ment  at  every  period, 
more  especially  as  an  arch  of  construction,  but  also  in  aper- 
tures, as  doors  and  windows.  There  is  yet  another  method 
of  using  the  semi-circular  arch,  by  stilting  it  on  uprights,  so 
that  the  curve  of  the  arch  is  continued  downwards  in  a  straight 
line  below  the  springing  of  the  course;  this  is  found  more 
especially  in  the  pre-Gothic  styles. 

Of  the  Pointed  arch,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  style, 
there  are  many  varieties.  In  the  first  place,  they  divide 
themselves  into  two-centred  and  four-centred  arches,  of  the 
former  of  which  there  are  at  least  three  descriptions;  the 
Lancet,  the  Equilateral,  and  the  Obtuse. 

The  Lancet  consists  of  two  segments,  the  centres  of  which 
fill  outside  the  arch,  the  radius  being  of  greater  lensith  than 
the  span  :  it  may  be  described  about  an  acute-angled  triangle. 
The  equilateral  has  the  centres  of  the  segments  on  the  oppo- 
site extremities  of  the  span,  the  radii  of  the  circles  therefore 
being  equal  to  the  span  of  the  arch ;  it  may  be  described 
about  an  equilateral  triangle.  In  the  obtuse  arch,  the  cen- 
tres of  the  segments  fill  within  the  arch,  and  has  therelbre 
the  radii  less  than  the  span  of  the  arch  ;  it  may  be  described 
about  an  obtuse-angled  triangle. 

The  four-centred  arch,  which  is  also  named  the  Tudor 
arch,  from  the  dynasty  during  which  it  was  In  use,  is 
described  from  two  centres  on  either  side,  the  one  being  on 
a  level  with  the  springing,  and  the  other  at  a  considerable 
distance  below  it,  the  curves  of  lesser  curvature,  or  those 
described  with  the  longer  radius,  meeting  at  a  point,  and  thus 
leaving  the  arch  still  pointed. 

There  is  another  kind  of  arch  termed  the  ogee,  each  side 
of  which  consists  of  a  curve  of  double  curvature,  the  lower 
curve  being  concave  on  Its  under  side,  and  having  its  centre 
on  a  level  with  the  spring,  and  the  upper  convex,  with  the 
centre  on  a  level  with  the  apex. 

There  yet  remains  to  be  noticed  a  more  ornamental  kind 
of  arch,  which  is  by  no  means  inicommon,  and  is  what  Is 
termed  a  foiled — or,  to  designate  it  still  more  closely — a  tre- 
foiled  arch.  The  appellation  arises  from  the  shape  or  out- 
line, which  is  that  of  a  trefoil,  or  rather  of  a  semi-quatrefoil. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  these ;  the  ronnd-hcadcd  trcf  lil,  in 
which  the  curve  between  the  cusps  is  a  senil-clrcle,  and  the 
pointed  trefoil,  in  which  the  saine  curve  is  composed  of  seg- 
ments less  than  a  semicircle.  There  are  also  what  are  termed 
square-headed  trefoil  arches,  in  which  the  centre  compart- 
ment, in>-tead  of  being  circular,  is  square  or  rectangular, 
leaving  the  side-ones  .still  circular. 

Such  are  the  arches  most  frequently  applied  in  Gothic 
buildings  ;  there  are  some  few  other  varieties,  but  they  are 
of  so  rare  occurrence,  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  taking 
notice  of  them. 

But  to  return  to  the  classification  and  description  of  the 
various  styles;  the  first  of  which,  the  Early  English,  dates 
from  K.  D.  1180  to  1300.  Ineludinir  the  reigns  of  Ilenrj-  II., 
Richard  I.,  .lolin,  Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I.,  may  be  calh'd. 
In  general  terms,  the  style  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
architecture  of  this  period  is  exceedingly  beautiful  and  chaste, 
simple  and  elegant  In  design,  and  excellent  and  delicate  in 
ex<'Cutlon,  equally  apfilicabic  to  the  modest  village  church, 
and  the  noble  abbey  or  cathedral,  remarl<ab!e  in  the  one  for 
its  unobtrusive  simplicity,  and,  in  the  other,  for  its  solemn 
and  majestic  grandeur. 

In  describing  this  and  the  succeeding  styles,  we  shall 
follow  the  method  commenced  by  Rickman,  and  adopted  by 
most  of  the  later  writers,  of  considering  them  in  detail  ;  that 
is  to  say,  we  shall  select  the  most  important  of  the  component 


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parts  of  a  liuiKIiiig,  and  describe  tlioni  separately  as  to  their 
character  and  Ireatinent  in  each  style.  We  shall  arrange 
these  parts  and  their  descriptions  in  tlie  following  maimer  : 
Arches  ;  next  their  supjiorts,  Piers,  which  we  subdivide  into 
S/iafi  Cu/iitiil,  and  Base;  then  Wmiloa-s,  Dnurwai/s.  But- 
tresses, Piinipets^  Hoofs,  and  so  forlli,  inchidiiig  Towers, 
Spires,  and  decorative  features,  such  as  muuldiiujs,  paterw, 
foliage,  and  other  sculpture. 

Arches.  The  arches  prineipnlly  in  vogue  at  thi-:  [)eriod, 
were  acutely  pointed,  eitlier  lancet  or  equilateral,  the  foiiner 
being  most  prevalent  in  the  larger  structures;  in  which, 
however,  the  latter  was  not  uiifreiiuent,  as  may  be  seen  at 
Salisbury  cathedral,  where  it  is  more  frc(piciit  than  any  other 
shape.  It  is,  however,  a  rule  that  the  arches  are  conjpaia- 
tively  more  acutely  pointed  in  larger  churches  and  cathedrals, 
and  accordingly  we  find  the  olituse-poiuted  arch  most  e.xti^n- 
sively  used  in  small  parish  churches.  The  semi-circular  arch 
was  not  entirely  out  of  use  at  this  period,  as  we  find  it  fre- 
quently eomhined  with  the  pointed,  two  or  more  of  which 
arc  sometimes  included  under  one  of  the  former  shape,  as  at 
Whitby  Abl)ey,  and  in  other  examples.  There  are  also  not 
a  few  instances  in  which  the  semi-circular  form  is  used  alone, 
and  sometimes  treated  in  a  similar  manner  as  regards  decora- 
tion, to  those  of  a  later  date.  Segmental  arches  were  likewise 
ill  use,  not  only  as  constructive  nirlies,  b  it  aJso  jls  covei-iugs 
for  apertures,  and  more  especially  doorways. 

The  soffits  of  the  arches  were,  in  the  more  magnificent 
examples,  richly  moulded  with  a  series  of  projcctiii:,'  rolls 
with  deep  hollows  intervening,  but  in  smaller  churches  they 
were  for  the  most  part  merely  cut  in  recession,  so  as  to 
present  two  or  more  surfaces,  having  the  angles  of  each  pro- 
jection plainly  and  broadly  chamfered. 

Piers.  In  large  edifices  the  shajis  of  the  piers  were  often 
composed  of  a  series  of  pillars  clustered  together  in  various 
forms,  to  the  number  of  four  and  upwards.  Sometimes  these 
shafts  were  attached  to  each  other,  but  they  were  frequently 
detached,  consisting  of  a  massive  central  pier,  usually  circular, 
but  sometimes  octagonal  or  square,  and  surrounded  liy  four 
or  more  slender  pillars,  entirely  detached  from  each  other  and 
the  central  shaft,  except  at  the  base  and  capital,  and  occasion- 
ally at  one  or  two  points  in  the  height  of  the  shaft,  where 
they  were  connected  by  narrow  bands  or  annulets  of  moiililing. 
Tliese  annulets  are  used  also  in  the  other  kinds  of  shafts,  and 
are  characteristic  of  the  style.  The  smaller  pillars,  when  de- 
tached, are  often  const  rncled  of  a  more  costly  material  than 
the  other  parts  of  the  shaft,  being  sometimes  of  Purbeck  mar- 
ble and  polished.  The  same  arrangement  of  central  shaft, 
with  four  surrounding  pillars,  is  to  be  found  with  the  pillars 
attached  to  the  main  pier;  specimens  of  both  kind  exist  at 
Westiiiin-ter  Alibey.  The  pillars  are  usually  simple  rounds, 
but  sometimes  they  have  a  narrow  vertical  fillet. 

In  smaller  churches  the  shafts  were  a  simple  circle  or 
octagon  in  plan;  more  frequently  the  l()rnier,  and  are  distin- 
guishable  from  those  of  a  later  date  only  by  the  details  of 
base  and  capital.  It  freipiently  happens  that  the  shafts 
of  piers  in  the  same  edifice  differ  in  form,  and  they  are 
frequently  so  arranged  as  to  have  circular  and  octagonal 
forms  alternately'  in  the  same  arcade. 

The  capitals  of  this  period  are  usually  bell-sliaped,  and 
are  often,  especially  in  the  smaller  examples,  quite  plain, 
with  the  exception  of  a  necking,  and  one  or  two  mouldings 
beneath  the  abacus.  In  such  eases,  they  are  distinguished 
from  the  capitals  of  later  styles  only  by  their  mouldings, 
which  consist  of  rounds  and  deep  hollows ;  the  bell  is 
generally  very  deeply  undercut,  which  is  a  strong  character- 
istic of  the  style.  The  mouldings  iire  generally  plain  and 
few,  but  sometimes  the  nail-head  or  dog-tooth  urnament  is   j 


inserted  between  them.  In  the  larger  and  richer  specimens, 
the  bell  is  covered  with  foliage,  which  sjiringin;;  from  the 
necking,  is  curled  over  with  a  graceful  curve  beneath  the 
upper  mouldings.  The  foliage  is  somewhat  stilf  in  appear 
ance,  but  of  a  bold  and  striking  character,  and  is  sometimes 
undercut  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  jiartially  detached  from 
the  bell;  it  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a  variety  of  adapta- 
tions of  the  tre(i)il  leaf,  and  we  rarely  meet  figures  of  any 
kind.  In  clustered  piers,  the  capitals  follow  the  form  of  the 
pier;  as  also  in  the  single  shaft  they  adopt  the  same  fi>rin, 
with  the  exception  that  the  multangular  shaft  has  not  unfre- 
qiiently  a  circular  capiral.  The  abacus  is  either  circular  or 
octagonal,  and  sometimes  square  in  jj'an,  and  consists  of 
mouldings  varying  in  number,  and  made  up  of  deep  hollows 
with  overhanging  rounds,  which  are  either  plain  or  filleted. 

The  liase  consists  of  a  series  of  mouldings,  frequently  of 
a  deep  hollow  and  fillet  between  two  rounds,  of  which  the 
lower  one  projects  beyond  the  other  ;  it  is  also  often  similar 
to  the  Attic  base,  with  the  exception  that  the  proportions 
differ,  the  upper  torus  being  greatly  reduced,  and  the  con- 
cave mouldings  deeply  undercut.  The  base  most  frequently 
stands  upon  a  single  or  double  plinth,  which  in  the  earlier 
examples  is  square,  having  the  angle  covered  with  a  leaf 
whii'h  springs  from  the  mouldings  of  the  base,  and  falls 
over  the  [dinth.  Ill  later  specimens,  the  plinth  assumes  the 
form  of  the  base,  and  is  either  circular  or  polygonal  ;  it  is 
sometimes  of  great  height,  having  a  second  series  of  mould- 
ings lielow  the  base. 

The  wiiidoirs  of  this  style  arc  for  the  most  part  long  and 
narrow,  with  acutely-pointed  heads.  The  earliest  and  simplest 
firm  is  ihat  nf  a  long  narrow  single  light,  with  arched  head, 
and  without  moulding  of  any  kind  either  internally  or  exter- 
nally,  the  exterior  angle  being  merely  chamfered,  and  the 
interior  widely  splayed.  Such  windows  were  sometimes 
without  any  weather-moulding,  but  occasionally  a  string- 
course was  carried  from  one  window  to  another,  at  a  level 
with  the  springing  of  the  head,  and  then  lifted  over  it, 
adopting  its  form,  and  carried  on  to  the  next  aperture.  In 
later  times  such  windows  appear  in  groups  of  two,  three,  or 
more,  the  first  being  commonly  found  in  the  side-walls  of 
churches,  and  the  latter  being  almost  confined  to  the  east 
end,  except  in  very  large  buildings,  where  it  is  f  )iii]d  in  all 
positions.  The  separate  lights  of  these  groups  are  generally 
placed  at  some  distance  apart  on  the  exterior,  so  as  scarcely 
to  appear  as  belonging  to  the  same  window  ;  but  in  the 
interior,  owing  to  the  great  splay  given  to  each  lisiht, 
the  distance  between  them  appears  inconsideralile,  giving 
them  the  appearance  of  a  single  compound  window.  This 
idea  is  sometimes  manifested  on  the  outside  by  the  two  or 
more  lights  being  contained  under  one  drip-stone.  The 
glass  is  inserted  near  the  outer  face  of  the  wall,  which 
circumstance,  taken  in  connection  with  the  gcat  thickness 
of  the  walls,  accounts  for  the  ditference  of  the  size  of  the 
aperture  on  the  two  faces  of  the  wall.  This  arrange- 
ment was  in  all  probability  adopted  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  a  larger  proportion  of  light,  or  rather  spreading 
what  they  obtained  over  a  larger  portion  of  the  interior. 

The  arches  of  the  splay  on  the  interior,  seldom  folhjw  the 
form  of  the  window  heads  on  the  exterior,  but  spring  from 
a  lower  level,  and  are  almost  always  chamfered  or  moulded  at 
their  angles  or  edges;  the  mouldings  projecting  below  the 
soHit,and  either  dying  into  the  jamb,  or  resting  upon  corbels 
at  the  spring  of  the  arch. 

In  windows  of  three  lights,  the  centre  one  is  almost 
alwavs  of  a  greater  length  than  tho-c  at  the  side,  its  head 
rising  considerably  above  theirs,  so  as  to  preserve  the  arched 
form    in    the   entire  window.      We  occasionally    meet  with 


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windows  of  four  lights,  the  two  centre  ones  rising  above  the 
others,  hut  more  frequently  with  others  of  five  or  seven 
lights  rising  in  gradation  to  the  centre  one,  which  is  higher 
than  the  rest.  These  large  windows  have  a  vevy  beautiful 
effect,  occup\  ing  as  they  do  nearly  the  whole  of  the  east  wall. 
In  all  the  above  c;isos  the  jambs  are  sometimes  plain,  being 
merely  chamfered  and  splayed  as  before  descrilied  ;  but-  at 
other  times  we  find  them  decorated  with  small  detached 
pillars,  with  moulded  arches.  This  is  most  frequent  in  the 
interior,  where  the  shafts  are  not  unusually  of  polished 
marble,  but  such  decoration  is  also  to  be  met  with  on  the 
exterior,  especially  in  large  buildings.  In  windows  of  a 
late  date,  the  arched  heads  are  sometimes  foiled. 

Before  the  termination  of  this  style,  windows  of  a  some- 
what different  appearance  were  introduced,  which  originated 
thus  : — In  cases  where  windows  of  more  than  one  light  were 
employed,  it  was,  as  has  been  mentioned,  a  not  unusual  prac- 
tice to  include  them  under  one  arch,  the  head  of  which  was 
left  plain  ;  but  in  the  cour.se  of  time  this  space  began  to  be 
pierced  with  another  small  light  in  the  form  of  a  circle  or 
trefoil,  which  at  once  relieved  the  blank  space  beneath  the 
arch,  and  admitted  a  greater  amount  of  light.  At  Brown- 
sover  church,  Warwickshire,  there  is  a  very  simple  arrange- 
ment of  this  kind,  in  which  the  third  light  is  somewhat  in 
the  shape  of  a  diamond  placed  between  the  arched  heads  of 
the  principal  lights,  to  which  two  sides  of  the  figure  are 
parallel,  the  two  remaining  sides  being  parallel  to  the  curved 
sides  of  the  larger  connecting  arch.  In  the  earlier  specimens 
of  this  class,  the  openings  are  still  chamfered  only,  with 
shafts  sometimes  on  the  inside;  but  at  a  later  period  the 
lights  were  brouglit  ch)ser  together,  and  were  divided  by 
slender  shafts,  and  the  arches  and  ornamental  lights  in  the 
head  monldedand  f"oliated.  We  havemany  beautiful  e.xamples 
of  windows  of  three  lights,  with  three  foliated  circles  in  the 
head,  and  sometimes  of  five  or  more  lights  similarly  decorated. 
The  windows  of  the  Chapter-house,  York,  are  most  beautiful 
specimens  of  five  lights,  which  are  arranged  in  two  pairs  of 
two  lights  each,  connected  under  one  arched  head  containing 
a  foliated  circle  :  the  central  light  being  also  surmounted  by 
an  arch  containing  a  tr.-f  lil.  The  whole  of  these  are  enclosed 
under  the  principal  arch,  which  c<intains  above  the  lights, 
three  large  foliated  circles.  The  effect  of  this  des'srn  is  arrand 
in  the  extreme.  The  east  window  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  is 
another  magnificent  example  :  it  contains  eight  lights  in  all, 
which  are  divided  into  two  compartments  containing  four 
lights  e,ich,  with  arched  heads  filled  with  foliated  circles, 
whilst  the  principal  head  is  filled  with  one  large  circle  con- 
taining seven  of  a  smaller  size.  This  is  probably  the  largest 
window  of  the  kind  we  possess. 

Circular  or  ro.se-windows  arc  not  unfreqnent  in  this  style, 
and  are  divided  into  compaitments  by  slender  shafts  with 
capitals,  &c.,  radiating  from  the  centre,  and  sustaining  at  the 
circiiinference  small  arches,  which  are  usually  trefoiled. 
Smaller  windows  of  this  form  are  either  left  plain,  foiled,  or 
filled  with  quatrefoils,  &c.  Windows  of  triangular  shape  are 
also  tbund,  as  well  as  a  peculiar  sort  of  window  in  the  form 
of  what  is  called  the  Vesica  Pixels;  but  these  are  always 
small,  and  placed  in  suliordinate  situations,  such  as  the 
galiles  or  the  clere-stories  of  parish  churches.  Small  square- 
headed  windows  are  sometimes  employed,  but  only  in  towers 
and  similar  situations. 

The  dripstones  follow  the  form  of  the  arch,  and  usually 
terminate  on  a  projecting  head  or  knob  of  foliage,  but  are 
sometimes  returned  horizontally  along  the  wall ;  the  moulding 
has  a  deep  hollow  on  the  under  siile  to  prevent  the  rain  running 
over  it.  A  stiing-course  is  generally  carried  along  the  exter- 
nal and  internal  walls,  immediately  below  the  windows. 


The  doorways  of  this  period  are  most  frequently  furnished 
with  nook-shafts  in  the  jambs,  which  are,  for  the  most  part, 
detached  from  the  walls,  except  at  the  capitals  and  bases. 
The  more  simple  doorways  have  only  one  shaft  on  either 
side,  supporting  an  archivolt  of  a  few  bold  mouldir>gs,  the 
whole  surmounted  by  a  simple  hood-moulding  conforming  to 
the  shape  of  an  arch,  and  terminating  in  a  head  or  bunch 
of  foliage,  or  returned  in  a  horizontal  direction  along  the 
walls.  More  elaborate  specimens  have  two  or  more  shafts 
on  either  side,  and  a  greater  number  of  mouldings  in  the 
arch.  The  jamb  is  cut  in  recession  to  receive  the  shafts,  and 
the  spaces  between  the  mouldings  or  shafts  are  frequently 
filled  up  with  the  dog-tooth  ornament  or  a  running  pattern 
of  tijiiage.  The  arched  heads  of  doorways  are  most  fre- 
quently pointed,  but  not  rarely  round-pointed  or  square- 
headed  trefoil. 

The  doorways  of  the  larger  structures  are  mostly  divided 
into  two  arched  apertures  by  a  simple  or  clustered  shaft, 
which  is  often  of  polished  marble,  and  furnished  with  a  richly 
moulded  or  foliaged  capital.  The  arches  are  also  foiled  or 
foliated,  and  enclosed  under  one  mainarch,  the  space  between 
being  perforated  in  circles,  trefoils,  &c.,  and  sometimes  filled 
with  groups  of  sculpture. 

The  doors  are  either  plain  or  covered  .with  iron  scroll- 
work, sometimes  proceeding  from  the  hinges,  which  are  often 
of  a  very  ornamental  character,  but  at  other  times  nearly 
plain.  In  some  cases  this  scroll-work  is  very  elegant,  and 
completely  covers  the  door. 

The  buttresses  of  this  period  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  a 
simple  character,  consisting,  in  smaller  churches,  of  two  or 
more  stages,  the  lowermost  projecting  beyond  the  other,  each 
set-off  being  sloped  at  the  top  so  as  to  carry  off  the  rain. 
The  buttress  finishes  at  the  top  under  the  parapet,  or  eaves, 
with  a  simple  slope  similar  to  that  of  the  other  projections. 
In  larger  buildings,  the  buttress  is  frequently  finished  with 
a  triangular  head  or  gablet,  but  is  seldom  carried  above  the 
parapet,  except  where  stone  vaulting  is  employed,  and,  in 
such  cases,  it  is  covered  with  a  pinnacle  which  is  either  plain 
or  enriched  with  blank  arcades.  Sometimes  each  set-off  is 
finished  with  a  triangular  head,  and,  at  others,  the  water- 
table  is  continued  round  three  sides  of  the  buttress.  The 
edges  of  such  buttresses  are  often  chamfered,  or  the  angles 
ornamented  with  slender  shafts ;  occasionally,  too,  the  face  is 
formed  into  a  niche  to  contain  a  statue. 

There  is  a  peculiarity  abotit  the  position  of  buttresses  of 
this  period,  which  is  often  the  only  means  of  distinguishing 
them  from  those  of  later  date  ;  at  the  angles  of  buildings 
they  are  not  placed  diagonally,  but  at  right  angles  to  the 
wail,  so  that  whereas  in  this  style  we  require  two  buttresses 
at  each  angle,  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  to  the 
adjoining  walls,  in  the  fijllowing  styles  we  need  but  one. 

Flijiiiff-biittresses,  which  are  arches  springing  from  the 
wall-buttresses  over  the  roof  to  the  clere-story,  were  now 
first  introduced,  and  are  common  in  all  large  buildings  with 
vaulted  roofs.  They  are  of  simple  design,  with  a  plain  cap 
ping  and  archivolt. 

Parapets  are  not  frequent  in  small  buildings,  the  roof 
being  carried  over  the  walls  with  dripping  eaves  ;  but  when 
they  occur,  they  are  of  a  simple  character,  finished  at  the 
top  with  a  moulded  capping,  and  supported  underneath  by 
a  corbel-table,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  blocks  moulded 
or  sculptured  in  the  form  of  heads  or  masks,  and  sometimes 
of  foliage  ;  these  are  often  connected  together  by  tref  liled,  or 
other  arches.  The  projection  of  the  parapet  above  the 
corbel-table  is  often  merely  chamfered,  but  in  the  richer  spe- 
cimens moulded,  and  sometimes  decorated  with  the  dog- 
tooth ornament.      In   cathedrals,  we   occasionally  see   thi» 


GOT 


4G4 


GOT 


parapet  relieved  by  panelling,  as  at  Salisbury,  where  the  pan- 
els are  of  the  fi)rni  of  trefoilcd  arches,  and  saiiictinies  pii-rccd 
with  trefoils,  &c.  Battlements  are  notoften  found  in  this  style. 

Pinnacles,  which  rise  above  the  general  level  of  the  build- 
ings, are  ofteia  mere  continuations  of  the  rectansular  buttress 
capped  with  simple  pyramids  of  square  or  polygonal  bases, 
wiihout  any  ornamentation,  hut  in  more  costly  examples  the 
latter  form  is  chiefly  employed  for  the  entire  pinnacle,  and 
is  enriched  with  one  or  more  series  of  blank  arcades,  which 
give  them  a  light  and  elegant  appi'arance  ;  in  some  instances, 
the  arcades  are  perlbrated. 

The  Roofs  are  of  a  high  pitch,  the  angle  at  the  apex  coin- 
ciding mostly  with  that  of  an  eciuialateial  triangle,  liut  some- 
times they  are  more  depressed.  In  small  buildings,  as  we 
have  above  stated,  they  not  unfretjucntly  overhang  the  walls, 
but  in  larger  ones  they,  are  stopped  by  the  parapet.  In  the 
interior  of  large  churches  and  cathedrals  the  roof  is  g.-ne- 
rally  vaulted,  the  vaulting  being  of  the  simplest  kind, 
or  that  which  has  been  described  as  quadripartite,  that  is, 
consisting  of  four  cells  in  each  bay,  and  being  divided  only 
by  transverse  and  diagonal  ribs,  not  having  a  longitudinal 
one  along  the  apex,  as  in  later  examples.  The  mouldings 
of  the  ribs  consist  generally  of  rounds  |)lain  or  filleted,  and 
deep  hollows,  and  are  covered  at  their  intersection  by  bosses 
of  scidptured  foliage. 

The  wooden  roofs  of  the  jieriod  were  like  all  Gothic  roofs, 
except  those  of  a  very  late  date,  open  to  the  ridge,  and  un- 
ceiled,  so  as  to  aftbrd  a  view  of  the  timbers  from  the  body  of 
the  building.  In  recent  times,  however,  most  of  these  open 
roofs  have  been  excluded  from  view  by  the  intervention  of 
a  modern  ceiling,  and  it  is  seldom  they  are  brought  to  light, 
except  on  the  occasion  of  an  extensive  repair  or  restoration 
of  the  entire  fabric.  This  fact  will  account  f  u-  the  paucity 
of  information  respecting  this  portion  of  a  iiuilding,  a  want 
which  is  more  particularly  felt  in  respect  of  the  early  styles  ; 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  we  scarcely  know  for  certainty  how 
to  distinguish  the  early  English  from  the  Decorated  exam- 
ples, and  it  is  probable  that  there  is  no  very  marked  differ- 
ence between  them,  although  it  is  usual  to  make  a  distinction 
in  trcati.ses  of  this  nature. 

The  most  simple  roofs,  which  we  may  attribute  as  more 
particularly  belonging  to  this  period,  consist  only  of  common 
rafters  placed  at  short  distances  apart,  without  the  interven- 
tion of  trussed  principles,  and  have  a  very  good  eflect,  owing 
to  the  lengthened  perspective  produced  by  the  frequent  repe- 
tition of  the  same  parts.  The  ratters  are  very  often  secured 
by  means  of  collar  beams  and  braces,  or  by  intersecting  braces 
springing  from  purlins  about  half-way  up  the  rafters,  and 
rising  to  a  higher  purlin  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  roof. 
These  two  systems  arc  very  common  and  simple,  but  not 
nnfrcquently  the  two  were  united,  so  as  to  have  a  collar  beam 
with  cross  braces  intersecting  a  point  usually  above  it  ; 
and  sometimes,  in  addition  to  these,  we  have  a  strut  belo\T, 
all  resting  upon  the  wall-plate,  so  that  the  entire  outline  of 
the  under  side  presents  the  appearance  of  a  polygonal  arch. 
In  some  instances,  the  braces  are  curved  in  the  form  of  a 
pointed  arch.  Where  the  roof  is  carried  over  both  nave  and 
aisles,  the  portion  over  the  nave  is  of  a  similar  description 
to  those  above  mentioned,  and  in  that  over  the  aisles,  the  side 
next  the  nave  is  supported  by  short  beams  or  struts  abutting 
against  the  nave  walls;  this  is  also  common  in  lean-to  roofs. 
Although  the  practice  of  adopting  only  common  rafters  m.iy 
be  more  usual,  the  introduction  of  principals  is  not  unfre- 
quenlly  resorted  to,  which,  in  such  instances,  follow  the 
same  constructive  form  as  the  common  rafters  before  refer- 
red to,  the  common  rafter.s,  however,  are  of  a  more  simple 
character  than  the  principals. 


Tie-beams  do  not  seem  to  have  been  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, and  king-posts  are  still  less  usual,  their  absence  being 
very  readily  accounted  for  by  their  necessary  weight  in  roofs 
of  a  high  pitch;  when  tie-beams  are  employed,  th>'y  are 
sometimes  supported  underneath  by  sloping  braces  abutting 
against  the  wall,  and  this  method  removes,  in  a  great  degree, 
the  objection  made  against  ties,  of  destroying  the  vertical 
tendency  of  the  sreneral  design. 

The  timbers  of  the  roof  are  often  plain  or  chamfered  on 
the  edges,  but  in  the  richer  specimens  they  are  moulded,  or 
at  least  the  main  beams,  such  as  principals,  purlins,  wall 
plates,  and  such  like,  but  the  common  rafters  are  mostly 
plain. 

The  Towers  of  the  period  are  of  various  proportions,  but 
generally  bear  a  substantial,  massive  appearance;  they  are 
almost  always  square  on  plan,  but  sometimes  octagonal,  and 
in  a  few  instances  square  below  and  octagonal  above.  They 
are  strengthened  at  the  angles  by  buttresses,  two  at  each 
corner,  projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  walls,  which  generally 
terminate  a  stage  or  more  below  the  top  ;  projecting  stair- 
turiets  arc  not  uncommon,  but  are  sometimes  concealed  by 
the  buttresses. 

The  tower  is  divided  into  stages  by  set-ofls  or  otherwi.se, 
of  which  the  upper  ones  are  frequently  decorated  with  blank 
arcades,  a  few  being  perforated,  to  serve  as  windows  ;  some- 
times the  faces  are  perfectly  plain,  with  the  exception  of  the 
apertures  for  windows,  which  consist  of  one  or  more  light, 
the  most  impoitant  being  placed  in  the  upper  stories.  Here, 
in  smaller  churches,  we  generally  have  a  window  of  two 
lights  divided  by  a  shaft,  and  having  a  foiled  aperture  under 
the  arched  head,  but  in  larger  churches  we  find  windows  of 
three  lights,  or  triplets,  but  of  equal  height;  in  the  lower 
stories  w-e  usually  find  single  lancets. 

These  towers  are  occasionally  covered  by  a  low  pyramidal 
or  a  gable  roof,  but  more  frequently  by  a  lofty  spire  of 
stone  or  wood,  although  for  the  most  part  less  acutely 
pointed  than  those  of  a  later  style.  The  spires  are  almost 
invariably  broach-spires,  that  is  to  say,  such  as  spring  directly 
from  the  roof,  without  the  intervention  of  a  parapet;  their 
plan  is  almost  always  octagonal,  four  of  the  sides  sloping 
down  to  the  eaves,  but  the  four  corner  ones  leaving  a  trian- 
gular space  at  each  angle  of  the  tower  uncovered,  which  is 
occupied  either  by  a  pinnacle,  or  more  frequently  by  a  tri- 
angular pyramid,  which  connects  the  angles  of  the  tower  with 
the  angular  faces  of  the  spire.  Towards  the  lower  part  of 
the  spire,  the  cardinal  sides  are  furnished  with  windows, 
which  rise  perpendicularly,  so  as  to  give  a  projection  at  the 
top  which  is  covered  with  a  gable-head,  and  sometimes  we 
have  two  or  more  tiers  of  such  windows  placed  often  on 
alternate  sides  of  the  spire.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a 
finial  and  vane.  The  cornice  below  the  eaves  is  freijuently 
ornamented  with  the  dog-tooth  moulding,  or  a  running  pat- 
tern, :«nd  is  often  supported  upon  a  bold  corbel-table. 

A  very  elegant  substitute  for  tower  and  spire,  is  employed 
in  small  churches,  in  the  shape  of  a  bell-gable,  with  one  or 
more  openings  to  contain  the  bells. 

The  Mouldings  of  the  style  have  no  great  variety  of  form, 
but  consist  almost  universally  ofbold  rounds  with  deep  under- 
cut hollows  intervening,  so  as  to  produce  a  great  amount  of 
shadow.  The  rounds  are  sometimes  filleted  with  one  or  more 
fillets,  but  this  is  not  usually  the  case  with  the  smaller 
mouldings.  Where  several  mouldings  are  connected  together, 
there  is  considerable  diflerence  of  size,  the  entire  series  being 
generally  divided  into  a  few  distinct  portions  by  mouldings 
of  a  large  size,  which  are  often  filleted,  and  the  intermediate 
spaces  filled  up  by  smaller  plain  mouldings.  In  such  cases, 
it  will  be  generally  found  that  the  mouldings  are  so  arranged, 


J)  jiii>]lJii1     Al-i  a      i&^litl,  Y 


■A  iLAM  PITIES 


^  PI  One  divifflnn  of  Nnr-fri  ^:r!t_'  of  S^  Tos*t)1i  of  Arnna^eas 


liARLi   ENGLISH 


IJ°6  Ifouldn^ ,  Vaiiltmg  Ribs 
V7  Ditto         Omamentea. 
N°8  CapitalB 
H°9  'Dmber  Boof   S°10  Stoue  Ditto 


(iilbecU  Ardi'.iUl 


N91  Wndow   Single  ligUt 
dow.    Tw>  tight. 
low-,  three  light , 
'    -.uidow.    Five  light. 


K"  5.Doorway  Sin^e. 
N"  6  Doorwaj".  Double. 

N"?  Pillar.  Circular. 
N''8.Ptllar.austOTcrt 


N''-9. Pillar  n,  i?;nT,'.i 
h^lO  BultTc 
lv'°ll.Buttrc:. 
>:<"  12  Parapet. 


iJ.TX. 


.olt 
^.  -  „  .-I.J  Course 
X^iu   ./foulding.BasCTneut 


GOT 


465 


GOT 


thac  if  a  line  be  drawn  to  touch  the  most  prominent  points, 
it  will  form  a  succession  of  rectangular  recesses.  The  large 
rounds  are  sometimes  brought  to  a  pointed  edge  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  smaller  ones  very  deeply  nndenuit  on  one  side : 
in  some  cast-s,  a  fillet  intervenes  at  the  junction  of  the  round 
and  hollows,  but  they  mostly  unite  in  a  continuous  line  with- 
out any  interruption.  String-coiu'ses  often  consist  of  a  plain 
round-moulding,  or  of  a  roll-mouliling  of  two  different  curves, 
so  as  to  cause  the  upper  half  to  overlap  the  lower;  some- 
times they  are  mere  slopes  with  hollow  underneath.  Ilood- 
mouldings  consist  fir  the  most  part  of  an  overlapping  round 
with  deep  hollow  underneath.  The  base-moiddings  are 
composed  of  a  series  of  slopes,  with  sometimes  a  stringcourse 
moulding  along  the  top,  but  in  more  elaborate  works  they 
comprise  a  series  of  mouldings  consisting  of  projecting  and 
overhanging  rounds  deeply  undercut. 

The  hollows  of  the  mouldings  are  often  filled  with  orna- 
ments peculiar  to  the  style,  of  which  the  most  usual  and 
characteristic  is  that  termed  the  dixj-looth  ornament.  It  is 
a  kind  of  pyramidal  flower  of  four  leaves,  the  division  be- 
tween the  leaves  being  placed  in  the  centre  of  each  side  of 
the  pyramid  ;  the  flower  is  placed  in  an  inverted  position, 
the  base  of  the  pyramid  being  placed  against  the  hollow,  with 
the  ape.\  projecting.  This  ornament  varies  to  some  e.\tent 
in  different  examples,  but  always  preserves  the  same  general 
appearance ;  it  is  very  eft'fctive  on  aceoinit  of  the  deep 
shadow  produced  at  the  division  of  the  leaves.  They  are 
placed  in  a  hollow  moulding,  or  in  the  edge  of  a  jamb,  either 
singly,  with  a  space. intervening  between  each  two,  but  more 
frecjuently  in  close  proximity  to  each  other.  Single  leaves 
and  flowers  of  a  different  character  are  sometimes  inserted 
in  a  similar  way,  and  sometimes  a  running  pattern  of  leaves 
or  foliage. 

Seutptiired  foliarie  is  much  used  in  the  more  costly  build- 
ings, forming  capitals,  corbels,  crockets,  and  bosses,  and  is 
usually  of  a  stifl"  character,  that  is  to  say,  the  leaves  have  a 
crisp  ap|)earance  not  observable  in  other  styles.  It  is  very 
beautiful,  however,  and  worked  with  much  taste  and  free- 
dom ;  although  it  does  not  present  an  appearance  so  natural 
or  flowing  as  that  employed  during  the  next  period.  Ainong>t 
other  varieties  of  foliage,  the  trefoil  is  predominant,  the  two 
lower  lobes  of  which,  and  sometimes  all  three,  are  worked 
with  a  bulb  or  swelling  in  the  centre,  the  middle  lobe  being 
frequently  of  larger  size  than  the  others. 

'Ihe  crockets  likewise  are  usually  in  the  form  of  a  trefoil- 
leaf,  curled  back  like  the  head  of  a  pastoral  staff. 

The  walls  of  large  buildings  are  frequently  ornamented  by 
a  series  of  blank  arches  supported  on  pillars.  These  are 
common,  running  round  the  base  of  the  walls  on  the  interior, 
and  are  employed  in  many  other  situations,  both  externally 
and  internally,  so  much  .so  as  to  become  a  characteristic  of 
the  style.  Another  method  of  ornamenting  blank  walls  is 
by  diapering,  or  carving  them  in  low  recession  after  some 
small  and  recurring  [lattern,  frequently  in  the  form  of  square 
leaves,  as  in  the  tiilijria,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Niches  were  in  use  at  this  period,  but  of  a  less  elaborate 
cliaracter  than  those  of  succeeding  styles.  The  figures  were 
frequently  set  on  small  pedestals,  and  surmounted  by  a 
canopy  consisting  oftentimes  of  a  three  or  five-foiled  arch 
with  plain  pedimeutal  head ;  in  many  cases,  the  canopies 
project  or  bow  forwards.  Niches  are  often  placed  in  ranges 
of  two  or  more,  under  one  common  arch,  and  in  such  cases 
are  generally  separated  by  single  shafts. 

Mr.  Bloxam  has  subdivided  this  style  into  two,  the  earliest 

of  which  he  names  the  Semi-Norman  style.     It  is  the  same 

as  that  sty  led  by  others  the  Transition  style,  and  embraces 

that  class  of  buildings  in  which  the  round  and  pointed  arches 

.59 


seem  to  be  struggling  for  pre-eininence,  and  which  bear 
evident  marks  of  their  near  affinity  to  both  systems  :  remark- 
able examples  of  the  kind  are  the  Church  of  S.  Cross,  and 
Malmcsbury  Abbey. 

The  general  characteristics  of  this  division  consist  in  the 
use  and  combination  of  round  and  pointed  arches  in  the  same 
building;  in  some  instances,  pointed  arches  are  surmounted 
by  others  of  the  semi-circular  form,  in  others  semi-circular 
arches  are  made  to  intersect,  and  thus  form  pointed  arches. 
Another  characteristic  is  the  existence  of  pointed  arches  on 
massive  piers  of  Norman  design.  The  piers  are  mostly 
Norman  in  character  and  proportion,  but  have  their  capitals 
often  ornamented  with  a  simple  descrifition  of  foliage.  In 
other  respects,  the  details  of  such  buildings  are  for  the  most 
part  Norman. 

Sometimes  the  piers  are  of  more  slender  proportions,  and 
attached  to  a  large  central  pier,  which  is  either  square  or 
round  ;  and  a  still  closer  approximation  to  the  Early  English 
examples  is  shown  in  the  horizontal  bands  surrounding  the 
piers  about  midway. 

The  soffits  of  arches  are  frequently  recessed,  which  shows 
an  advance  upon  previous  examples,  but  the  chamfer  com- 
mon  to  Early  English  buildings  is  omitted,  the  edges  being 
left  square. 

The  Decorated  style. 

Otherwise  termed,  in  architecture,  the  Middle-pointed, 
stands  next  in  respect  of  time  and  decoration.  It  had  its 
commencement  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  First,  and  arrived 
at  maturity  during  the  reigns  of  the  two  succeeding  Edwards, 
from  which  circumstance  the  name  of  Edwardiun  has  some- 
times been  applied  to  it.  It  dates  from  1307  to  1377,  or  a 
little  later,  and  may  be  named  generally  the  style  of  the 
fiurteenth  century.  This  period  of  architecture  is  of  all 
others  the  most  beautiful ;  it  rivals  the  preceding  in  chaste- 
ness,  while  it  surpasses  it  in  richness ;  and  at  the  same  time 
is  free  from  the  extravagant  and  redundant  ornamentation  of 
the  succeeding  styles. 

The  arches  of  this  period  are  described  from  equilateral  or 
obtuse-angled  triangles,  and  in  many  instances  are  not  easily 
distinguishable  by  their  shape  from  those  of  the  previous  stvle; 
and  in  smaller  buildings,  where  the  soffits  are  merely  recessed 
and  chamfered  without  mouldings,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
distinguish  them  at  all ;  the  date,  however,  may  usually  be 
determined  by  the  mouldings  of  the  caps  and  bases  of  the 
piers.  In  larger  or  more  costly  buildings,  the  arches  are 
moulded,  and  the  distinction  marked  by  their  contour.  The 
mouldings  consist  of  rounds  projecting  to  the  extent  of  from 
one  to  three-quarters  of  the  circumference,  and  are  frequently 
filleted,  alternating  with  plain  soffits  and  faces.  As  arches  of 
decoration,  the  trefoiled  was  not  uncommon.  Hood-moulds 
frequently  occur,  and  are  terminated  on  heads  or  foliage. 

The  shafts  of  piers  in  small  parish-churches  are  mostly  of 
a  simple  circular  or  octagonal  plan,  similar  to  those  of  the 
preceding  period,  and,  like  the  arches,  are  only  distinguished 
by  their  capitals  and  bases.  The  alternate  arrangement  of 
the  circular  and  octagonal  piers  is  still  adhered  to.  In  larger 
buildings  the  piers  are  clustered,  and  consist  of  tour  or  more 
shafts,  which  are  in  contour,  either  half  or  three-quarter 
cylinders.  They  differ  from  Early  English  examples  in  being 
attached  to  each  other,  whereas  the  latter  are  detached  from 
each  other,  and  frequently  from  the  central  sihaft.  The  plan 
of  these  clustered  piers  is  often  that  of  a  lozenge,  or  of  a 
square  placed  diagonally  ;  another  shape  is  that  of  a  quatre- 
foil,  but  many  other  forms  are  found  which  we  cannot  stop 
to  mention.  In  many  instances,  we  see  four  or  more  main 
shafts  with  smaller  shafts  introduced  between  them,  and 
sometimes  mere  mouldings  in  the  place  of  the  secondary 


G  i)  T 


4G6 


GOT 


shafts;  in  liite  examples,  small  shafts  occur,  separated  by  a 
deop  hollow  and  two  fillets,  a  form  which  prevails  in  the 
succeeding  style,  but  in  perpendicular  examples  the  hollow 
is  very  shallow  in  comparison.  In  all  the  above  cases  verti- 
cal lillets  are  employed  to  a  very  large  extent  both  upon  tlie 
shafts  and  mouldings.  In  very  large  structures  the  piers  are 
made  up  of  a  very  great  number  of  shaft-^. 

'ihe  capiltiLs  are  either  bell-shaped  or  octagonal,  and  in 
clustered  pillars  usually  follow  ihe  general  form  of  the  pier, 
but  sometimes  are  continued  in  one  sweep  all  round  w  ithout 
any  regard  to  the  contour  of  the  shafts.  They  are  frefpieiilly 
only  moulded,  the  prevailing  mouldings  being  rounds,  plain 
or  filleted,  ogees  and  hollows,  in  which  some  ornament,  such 
as  the  ball-Hower,  is  often  introduced.  The  mouldings  are 
not  so  deeply  cut  as  iu  the  Early  English  examples,  hi 
most  of  the  clustered,  and  many  of  the  single  pillars,  the  vase 
is  covered  with  rich  and  beaiitil'ul  Ibli.ige  [ilaced  horizon- 
tally, and  consisting  of  very  perfect  and  natural  iniilalioiis 
of  the  oak,  ivy,  vine,  &c.,  very  freely  and  delicately  ex- 
ecuted. Some  capitals  are  ornamented  with  sculptures  of 
heads,  fij^ures,  and  such  like.  The  (i/kicux  is  either  circular 
or  ]ioly;^oual  in  ])lan,  and  its  mouldings  are  composed  of 
riiunds,  frequently  with  an  overlap,  of  ogees,  and  hollows. 
We  have  instances  of  continuous  imposts  iu  this  style,  where 
the  mouldings  of  the  pier  are  carried  round  the  arch  without 
the  intervenlioii  of  a  capital. 

Ihere  is  great  vaiieiy  in  the /«i.«'4' of  this  |ieriod.  In  plan 
they  usually  agree  W'ith  the  shaft,  Init  are  sometimes  octa- 
gonal where  the  piers  are  circular,  the  mouldings  following 
the  contour  of  the  pier,  and  overhanging  the  plinth;  in 
some  few  instances  the  mouldings  are  raised  on  a  square 
plinth.  The  plinths  are  frequently  double,  and  of  consider- 
able height,  the  lower  one  projecting  beyond  the  upper  with 
a  simple  splay,  reversed  ogee,  or  hollow,  with  sometimes  one 
or  two  small  nionldings  above.  The  base  mouldings  vary, 
but  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  reversed  ogees  or  quarter- 
rounds,  with  the  occasional  insertion  of  one  or  two  small 
rounds.  In  clustered  eolunins  the  bases  follow  the  general 
outline  of  the  pier. 

The  (/uunrui/.-i  htive  one  or  more  shafts  in  the  jambs, 
whieh  dilltsr  fiom  the  Early  English  examples  in  being  con- 
stantly engaged.  Ihese  have  moulded  or  sculptured  capitals, 
but  the  jambs  are  tilled  up  with  mouldings,  which  are 
continued  round  the  arch  without  interruption.  Many  door- 
ways are  witliout  pillars,  being  .entirely  composed  of  mould- 
ings, which  are  continuous  with  those  of  the  architrave,  and 
are  composed  of  a  series  of  quarter-round  and  semi-cylindrical 
niouldings,  the  former  being  often  tilleted  up  the  face.  The 
hollows  are  frequently  li.led  up  with  sculptured  foliage, 
such  as  the  b.-dl-Hower,  or  a  square  ornament  placed  at  inter- 
vals, aiid  sometimes  with  a  running  pattern  of  ivy  or  vine 
leaves,  <Ncc.  ;  oce.isioiially  we  find  a  series  of  niches  carried 
up  the  jamb.  The  doorways  are  not  usua.ly  so  much 
recessed  as  those  of  the  previous  style,  and  the  shafts  are 
more  slender,  a])pi'oxiiiiating  more  nearly  to  mouldings.  In 
large  buildings  the  arch  is  mostly  pointed,  but  in  smaller 
examples  the  ogee  arch  is  not  unfrequent,  and  the  square 
headed  trefoil  oecasioual :  the  architrave  is  usually  moulded. 
The  hood-moulds  aie  seldom  returned,  but  terminate  in  a 
head  or  kiiop  of  tbliage.  Ihe  arches  are  frequently  sur- 
mounted b)  a -triauguiar,  or  ogee  cimopy,  which  is  finished 
with  crockets  and  finials,  and  the  spandrels  tilled  with  sculp- 
ture of  \  arious  kinds.  Ihe  doors  themselves  are  often  hung 
with  ornamental  hinges,  as  in  the  pre\  ious  st \  le,  but  the 
ircai-work  is  of  somewhat  ditlerent  design.  In  other  respects 
the  doors  are  mostly  plain,  though  sometimes  panelled  and 
with  tracery  iu  the  heads.     The  nails  are  often  of  an  orna- 


mental description,  being  of  an  hexagonal  form,  or  made  in 
the  shape  of  a  leaf  or  flower. 

The  u'iiidou's  of  this  period  are  usually  of  a  large  size,  and 
of  several  lights,  but  there  are  also  windows  of  a  single  light 
which  are  of  a  less  elongated  form  than  the  Early  English, 
and  their  heads  are  frequently  trefoiled.  Larger  windows 
are  divided  into  two  or  more  lights  by  vertical  mullions,  but 
are  seldom  divided  horizontally  except  in  tall  spire-lights,  or 
in  domestic  edifices.  These  vertical  mullions  are  carried  up 
as  far  as  the  springing  of  the  arch,  and  from  that  point  branch 
out  in  various  directions,  interlacing  and  forming  patterns 
of  varied  and  beautiful  design,  known  under  the  name  of 
tracery.  The  variation  from  Early  English  practice  is  here 
distinctly  marked,  first  in  the  eniploymeiit  of  mullions  in  the 
place  of  shafis  with  capitals  and  bases,  but  more  prominent- 
ly in  the  method  of  filling  the  head  or  arch,  of  the  origin  of 
which  we  have  taken  notice  above.  In  the  earlier  speci- 
mens the  tracery  is  composed  of  circles,  trefoils,  quatreibi Is, 
triangles,  and  other  simple  and  complicated  geometrical 
forms,,  a  I  ranged  in  various  patterns,  and  is  luMice  termed, 
geometrical  tracery  ;  but  at  a  later  period  the  lines  assumed 
a  more  wavy  or  (lowing  appearance,  and  were  disposed  with 
greater  freedom, such  description  of  v/mk  I.eing  distinguished 
as  llowing  tracery.  A  veiy  simple  kind  of  window  is  that 
iu  which  the  mudions  merely  cross  in  the  heads;  and  ano- 
ther of  two  lights  with  a  simple  tretiiil  in  the  head.  This 
last  approximates  very  closely  to  some  Early  English 
examples,  but  there  is  another  kind  which  bears  a  close  re- 
semblance to  the  earlier  specimens  or  triplets,  and  consists 
merely  of  three  lights  comprised  under  one  areh,  the  centre 
one  of  whieh  is  higher  than  the  two  side  ones,  and  separated 
from  them  by  mullions.  The  subordinate  arches  formed  by 
the  intersections  of  the  mullions,  are  generally  foiled,  as  are 
also  the  principal  compartments  of  the  tracery;  but  there 
are  some  few  exceptions. 

The  heads  of  the  win. lows  are  principally  two-centred 
pointed  jirches  of  various  proportions  ;  but  segmental  anhes 
both  simple  and  pointed,  not  unfrequently  occur,  as  also  does 
the  ogee.  Square-headed  windows  are  by  no  means  nneom 
moll,  (•specially  in  subordinate  parts  of  the.  buiMing,  and  have 
their  heads  filled  with  tracery,  as  in  the  other  cases;  some 
few,  however,  are  entirely  devoid  of  tracery.  Common  hood- 
mouldings  resting  on  masks,  heads,  &c.,  are  most  frequent, 
but  sometimes  in  rich  examples  we  find  pediinental  and  ogee 
canopies  intrtidiiced,  and  ornamented  with  crockets  and  finials. 

The  mullions  are  most  freipiently  simjdy  chamfered,  or 
in  later  examples  slightly  hollowed,  but  in  more  costly 
buildings  each  mullion  is  composed  of  a  scries  of  mouldings, 
set  diamond-wise,  and  sometimes  the  hollows  are  filled  up  at 
intervals  with  some  ornament  peculiar  to  the  style.  In  some 
cases  we  find  shalts  with  capitals  and  bases  still  introduced, 
more  especially  again.si  the  jambs.  String-courses  are  sehloni 
omitted  on  the  exterior  beneath  the  w-indows.  The  windows 
are  splayed  on  the  interior,  and  the  inner  areh  is  freqiieiitly 
of  a  dilfereiit  form  to  that  on  the  exterior,  its  edge  being 
moulded  or  chamfereil,  similar  to  the  practice  followed  in 
Early  English  examples. 

Very  beautifiil  windows  of  this  style  arc  to  be  seen  at 
Exeter  cathedral,  almost  every  one  of  them  being  of  a  dif- 
ferent pattern  ;  iht^  most  elaborate,  however,  and  the  largest, 
is  over  the  west  entrance. 

Circular  windows  filled  with  tracery  are  not  uncommon 
in  large  structures,  and  are  sometimes  of  excellent  design. 
\\  indows  in  the  shape  of  squares,  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  s|ihe- 
lical  triangles,  and  sex-foiled  circles,  are  common,  but  are  of 
small  size,  and  are  usually  seen  iu  subordinate  situations, 
such  as  clere-stories,  gables,  &c. 


ROTtnC"  AmrmTKCTITKiR     .       -IDTRimRA'!'!--.'.-,!,   w.y,v:,,ii  vc.yg 


A.Gilbert.  <TTh^  a«l 


K°l  Arch 

'^"2  Shafts  of  Rers. 
N°3  Capitals. 
N°  4.  Bases 


N°5DoorTOT  •,    .:.  -'"    '  "  -   TioKh.'VfamckahTO 

N°6    Ditto  .ToACafliedral  1^°10  ' 

H"?    Ditto  KMl  Z-..„  .  „ 

N°8."VBndow-Dmidmrch,"V!arwi!ikshire  11°  12  Ditto  West  facade.  SseterCaCieial. 


H95 


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N°7 

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GOT 


4()7 


GOT 


The  more  simple  buttresses  are  not  easily  to  be  distin- 
gui>hecl  from  those  of  other  styles,  consisting,  as  they  do,  of 
plain  piers,  with  one  or  more  slopes  or  sot-otl's  without  any 
further  decoration  ;  but  in  some  cases  they  may  be  known  from 
those  of  the  Early  English,  by  their  position  at  the  angles 
of  buildings,  where  they  are  set  diagonally.  This,  however, 
is  nut  a  very  sure  criterion,  for  some  Decorated  buttresses 
stand  in  the  same  position  as  those  of  the  preceding  style. 
In  many  instances  the  set-oH's  are  fniished  with  a  [)ediniental 
head  or  gablet,  which  is  sometimes  plain,  but  more  frequently 
foliated,  and  decorated  with  crockets  and  linials.  In  rich 
examples,  the  faces  are  often  recessed  for  niches,  which  are 
surniuunled  by  rich  canopies,  small  buttresses,  piTinacles,  &c. 
'1  he  buttress  seldom  reaches  above  the  parapet  unless  snr- 
nuiiinted  by  a  pinnacle,  which  is  mostly  of  an  elaborate 
description,  being  finished  on  all  sides  by  a  pediniental  liead 
similar  to  that  above  described,  and  the  whole  surmounted  by 
an  acute  pyramidal  top)  with  crockets  and  linials. 

Tlie /«(c</^H'/ is  frequently  embattled  with  plain  or  moulded 
ca]>ping,  hut  very  often  consists  of  a  plain  horizontal  cap. 
iSome  liorizontule  xamples  are  pierced  or  sunk  in  trefoils,  &o., 
and  very  often  with  tielbils  inserted  in  the  spaces  left  on  either 
side  of  an  undulating  muuldnig.  Corbel-tu/jles  are  of  rare  oc- 
currence, but  the  parapet  is  usually  fniished  on  the  under  side 
by  a  cornice  couoistnig  of  a  roll-moulding,  overlapping  a 
deep  holUiw,  in  which  are  sometimes  inseited  ball-tlowcrs, 
masks,  and  other  ornaments. 

The  luuf  still  continues  of  a  lofty  pitch,  but  somewhat 
moie  depressed  than  in  the  previous  style.  The  larger 
churches  are  vaulted  as  before,  but  there  is  some  diti'ercnce 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  ribs,  which  are  greatly  increased 
in  number.  Jiach  bay  or  compartment  of  tlie  vaulting  is 
intersected,  not  only  by  longitmlinal.  transverse,  and  diagonal 
ribs,  but  these  agani  are  imersected  by  others  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  so  as  to  divide  the  vault  into  a  greater  number  of  cells, 
a  practice  which  gives  the  roof  a  mure  comjilicated  and  richer 
apjicaraiicc.  llosses  of  elegant  design,  and  excellent  workman- 
slnp, cover  the  aiteisectioii>of  the  ribs,  which  are  moulded,  and 
the  liollows  frequently  tilled  with  the  ball-lluwer  ujnament. 

i'he  same  remarks  apply  to  the  Wuoden  roofs  of  this  period 
as  to  those  of  the  pieceUing :  we  have  but  tew  e.xanijjles  now 
remaining,  roofs  of  a  later  period  having  frequently  been 
substituted  in  buildings  of  this  style.  The  early  roofs  are 
doubtless  of  much  the  same  character  as  the  Early  English, 
but  ill  later  examples  there  are  some  distinctions,  although  it 
is  a  somewhat  dithcult  task  to  decide  the  exact  date  of  any. 
In  some  examples  the  beams  are  merely  chamfered  as 
before,  but  in  many  they  are  moulded  or  have  their  edges 
foiled  or  cusped  in  sueli  a  manner  that  the  spaces  between 
the  timbers  present  the  appearance  of  some  description  of 
polylbil.  Tie-beams  seem  to  have  been  of  freq^ueiit  occur- 
rence in  this  style,  and  are  often  suspended  by  king-posts, 
w  liicli  are  soniellmes  but  plain  limbers,  but  at  others  assume 
the  Ibrm  of  an  octagonal  shaft  with  moulded  base  and  capital. 
Polygonal  roofs  ha\ing  the  tiinbeis  so  disposed  as  to  present 
to  view  a  number  of  canted  surfaces,  are  not  unusual,  they 
are  mostly  of  six  sides,  but  sometimes  in  later  examples  hcp- 
tagoual.  Ihe  principles  of  high-pitched  roofs  are  frequently 
disposed  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  aud  where  tie-beams  aie 
employ  ed,  the  same  outline  is  preserved,  by  supporting  them 
oil  cui  vcd  braces,  ti.xed  to  a  w  all-piece  and  resting  on  corbels. 
Lungitudiiial  braces  are  frequently  carried  from  the  king-post 
of  one  principal  to  that  of  the  next,  and  aie  often  of  an  arched 
form  lesling  at  each  end  on  tie-beams,  and  reaching  to 
the  ridge-pieee  at  the  apex,  such  arches  being  frequently 
foiled.  A  sutiiewhat  similar  arrangement  is  adopted  on  the 
sloping  sides  of  the  root',  the  purlins  resting  on  arched  purliu- 


braces,  which  stand  upon  the  wall-plates,  and  are  carried  up 
under  the  common  rafters.  In  some  instances  both  king- 
posts and  collars  are  employed,  in  others,  king-posts  with 
struts  on  either  side,  and  occasionally  queen-posts  and  strain- 
ing pieces  are  introduced. 

A  curious  roof  of  this  date  is  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Bloxam  : — "  In  the  little  desecrated  church  of  Hurton,  near 
Canterbury,  is  an  open  wooden  roof,  of  a  construction  dill'e- 
rent  to  those  which  have  been  described.  It  is  divided  into 
bays  by  horizontal  tio-beams,  with  tho  under  parts  moulded, 
resting  on  the  wall-plates  and  on  vertical  wall-pieces  sup- 
ported on  corbels,  with  a  curved  brace  bctw-een  each  wall- 
piece  and  the  tie-beam.  From  the  centre  of  each  tie-beam 
rises  an  aiitagonal-shaped  king-post  tip  to  about  two-thirds 
in  height  of  the  valley  of  the  roof,  where  it  supports  a  longi- 
tudinal rib  or  beam.  FrfHn  the  principals  of  the  roof,  at 
about  two-fit'ths  in  height,  spring  plain  braces,  which  cross 
diagonally  just  above  the  longitudinal  rib,  and  rest  on  the 
opposite  principal.  Above  these  there  is  neither  collar- 
beam  nor  app.irenl  ridge-piece.  From  four  sides  of  the 
king-post  spring  curved  Vjraees.  both  longitudinal  and  lateral ; 
the  former  support  the  longituilinal  rib.  the  latter  the  bra<'es 
which  cioss  above  it.  The  roof  is  high-pitched."  Other 
examples  of  this  or  a  similar  description  occur,  and  the 
arrangement  of  curved  braces  springing  from  the  four  sides 
of  the  king-post  are  not  uniommon. 

In  the  richer  class  of  roofs  the  spandrels  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  the  timbers  are  frequently  filled  with  tracery. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  /outers  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  previous  style,  the  greatest  ditferenccs  appearing  in 
the  apertures  and  decorations.  The  windows  of  the  lowei 
stories  are  many  of  them  of  smnll  dimensions,  and  of  single 
lights  with  ogee  or  foliated  heads,  and  label  or  sijuare  hood- 
mould.  The  belfry-windows  are  the  most  important 
features,  .ind  are  arranged  singly  or  in  pairs;  they  are 
of  a  large  size,  frequently  tilling  up  the  entire  story.  The 
largest  window,  however,  frequently  occurs  on  the  w-est  face 
of  the  lower  story,  or  that  above  the  entrance,  and  forms 
one  of  tho  general  range  in  the  interiur  of  the  church  ;  it  is 
often  of  very  large  dimensiiins  and  elaborate  design,  st,anding 
in  this  respect  next  to  that  in  the  east  wall  of  the  chancel. 
Blank  arcades  are  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  in  Early  English 
examples,  and  when  used  are  of  a  form  and  decoration 
common  to  the  period. 

The  spires  are  very  acutely  pointed,  but  in  some  cases  are 
very  low,  forming  merely  a  low  pyrairiidal  roof  to  the  tower: 
the  latter  is  mostly  constructed  of  wood,  a  material  frequently 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  loftier  kind.s,  which  in 
larger  structures,  however,  are  almost  universally  of  stone. 
The  large  spires  boast  a  larger  number  of  spire-lights  than 
those  of  earlier  date  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  they  are  of  a  more 
elaborate  description,  being  capped  by  lofty  pediments 
enriched  with  crockets  and  linials.  They  are  also  some- 
times divided  into  a  number  of  compartments  by  horizontal 
bands  of  panelling,  and  the  angles  of  the  spire  enriched  with 
crockets  running  "all  the  way  up,  and  terminating  in  a  large 
finial.  The  tower  is  mostfy  finished  with  a  parapet,  which 
is  either  plain  or  embattled,  and  sometimes  pierced  in  qiiatre- 
fuils,  &c.,  and  is  supported  on  a  moulded  cornice,  the  huHows 
of  w'hich'are  often  filled  with  the  ball-flower  or  some  other 
ornament.  At  the  angles  we  frequently  find  projecting 
gur;;ovIcs  in  the  form  of  animals,  &c.  Pinnacles  of  a  pro- 
minent and  elaborate  ch.aracler  are  of  constant  occurrence, 
and  sometimes  behind  them  rise  ornamented  flying-buttresses 
to  support  tho  lower  portion  of  the  spire.  Parapets  and 
gutters,  however,  are  not  universal,  for  we  not  unfrequently 
meet  with  broach-spires  of  this  period. 


GOT 


fJS 


GOT 


The  moulding/!  consist  for  the  most  part  of  a  greater  num- 
ber and  variety  of  members  than  those  of  the  Early  English 
style.  Rounds  and  liolluws  still  prevail,  but  the  latter  are 
not  so  niiK-h  undercut  as  before;  in  the  earlier  examples 
they  are  still  deep,  but  grow  more  shallow  towards  the 
termination  of  the  style.  Quarter,  half,  and  three-quarler 
ro'Uids  are  most  prevalent, and  are  often  filleted  and  separated 
by  small  hollows;  ogees,  too,  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  as 
are  also  ovolos  and  cavettos.  Another  undulating  moulding, 
similar  to  that  in  use  in  the  next  period,  but  of  somewhat 
dilferent  projection,  is  also  used,  and  is  in  appearance  some- 
what like  a  double  cyma,  consisting  of  a  conve.\ity  in  the 
centre  between  two  hollows.  The  roll-moulding,  in  which 
the  upper  half  overlaps  the  lower,  is  in  constant  use.  Rounds 
and  hollowsare  sometimes  separated  by  fillets,  but  frequently 
run  into  each  other  without  any  interruption. 

For  string-courses,  the  overlapping  roll-moulding  is  very 
common,  but  sometimes  a  simple  loll  or  a  roll  filleted,  or 
what  is  termed  keeled,  is  used  in  its  place  ;  the  latter  term 
being  applied  when  the  roll  comes  to  a  sharp  edge  in  the 
centre.  These  mouldings  are  \ised  either  separately,  or  with 
other  subordinate  ones  ;  a  hollow  is  not  unfrequently  carrier  1 
underneath.  Hoorl-nioulds  are  formed  of  quarter-rounds  or 
ogees  with  a  hollow  or  plain  chamfer  beneath,  and  are  seldom 
returned.  The  base-moulds  consist  of  one  or  more  slopes 
with  or  without  a  projecting  edge,  the  whole  being  surmount- 
ed by  a  filleted  or  keeled  round.  lu  all  the  above  cases  the 
ball-flower  and  other  ornaments  are  often  inserted  in  the  hol- 
lows and  carettos. 

The  leaves  selected  for  imitation  in  the  fnVicKje  of  this 
period,  are  those  of  the  oak,  vine,  ivy,  fern,  white-lhorn.  &c., 
which  are  copied  with  a  boldness  and  freedom  not  common 
in  previous  examples.  They  are  also  more  naturally  disposed, 
and  have  a  less  stiff  and  formal  appearance  than  those  of  any 
other  style ;  there  are  not  so  many  sudden  projections,  and 
the  outline  is  of  a  more  gently  undulating  form  than  in  the 
Early  English  specimens:  in  capitals,  the  stems  are  twined 
a!)Out  in  various  directions,  instead  of  rising  vertically  from 
the  neck. 

The  most  usual  and  characteristic  of  the  ornaments  is  the 
ball-flower,  which  consists  of  a  round  ball  enclosed  within  a 
flower  of  three  or  four  petals,  the  ball  appearing  beneath  the 
slight  opening  of  the  petals  ;  it  is  supposed  by  some  to  repre- 
sent a  rose-bud.  It  is  used  in  almost  every  situation,  but 
more  especially  in  the  hollow  mouldings  of  jambs,  arches, 
cornices,  &c.,  in  which  it  is  inserted  at  intervals.  Another 
ornament  consists  of  an  open  square  flower  of  four  leaves, 
with  a  small  ornament  in  the  centre,  which  is  employed  in 
the  sanie  manner  as  the  preceding ;  but  a  series  of  them  is 
somtitimcs  used,  the  flowers  being  placed  in  contact  with  each 
other,  in  which  manner  it  is  frequently  applied  as  a  diapi'r. 
They  are  sometimes  introduced  alternately  with  the  bidl- 
flower.  A  representation  of  a  very  beautiful  ornament  which 
occurs  at  Adderbury,  is  given  by  Mr.  Bloxam  in  his  manual. 
It  bears  some  alfniity  in  form  to  the  dog-tooth  moidding,  and 
consists  of  four  ivy  leaves  placed  in  the  angles  of  a  square, 
with  their  upper  .sides  to  the  wall,  the  stems  projecting  out- 
wards, and  meeting  in  one  point,  which  gives  the  ornament 
a  pyramidal  form.  Leaves,  masks,  heads,  &c.,  are  often  used 
in  similar  positions. 

The  crockets  of  finials  are  of  various  descriptions,  V)ut  are 
readily  distinguished  fioni  the  liarly  English  by  their  natural 
and  flowing  outline,  and  by  the  crumpled  leaves,  so  different 
from  the  crisp  appearance  of  the  latter. 

The  nidus  are  of  a  very  elaborate  description,  and  are 
usually  of  a  considerable  depth,  having  the  roof  covered  with 
minute  ribs  and  bosses.  They  are  almost  always  surmLiuuted 


by  pedimental  or  ogee  canopies,  which  are  sometimes  bowed 
forward  in  the  form  of  an  ogee,  and  are  almost  always 
decorated  with  crockets  and  finials.  The  arches  are  foliated, 
as  are  also  frequeittly  the  spandrels  above  them.  Some 
niches  have  conical  coverings  like  spires  crocketed  at  the 
angles,  and  surrounded  with  a  series  of  canopies  one  on 
eai^h  fice  of  the  spire.  The  sides,  too,  are  often  enriched 
with  small  ornamental  buttresses.  Some  again  have  flat 
tops. 

The  Perpendicular  style  dates  its  rise  towards  the  close  of 
the  fourtcentli  century,  at  the  latter  portion  of  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.,  and  prevailed  until  the  disuse  of  Gothic 
architecture.  It  is  characterized  by  the  exuberance  and 
redundancy  of  its  ornaments,  and  is  wanting  in  the  simpli- 
city of  the  Decorated  style.  In  the  earlier  examples,  this 
enrichment  is  not  carried  beyond  bounds,  but  in  later  times 
it  becomes  excessive,  and  the  chief  aim  of  the  architects 
seems  to  have  been  to  employ  as  much  labour  as  possible  on 
decoration.  This  practice  proved  injurious,  and  at  last  fatal, 
and  Gothic  architecture  may  date  its  decline  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fifteenth  century. 

This  stylo  is  called  by  some  Third-pointed,  and  bv  others 
Florid.  The  term  Perpendicular  was  given  to  it  on  acc()unl 
of  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  tracery  in  window-heads, 
which  forms  a  very  marked  characteristic  of  the  style  ;  Init 
some  have  objected  to  the  name,  as  of  onlv  partial  applica- 
tion, and  su'.'gest  the  terra  Horizontal,  as  being  much  more 
appropriate  and  significant  of  the  general  tendency  of  tin; 
style;  and  in  this  they  are  certainlv  correct,  as  witness  the 
depressed  arch,  low-pitched  roof,  square-headed  windows 
and  door-ways,  square  hood-monlds,  and  the  horizontal  tran- 
soms. But  on  this  subject  we  shall  not  here  enter  ;  the  term 
is  well  establisheil,  and  could  not  readily  be  laid  aside,  sup- 
posing such  a  course  to  be  desirable. 

Pointed  arches  of  all  descriptions  are  to  be  met  with  in 
this  style,  nor  do  they  difliiir  materially  from  those  of  the 
preceding  period,  but  drop  arches  are  perhaps  more  preva- 
lent. An  arch  of  a  peculiar  kind,  however,  began  to  be 
used  some  time  ere  the  close  of  the  style,  which  is  not 
to  be  f  )und  in  any  other  ;  it  is  described  from  four  centres, 
two  of  which  are  on  the  springing  line,  and  describe  arcs  of 
very  small  radii,  and  the  other  two  at  some  distance  below 
it.  Such  arches  have  a  very  depressed  appearance,  the 
rise  above  the  springing  line  being  inconsideralile  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  two-centred  arches  ;  the  rise,  how- 
ever, varies  to  some  extent  in  different  examples.  This 
arch  is  termed  the  Tudor  arch,  and  was  introduced  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Ogee  arches  are  of 
constant  and  universal  occurience,  and  foiled  arches  are 
very  frequent  in  decorative  work. 

Arches  arc  very  frequently  moulded,  but  in  the  plainer 
examples  are  only  recessed  and  chamfered.  The  mouldings 
consist  of  much  the  same  members  as  before,  but  they  are 
of  a  less  prominent  character;  the  hollows  are  more  shallow, 
and  the  projecting  mouldings  less  prominent:  the  contour  is 
of  an  undulating  appearance,  the  junctions  of  the  different 
members  being  but  indistinctly  marked.  Alarge  but  shallow 
cavetto  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  is  sometimes  orna- 
mented by  the  insertion  of  a  square  flower  at  intervals. 
The  soffits  of  some  arches  are  ornamented  with  panelled 
work. 

The  sliafts  of  piers  are  sometimes  simple  octagons  in  plain, 
as  in  the  preceding  styles,  but  are  not  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  as  before,  and  sometimes  diffijr  in  contour,  hiv- 
ing the  sides  of  the  octagon  slightly  concave  ;  they  may  be 
distinguished  fom  earlier  examples  by  their  capitals  and 
bases.      Clustered  piers  are  very  frequent,  and  their  general 


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X*  1  .  Arch.  N°  4  IJoorway 

X' 2   Shnfl   ond  Base  N"  S.     aillo 

\"  :i    Cttpslal.  N°  5  Winaow. 


N"  • 


"f^* 


GOT 


409 


(i  U  T 


plan  is  that  of  a  square  set  diagonally,  but  the  breadth  of 
the  piur  between  the  aisles  is  frequently  greater  tlian  the 
depth  between  tlie  arches.  They  are  composed  of  four  or 
more  slender  shafts,  engaged,  wilh  hollows,  ogees,  and  fillets 
intervening.  A  very  eornnion  arrangement  presents  a  sec- 
tion of  the  form  of  a  square,  having  its  angles  cut  in  a  broad 
but  shallow  concavity,  and  the  four  sides  or  flat  fiices  orna- 
mented with  a  half  or  three-quarter  round  shaft  attached, 
and  projecting  beyond  the  fiee.  This  shaft  docs  not  occupy 
the  entire  face,  but  leaves  a  (lat  surface  on  either  side  ;  it  is 
finished  with  distinct  cap  and  base,  but  the  surf-ice  and  con- 
cave angles  of  the  parallelogram  are  frequently  continued 
round  the  arch  without  interruption.  When  piers  are  placed 
diagonally,  the  angles  are  often  ornamented  with  slender 
pillars  with  caps  and  ba>es,  while  tiie  intermediate  spaces, 
which  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  pier,  are  moulded  and 
Ciiiitinued  uninterruptedly  to  the  apex  of  the  arch.  The 
sub-shat'ts  are  sometimes  the  only  ones  furnished  with  capi- 
tals, the  face-shafts  being  carried  up  to  the  whole  height  of 
the  building  to  the  wall-|)late  without  caps,  but  sometimes 
the  shaft  is  cuiitiinied  above  the  capital.  Three  or  more 
shafts  clustered  together  are  not  unfrequently  found  at  the 
angles  in  the  place  of  the  single  one  above  alluded  to. 

The  plan  of  such  small  shafts  is  commonly  circular  and 
plain,  but  they  are  sometimes  filleted,  and  occasionally  poly- 
gonal, with  concave  sides.  The  piers  are  not  unfrequently 
composed  of  mouldings  only,  and  these  carried  up  conti- 
nuously, without  capital  or  any  other  projection,  to  the  apex 
of  the  arch ;  and  where  arches  are  neither  moulded  or 
recessed,  the  sides  of  the  pier  and  soffits  of  the  arch  are 
usuallj'  enriched  with  panel-work. 

Cupitula  are  either  circular  or  octagonal,  but  the  necking 
is  usualU'  of  the  firmer,  and  the  upper  members  of  the  abacus 
almost  iuvaiial)ly  of  the  latter  form,  whether  the  capital  and 
its  mouldings  be  circular  or  octagonal.  The  vases  are  mostly 
plain,  but  sometimes  enriched  with  foliage,  which  is  of  a 
more  conventional  form  than  in  tlie  previous  style.  The 
mouldings  consist  of  ogees,  rounds,  beads,  and  hollows,  the 
second  and  fourth  of  which  are  frequently  combined  without 
forming  edges,  and  have  a  bead  underneath.  The  top  of  the 
abacus  is  often  splayed,  and  sometimes  ornamented  with  a 
ciest  of  small  battlements  :  the  sides  are  occasionally  hollowed 
out.  In  dusteicd  piers,  the  capital  is  sometimes  carried  all 
round  without  interniption,  and  the  vase  covered  with  foliai^e, 
but  more  frequently  the  capital  of  each  shaft  forms  a  separate 
and  distinct  member. 

The  base  mouldings  are  usually'  set  upon  a  lofty  polygonal 
plinth,  which  is  sometimes  double  ;  the  lower  one  projecting, 
and  the  projection  moulded  with  a  hollow  or  reversed  ogee. 
The  upper  members  of  the  base-mouldings  follow  the  form 
of  the  shaft,  but  the  lower  ones  are  often  polygonal,  like  the 
plinth  which  they  overhang.  In  clustered  piers,  the  bases 
are  mostly  treated  separately,  as  is  the  case  with  the  capitals, 
but  sometimes  the  mouldings  are  continued  all  round,  as  are 
the  plinths  almost  invariably. 

The  earlier  duuiwaya  of  this  style  have  two-centered  pointed 
arches,  but  the  most  conjnion  and  characteristic  form  is  the 
four-centered  :  for  smaller  doorways,  the  ogee  is  sometimes 
used.  The  two  centered  arch  is  often  surmounted  by  an  ogee- 
shaped  hood-mould,  enriched  with  crockets  and  finials,  but 
some  of  them,  and  nearly  all  the  four-centered,  are  enclosed 
withui  a  square  head  formed  by  the  outer  mouldings,  with 
hood-mould  of  the  same  form,  the  spandrels  being  filled 
with  quatrefoils,  flambeaux,  roses,  shields,  &c.  Sonietimes, 
however,  the  hood-mould  follows  the  form  of  the  arch,  even 
in  tlie  four-centered  examples.  The  hood-mouldings  are 
often  returned  horizontally,  and  when  not  so,  terminate  at  the 


springing  of  the  arch,  on  heads,  shields,  &c.,  or  have  the 
mouldings  twisted  round  in  the  form  of  a  lozenge,  or  circle, 
with  some  little  ornament  in  the  centre.  The  hood  is  usually 
[ilaced  immediately  aljove  the  apex  of  the  arch,  but  in  some 
specimens  it  is  considerably  elevated,  the  intermediate  space 
above  the  spandrels  being  filled  wilh  quatrefoils,  or  other 
panelled  work;  the  upper  members  of  the  hood  sometimes 
coincide  with  the  lower  portion  of  a  string  course.  Double 
doorways  are  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

The  jambs  are  not  unfrequently  ornamented  with  shafts 
with  caps  and  bases,  but  they  are  mostly  small,  and  often 
not  well  defined,  except  by  the  capitals  and  bases;  in  many 
instances  all  the  nioiil(jiiigs  are  continued  round  the  arch, 
without  apparent  impost.  Large  hollows  are  very  frequent 
amongst  the  mouldings  of  doorways,  and  are  occasionally 
filled  with  foliage  or  other  decoration. 

The  doors  themselves  ai'e  often  covered  with  panel-work 
of  a  rich  description,  and  sometimes  with  tracery  in  the 
head.  The  smaller  doors  are  often  weather-boanled,  with- 
out any  ornament;  the  iron  scjoll-work  being  rarely  employed 
at  this  period. 

The  windows  of  this  style  are  easily  distinguished  from  all 
others,  by  the  vertical  disposition  of  the  tracery  in  the  heads  ; 
the  muriious  of  the  lights,  instead  of  branching  out  at  the 
springing  into  flowing  lines,  are  continued  vertically  to  the 
intrados,  and  secondary  mouldings  are  continued  in  the  same 
direction  from  the  centre  of  each  light,  and  converge  once  or 
twice  ere  they  i-each  the  arch.  The  principal  and  subordi- 
nate lights  are  all  arched  and  foliated,  the  principal  being 
frequently  divided  horiziuitally  by  transoms,  which  are  a 
further  characteristic  of  the  style.  Windows  which  consist 
of  several  lights  are  divided  into  two  or  more  compartments, 
containing  each  two  or  more  lights,  and  these  are  frequently 
arched  over  in  the  heads.  The  transoms  are  often  finished 
at  top  with  a  small  ornamental  battlement ;  and  the  mullions 
present  a  concave  outline.  The  heads  of  windows  ofler  a 
great  vaiiety  of  form,  some  being  twocentre-pointed  of 
vaiious  degrees  of  acuteness,  others  f uir-centred,  others 
again  segmental,  triangular,  and  square-headed.  W"indows 
of  the  last  class  are  very  common,  having  perpendicular 
ti'aoery  in  the  heads  ;  they  are  ftequent  in  clere-stories, 
wheie  we  also  find  circles  and  quatrefoils  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

The  plainer  butlresses,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding 
styles,  consisting  of  one  or  more  jirojections,  with  plain  faces 
and  set-ofls,  frequently  terminating  in  a  slope  under  the 
parapet,  Init  sometimes  finished  with  a  crocketed  pinnacle. 
In  the  richer  examples  the  faces  are  covered  with  p;inel- 
work,  and  arc  finished  with  scpiare  jiinnacles,  sometimes  set 
diagonally  and  terminated  with  a  crocketed  spire,  or  finished 
witli  an  animal  or  such  like  ornament. 

The  parapels  are  often  embattled,  and  have  nsuall}'  the 
coping  carried  all  round  the  embrasures;  the  plain  surface 
down  as  far  as  the  cornice,  is  not  unfrequently  pani-lled  or 
pierced  in  quatref>ils,  fi)iled-arches,  &c.  The  top  of  the 
parapet  is  as  often  horizontal,  and  either  plain  or  covered 
with  sunk  or  pierced  ornaments,  consisting  of  trefoils  and 
other  polyfoils  inserted  within  square,  circular,  or  triangular 
compartments.  The  cornice  consists  of  a  few  mouldings,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  is  frequently  a  large  shallow 
cavetto,  which  is  often  enriched  with  flowers  placed  at 
intervals. 

The  early  roofs  of  this  style  are  of  a  inoderate  height,  but 
later  examples  are  of  very  low  pitch.  The  vaulting  is  still 
more  complicated  than  in  the  preceding  style ;  the  number 
of  ribs  is  increased,  and  they  are  frequently  disposed  so  as  to 
form  geometrical  patterns,  as  in  the  choir  of  Oxford  cathe- 


GOT 


470 


GOT 


dral,  and  in  many  other  examples.  A  kind  of  vaulting  pecu- 
liar to  tile  later  period  of  this  style,  is  tciineil  fm-traeery 
vuuhing.  In  it  sevLral  ribs  diverge  at  equal  angles,  and  in 
ail  direclions,  from  one  bearing-post,  and  spread  on  the  roof 
in  the  form  of  a  circle,  the  entire  ligure  having  sojnewhat  the 
ap|)earance  of  a  semi-cone  :  all  the  ribs  |)reserve  the  same 
curvature.  These  spring  from  eil  her  side  of  the  roof,  and  often 
meet  in  the  centre,  or  the  space  left  between,  as  also  the  span- 
drels are  tilled  with  ribs,  forming  geometrical  tracery  ;  when, 
however,  a  large  space  intervenes,  it  is  fn^qneiilly  occupiid 
will)  pendent  figures  of  the  saitie  description,  forming  a  kind 
of  inverted  cones  suspendid  from  the  roof,  the  surface  of 
which,  like  those  at  the  sides,  is  covcu'ed  witli  divergent  ril)s, 
and  ricldy  panelled.  Roofs  of  this  kind  anr  more  frequent 
in  small  structures,  such  as  chantries  and  the  like,  liut  we 
have  magnificent  specimens  of  a  grander  description  in 
Henry  Vll.'s  chapel,  Westminster,  St.  George's,  Windsor, 
Peterborough  cathedral,  and  some  W-w  other  churches. 

Ihe  wooden  roofs  of  this  period  are  more  numerous,  and 
more  readily  defined,  than  thi>se  of  any  previous  era.  Their 
increased  number  arises  probably  from  a  ]>raetice  common 
at  the  time,  of  substituting  more  enriched  roofs  in  the  place 
of  plainei-  examples  of  earlier  date,  a  practice  which  is  often 
evinced  by  the  form  of  a  more  highly-pitched  roof  than 
that  existing,  being  still  visible  0:1  the  tower,  against  which 
it  abutted.  The  majority  of  e.\ain|)les  of  this  style  are  of  a 
very  low  pitch,  so  much  so  as  sometimes  to  be  entirely  hid 
on  the  exterior  of  the  building  by  the  parapet ;  but  roofs  of 
a  lofty  pitch  are  by  no  means  uncommon. 

In  the  loftier  examples  tie  beams  are  not  used,  but  the 
principals  are  usually  connected  by  a  collar  beam  imme- 
diately below  the  ridge,  or  by  a  block-collar  completely 
filling  up  the  angle  of  the  ridge  ;  where  the  collars  are  in 
a  lower  position,  a  king-post  is  sojnetimes  carried  from 
them  to  the  lidge-beam.  The  collars  are  often  (jrnaniented 
with  mouldings  or  small  battlements,  which  have  a  very  good 
effect.  A  simple  form  (.if  roof  consists  of  principals  of  stout 
planking  lesting  on  corbels,  and  cut  in  the  form  of  an  arch, 
with  block  collars  underneath  the  ridge,  as  at  Stourbridge 
church.  Sometimes  arched  planking  of  this  kind  is  sup- 
ported on  projecting  hammer-beams,  with  curved  braces 
underneath  resting  on  corbels,  which  method  gives  the  out- 
line of  the  entire  roof  the  form  of  a  trefoilcd  arch  either  round 
or  pointed.  A  similar  form  is  often  eonstrucled  of  the  usual 
timbers,  and  springs  from  the  level  of  the  wall-plate,  without 
curved  braces,  as  at  Athelhampton  llall,  Dorset. 

Tie-beams  are  sometimes  used  in  roofs  of  this  kind,  su[iported 
by  braces  resting  against  wall-pieces,  and  these  again,  on  cor- 
bels or  shafts,  the  spandrels  being  often  filled  with  tracery.  The 
principal  rafters  above  the  tie-beam  frequently  consist  of 
planking  of  arched  outline,  pierced  with  quiilrefoils,  ikc.,  as  at 
Malvern  Abbey.  Some  roofs  again  are  constructed  without 
principals,  the  common  rafters  being  tied  at  the  top  with 
a  collar-beam  resting  u]ion  timbers  disposed  so  as  to  form  a 
circular  arch,  the  lower  extremities  of  which  rest  u])on 
hammer-beams. 

The  hammer-beam  is  peculiar  to  this  style,  and  is  f  )und 
employed  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  large  hall-roof's  of 
the  period.  A  very  common  form  for  these  roofs  con- 
sists of  two  principal  rafteis  lied  at  the  upper  part  with 
a  collar-beam,  under  the  extremities  of  which  are  two 
queen-posts  resting  on  hammer  beaiivs,  and  these  again  on 
curved  braces.  The  latter  are  fixed  to  wall-pieces,  which 
stand  on  corbels  at  some  distance  down  the  walls.  Arched 
braces  are  frequently  carried  from  the  end  of  the  hammer- 
beam  to  the  centre  of  the  collar,  which  is  sometimes  sus- 
pended by  a  king-post.     Some  examples  have  two  sets  of 


hammer-beams,  one  above  the  other,  as  at  Hampton  Court, 
where  the  roof  is  a  sort  of  curb  ;  it  is  very  strong,  but  com- 
posed of  many  timbcr.s,  which  are  somesv  hat  complicated  in 
their  disposition.  We  must  not  pass  over  unnoticed,  the  roof 
of  Westminster  Ilall,  which  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in 
existence.  Its  principal  feature  is  an  arclied  lib  composed  of 
three  thicknesses  of  timber,  which  complelelv  spans  the 
building,  and  is  carried  down  below  the  top  of  the  wtdls  to 
the  corbels.  Immediately  above  the  apex  of  this  arch  is  a 
collar-beain,  having  in  the  centre  a  king-post  reiiching  to  the 
ridge,  and  at  the  sides  two  queen-posts  with  a  straining  piece. 
The  hammer-beams  are  can  led  out  beyond  the  line  of  the  arch, 
iind  are  supported  at  the  extremities  on  curved  braces  resting 
on  the  corbels,  a  siniilar  curve  being  also  c.irriifl  upwards  to 
touch  the  large  arch  so  as  to  form  by  their  combined  outline 
a  trefoiled  aich.  Above  the  ends  of  the  hamiucr-beams  rises 
an  upright  or  queen-|iost.  which  is  carried  up  to  the  end  of 
the  collar,  and  sujiports  the  principal  rafters  at  about  mid- 
way. This,  as  al.so  most  roofs  of  the  kind,  is  moidded  and 
enriched  with  perforated  panel-work,  and  other  ornaments; 
the  hammer-beams  are  often  carved  into  representations  of 
angels  bearing  shields,  musical  instruments,  &e. 

The  obtu.se  low-pitched  roofs  peculiar  to  this  period,  are 
often  framed  with  tie-beams  and  king-posts,  with  curved  bra- 
cing-ribs underneath,  resting  against  an  upright  wall-piece 
supported  on  a  corbel  ;  the  braces  being  mostly  curved  in  the 
form  of  an  obtuse  arch.  The  spandrels  are  often  filled  with 
open  tracery,  as  are  also  ihe  spaces  above  the  tie-beams. 
Sometimes  roofs  of  an  exceedingly  low  pitch,  or  even  per- 
fectly flat,  are  formed  without  any  truss  whatever,  consisting 
only  of  principal  and  common  rafters,  and  purlins,  without 
either  tie  or  collar  beams.  In  such  cases  the  principals  are 
often  supported  at  the  end  by  upright  wall-pieces  resting 
upon  corbels  at  a  considerable  distance  below  the  wall-plates, 
;uid  from  the  fool  of  the  wall-pieces  curved  braces  are  carried 
up  to  the  centre  of  the  principals.  These  braces  are  often 
solid,  constructed  out  of  a  piece  of  stout  planking  and 
entirely  filling  up  the  spandrels. 

The  slo|iing  bays  of  low-pitched  roofs  are  often  divi- 
ded into  square  coinpartmenls  by  purlins  and  common 
rafters,  the  former  being  increased  in  number,  and  the  latter 
placed  at  a  greater  distance  apart  than  usual.  The  intersec- 
tions of  the  timbers  are  almost  always  covered  with  orna- 
mental bosses,  and  the  timbers  themselves  richly  moulded. 
Sometimes  these  compartments  are  subdivided  by  other 
secondary  mouldings,  with  bosses  likewise  at  the  intersec- 
tions. 'The  hirger  beams  in  almost  all  these  examples  are 
moulded,  and  the  horizontal  timbers,  such  as  wall-plates,  ties, 
and  collars,  are  oth'U  enriched  with  smidl  battlements,  or 
have  the  mouldings  ornamented  with  some  decoration  jieculiar 
to  the  period. 

The  towers  are  frecpicntly  constructed  on  a  very  grand  scale, 
;uid  are  very  often  devoid  of  spires,  being  occasionally  sur- 
mounted by  octiigonal  lanterns,  as  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire, 
where  the  lower  is  of  great  height  and  magnificence.  Another 
very  beautiful  and  lofty  example  occurs  at  Duiidry,  near 
Bristol,  but  in  this  case  it  is  finished  at  the  top  by  four  little 
square  turrets,  placed  one  at  each  angle;  the  turrets,  as  also 
the  lofty  battlemented  parajiet,  being  pierced  in  panel-work,  a 
practice  \eiy  common  in  parapets  of  thisjieriod.  At  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  i.sanother  very  beautiful  exanqile,  the  corners 
of  which  are  finished  above  the  battlements  wiiJi  octagonal 
turrets  or  pinnacles,  carried  up  from  the  ground  in  the  shape 
of  buttresses ;  another  buttress  is  carried  up  the  centre  of 
each  fiice,  and  is  finished  above  the  parapet  with  a  pinnacle 
of  smaller  dimensions.  Another  ornament  in  this  example 
is  of  common  occurrence,  and  consists  of  bands  of  sunk  quatre 


GOT 


471 


G  R  A 


Toils  or  other  (iniainent«!.  In  smaller  clnirches  the  tower  is 
(iflfii  liiiisheLl  with  a  plain  parapet  or  simple  battlement,  but 
it  is  a  very  prevalent  praetice  of  the  period  to  carry  up  a 
puhgonal  stair-turret  at  one  anjjic,  whiih  rises  some  feet 
above  the  general  level  of  the  tower,  and  forms  a  very  pic- 
turesque olijeet.  The  windows  and  general  arrangement  of 
the  towers  are  much  the  same  as  in  the  last  style,  diftering 
only  in  matter  of  detail  ;  square-headed  windows  are  of 
frequent  occurrence,  and  often  appear  in  the  belfries,  espe- 
cially in  that  class  of  towers  just  alluded  to. 

Spires  are  not  so  frequent  as  in  other  styles,  and  are  never 
what  are  termed  broach-spires,  the  tower  being  invariably 
crt>wiied  by  a  parapet.  Where  spires  occur,  they  are  of  the 
same  form  and  general  description  as  before.  They  are  often 
supported  at  their  angles  by  flying-buttresses,  springing  from 
the  corners  of  the  tower.  The  angles  are  also  frequently 
crocketed. 

The  mouldingn  of  this  period  are  in  general  flatter,  or  of 
less  projection,  and  therefore  less  eflectiveness,  than  those 
of  previous  styles.  There  is  also  a  greater  prevalence  of 
angles  or  corners.  Round  and  hollow  mouldings  are  often 
eomieeted  without  any  apparent  line  of  separation;  but 
members  of  a  dillerent  description  are  separated  by  either 
quirks  or  fillets.  A  large  shallow  concave  moulding  is  very 
prevalent,  and  forms  a  characteristic  mark  of  the  style.  It 
appears  very  often  in  archivolts  and  cornices,  and  is  ofteii 
enriched  by  the  insertion  of  flowers,  leaves,  and  other  orna- 
ments. Ogees  are  perhaps  more  frequently  used  than  any 
other  kind  of  mouldings,  but  rounds,  beads,  and  cavettos 
are  of  very  common  occurrence.  An  arrangement  of  ogees 
in  close  contact,  with  the  convex  sides  ne.xt  each  other, 
is  of  constant  occurrence,  and  is  char-acteristic  of  the  style. 
A  moulding  of  an  undulating  contour,  being  convex  in  the 
middle,  and  concave  on  either  side,  is  common  in  abaci  and 
dripstones,  as  is  also  the  reverse  of  this,  the  hollow  being  in 
the  middle,  and  the  convexity  on  either  side.  Fillets  are 
used,  but  are  not  often  applied  to  larger  mouldings.  In 
general,  it  may  be  observed,  that  in  all  cases  the  mouldings 
of  this  style  are  more  flat,  the  hollows  and  projections 
approaching  more  nearly  to  a  straight  line. 

The  oriuiments  used,  consist  mainly  of  detached  flowers 
or  leaves  usually  of  a  square  outline,  of  running  patterns  and 
bunches  of  foliage,  of  grotesque  heads  and  figui-es  of  animals; 
of  shields,  and  various  kiirds  of  heraldic  devices.  The  r-ose, 
the  badge  of  the  houses  of  York  anil  Larrcaster',  is  a  charac- 
teristic ornamerrt,  as  is  also  a  lozenge-shaped  leaf,  supposed 
to  repre^ent  the  strawberry-leaf,  and  genei'ally  known  under 
the  name  of  the  Tu-dor  flower.  The  foliage  is  ver-y  elabo- 
rately and  delicately  carved,  but  does  not  exhibit  the  same 
amount  of  freedom  of  design  or  execution,  which  is  manifest 
in  the  earlier  styles. 

The  walls  are  often  covered  internally,  and  sometimes 
externally,  with  panel-work  tracery,  which  is  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  style. 

The  inches  of  the  period  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  Decorated  style,  but  sometimes  consist  of  mere  recessed 
panels.  They  are  usually,  however-,  either  octagonal  or 
sexagonal  in  plan,  with  vaulted  covering.  Of  canopies, 
some  are  flat,  and  others  projecting  ;  the  latter  being  either 
semi-circular,  or  polygonal  in  plan,  and  either  finished 
horizoirtally,  or  capped  with  a  small  spir-e  or  bell-shaped 
roof.  The  angles  are  occupied  with  buttresses  and  pin- 
nacles, the  latter  being  sometirrres  suspended  from  the 
overhanging  covering,  which  is  enriched  with  cr-ockets  and 
fnrials,  arrd  other  ornainerits  in  profusion. 

With  the  corrrmencement  of  the  Reformation,  the  practice 
of  Gothic  architecture  may  almost  _be  said  to  have  ceased, 


as  did  all  ecclesiastical  building  to  a  very  great  extent. 
The  sacrilegious  plunder  of  Henry  VIII.,  his  destruction 
of  the  monasteries  and  religious  houses,  and  the  wholesale 
spoliation  and  destruction  of  the  works  of  antiipiity  which 
was  carried  on  under  his  or-ders,  tended  to  discourage  per- 
sons from  the  erection  of  churches  or  religious  edifices,  and 
the  art  was  soon  entirely  lost.  The  irrti-oduetion  of  the 
Italian  style  assisteil  greatly  in  the  overthrow  of  a  mode  of 
building  which  had  been  in  vogue  some  three  or  four  hrrndr-ed 
years.  Pure  Gothic  arehitectur-e  may  be  said  to  have  ceased 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it  still  retained 
some  influence  for  a  few  years  later.  The  method  of  birild- 
ing  adopted  during  this  interval,  has  been  fitly  denominated 
the  Deliased. 

The  characteristics  of  this  style,  if  it  may  be  so  termed, 
may  be  briefly  enumerated  as  follows: — The  windows  are 
square-headed,  divided  into  bays  by  perpendicular  niullions, 
the  heads  of  each  bay  being  fi-equently  left  sqirare,  but  some- 
times obtusely-arched,  and  occasionally  foiled.  The  niullions 
ar-e  plain  and  unfinished,  without  mouldings  of  any  kind,  and 
all  the  workmanship  is  of  a  very  inferior  kind.  Hood-moulds 
are  often,  but  not  always,  used. 

The  dooriaai/s  are  either  obtusely-pointed,  or  round-headed 
with  prominent  key-stones.  In  late  specimens,  many  of  the 
features  of  Italian  architectur-e  are  introdireed  in  details 
and  construction.  Examples  of  the  Debased  style  exhibit 
a  poverty  of  design  and  clumsiness  of  execrrtion.  in  com- 
parison with  those  of  previous  styles,  which  will  at  once 
decide  their  date  and  position. 

In  the  above  sketch,  we  have  made  no  allusion  to  Conti- 
nental Gothic;  our  reirrarks  and  descriptions  having  been 
entirely  confined  to  the  style  as  developed  in  our  own  courrtry; 
nor  have  we  space  her-e  to  treat  of  the  former  separately. 
We  can  only  refer  to  those  writers  who  have  ti-eated  this 
subject  specifically,  amongst  whom  the  following  names 
stand  pre-eminent.  Whewell's  Architectural  Notes  on 
German  Churches ;  Willis  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  Italy ;  and  Holler's  Memorials  of  German  Gothic 
Arehiteetur'e. 

From  this  article,  we  refer  to  the  words  Church,  Cathe- 
dral, Ecclesiastical  Architecture,  and  to  various 
articles  of  the  same  nature. 

GOUFING  FOUNDATIONS,  a  term  used  in  Scotland, 
and  particularly  at  Glasgow,  for  the  under-pinning  of  a  wall 
when  found  insecure. 

GOUGE,  a  concave  and  convex  chisel,  the  section  of 
which  is  the  frustum  of  the  sector  of  a  circle,  serving  to  cut 
a  concave  excavation  in  wood  or  stone.  The  basil  is  made 
from  either  the  concave  or  convex  side. 

GOWT,  or  Go-ouT,  in  engineering,  a  sluice  used  in 
embankments  against  the  sea,  for  lettiirg  out  the  land-waters 
when  the  tide  is  out,  and  preventing  the  ingress  of  salt 
water. 

GRACES,  Gratle,  or  Charities,  in  the  heathen 
mythology,  wer-e  fabirlous  deities,  and  represented  as  three 
young  and  handsome  sisters,  attendant  on  Venus. 

Their  names  are  Aglaia  or  jEgle,  Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne ; 
;.  e.  shining,  flourishing,  and  goy.  They  were  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Eurynome,  the 
dausihter  of  Oceanus,  and  by  others  to  be  the  daughters  of 
Bacchus  and  Venus.  Vossius  de  Idol.  lib.  xiii.  cap.  15. 
Homer  (Riad,  lib.  xiv.,)  changes  the  name  of  one  of  the 
Graces,  and  calls  her  Pasithea  ;  aird  he  is  followed  by  Statins. 
{Theb.  lib.  ii.)  Some  will  have  the  Graces  to  have  been  four, 
and  make  them  the  same  with  the  Horcc,  Hours,  or  rather 
with  the  four  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  Lacedaemonians  admitted  only  two  of  them,  whom 


GRA 


472 


GRA 


they  worshipped  uiirler  the  names  of  Klyta,  Kleta,  or  Clita, 
and  Pliienne.  Tlic  Atliciiiaiis  allowud  the  same  miiuber,  but 
deiioiniiiatcd  them  Auxo  and  Ilegcmune. 

A  marble  in  the  king  of  Prussia's  cabinet  represents  the 
three  Graces  in  the  usual  manner,  with  a  fourth  seated,  and 
covered  with  a  lari;e  veil,  with  the  words  underneath,  ad 
soROitES  nil.  Yet  Mons.  Beger  will  by  no  means  allow  the 
Graces  to  have  been  four:  the  company  there  present,  he 
understands  to  be  the  three  Graces,  and  Venus,  who  was 
their  sister,  as  being  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione. 

They  are  always  supposed  to  have  hold  of  each  other's 
hands,  and  never  parted.  Thus  Horace,  (lib.  iii.  od.  21.) 
describes  them : 

"  Segnesque  notlum  solvere  grati;u." 

They  were  also  represented  in  theattitude  of  persons  dancing; 
whence  Horace  says  (lib.  i.  od.  4) : 

"  Altemo  terram  quatiuut  pede." 
They  were  commonly  thought  to  be  young  virgins.  In 
the  earlier  ages  they  were  represented  only  by  mere  stones, 
that  were  nut  cut;  Ijut  they  were  then  represented  under 
human  figures,  at  tirst  clad  in  gauze.  The  custom  of  giving 
them  drapery  was  afterwards  laid  aside;  and  they  were 
painted  naked,  to  show  that  the  Graces  borrow  nothing  from 
art,  and  that  they  have  no  other  beauties  than  what  are 
natural. 

Yet,  in  the  first  ages,  they  were  not  represented  naked, 
as  appears  from  I'au.sanias,  lib.  vi.  and  ix.,  who  describes 
their  temple  and  statues.  They  were  of  wood,  all  but  their 
head,  feet,  and  hands,  which  were  white  marble.  Their 
robes  or  gowns  were  gilt;  one  of  them  held  in  her  hand  a 
rose,  another  a  die,  and  the  third  a  sprig  of  myrtle. 

They  had  temples,  as  we  learn  from  Pausanias,  at  Elis, 
Delphos,  Perga,  Perinthus,  Byzantium,  and  in  several  other 
places  of  Greece  and  Thrace.  The  tetnples  consecrated  to 
Cupid  were  likewise  consecrated  to  the  Graces  :  and  it  was 
also  customary  to  give  them  a  place  in  those  of  Mercury,  in 
order  to  teach  men,  that  even  the  god  of  eloquence  needed 
tK'ir  assistance.  Indeed,  some  authors  reckoned  the  goddess 
of  Persuasion  in  the  number  of  the  Graces,  thus  intimating, 
that  the  great  secret  of  persuasion  is  to  please.  The  Muses 
and  the  Graces  had  commonly  but  one  temple;  and  Pindar 
invokes  the  Graces  almost  as  often  as  he  does  the  Muses. 
Festivals  were  appropriated  to  their  honour  through  the 
whole  course  of  the  year,  but  the  spring  was  chiefly  conse- 
crated to  them  as  well  as  to  Venus.  Greece  abounded  with 
monuments  sacred  to  these  goddesses;  and  their  figures  were 
to  be  seen  in  most  cities,  done  by  the  greatest  masters.  They 
were  also  represented  on  many  medals.  The  favours  which 
these  goddesses  were  thought  to  dispense  to  mankind,  were 
not  only  a  good  grace,  gaiety,  and  equality  of  temper,  but 
al«o  liberality,  eloquence,  and  wisdom,  as  Pindar  informs  us; 
but  the  most  noble  of  all  the  prerogatives  of  the  Graces  was, 
that  they  presided  overall  kindnesses  and  gratitude;  inso- 
much that,  in  almost  all  languages,  their  names  are  used  to 
express  both  gratitude  and  favours. 

GRADATIGN,  (from  the  Latin,  gradiis,  a  degree,)  in 
architecture,  an  artful  disposition  of  parts,  rising  as  it  were 
by  steps  or  degrees,  after  the  manner  of  an  amphitheatre;  so 
that  those  placed  before  do  not  obstruct  the  view  from  those 
behind. 

The  painters  also  use  the  word  rjradntion  for  an  insensible 
change  of  colour  l)y  the  diminution  of  the  tints  and  shades. 

Gradation,  in  painting,  relates  both  to  ('hiaro-osouro  and 
to  colour:  that  is.  all  the  different  degrees  in  which  light 
and  dark,  and  colour,  may  be  modified,  are  comprehended 
in  it. 


An  object  receding  from  the  light,  and  gradually  losing  it, 
becomes  at  its  farthest  extremity  obscurely  defined.  A 
coloured  body,  pure  or  bright  in  tint,  under  the  same  circimi. 
stances,  gradually  diminishes  in  clearness  of  hue  throughout 
its  receding  parts,  and  becomes  dull  and  dark.  By  fixing 
the  scale  of  gradation  in  buth  these  particulars,  cflects  of 
great  force  or  great  simplicity  may  be  produced.  The  scale 
of  descent  being  made  rapid,  great  force  will  ensue,  from  the 
strong  oppositions  it  promotes  ;  and  the  reverse  will  take 
place  when  the  degrees  of  descent  are  prolonged,  and  less 
contrast  thereby  effected.  The  nature  of  the  subject,  and 
the  situation  of  the  figures  with  regard  to  light,  must  be  the 
artist's  guide  in  this  matter. 

The  gradation  of  colour  includes  not  only  the  different 
degrees  of  purity,  or  brilliancy  of  the  same  colour,  but  also 
the  approximations  of  each  colour  to  its  neighbour,  necessary 
to  produce  harmony  ;  and  also  the  art  of  gradually  losing  the 
local  colour  in  obscurity,  and  yet  maintaining  its  character  in 
the  object ;  which  is  extreniely  difficult,  and  of  great  im- 
portance, in  the  art  <if  painting. 

GRADETTO,  Gradrtti,  or  Annuli.     See  Annulets. 

GRADIENT,  in  engineering,  a  term  indicative  of  the 
proportionate  ascent  or  descent  of  the  several  planes  upon  a 
railway,  thus:  an  inclined  plane  four  miles  long,  with  a  total 
fall  of  3(5  feet,  is  described  as  having  a  fall  of  1  in  58fl|,  or 
9  feet  per  mile.  Mr.  Macneill  suggested  the  word  Clivity, 
as  a  more  appropriate  term  than  gradient;  and  its  compounds, 
acclivity  and  declivity,  are  very  comprehensive  and  sig- 
nificant. 

GRAFTING  TOOL,  in  engineering,  a  kind  of  spade, 
used  by  navigators  in  railway  and  canal  works;  it  is  made 
very  strong  and  curving;  often  called  only  a  tool. 

GRAIN,  the  plates  of  wood  or  stone,  in  the  direction  of 
which  it  may  be  split  into  various  thicknesses. 

Grain,  in  mining,  is  applied  by  quarry-men  and  masons 
to  the  minute  figures  In  most  blocks  of  stone,  by  which  they 
arc  disposed  to  split  more  easily  in  some  certain  direction, 
than  in  any  other,  .as  wood  is  disposed  to  split  in  the  direction 
of  its  grain.  Beat,  sheet,  lamella,  and  stratiila,  are  other 
terms  of  almost  similar  import.  Experienced  masons  can 
generally  discover  the  grain  of  the  most  homogeneous  or  per- 
fect freestone  blocks,  or  such  as  will  cut  with  equal  ease  in 
any  direction.  This  they  often  do,  by  observing  the  direc- 
tions of  the  very  minute  plates  of  mica,  or  silver,  as  they 
call  it,  which  are  frequently  found  arranged  in  the  stone,  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain,  or  beat  of  the  stone ;  which,  it 
nnist  be  observed,  is  not  always  that  of  the  beds  or  stratifi- 
cation, many  rocks  having  stratula  which  cross  their  beds 
obliquely,  often  at  an  angle  of  from  30  to  45  degrees  with 
the  bed  or  plane  of  the;  stratum;  and  such  stratula  not  un- 
commonly dispose  the  stone  to  split  into  flags,  or  paviers,  or 
even  tile-stones,  or  slates  for  houses,  and  into  the  most  thin 
and  perfect  lamina.  Sometimes  these  oblique  stratula  cross 
stone  beds  of  very  great  thickness,  and  have  been  fre- 
quently mistaken,  by  inattentive  observers,  for  the  stratifi- 
cation itself 

GRANARY,  a  building  contrived  for  laying  np  and  sto- 
ring corn,  in  order  to  preserve  it  for  a  length  of  time. 

The  construction  of  this  class  of  buildings  has  not,  we 
believe,  received  that  attention  which  the  importance  of  it 
deserves,  and  we  consider  therefi)re  that  some  account  of  the 
proper  mode  of  designing  and  erecting  granaries  on  scientific 
principles  will  be  both  interesting  and  usefiil. 

It  must  be  evident  to  all,  that,  owing  to  the  uncertainty 
of  harvests,  the  produce  of  a  year  may  be  either  abundance 
or  dearth,  the  fre(juent  recurrence  of  the  latter,  in  the  ear- 
lier ages,  obliged  most  of  the  ancient  nations  to  seek  means 


GUA 


473 


GRA 


of  preserving  the  superalnniflant  produce  of  plentiful  years, 
in  order  to  he  prepared  against  liie  privations  of  less  fortu- 
nate ones.  This  necessity  was  more  imperative,  when  the 
means  of  conveyance  by  land  and  water  were  less  perfect 
thnn  at  present.  In  modern  times  a  higher  state  of  civili- 
zation has  taught  mankind  to  feel  the  advantages  of  a  free 
circulation  of  produce,  famine  is  not  now  therefore  so  fearful 
an  evil  as  formerly.  The  improvements  in  the  mode  of  cul- 
ture have  also  much  increased  the  produce  of  the  earth;  hut 
the  probabilities  of  famine,  though  decreased,  still  remain 
to  a  certain  extent,  and  the  construction  of  proper  reposi- 
tories for  storing  up  grain  must  be  always  important,  as  a 
means  of  lessening  its  evils. 

In  some  countries  public  granaries  are  established  upon 
a  very  large  scale,  and  in  them  is  preserved  the  grain  col- 
lected from  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  districts.  The 
French  have  given  great  attention  to  the  subject,  and  the 
following  plan  for  a  public  granary,  by  an  eminent  French 
engineer,  is  well  worth  imitation.  M.  Bruyere  observes, 
that  in  the  calculations  necessary  to  fi.\  the  dimensions  of  a 
granary  destined  to  contain  a  determinate  quantity  of  grain, 
the  following  considerations  must  be  attended  to. 

A  granary  of  reserve,  as  it  is  termed  in  France,  contains 
wheat  of  dillerent  ages,  and  the  duration  of  their  preservii- 
tion  is  three  years,  the  grain  being  supplied  by  thirds  every 
year.  The  disposition  to  ferment  being  caused  by  the  degree 
of  moisture,  and  by  the  quantity,  and  the  oldest  corn  being 
the  dryest,  it  follows  that  the  mean  depth  of  the  heap  should 
vary  with  the  age  of  the  corn.  From  these  data,  and  by 
the  help  of  experience,  the  depths  of  the  heaps  of  corn  may 
be  fi.ved  as  follows  : — 

Corn  of  one  year 19^  inches. 

"     "      two  years 24         " 

"     "      three  years     ....  27 

A  distance  of  about  a  yard  should  be  left  between  the  foot 
of  the  heaps  and  the  wall,  and  an  empty  space  of  thirteen 
to  sixteen  feet  between  the  heaps,  for  the  operation  of  turn- 
ing. To  these  spaces  must  be  added  also  those  occupied  by 
the  staircases,  rollers,  trap-doors,  working-rooms,  &c.,  and 
the  whole  must  be  deducted  from  the  superficial  content  of 
each  floor.  The  remainder,  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  stages,  and  the  mean  height  of  the  heaps,  will  give  the 
solid  content  of  wheat  that  the  granary  can  contain. 

The  situation  of  a  public  granary  is  im|)ortant;  if  possible 
it  should  be  placed  near  a  canal  or  navigable  river,  in  order 
to  receive  or  send  out  the  grain  by  water,  or  by  any  other 
easy  method  of  transport,  as  the  expense  is  thereby  much 
diminished. 

For  the  same  reason,  granaries  should  be  near  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  mills,  whose  motive  power  can,  in  certain  cases, 
be  applied  to  the  difierent  machines  used  in  the  manipulation 
of  the  coin.  These  mills  should  not,  however,  be  placed  in 
the  same  building  with  the  granaries,  or  be  too  near  to  them 
on  account  of  the  danger  of  fire,  and  because  the  two  ope- 
rations are  hurtful  to  each  other  ;  the  dust  of  the  wheat 
injuring  the  flour,  and  the  motion  of  the  water  rendering  the 
grain  too  moist. 

The  aspect  of  granaries  should  be  south,  as  the  change  of 
temperature  will  then  be  sufficient  to  keep  a  current  of  air 
between  the  opposite  openings,  and  it  is  most  important  to  use 
the  driest  winds  for  ventilating  and  drying  the  grain. 

In  order  to  diminish  the  extent  of  granaries,  it  is  necessary 
to  add  to  their  height,  by  multiplying  the  number  of  floors ; 
and,  as  it  is  easy  to  raise  the  grain  by  the  help  of  machines, 
we  thus  gain  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  make  it  descend 

60 


from  sieve  to  sieve,  which  cleans  and  sorts  them  in  the  least 
expensive  manner. 

The  lowest  floor,  should  be  sufficiently  elevated  above  the 
earth  to  prevent  damp,  and  to  facilitate  carting.  Experience 
has  proved  that  a  height  of  8  feet  is  sufficient  for  the  curve 
that  is  descrit)ed  by  the  wheat  when  thrown  vip  by  a  shovel. 
Each  floor  should  therefore  have  a  height  of  10  feet. 

The  walls  of  the  granary  should  be  thick,  not  only  on 
accoimt  of  strength,  l)Ut  also  to  keep  out  d;imp  and  heat. 
The  windows  should  descend  to  the  level  of  the  floor,  so  that 
the  air  may  circulate  through  the  lowest  part,  and  strike  the 
foot  of  the  heap  of  grain.  The  entrance  of  the  air  is  facili- 
tated by  widening  the  openings  from  the  interior  to  the 
exterior.  They  should  be  grated  with  iron  wire  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  birds,  and  furnished  w  ith  shutters  which, 
when  open,  fall  back  on  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

When  the  granary  is  of  considerable  size,  it  appears 
natural  to  place  the  entrance  in  the  middle  of  its  length. 
This  entrance  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  vehicles  to 
cross  the  building,  so  as  to  load  or  unload  undercover.  To 
prevent  the  division  of  the  lowest  floor,  this  passage  is  some- 
times made  by  a  projecting  porch,  under  which  the  vehicles 
can  be  ranged,  though  in  a  less  convenient  manner.  The 
staircases  should  be  placed,  near  the  passage,  for  the  carts, 
but,  to  prevent  interruption  of  the  heaps  of  corn,  some  place 
them  in  a  projection  opposite  the  porch,  or  in  one  of  the 
angles  of  the   building. 

It  is  desirable  that  granaries  should  not  be  of  too  great  an 
extent,  in  order  that  the  grain  may  more  readily  dry  by  the 
currents  of  air.  On  the  other  hand,  as  it  is  always  necessary 
to  reserve  the  passages  along  the  walls,  the  size  of  the  interior 
should  not  be  less  than  40  feet,  or  exceed  65  feet.  In  all 
cases,  they  are  divided  by  pillars  of  stone,  wood,  or  cast 
iron.    [Briii/ere  Etudes  RekUives  a  Part  des  Constructions.) 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  the  erection  of 
a  granary  in  this  country.  The  building  should  be  rectangular 
in  plan,  the  height  about  twice  the  distance  between  the 
opposite  walls,  that  is,  20  feet  high  by  10  feet  in  width  on 
each  side,  and  provided  with  numerous  air-holes,  declining  out- 
wards, to  prevent  the  entrance  of  rain  or  snow.  From  each 
air-hole  to  a  corresponding  one  on  the  opposite  side,  should 
be  fi.xed  an  inverted  angular  spout  or  gutter,  to  permit  the 
air  to  pass  through  unimpeded  by  the  corn  lying  about ;  as 
many  of  these  gutters  should  be  fixed,  as  there  are  holes  to 
receive  the  ends  after  crossing  the  building;  and  the 
extremities  of  the  holes  should  be  covered  with  wire  gauze, 
to  defend  them  from  vermin. 

The  first  floor  of  the  granary  should  be  divided  into  a 
series  of  hoppers,  these  hoppers  to  empty  themselves  into 
one  large  hopper  underneath,  provided  with  a  sliding  door  to 
regulate  the  passage  of  the  grain  into  a  sack  or  other  recep- 
tacle. At  the  top  of  the  building  a  loft  should  be  erected,  to 
which  the  corn  may  be  first  hoisted  by  a  tackle  or  crane,  and 
be  discharged  over  a  cross-bar  into  the  body  of  the  building, 
which  operation  may  be  continued  until  it  is  filled  to  the  top. 
Upon  drawing  off"  any  corn  at  the  bottom,  the  whole  of  it  will 
be  put  in  motion,  and  the  airing  of  every  part  promoted  ; 
the  process  of  airing  should,  however,  be  continually  going 
forward  through  the  numerous  passages  under  the  inverted 
gutters,  the  angles  of  which  do  not  fill  up  by  the  lateral 
pressure  of  the  grain. 

GRAND  STAIRCASE,  the  principal  staircase  of  a  large 
edifice,  for  the  use  of  the  family  and  visitors.  See  Staircase. 

GRANGE,  the  ancient  name  of  a  barn  ;  sometimes  applied 
to  the  farmhouse  itself.  The  term  grange  was  also  used  in 
former  times  to  designate  the  farming  establisbmentsattached 
to  religious  institutions. 


GRA 


474 


GKA 


GRANITE,  an  agniegate  rock,  the  essential  ingredients 
of  wliieh  are  teljs|iar,  quanz,  and  mica.  l)eing  the  same  as 
those  of  gneiss,  IVom  wliicli  granite  ditli'rs  chietiy  in  the 
ajrangenieiit  ot'  the  three  ODmpuncnt  parts.  In  granite  tliese 
are  mingled  without  onler  or  regiilaiity,  which  produces  a 
granular  stiucture,  while  that  of  gnei>s  is  generally  slaty. 

'■  Granite  is  one  of  the  ini)st  aliundaiit  rocks  at  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  it  is  likewise  considered  as  the  foun- 
dation rock  of  the  globe,  or  that  upon  which  all  secondary 
rocks  repose.  In  alpine  situations  it  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  liaving  broken  through  the  more  superficial  strata  of 
the  earth;  the  beds  of  other  rocks  in  the  vicinity  rising 
towards  it,  at  increasing  angles  of  elevation  as  they  approach 
it.  It  forms  some  of  the  most  lofty  of  the  mountain-chains 
of  the  eastern  continent ;  and  the  central  parts  of  ihe  principal 
nioimtaiii-ranges  of  Scandinavia,  the  AI|)S,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  are  of  this  rock.  No  organic  fossil 
remains  have  ever  been  found  in  granite,  although  it  is  some- 
times foimd  overlying  strata  containing  such  remains." 
(Imj)erial  Diclioitun/.) 

Of  arl  materials  for  building,  granite  is  the  most  durable, 
as  shown  by  many  of  the  aiici.'iit  Egyptian  moiunnent-;.  By 
the  Egyptians  and  other  very  ancient  nations  it  was  more 
particularly  applied,  together  with  sienite,  for  the  purposes  of 
archilectuie  and  statuary,  and  many  very  interesting  luouu- 
ments  of  their  skill  and  patience  are  still  existing  in  the  col- 
lections of  antiquities.  As  instances  of  the  extreme  dura- 
bdity  of  granite,  we  may  mention,  that  the  olielisk  in  the  place 
of  Saint  Jeai  de  Lateran  at  l{oiue,  which  was  qiarried  at 
Syene,  under  th.-  reign  of  Zelus,  king  of  Thebes,  I:!00  years 
l)etbre  the  Christian  era  ;  and  the  one  in  the  place  of  Saint 
Hicrre,  also  al  Home,  consecrated  to  the  sini  by  a  sou  of 
Seso^tris,  have  resisted   the  weather  for  full  3000  years. 

The  useof  granite  for  architectural  andeoonomical  purposes 
is  perhaps  nowhere  jnore  amply  displayed  than  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  not  only  the  imperial  au'l  other  palaces,  but 
even  orduiary  dwelling-houses,  have  their  lower  parts  lined 
with  slabs  of  granite.  The  left  bank  of  the  great  Neva, 
fro  11  th-  Foundry  to  the  Gulf  of  Cronstadt.  and  both  banks 
of  the  Foutanka  and  of  the  Catharine  canal,  are  lined  by 
high  walls  constructed  of  such  slabs  of  granite  ;  as  are  many 
bridges  over  the  Neva,  balustrades,  &o.  The  pillars,  stall's, 
balconies,  &e.  in  the  palace  of  Cronstailt,  are  almost  all  of  the 
linest  kinds  of  gianile.  Those  employed  for  ornamental 
architecture  are  cut  and  polished  by  lapidaries;  but  those 
intended  for  less  delicate  purposes,  such  as  common  slabs, 
steps,  cylinders,  trou_dis,  &c.  are  worked  by  peasants,  |)articn- 
larly  by  those  id'Uloni;sk.  I'he  goveiiiment-towns,  htiwever, 
Moscow  not  excepted,  are  too  distant  from  the  chief  gr.inile 
mountains,  to  be  enabled  to  make  frei[ueut  use  of  that  rock 
lor  the  above  purposes. 

Mr.  Brand  has  divided  the  ditlcivnt  granites  used  in  the 
arts  after  their  predominant  colours  ;  the  following  are  the 
principal  varieties,  in  which,  however,  the  black-and-white 
kind  is  not  included,  one  of  its  ingredients  being  hornblende, 
which  assigns  it  a  place  among  the  sienites. 

Granite,  Gray,  of  Chessi,  in  the  department  of  the  Rhine, 
consists  of  white  quartz  and  black  mica,  with  large  crystals 
of  rose-coloured  feldspar.  The  colnmns  of  the  Egtise 
dEiice  (ancient  temple  of  Augustus)  at  Lyons,  are  of  this 
kind  of  granite,  which  has  also  been  worked  by  the  llomaus. 
GuANiTB,  Grill/,  of  T/iaiit,  consists  of  gray  quartz,  black 
mica,  and  white  feldspar  crystals,  which  are  sometinws  from 
two  to  three  inches  long.  The  quarries  of  this  granite  are  on 
the  road  from  Lyons  to  Valence,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone.  It  is  very  well  adapted  for  the  constrn<tion  of  large 
monuinent.s.     The  granite  of  St.  Peray,  not  far  from  Tliain, 


is  exactly  like  this,  except  that  its  feldspar  crystals  are  of  » 
rose-colour. 

(inAxiTE,  Grin/,  of  Laveszi,  a  small  island  near  Bonifacio, 
south  of  Corsica,  in  the  straits  which  separate  that  island 
from  Sardinia,  is  composed  chiefly  of  small  irregular  crystals 
of  feldspar,  mixed  with  a  little  black  mica,  besides  which  it 
contains  also  feldspar  crystals,  of  a  milk-white  colour.  In  the 
(inarry  of  that  island  a  large  unfinished  column  is  to  be  seen, 
which  had  been   relinquished  by  the  Roman  workmen. 

GuAxiTE,  Graij,of  Elba. — Its  grain  is  pretty  indform  ;  its 
colour  scunetimes  approaches  to  light  violet.  There  arc  four 
columns  of  this  variety  to  be  seen  in  the  iMusee  Napoleon  : 
they  were  taken  out  of  the  church  which  contained  the  tomb 
of  Charleinagne,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

They  gray  granites  are  much  more  common  than  the  green 

or  greenish,  of  which  the  following  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 

(tranite,  An/ique  ffreen. — Its  predominant  ingredient  is 

white  quartz,  w'ith  here  and  there  some  light  green  feldspar. 

There  is  a  column  of  it  in  the  Villa  Pamfili,  near  Rome. 

(tRasite,  fine  grained  antique. — (Basalte  verd  oriental.) 
The  component  parts  of  this  sort  an'  so  minute  and  intimately 
blended,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye.  Its  colour  approaches  to  deep  olive.  It  is  very  hard 
and  takes  a  fine  poli>h.  The  Egyptians  have  much  employed 
it  for  the  construction  of  monuments;  and  several  statues  of 
it  may  lie  seen  in  the  Capitol  and  the  Villa  .\lb.ini.  There 
is  another  variety  with  white  spots,  known  at  Rome  under 
the  name  of  Ba.ialto  Orientnle  pidocliinno  ;  but  it  is  verv  rare, 
for  there  are  but  tw'o  colnmns  of  it  in  exi--tence.  namely,  in 
the  church  of  St.  Pudcntiana  at  Rome.  Some  varieties 
bearing  that  name  are  silcnite. 

Granite  of  St.  Christnphe :  composed  of  violet  quartz, 
white  feldspar,  and  green  mica.  This  magnificent  rock  is 
found  at  Oisans.  in  the  department  of  the  Isere. 

Graxite,  Corsican,  or/iirutnr. — This  beautiful  rock  (which 
probably  belongs  to  the  sienite  formation)  was  discovered  by 
M.  Barral,  in  the  island  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Its 
composition  is  very  extraordinary  ;  it  has  a  basis  of  ordinary 
gray  granite,  which,  however,  in  most  parts  exhibits  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  hornblende.  But  what  more  particularly 
cliaiacterizcs  it,  is  a  number  of  balls,  of  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  diameter,  each  composed  of  several  concentric  and 
perfectly  parallel  layers,  the  outermost  of  which,  generally 
white,  opaque,  and  two  or  three  lines  thick,  is  cimiposed  of 
quartz  and  feldspar,  blended  in  various  proptu'tions,  and 
exhibiting  a  radiated  appearance,  rather  converging  towards 
the  centre  of  the  ball.  The  second  layer,  which  is  of  a 
greenish  black  colour,  and  about  one  line  thick,  is  composed 
of  fine  laminar  hornblende  ;  and  this  is  succeeded  by  a  white 
and  usually  translucid  quartz  layer,  of  about  fiiur  or  five  lines 
in  thickness,  inclusive  of  two  or  three  very  thin  layers  of 
hornblende,  that  are  commonly  seen  within  the  substance  of 
this  third  principal  laver.  Each  of  these  layers  is  generally 
of  equal  thickness  in  the  whole  of  its  circumference.  These 
three  parts  may  be  considered  as  the  coating  :  the  interior  of 
each  i)all  is  less  defined  than  the  surrounding  layers,  and 
consists  of  a  blackish  and  a  whitish  substance,  the  former 
surrounded  by,  and  passing  into  the  latter,  tlie  centre  of 
which  is  usually  a  dark  gray  spot. 

The  quarry  of  this  rock  is  unknown,  a  single  block  only 
having  been  found  in  the  gulf  of  Valinco,  in  Corsica  :  its 
weight  was  about  801b.,  but  it  was  soon  broken  into  small 
fragments,  which  are  now  distributed  amongcollectors.  Tlu're 
is  a  beautifid  va^e  of  it,  one  foot  six  inches  high,  in  the 
cabinet  of  M.  T)edree.  The  granite  of  Corsica  is  figured  by 
M.  Fanjas  de  St.  Fond,  in  his  Esmi  de  Geohr/ie,  and  in 
Mr.  Sowerby's  Exotic  Afineraloqi/. 


G  li  A 


475 


G  R  E 


Among  tlu"  red  granites,  we  have  what  is  called  red  oriental 
graiiiic,  which  usually  contains  hornblende,  often  in  large 
sejjarate  patches. 

(JuANiTK,  AW,  of  Ingria. — "This  granite,"  says  M.  Patrin, 
"  is  distinguished  tVuni  others  in  this,  that  the  feldspar, 
instead  of  being  in  grains,  or  parallclopiped  crystals,  as  ni 
most  other  granites,  constantly  appears  in  the  shape  of  round 
or  oval  pieces,  of  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 
This  granite  takes  a  very  fnie  polish,  and  in  this  state  exhibits 
the  feldspar  in  the  shape  of-white,  round,  tir  oval  {cliutoycuil) 
spots,  in  a  reddish  ground.  The  rock  which  serves  as  a 
pedestal  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  at  St. 
Peter.•^bul•g,  is  of  this  granite  :  the  lilock  was  originally  32 
feet  long,  21  leet  thick,  and  17  feet  wide;  but,  in  order  to 
give  it  its  present  shape,  iinitative  of  a  picturesque  natural 
rock,  it  has  been  tnueii  diminished  in  size.  This  block  was 
diseiiijaged  from  a  swamp,  about  forty  versts  from  Peters- 
liin-g :  its  weight  was  calculated  to  be  above  three  millions 
of  puunds."  We  have  seen  several  fragments  that  were 
detached  from  the  very  block  forming  the  pedestal  of  the 
statue ;  but  in  none  ot  them  did  we  observe  the  form  ascribed 
by  Patrin  to  the  feld>par. 

The  public  summer  promenade-garden  at  Petersburg  is 
decorated  with  a  supei  b  colonnade  of  this  granite :  the 
columns,  which  are  sixty  in  number,  are  of  the  Tuscan  order; 
their  shafts,  made  of  one  piece,  are  about  20  feet  high,  and 
three  feel  in  diameter.  The  island,  called  Kotlin  Ostrow,  on 
which  is  the  tijrtress  of  Cronstadt,  is  covered  with  blocks  of 
this  graniie,  the  feldspar  of  which  is  sometimes  of  the  kind 
called  Labrador-stone. 

Gkanite,  Hed,  of  the  Vosges  Mountains. — This  granite  is 
composed  of  large  laminte  of  rose-coluured  feldspar,  gray 
grains  of  quartz,  and  small  scales  of  mica.  It  has  so  strong 
a  resemblance  to  the  £gy[itiau  red  granite,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  them.  Its  quarries  are  on  the  heights  of 
Montaujeu,  near  the  Papean  mountains,  in  the  Vosges. 

Granite,  Violet,  of  Elba. — The  feldspar  of  this  variety  is 
in  large  violet  crystals.  The  pedestal  of  the  eipiestrian 
statue,  in  the  Piazza  della  Santissima  Annonziata  at  Florence, 
is  made  of  it,  as  are  also  the  sodea  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Laurence  in  the  same  town. 

Gkanite.  Rose-coloured  of  Beveno. — This  beautiful  granite 
consists  of  flesh-coloured  feldspar,  white  quartz,  and  some 
grains  of  black  mica.  Gjnsiderable  quarries  of  it  are  found 
on  the  borders  of  the  Lago  Ma^giore,  which  are  worked 
without  intermission,  for  supplying  Milan,  and  the  whole  of 
the  neighbouring  country,  with  this  granite.  It  takes  a  very 
Ihie  polish:  here  and  there  it  exhibits  ribands,  or  zones,  of 
a  gray  colour,  which  are  composed  of  the  same  ingredients 
as  the  rest  of  the  mass,  but  reduced  into  very  minute  particles. 
Many  columns,  porticos,  &c.  are  seen  of  it  at  Milan. 

The  name  of  Grapliic  granite  is  given  to  those  kinds  in 
which  the  feldspar  forms  large  concretions,  intermi.xed  with 
gray  quartz  crystals,  exhibiting,  when  cut  transversely, 
angular  figures,  mostly  shaped  Iikea7;  while  others  are  less 
regular,  and  bear  a  distant  resemblance  to  rude  alphabetical 
writing.  They  are  not  considered  to  be  genuine  granite  by 
some  mineralogists. 

Granite,  Graphic,  of  Portsoy. — The  feldspar  is  of  various 
tints  of  pale  flesh-red  ;  the  quartz  dark,  but  transparent,  with 
now  and  then  some  small  particles  of  mica.  This  rock  is 
minutely  described  by  Dr.  Ilutton. 

Granite,  Graphic,  of  Silieria. — Its  feldspar  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish white,  or  reddish  colour;  the  quartz,  exhibiting  figures 
similar  to  those  of  the  quartz  in  the  preceding  sort,  is  of  the 
variety  called  sniokij  topaz.  Mica  occurs  in  it  in  small 
nests,  and  black  shorl  in  acicular  crystals. 


Granite,  Graphic,  of  Autun. — Of  a  pale  rose-clou  ; 
quartz  crystals  gray,  very  numerous;  fntind  in  the  ii' ii;li- 
bourhood  of  Autun,  de[iartment  ofSaone  and  Loire,  pailiic- 
larly  at  Marmagne.  This,  in  Mr.  Brand's  opinion,  is  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  granites.  Another  variety  of  this  stone 
is  found  at  the  same  place:  its  feldspar  is  wliite;  the  quartz 
gray,  in  small  crystals;  it  is  susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish. 
Granite,  Graphic,  of  Corsica. — Likewise  of  a  rose-colour; 
but  generally  paler  than  that  of  Autini,  from  which  it  is  also 
distiiiguishal)le  by  its  quartz  crystals  being  laiger,  and  at 
greater  distance  from  each  other.  It  contains  some  thinly 
disscmitiatcd  bronze  coloured  mica,  and  taki's  a  fine  polish. 

GU.\T1CULAT1()N,  a  term  used  by  some  writers  for 
dividing  a  drawing  into  compartments  of  squares,  in  order  to 
be  reduced. 

GRAVITY,  Tahle  of  Specific,  See  Specific  Gravitt. 
GliLAT   CIRCLE"  OF   A   SPHERE,  a  circle  passing 
through  the  centre,  which  is  one  nf  the  greatest. 
GREAT  STAIRCASE.  .S^fe  Grand  Staircase. 
GREEK  ARCHITECTURE,  su.h  as  was  practised  by 
the  Greeks.    For  information  on  this  general  sidiject  we  must 
refer  to  the  description  of  each  order  given  under  their  several 
titles,  where  will  also  be  found  some  account  of  their  origin 
and  progress.     See  below,  Greek  Orders;  also  Architec- 
ture, Roman  Architecture,  &c. 
Greek  Cross.     See  Cross. 

Greek  Masonry,  the  manner  of  bonding  walls,  as  used 
by  the  Greeks.     See  Masonrv. 

Greek  Mouldings,  See  Mouldings. 
Greek  (Ecus.     See  Q2cus. 

Greek  Orders,  are  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian 
orders.  See  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian;  also  Orders, 
and  Architecture. 

Greek  Ornaments.     See  Ornaments. 
GREENING,  in  plumbery,  the  rubbing  of  a  new  sheet  of 
lead  with  any  green  vegetalile.  where  it  is  to  be  soldered,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  solder  from  adhering  except  at  the  places 
where  it  is  scraped  off. 

GREENHOUSE,  a  house  of  shelter  in  a  garden,  contrived 
for  preserving  the  more  tender  and  curious  exotic  plants. 

Structures  of  this  kind  were  formerly  erected  with  slated 
roofs,  like  dwelling-houses,  and  with  large  upright  windows 
in  front,  divided  and  supported  by  pillars;  examples  of 
which  may  yet  be  seen  in  several  of  the  royal  gardens  about 
London,  and  also  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  was 
soon  found  that  handsome  specimens  of  plants  could  not  be 
grown  in  houses  of  this  description  ;  and  the  only  purpose  to 
which  they  are  now  applied,  is  the  growing  of  orange  or 
lemon-trees,  and  protecting  other  plants  in  winter. 

Greenhouses,  as  now  built,  serve  not  only  as  conser 
vatories,  but  likewise  as  ornaments  of  gardens ;  being  usually 
large  and  beautiful  structures,  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
galleries,  wherein  the  plants  are  handsomely  ranged  in  cases. 
See  Conservatory'. 

The  greenhouse  is  a  sort  of  building  designed  for  the 
pm-pose  of  preserving  various  kinds  of  exotic  shrubs,  &c., 
through  the  winter  season,  and  for  growing  and  protecting 
those  kinds  of  plants  which  are  too  tender  to  live  in  the  open 
air.  It  is  fronted  and  covered  with  glazed  frames,  but  the 
aid  of  artificial  heat  is  not  necessary  except  in  intensely  cold 
weather.  It  is  advisable,  however,  in  constructing  such 
houses,  to  erect  flues  to  use  occasionally,  which  may  prove 
serviceable,  not  only  in  severe  frosts,  but  also  in  moist,  foggy 
weather,  when  a  moderate  fire  will  now  and  then  dry  up  the 
damps,  which  would  otherwise  prove  pernicious  to  many  of 
the  tender  kinds  of  plants. 

It  differs  from  the  conservatory  chiefly  in  this  circumstanoe. 


GRE 


476 


GRI 


that  the  plants,  trees,  or  shrubs,  are  in  pots  or  tubs,  and 
placed  upijii  stands,  frames,  or  stages,  during  the  winter,  to 
be  removed  to  proper  situations  in  the  open  air,  during  tlie 
hot  summer  season  ;  while  in  that,  there  are  beds,  borders, 
and  clumps,  laid  out  in  the  giound-pian.  and  made  up  with 
the  best  earthy  materials,  to  the  depth  of  three  or  tour  feet, 
in  wliich  the  shrubs,  trees,  &ic.  are  regularly  planted  ;  the 
whole  of  tlie  roof  being  removed  during  the  summer  to  admit 
fresh  air,  and  replaced  on  the  approach  of  the  autumn,  to 
remain  until  tlie  following  summer. 

Greenhouses  should  stand  in  the  pleasure-ground,  near 
the  house,  if  possible,  upon  a  somewhat  elevated  spot,  full  to 
the  south,  and  where  the  sun  has  access  from  its  rising  to  its 
setting.  'Jhcse  buildings  are  generally  of  brick  or  stone, 
having  the  fronts  and  tops  almost  wholly  of  glass-work  ;  and 
ranging  lengthwise  east  and  west.  They  are  generally  eon- 
slrucled  upon  some  ornamental  plan.  As  to  the  general 
dimensions,  in  respect  to  length,  width,  and  height,  they  may 
be  trom  10  to  50  feet,  or  more,  in  length,  according  to  the 
number  of  plants  to  be  contained  ;  and  in  width,  from  10  or 
15  I'eet  to  20  feet;  but,  for  middling  houses,  15  or  18  feet  is 
a  sulHcient  width  ;  and  in  height  in  the  clear,  nearly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  width. 

The  walls  on  the  backs  and  ends,  particularly  the  formei-, 
should  be  eanie.l  up  two  bricks  thick  ;  and  if  more  than  15 
feet  high,  two  bricks  and  a  half  thick  ;  at  one  end  of  the 
back  wail,  on  the  outside,  a  furnace  may  be  erected  for  burn- 
ing llres  (jccasionally,  communicating  with  Hues  within, 
ranging  in  two  or  three  returns  along  the  back  wall,  having 
one  flue  running  along  the  front  and  end  walls,  raised  wholly 
above  the  floor  of  the  house. 

The  fronts  of  the  buildings  should  have  as  much  glass  as 
possible,  and  wide  glass  doors  should  be  made  in  the  middle, 
boih  for  ornament  and  entrance,  and  for  moving  in  and  out 
the  plants.  It  would  also  be  convenient  to  have  a  smaller 
euirauce  door  at  one  end ;  the  width  of  the  windows  for  the 
glass  sashes  may  be  five  or  six  feet:  and  the  piers  between 
the  sashes  may  be  eitlier  of  timber,  six,  eight,  or  ten  inches 
wide,  according  to  their  height,  or  if  of  brick  or  stone  work, 
two  feet  wide  at  least,  slopnig  both  sides  of  each  pier  inward, 
that  by  taking  oti'the  angles,  a  free  admission  may  be  given 
to  the  lays  of  the  sun.  ior  the  same  reason,  the  bottoms  of 
the  sashes  should  reach  within  a  foot  of  the  floor  of  the  house, 
and  llieir  tops  almost  as  higli  as  the  roof;  and  if  brick  or  stone 
piers  two  li^et  wide,  shutteis  may  be  hung  on  the  inside,  to 
fall  back  agaitist  each  pier.  The  roof  may  be  either  wholly 
or  oidy  hall  glass-work,  next  the  front ;  the  other  half  slated, 
especially  if  the  upright  or  front  piers  are  of  timber  ;  and  the 
shutters  lo  cover  the  top  glasses  may  be  so  contrived  as  to 
slide  under  the  slated  ronf :  where  the  piers  are  of  brick  or 
stone,  it  is  common  to  have  the  roof  enlirely  slated  or  tiled ; 
l)ul  slating  is  the  most  ornamental  for  a  half  or  whole  roof; 
an.l  the  ceiling  within  should  be  white ;  which,  as  well  as  the 
whole  inside  wall,  must  be  well  plastered  and  white-washed, 
so  as  to  render  it  clean  and  neat. 

But  in  greenhouses  of  modern  construction,  in  order  to 
have  as  much  glass  as  possible  in  front,  the  piers  between 
the  sashes  are  commonly  of  timber  only,  fioin  six  to  eight 
or  ten  inches  thick,  according  to  the  height,  so  as  to  admit  as 
great  a  portion  of  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  as  possii)le,  and 
the  roots  are  wholly  of  glazed  frame-work. 

The  greenhouses  tijr  large  collections  of  plants  have  some. 
times  two  wings  of  smaller  dimensions,  added  to  the  main 
building,  at  each  end,  in  a  right  line,  separated  sometimes 
from  itby  a  glass  partition,  with  sliiling  sashes  for  communi- 
cation, and  the  font  almost  wholly  of  glass-«ork,  and  half  or 
whole  gla^s   roofs.      Thus,   by  these  additional  wings,  the 


houses  consist  of  three  divisions,  whereby  the  different 
qualities  and  temperatures  of  the  various  plants  can  be  more 
eligibly  suited.  The  middle,  or  main  division,  mav  be  for  all 
the  principal  and  more  hardy,  woody,  or  shrubby  kinds,  which 
require  protection  only  from  frost;  one  of  the  wings  appro- 
priated for  the  succulent  tribe,  and  the  other  to  the  more 
tender  kinds,  that  require  occasionally  heat  in  winti  r,  but 
which  can  live  without  the  heat  of  a  stove  or  hot  hou--e. 

On  whatever  plans  greenhouses  are  construeled.  the  whnle 
of  the  inside  walls  should  be  neatly  finished  off  with  pl.ister 
and  whitewash,  and  the  wood-work  painted  white;  the  bottom 
being  paved  with  large  square  paving  tiles,  or  some  similar 
material. 

In  the  greenhouse  there  should  be  stands,  franns,  <>• 
tressels,  which  may  be  moved  in  and  out,  upon  which  rows 
of  planks  may  be  fixed,  so  as  to  place  the  pots  or  tubs  of 
plants  in  regidar  rows,  one  above  another;  by  which  their 
heads  may  be  so  situated  as  not  to  interfere  with  each  othi'r. 
The  lowest  rows  of  plants  next  the  windows  should  be  placed 
about  four  feet  from  them,  that  there  may  be  a  convenient 
breadth  left  to  walk  in  front;  and  the  rows  of  plants  should 
rise  gradually  from  the  first,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  heads 
of  the  second  row  may  be  entirely  advanced  above  the  first, 
the  stems  only  being  hid  ;  and  at  the  back  of  the  house  a 
space  allowed  of  at  least  five  feet,  for  the  conveniency  of 
watering  the  plants,  and  to  admit  a  current  of  air  round  them, 
that  the  damps  occasioned  by  their  perspiration  may  be  the 
better  dissipated  ;  when  this  is  not  done,  the  damps.  |ient  in  too 
closely,  often  occasion  a  mouldiness  upon  the  tender  shoots 
and  leaves,  and,  when  the  house  is  close  ^hut  up.  this  stagnat- 
ing rancid  vapour  is  often  very  destructive;  fur  which  reason 
the  plants  should  never  be  crowded  too  close  to  each  other, 
nor  should  succulent  plants  ever  be  placed  among  them. 

GRIFFIN,  or  Griffon,  (from  the  Greek  ypvxp.)  a  fabu- 
lous creature,  usually  supposed  to  have  the  head  and  wings 
of  an  eagle,  with  the  body,  legs,  and  tail  of  a  lion  ;  but 
sometimes  with. the  head  of  the  latter,  and  the  horns  and 
beard  of  a  goat,  as  in  the  Ionian  anti(|uities.  The  ancients 
adorned  the  statues  and  temples  of  their  gods  with  symbols 
of  their  supposed  influence.  The  griffin,  which  was 
particularly  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  in  fabulous  antiquity 
believed  to  be  ever  watching  the  golden  mines  on  the  Scy- 
thian and  Hyperborean  mountains,  is  introduced  as  a  guar- 
dian of  the  lyre,  which  belonged  to  him,  as  inventor  of 
music.  It  has  a  lion's  head,  because  Apollo,  or  the  sun,  is 
most  powerful  when  in  that  sign  of  the  zodiac.  The  Per- 
sians also  had  a  statue  of  him,  with  the  head  of  that 
animal. 

GRILLAGE,  in  engineering,  a  term  applied  to  a  kind  of 
frame-work,  made  something  like  a  grating,  of  heavy  pieces 
of  timber  laid  lengthwise,  and  crossed  by  other  pieces,  notched 
down  upon  them.  It  is  used  to  sustain  foundations,  and  pre- 
vent their  irregular  settling,  in  soils  of  unequal  firmness 
or  solidity.  This  frame-work  is  firmly  bedded,  and  the  earth 
packed  into  the  interstices  between  the  timbers;  a  flooring 
of  thick  planks,  termed  a  platform,  is  then  laid  on  it,  and 
on  this  the  f  nuidation-conrses  rest, 

GRINDSTONE,  a  cylindrical  stone,  mounted  on  a  spindle 
through  the  axis,  and  turned  by  a  winch-handle,  for  grinding 
edge-tools, 

GRINDING,  the  act  of  wearing  ofl'  the  redundant  parts 
of  a  body,  and  I'orming  it  aceoiding  to  its  destined  surt'ace. 

GRIT-STONE,  a  stone  consi>ting  of  particles  of  sand 
agglutinated  together.  Of  this  kind  of^  stone  there  are 
many  varieties,  differing  iu  the  size  of  the  particles  of  sand 
that  "compose  them,  the  several  properties  of  these  sands,  and 
their    various    degrees    of  compactness    and   agglutination. 


GKU 


417 


GEO 


Some  of  them  are  used  for  building,  others  for  grinding, 
others  for  whettini;  sharp  steel  instruments,  and  others  for 
filtering  water.   See  Stone,  and  Whetstone. 

Grit-Stone,  in  mining,  a  hard  graiuilar  or  gritty  stone, 
composed  of  grains  of  silex  or  (juartz,  cemented  together, 
generally  either  by  a  silieious,  an  argillaceous,  or  a  ferru- 
ginous cement.  The  fu'st  of  these,  or  the  siiieious  grit-stones, 
are  alone  tit  to  be  used  in  repairing  roads.  The  other  sorts, 
in  Wet  weather,  soun  become  a  lieiuy  sandy  mire  upon  the 
road;  wlu'U  the  argillaceous  parts  are  dissolved  and  washed 
away  by  the  winter  rains,  this  mire  changes  in  summer  to 
loose  sand,  rendering  the  roads  almost  intolerable.  Most  tra- 
vellers will  have  observed  this  in  the  argillaceous  grit-stone 
district  about  Ashby  de  la  Zoucli,  in  Leicestershire,  and 
numerous  other  coal  countries,  and  the  ferruginous  grit-stone 
district  about  Woburn,  in  Bedfordshire,  and  other  places. 
The  greater  part  of  the  numerous  grit-stone  rocks  and  beds 
of  such  stone  in  the  coal-mines,  are  argillaceous,  of  a  fine 
grit,  with  minute  plates  of  mica,  and  are  unfit  for  roads,  until 
hardened  by  the  action  of  fire  ;  being  still,  however,  very 
weak  and  improper  materials  for  road-making,  if  better  can 
be  produced. 

A  large  portion  of  the  argillaceous  grit-stones  have  but 
a  slight  disposition  to  perish  or  moulder  when  exposed,  and 
can  be  used  in  walls  and  ordinary  buildings  ;  others  will 
perish  in  a  few  years ;  and  a  large  portion  of  what  appears, 
when  first  dug,  at  proper  distances  below  the  surface,  to  be 
very  hard  grit-stone,  will,  after  a  very  short  time  of  expo- 
sure, fall  to  a  loamy  or  clayey  sand  ;  such  very  perishable 
grit-stone  strata  are  called,  by  the  colliers,  sione-biiiJti,  (/ray- 
beds,  &c.,  except  about  Newcastle,  where  they  are  denomi- 
nated sandstones. 

In  some  places,  crystallized  granular  lime-stones  occur,  as 
in  the  yellow  or  magnesian  lime-stone  range,  near  Mansfield 
in  Nottinghamshire,  and  such  are  sometimes,  though  impro- 
perly, called  yrit-stoiies,  or  gritty  lime-stones.  See  Sand- 
stone. 

GROIN,  in  architecture,  the  hollow  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  two  or  more  simple  vaults,  crossing  eacli  other  at 
the  same  height. 

In  the  geometrical  point  of  view,  the  centre  of  a  groin  is 
formed  by  the  entire  meeting  of  the  surfaces  of  two  or  more 
cylindrits;  that  is,  such,  that  every  straight  line  around  the 
whole  circumference,  on  the  surface  of  the  one  cylindrit,  will 
meet  every  straight  line  around  the  circumference  of  the  one 
adjoining. 

Hence  the  sections  parallel  to  the  axes  of  all  the  cylindrits 
which  form  the  groin  are  in  the  plane  of  their  spring- 
ing ;  otherwise  the  surfaces  could  not  meet  each  other 
entirely. 

Hence,  also,  the  axes  of  all  the  cylindrits  are  also  in  the 
same  plane,  and  cut  each  other  in  the  same  point. 

In  the  above  definition  of  a  groin,  it  must,  however,  be 
observed,  that  its  surface  is  no  portion  of  that  of  the  solid 
which  would  be  contained  by  the  surfaces  of  the  cylindrits 
and  a  plane  passing  through  their  axes,  but  only  that  part  of 
the  whole  which  is  formed  on  the  outside  of  the  space  which 
would  be  thus  enclosed  in  the  centre  of  the  groin  and  form 
a  polygonal  dome.  The  surface  of  the  groin  is  therefore 
equal  to  the  whole  of  the  cylindritic  surfaces,  deducting  that 
of  the  dome. 

The  surface  of  any  cylindrit  is  either  that  of  a  cylinder  or 
cylindroid. 

When  the  cylindrits  which  form  the  groin  are  all  cylinders, 
the  two  vaults  are  of  equal  breadth. 

In  any  simple  vault  of  a  groin,  the  planes  which  are  tan- 
gents to  the  surflices  at  the  springing,  have  equal  inclinations 


with  each  respective  wall.  When  all  the  openings  of  a  groin 
are  equal,  the  groin  is  termed  an  eqnitateral. 

The  branches  of  a  groin  are  each  of  the  two  opposite  parts 
of  each  simple  vault. 

The  invention  of  groins  must  have  been  subsequent  to  that 
of  simple  vaulting,  and  probably  originated  from  arched  pas- 
.sages,  when  it  was  necessary  to  occupy  the  whole  height. 
At  what  time  they  were  first  introduced  in  architecture,  is 
uncertain  ;  the  remains  of  antiquity  show  that  they  are  of 
very  remote  date,  which,  however,  cannot  be  traced  beyond 
the  times  of  Roman  power  and  grandeur.  Use  or  necessity 
was,  without  doubt,  the  occasion  of  their  invention,  but  in 
process  of  time  they  were  used  as  ornaments,  and  became 
fashionable  at  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire;  they  are  to 
be  found  in  the  amphitheatre  at  Rome,  formed  at  the  inter- 
sections of  the  radiating  and  elliptic  passages.  In  the  temple 
of  Peace,  and  baths  of  Diolcetian,  at  the  same  place,  instead 
of  massive  piers,  they  are  supported  upon  columns,  the  most 
feeble  of  all  supports,  and  which  would  be  incapable  of 
resisting  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  arches,  were  it  not  for 
the  auxiliary  sujiport  of  the  walls  immediately  behind  them, 
at  the  sides  and  angles  of  the  building,  which  act  as 
buttresses. 

Groins  continued  to  be  used  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
Roman  empire,  in  ecclesiastical  structures ;  and  wherever 
grandeuror  decoration  was  required,  they  were  neveromitted ; 
they  became  the  most  principal  ornament  of  the  time,  and 
formed  the  most  conspicuous  featm'es  in  the  edifices  in  which 
they  were  employed  :  at  first  they  were  used  in  the  same 
manner  as  by  the  Romans,  hut  in  after-times  the  groins 
were  supported  upon  ribs,  which  sprung  from  cylindrical  or 
polygonal  pillars,  with  capitals  of  the  same  form  ;  this  pro- 
duced a  necessary  change  in  the  figure  of  the  vaulting,  as  the 
bottoms  of  the  ribs  rose  from  the  circimiference  of  a  circle, 
instead  of  the  angles  of  a  square,  with  its  sides  parallel  to 
the  walls ;  and  as  the  spaces  between  and  over  the  ribs  were 
vaulted  in  a  twisted  or  winding  surfiice,  so  as  to  coincide  in 
every  jiart  with  a  straight  line  level  between  the  ribs,  the 
angles  of  the  groined  surface  were  thus  very  obtuse  at  the 
bottom,  but  diminished  continually  upwards,  and  ended  in  a 
right  angle  at  the  summit  of  the  ceiling.  Afterwards,  when 
the  pillars  were  formed  upon  a  square  plan,  the  sides  of  which 
were  obliquely  disposed  with  regard  to  the  sides  of  the 
building,  and  decorated  with  vertical  mouldings,  or  small 
attached  columns,  and  the  number  of  ribs  increased,  the  first 
idea  of  fan-work  would  be  presented  at  the  springing  of  the 
ribs ;  but  in  this  the  architects  would  soon  perceive  an 
incongruity  of  form  in  the  surface,  as  it  approached  the 
summit  of  the  vaulting;  the  ribs  would  be  formed  all  of 
equal  radii,  and  disposed  around,  to  support  a  concavity, 
winch  might  be  generated  by  revolving  a  curve  round  an 
axis  which  was  in  the  centre  of  the  pillars;  and  being  accus- 
tomed to  groins  meeting  in  lines  crossing  each  other,  it  was 
natural  to  suppose  they  would  at  first  permit  the  ribs  to  run 
out  and  meet  each  other,  which  would  then  be  of  unequal 
lengths.  If  the  difierence  between  the  ojienings  was  not 
very  great,  the  intersection  thus  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  vault'ng  would  not  differ  materially 
from  straiciit  lines,  but  would  not  be  parallel  to  the  horizon, 
as  thev  would  run  upwards  towards  the  centre  of  the  groin; 
but  this  would  depend  on  the  angle  formed  by  two  opposite 
ribs  in  the  same  plane.  Thus,  if  the  tangents  formed  at  the 
vertex  of  the  opposite  curves  contained  an  angle  of  V20 
degrees,  the  apex  line  on  the  ceiling  would  form  a  curve  in 
receding  from  the  vertical  angle  of  the  said  ribs,  of  a  very 
decided  convexity;  but  in  going  progressively  forward,  the 
curvature  would' change  into  a  concavity,  and  then  would 


GRO 


478 


GRO 


begin  again  to  descend.  The  idea  of  intersecting  the  rilis 
thus  dispused  in  vertical  planes  around  a  coinniOM  axis,  by 
circular  hoi  i/.iinial  ribs,  was  natural;  aiui  thus  again  would 
generate  anolher  idea  of  su|)|)iirtiiig  the  upper  ends  of  the 
ribs,  by  a  circular  ring  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  pillar, 
and  this  being  done  troni  four  pillars,  woidd  leave  a  space 
enclosed  by  four  convex  arcs  of  circles  :  mUliing  fiirtlier  was 
required  to  complete  this  system  of  vaulling  than  to  till  up 
tlie  space,  and  the  whole  would  be  keyed  together.  In  this 
manner,  by  slow  and  imperceptible  changes,  a  species  of 
vaulting  was  invented,  very  diti<L'renl  from  that  of  the  (Greeks 
and  Konians.  Instead  of  closing  the  space,  if  we  suppose 
another  ring,  forming  a  complete  circumference,  to  be  Imilt 
intiTiorly  to  touch  the  former  arcs,  and  tlie  four  triangular 
curved  spaces  closed  and  wedged  together  with  masonry,  the 
whole  will  stand  equally  firm  as  if  the  middle  had  been  solid, 
and  thus  an  aperture  for  light  will  be  formed  the  same  as  in 
dome-vaulting.  This  species  of  vaulting  has  also  another 
pro|]eity,  that  it  can  be  carried  up  from  a  square  plan  with 
less  hazard  tiian  the  common  mode  of  groining. 

In  wan-houses  which  are  loaded  witii  the  greatest  weights, 
and  where  the  walls  aie  jjlaced  at  a  remote  distance,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  introduce  many- supports  to  the  floors: 
these,  if  constructed  of  timber,  being  liable  to  accidents  from 
fne,and  to  rot,  are  consequently  exposed  to  sudden  dan<;ei' ;  to 
prevent  which,  every  precaution  should  be  taken,  at  least  as 
Ikr  as  may  ap|i.ar  to  be  warrantable  from  the  profits  to  arise 
from  the  articles  to  be  deposited.  This  will  be  fully  acct)m- 
pli^hed  by  the  introduction  of  groins,  which  not  only  answer 
the  same  purjiose  as  the  flooring  of  timber-work  with  its 
wooden  siqjporters,  but  are  more  durable,  and  proof  against 
fire  and  rot.  Though  groins  are  only  empiloyed  in  the  lower 
stories  of  buililings,  on  account  of  the  great  expense  and  loss 
of  space  which  woidd  be  occasioned  by  the  requisite  thickness 
of  the  w^alling;  yet  they  may  at  all  times  be  used  in  cellars 
and  ground  stories,  without  much  additional  labour  or  expen- 
diture of  materials. 

It  having  been  found  that  brick  groins,  rising  from  rect- 
angular piers,  are  inadequate  to  the  weight  they  have  to 
support,  and  are  incommodious  to  the  turning  of  goods  round 
thii!  corners  of  the  piers,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to 
employ  octagonal  piers,  and  to  cut  oil"  the  square  angles  of 
the  groin,  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  side  of  the  piers.  This 
mode  of  construction  is  decidedly  preferable  to  that  in  which 
square  piers  are  used  ;  for  the  angles  of  the  groins,  built  in  the 
common  vvay,  as  they  forma  right  angle,  are  hardly  capable 
of  sustaining  themselves,  much  less  the  load  required  to  be 
supported,  owing  to  the  bricks  being  so  much  cut  away  at 
the  angles,  in  oider  to  lit  them  thereto  and  to  each  other,  so 
that  they  have  little  or  no  lap.  This  scheme  should  certainly  be 
carried  into  practice,  wherever  groins  are  applied  to  such  uses. 

In  the  construction  of  edifices  for  dwelling,  they  ought 
always  to  he  employed  in  cellars,  and  other  damp  situations, 
particularly  where  there  are  paved  apartments  above. 

Groins  for  use  only,  may  be  indillerently  constructed  of 
brick  or  stone,  as  one  or  other  material  may  be  most  easily 
procured. 

If  employed  by  way  of  proportion  or  decoration,  their 
beauty  depends  on  the  generating  figures  of  the  sides,  the 
regularity  of  the  surface,  and  the  acutencss  or  sharpness  of 
the  angles,  which  should  not  thejefore  be  obtunded.  in  the 
best  buildings,  where  durability  and  elegance  are  equally 
required,  they  may  be  constructed  of  wrought  stone;  and 
where  elegance  is  wanted  at  a  small  expense,  of  plaster,  sup- 
ported by  timber-work. 

Groins  are  consequently  constructed  in  two  dilVerent  way.s, 
according  as  they  are  built  of  stone  or  brick,  or  formed  of 


timber-work,  lathed  and  plastered.  In  the  firmer  case,  a 
timber  centering  is  made  to  liirm  the  concavity,  ai  d  to  sup- 
port the  groin  during  its  ei'ection.  The  centering  consists  of 
several  ribs,  disposed  at  three  or  (bur  feet  distance,  made  to 
the  si/.(-  of  the  vault  which  has  the  greatest  opening:  The 
extrenutiesof  these  ribs  reston  beams  supported  by  standards, 
and  are  boarded  over  without  any  rrgard  to  the  transverse 
openings,  which  arc  afterwards  (brmed  by  another  set  of  ribs 
adapted  thereto,  and  then  boarded  so  as  to  meet  tlu'  boarding 
of  the  first  vault,  which  if  of  consideraMe  breadth,  must  have 
short  ribs  fixed  upon  its  surface,  in  order  to  shoiten  the  bear- 
ing of  the  boarding  of  the  transverse  openings;  and  thus 
the  centering  will  be  completed.  It  is  obvious,  that  in  form- 
ing the  ribs  fi)r  each  vault,  the  outer  curve  must  be  the  arc 
of  a  circle  or  ellipsis  within  the  curve  of  the  vaidt.  and  dis 
tanced  from  it  towards  the  axis  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
boarding.  In  nudiing  the  groined  centre,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  find  the  place  of  the  angles  on  the  boarding  of  the  large 
vault,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  place  of  the  ribs  and  boarding 
of  the  transverse  vault;  this  may  be  done  by  three  difliirent 
methods.  First,  let  two  straight  edges  be  placed  vertically 
at  the  angles,  and  a  thiid  strai;;ht  edge,  or  an  extended  line, 
be  made  to  touch  the  surface  of  the  boarding,  and  marked  at 
all  the  points  of  contact,  keeping  the  latter  straight  edge  or 
line  .always  upon  the  edges  of  the  two  vertical  straight  edges 

Tiie  defect  of  this  method  is,  that  the  place  of  the  angles 
at  the  bottom  can  never  be  found,  since  it  wipuld  require  the 
cross  straight  edge  or  line  to  be  of  infinite  length,  and  the 
vertical  ones  of  infinite  height.  A  more  eligihle  method, 
therefore,  where  there  is  room,  is,  secondly,  to  fix  two  ribs 
in  the  transverse  part,  and  direct  a  level  straight  edge  upor 
their  edges,  so  that  the  end  may  come  in  contact  with  the 
boards,  and  mark  the  boarding  in  this  place ;  find  a  sufficient 
numliei-  of  points  for  the  purpose,  in  the  same  manner,  and 
draw  curvis  through  the  points,  which  will  give  the  curves 
for  fixing  the  end  of  the  filling-in  ribs,  otherwise  called 
jack  ri/js. 

In  constructing  groins  to  be  finished  with  plaster,  the 
angle-ribs  must  be  first  fixed,  then  straight  longitudinal 
pieces  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  groin  fixed,  either  flush 
with  the  inider  sides  of  the  .angle-ribs,  or  their  under  sides  a 
little  below  those  of  the  angle-ribs,  so  as  to  admit  of  their 
being  nailed  together;  this  is  the  most  eligible  method  of 
constructing  plaster  groins. 

There  is  another  mode,  by  forming  curved  ribs,  in  planes 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  each  simple  vault :  but  here,  as 
the  curve  of  these  ribs  must  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  eylin- 
drit  of  each  simple  vault,  the  waste  of  timber  will  be  very 
great;  though  not  if  the  ribs  are  constructed  in  straight 
pieces.  Whatever  mode  is  adopted  in  the  fiirmation  of 
plaster  groins,  the  under  sides  of  the  ribs  must  always  range 
in  the  intended  surfiice  of  each  simple  vault.  These  con- 
structions will  be  more  clearly  understood  in  the  following 
explanations. 

Plate  1.  (Cesterino  for  Groins,)  Fif/urc  1,  No.  1. 
A  plan  of  the  widest  opening  of  the  groin,  first  boarded  the 
whole  length  without  interruption  ;  then  the  cross  vaults  are 
boarded  ;  the  two  cross  openings  upon  the  left  hand  appear  as 
finished,  ready  to  receive  the  masonry  or  brickwork,  while 
that  on  the  right  exhibits  the  ribs  without  the  boarding. 

No.  2.  The  elevation  of  the  widest  aperture,  showing  the 
edges  of  the  ribs  of  the  transverse  openings  fixed  u|K)n  the 
surface  of  the  boarding  of  the  longitudinal  opening;  this  also 
shows  the  height  of  the  jaekribs,  which  will  give  their 
length  also. 

No.  3.  Shows  the  elevation  of  the  transverse  apertures, 
as  completely  finished. 


CEUTERIKG       FOB. 


PZATM 


j-ra   /   //- 


.Fi^7J/''^ 


r^l 


a 


'■gg 


^, 

/ 

T-. 

/ 

■         \ 

/ 

J 


_aitir^;^3zdiijL 


j-:.!jN'i 


Fiffll/'i 


/■:.,„■''.<  /■■  ■/■/,' 


GRO 


479 


GRO 


Proiilem  I. —  Given  one  of  the  rihs  of  the  transverse  ranges, 
to  fin  J  lite  biithj-riinge. 

Suppiise  the  given  rib  to  be  a  setni-eiicle,  ora  scmi-cllipsis, 
deseribe  :i  seiui-ellipsis,  the  length  of  which  is  that  of  the 
body-range,  ami  the  seini.i-onjugate  axis  the  height  of  the 
given  rib,  which  is  that  of  the  grt)in  ;  and  the  semi-ellipsis 
thus  described  will  be  the  contour  of  the  ribs  which  are  to 
form  the  body-range. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  a  rib  of  the  body-range  be  given, 
that  of  the  ti  ansverse  openings  may  be  found. 

But  if  the  given  rib  be  any  other  curve  than  that  of  a  semi- 
circle or  semi-ellipsis,  lay  down  the  curve  of  half  the  given  rib 
upon  any  straight  line,  as  a  base  ;  from  the  point  where  the 
curve  interseits  the  base,  draw  another  straight  lino  at  a  right 
angle  therewith:  upon  this  line  set  the  extent  of  half  the 
width  of  the  range  from  the  angular  point:  complete  the 
rectangle,  of  which  these  two  straight  lines  are  adjoining 
sides;  draw  that  diagonal  of  the  rectangle  which  meets  the 
curve  given  ;  take  any  number  of  points  in  the  given  curve, 
draw  ordiiiates  perpendicular  to  the  base  to  intersect  them; 
from  these  points  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  other  two  sides  of 
the  rectangle,  to  meet  the  diagonal  ;  from  the  points  of  divi- 
sion, draw  straight  lines  parallel  to  the  base  of  the  given  rib, 
to  meet  the  side  of  the  rectangle,  which  joins  the  curve  of  the 
given  rib;  from  these  points  raise  perpendiculars;  transfer 
the  ordinates  of  the  given  rib  upon  the  perpendiculars;  and 
the  curve  drawn  through  the  extremities  of  these  perpen- 
diculars will  be  that  of  the  rib  required. 

Fi'jure  I,  No.  4,/y  i-y/is  thegiven  rib,  51/its  base,  equal 
to  half  the  width,  c  </,  No.  3,  of  the  transverse  openings ; 
// 1  e/is  the  rib  found  from  the  given  rib /y  k  g  f,  and/e  its 
base,  equal  to  half  the  width,  a  4,  of  the  body-range. 

Figure  1,  No.  5.  Shows  the  method  of  finding  the  mould 
for  drawing  the  angles  for  placing  the  jack-ribs.  The  opera- 
tion is  thus  performed  : 

Figure  1,  No.  5.  Upon  any  straight  line,  m  I.  transfer  the 
aic/7  (',  No.  4,  stretched  out  with  all  its  parts  from  I  to  m  ; 
from  the  points  thus  transferred,  erect  perpendiculars,  and 
tran>fer  e  h,  No.  4,  to  the  middle  perpendicular,  n  o,  No.  5; 
then  the  remaining  parallels  of  e  h  of  the  triangle  e  hf  No.  4, 
respectively  to  the  parallels  of  h  o.  No.  5,  on  each  side  of  it; 
and  through  the  remote  extremities  of  these  perpendiculars, 
draw  a  curve  each  way  from  the  point  o;  and  thus  two  equal 
curves  will  be  tbrmed.  But  lest  the  reader  should  not  be 
able  to  follow  a  general  description,  the  following  shows  not 
only  how  any  particular  point  may  be  found  in  the  required 
rib.  but  also  how  any  point  may  be  found  in  the  covering. 

First :    To  find  a  point  in  the  required  rib. 

Figure  1,  No.  4.  Take  any  point,  q,  in  the  given  rib  ; 
draw  q  p  perpendicular  to  g  /the  base  ;  draw  p  r  parallel 
to  f  e,  cutting  f  h  at  r;  draw  )■  5  parallel  to  g  f  cutting  f  e 
at  s  ;  draw  s  t  perpendicular  to  f  e;  make  s  I  equal  to  p  q, 
and  <  is  a  point  in  the  curve.  In  like  manner,  as  many  points 
may  be  found  as  required. 

Now  let  it  be  required  to  find  the  point  u.  No.  5.  Transfer 
the  arc  i  t.  No.  4,  upon  the  straight  line  m  /,  No.  5,  from 
n  to  u;  draw  u  v  perpendicular  to  ni  I;  make  u  v  equal  to  s  r, 
and  V  \s  a.  point  in  the  curve.  The  trilinear  area  to  o  /  is  the 
envelope  of  the  portion  of  the  groined  surface  represented  by 
either  of  the  two  triangles  of  the  plan  of  the  groin,  which 
have  the  width  of  the  body-range  for  the  base;  m  o  is  the 
edge  of  a  mould  by  which  the  angle  of  the  groin,  or  the 
cylindritic  lines,  are  found  ;  the  point  m  is  laid  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  mould  bent  upon  thesurfiice,  so  that  the  point  o  may 
be  in  the  summit,  and  the  convex  side  of  the  mould  towards 
a  vertical  section  passing  through  the  point  from  which  the 
bottom  of  the  mould  rises. 


Figure  1,  No.  6.  Shfiws  the  envelope  cori'e^ponding  to 
either  of  the  two  triangular  parts  of  the  plan  of  the  transverse 
paits,  and  is  foiuid  in  the  same  manner  as  No.  5.  This 
shows  the  mould  for  cutting  the  lioanling,  by  laving  it  out 
to  the  full  breadth  upon  a  plane,  and  drawing  the  ends  of  the 
board'<  by  the  curved  edge  of  the  mould,  so  as  to  fit  against 
the  boarding  of  the  body-range. 

Figure  2.  Shows  the  ct)nstruction  of  a  groin  upon  an 
inclined  plane,  the  widest  opening,  or  body-range,  having  its 
ascent  or  descent  in  the  direction  of  the' inclination  of'the 
plane;  the  transverse  ranges  are  therefore  level.  The  ribs 
in  both  directions  are  set  in  vertical  planes.  The  rib  for  the 
body-range  is  a  semi-ellipsis;  those  of  the  sides  will  also  be 
semi-ellipses,  but  will  not  have  their  axes  in  a  vertical  and 
horizontal  position.  The  elevation  of  the  transverse  openings 
is  shown  at  No.  2,  and  that  of  the  bc)dy-range  at  the  lower 
end.  Each  elevation  exhibits  the  construction  of  the  centre, 
a  section  of  the  boarding,  and  the  manner  of  placing  the 
jack-ribs. 

No.  3.  Is  a  section  of  the  body-range  at  right  angles  to 
the  plane  of  its  inclination. 

No.  4.  Shows  the  form  of  the  moulds  for  drawing  the 
angles,  in  order  to  place  the  jack-ribs.  The  construclion  is 
thus:  Divide  the  half  d f  of  the  curve  d  c.  No.  3.  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts  ;  from  the  points  of  division  draw 
lines  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  body-range,  cutting  the 
diagonal  a  l;  from  the  points  of  intefsection  draw  lines 
parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  transverse  opening,  and  continue 
them  on  the  other  side  of  the  inclination,  g  h,  of  the  elevation 
of  the  said  openings ;  from  g  h.  as  a  base,  make  the  heights  of 
the  several  lines  thus  continued  equal  to  the  corresponding 
heights  of  the  elevation  of  the  body-range,  and  a  curve  drawn 
through  all  the  extremities  will  give  the  firm  of  the  ribs,  i  pk, 
for  the  transverse  openings.  From  the  summit  of  the  centre 
thus  constructed,  draw  the  line  v  w  at  right  angles  to  the 
inclination  g  h;  extend  the  arc  d f.  No.  3,  with  its  divisions, 
to  V  w,  No.  4;  through  all  the  points  of  division  in  vw  draw 
lines  at  right  angles  thereto;  from  all  the  points  fiund  in  the 
curve  of  the  rib  i p  k.  No.  2,  draw  lines  parallel  to  i  h,  cutting 
the  respective  lines  perpendicular  to  v  w  ;  and  a  curve  drawn 
on  each  side  of  i»  w  will  give  the  angle  of  the  groin. 

Groin  Ceiling,  a  cradling  constructed  of  ribs,  lathed  and 
plastered.  It  differs  in  its  construction  from  groin  centering, 
as  the  former  requires  angle-ribs.  There  are  two  different 
methods  of  constructing  groin-ceilings ;  one  by  ribs  fixed 
vertically  and  perpendicularly  to  the  sides  of  each  branch; 
the  other  by  angle-ribs  and  ceiling-joists,  or  straight  pieces  of 
timber,  running  parallel  to  the  axis  of  each  branch,  fixed  to 
the  angle-ribs,  and  to  other  intermediate  ribs,  in  vertical 
planes,  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  each  of  the  branches, 
and  placed  upon  opposite  piers,  to  shorten  the  bearing,  in 
order  to  make  less  scantlings  for  the  ceiling-joists,  and  thereby 
save  timber.  But  in  whatever  mode  the  groined-ceiling  is 
constructed,  the  surface  must  finish  in  the  same  manner.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  the  latter  method  by  ceiling-joiets 
will  require  much  less  timber  and  workmanship  than  the 
former,  where  so  much  stuff"  is  cut  to  waste,  and  so  much  time 
employed  in  making  the  angle-ribs. 

Figure  1.  The  cradling  of  a  groin  ceiling,  constructed  with 
ceilino'-ioists.  Stout  ribs  are  thrown  across  the  angles  and 
between  the  opposite  piers ;  the  ceiling-joist  being  put  on 
below  and  spiked  upwards.  In  this,  the  rib.  «  /  i  c,  of  a  trans- 
verse ran^e  is  given,  to  find  the  others.  Take  any  number 
of  points  in  the  half  arc  a  /  b;  draw  lines  parallel  to  g  i,  the 
base  of  the  rib  of  the  body-range,  to  cut  the  diagonal  df; 
from  the  points  thus  obtained  in  df,  draw  lines  at  right  angles 
to  df,  and  make  the  corresponding  perpendiculars  equal  to 


GRO 


480 


GRO 


those  nf  the  f;iven  arc  a  I  h -^  then  consti-uct  the  other  half  hy 
reversion,  and  it  will  form  the  whole  anj;le-rib. 

To  obtain  the  rib  of  the  bo(ly-rann;e  from  the  points  of 
section  in  the  base  line  d  f,  draw  lines  parallel  to  a  c,  to  cut 
(/  i,  and  produce  them  on  the  other  side  of  o  i;  from  the  points 
thus  obtained  in  (/  i,  transfer  the  corresponding  heights  of  the 
ordinates  of  the  given  rib  upon  the  jjerpendiculars  as  ordi- 
nates,  then  construct  the  ordinates  of  the  other  half  by  rever- 
sion, which  will  give  the  curve  of  the  ribs  of  the  larger 
branch. 

Fif/ure  2.  The  cradling  of  a  groin-ceiling,  constructed 
entirely  of  ribs.  The  section  of  the  ceiling  of  the  trans- 
verse ranges  is  that  of  a  semi-circle ;  consequently,  the 
angle-ribs,  and  those  of  the  body-range,  are  semi-ellipses,  the 
width  of  the  body-range  being  greater  than  those  of  the 
ti'ans\erse  branches.  The  description  of  the  curves  of  the 
ribs  will  be  found  under  the  article  Ellipsis,  Method  111. 
Figure  3. 

The  ribs  must  be  bevelled  each  way,  so  as  to  range  with 
either  branch  of  the  groin.  This  is  best  done  by  getting 
them  in  two  thicknesses,  then  each  half  of  each  thickness 
must  range  the  contrary  way,  one  half  with  the  ceiling  of  the 
largest  branch,  and  the  other  half  with  the  ceiling  of  the 
lesser  branch,  in  the  same  groin  ;  the  branches  being  sup- 
posed on  the  same  side  of  the  diagonal ;  so  that  when  the 
two  parts  are  put  together  to  form  the  rib  completely,  the 
bevelling  of  the  one  half  of  one  thickness  and  that  of  half 
of  the  other,  will  range  with  the  surface  of  the  ceiling  of  one 
branch,  and  the  contrary  edge^  with  the  surface  of  the  ceiling 
of  the  other  branch.  In  ranging  the  ribs,  each  thickness  is 
cut  out  by  the  mould:  then,  in  order  to  range  the  half  of 
each  thickness,  the  mould  must  be  shifted,  so  that  the  upper 
point  of  the  curved  edge  will  slide  in  a  line  parallel  to  the 
base,  while  its  lower  point  will  slide  upon  the  base  line  to  the 
distance  recpiired  at  the  bottom  :  this  is  represented  on  the 
lower  end  of  the  principal  branch. 

Fiijure  3.  A  groin  in  which  the  principal  branch  is  inclined  : 
t  /t  /  is  the  given  curve  of  the  rib ;  a  6  the  line  of  elevation 
of  the  spring  of  the  arches.  Draw  the  diagonal  p  o,  and  o  s 
perpendicular  to  it;  join  o  n,  which  produce  to  cut  a  b  at  r; 
make  o  s  equal  q  r;  produce  o p  to  meet  t  /  at  a,  and  join  s  a 
{the  reader  must  however  observe,  that  the  engraver  has  joined 
s  p  instead  of  s  a,  and  has  not  produced  o  p,  as  here  stated,  and 
as  it  was  in  the  drawing).  Bisect  t  /  at  y  ;  through  y  draw 
k  V  parallel  to  mo  or  p  a,  meeting  the  curve  in  k,  and  op  at 
v;  draw  v  u  perpendicular  to  o  /),  cutting  s  a  at  t ;  make  t  u 
equal  to  y  k;  draw  v  x  parallel  to  i  I,  cutting  a  6  at  w;  make 
to  X  equal  to  y  k ;  then  p  s  will  be  a  diameter,  and  t  u  the 
semi-conjugate  of  the  ellipsis,  w^hich  forms  the  curve  of  the 
angle-rib:  also  w  r  and  w.  .x  are  the  semi-coujugate  diameters 
of  the  curve  of  the  ribs  for  the  transverse  branches,  and  the 
curves  may  be  described  as  in  Method  V.  Problem  I.  of  the 
article  Ellipsis.  Or,  the  two  axes  may  be  found  as  in 
Problem  II.  of  the  same  article,  and  the  curves  described 
according  to  Method  III.  Problem  I.;  or  the  cmve  may  be 
drawn  by  ordinates  as  here  exhibited.  The  cradling  is  shown 
at  the  lower  end. 

Figure  4.  Shows  the  construction  of  ribs  for  the  arches  of 
apertures  cut  under  the  pitch  of  a  large  vault  at  right  angles 
to  the  wall.  Apertures  of  this  description  are  called  lunettes. 
Let  A  z  e  m  JO  D  be  the  curve  of  the  section  of  the  principal 
vault ;  it  is  required  to  construct  the  ribs  of  a  lunette  of  a 
given  height. 

Produce  the  base  A  d  to  A;,  and  the  side  g  d  to  I;  let/y  be 
the  breadth  of  the  aperture;  bisect /y  in  i ;  draw  i  h  per- 
pendicular to/y,  whieh  assume  equal  to  the  intended  height 
•  >r  the  liuietle;  draw  h  k  parallel  to  <i  u,  eiUting  n  k  at  /■  ; 


make  d  I  equal  to  d  k;  draw  I  m  parallel  to  d  a,  cutting  the 
(•nrve  of  the  principal  vault  in  ?«;  draw  M  o  parallel  to  D  y, 
cutting  h  i  produced  to  o;  join  o/ and  og ;  assume  any 
number  of  points  in  the  j)art  ?;;(/of  the  curve  d  m  e  a;  fr<jm 
the  assumed  points  draw  lines  parallel  to  mo.  cutting  oy;  from 
the  points  of  division  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  og;  make 
the  lengths  of  the  several  perpendiculars  from  the  base  equal 
to  the  corresponding  ordinates  contained  lietween  the  base  n  d 
and  the  arc  m  d;  then  a  curve  being  drawn  through  the 
remote  extremities  of  the  perpendicidars  not  in  oy,  will  give 
the  curve  of  the  angle-rib.  Again,  from  the  intersections  in 
o/and  og,  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  /"y,  and  produce  them 
on  the  other  side  of/y  ;  make  the  heights  of  the  perpendicu- 
lars equal  to  the  corresponding  heights  of  the  ordinates 
belonging  to  the  curve  d  to,  of  the  given  lib  on  each  side  of 
the  middle  line  i  h;  then  a  curve  being  drawn  through  all  the 
extremities  of  the  perpendiculars  not  in  fg,  will  give  the 
curve  of  the  ribs  of  the  lunette. 

On  the  left-hand  side  is  shown  another  metnod  of  tracing 
the  curves  of  the  angular  rib,  and  of  ribs  forming  the  sides 
of  the  lunette.  The  cradling  is  shown  below  the  lower  end 
of  the  plan. 

Groin,  sometimes  spelt  Groyne,  a  kind  of  jetty  built 
across  the  beach  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  shore  from 
high  to  low-water  mark.  Groins  are  used  particularly  on 
the  southern  and  south-western  coast  of  England,  to  retain 
the  shingle  already  accumulated,  to  recfiver  it  when  lost,  or 
to  accumulate  more  at  any  particular  point;  also  to  break 
and  check  the  action  of  the  waves.  The  following  description 
of  a  groin  is  taken  from  Mr.  Weale's  very  useful  little  work, 
'  A  Dictionary  of  Terms  of  Art :' — 

"  The  component  parts  of  a  groin  are  piles,  planking,  land- 
ties,  land-tie  bars,  blocks,  tail-piles,  and  keys  and  screw-bolts. 
The  length  of  a  groin  depends  on  the  extent,  and  the  requisite 
strength  of  its  component  parts  on  the  nature  of  the  beach 
on  which  it  is  to  be  constructed. 

"Those  at  Eastbourne,  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  of  which 
the  following  is  more  particularly  a  description,  are  from  150 
to  250  feet  in  length,  and  the  beach  at  that  place  being  very 
rough,  consisting  of  coarse  heavy  shingle  and  large  boulders, 
they  require  to  be  composed  of  proportionably  strong  materials 
to  resist  its  force. 

"  The  piles  are  from  12  to  25  feet  long,  and  8  by  G\  inches 
scantling,  shod  with  iron.  The  planking  is  in  tensth  of  8, 
12,  and  10  feet,  2i  inches  thick,  and  with  parallel  edges. 
The  land-ties  are  of  rough  timber  from  20  to  25  feet  long, 
and  large  enough  at  the  butt-end  to  receive  the  bars.  The 
land-tie  bars  are  13  feet  6  inches  long,  and  12  by  5  inches 
scantling.  The  land-tie-bar  blocks  are  about  2  feet  long,  and 
of  the  same  scantling  as  the  piles.  The  land-tie  tail-keys 
are  about  2  feet  (i  inches  long,  and  6  by  2^  inches  scantling. 
The  above  materials  are  of  oak  or  beech.  The  screw-bolts 
are  of  inch  round  iron,  2  feet  9^  inches,  and  2  feet  1^  inch 
long,  in  cq\ial  proportions. 

"The  relative  proportions  of  the  component  parts  are,  four 
piles,  one  land-tie  with  tail-piles  and  keys,  one  land-tie  bar 
with  two  blocks,  two  long  and  two  short  bolts,  about  180 
square  feet  of  planking,  and  about  140  six-inch  spikes  for 
every  10  feet  in  length;  and  the  expense  of  a  groin,  con- 
structed with  materials  of  the  above  dimensions,  may  be 
calculated  at  about  £30  for  the  same  length. 
"  (Jeneral  rules  observed  in  the  construction. 
"When  the  object,  in  constructing  a  groijt,  is  to  recover 
shingle,  or  accumulate  more,  the  first  pile  is  driven  at  the  high- 
water  mark  of  neap-tides,  leaving  its  top  level  with  that  of 
spring-tides.  The  next  is  driven  at  the  point  on  the  sands, 
I   bevond  the  bottom  of  the  shingle,  to  which  the  groin  is  to 


F/,/.y 


run:  /. 


F?^..'^ . 


V.~-.->  Ja..il':  '•ij^ 


^^' 


/*  yifihiliffrt 


/.'  rA..r 


GRO 


481 


GRO 


extend,  leaving  about  fmir  feet  of  it  out  of  the  lieach.  The 
tops  of  these  two  piles  may  be  tal<en  for  the  general  slope 
of  the  groin,  unless  the  beach  should  be  very  steep,  and  much 
curved,  in  which  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  follow  its  cin- 
vature  in  some  degree.  From  the  higli-water  mark  of 
neap-tides,  the  piles  are  carried  back  nearly  level  to  that  of 
spring-tides,  and  as  much  further  as  may  be  considered 
necessary.  The  piles  are  driven  four  feet  asunder  from 
centre  to  centre,  and  so  as  to  admit  the  planking  between 
them  alternately,  and  they  should  be  sunk  about  two-thirds 
of  their  length.  The  longest  piles  are  placed  between  the 
high-water  mark  of  neap-tides  and  the  bottom  of  the  shingle, 
particularly  from  20  to  40  feet  below  the  former  point.  • 
The  planking  is,  if  possible,  carried  down  to  about  two-thirds 
from  the  tops  of  the  piles,  and  kept  parallel  with  them. 
Ihe  landties  are  placed  about  one-third  from  the  top  of  the 
planking  (supposing  the  latter  to  commence  from  the  tops 
of  the  piles,)  and  their  tails  are  sunk  to  the  level  of  the 
bottom  of  the  planking  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible." 

GROOVE,  a  channel  cut  in  a  piece  of  wood  by  taking 
away  a  rectangular  prism,  one  of  the  sides  of  which  is  a 
portion  of  the  side  of  the  wood  in  which  the  excavation  is 
made.  A  groove  therefore  forms  two  external,  and  two  in- 
ternal angles.  It  ditlers  from  the  rebate  thus :  the  rebate  is 
formed  by  taking  away  a  rectangular  prism  at  the  angle,  and 
consequently  the  part  taken  away  has  two  of  its  sides  com- 
mon to  those  of  the  piece,  with  one  internal,  and  two  external 
angles. 

A  groove  is  made  in  joinery  by  a  plough,  which  is 
moveable  so  as  to  admit  of  the  excavation  being  run  at  any 
distance  from  the  arris. 

Grooves  are  frequently  used  in  order  to  insert  a  tongue  in 
the  joint  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  intended  to  be  united.  They 
are  also  used  for  inserting  the  panels  in  framed  work,  as  in 
doors,  shutters,  partitions,  &c. 

In  the  present  day,  grooves  are  among  the  most  fashiona- 
ble ornaments ;  but  there  are  few  or  no  instances  of  their 
decorative  use  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 

GROTESQUE,  that  beautiful  light  style  of  ornament  used 
by  the  ancient  Romans,  in  the  decoration  of  their  palaces, 
baths,  and  villas.  It  is  also  to  be  seen  in  some  of  their  am- 
phitheatres, temples,  and  tombs,  the  greatest  part  of  which 
being  vaulted,  and  covered  with  ruins,  have  been  dug  up  and 
cleared  by  the  modern  Italians,  who  for  these  reasons  gave 
them  the  name  of  grotte,  which  is  perhaps  a  corruption  of 
the  Latin  cri/plce,  a  word  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  as  the 
Romans  did  most  of  their  terms  in  architecture :  and  hence 
the  modern  word  grotesque,  and  the  English  word  grotlo, 
signifying  a  cave. 

In  the  time  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  Julio,  Romano, 
Polidore,  Giovanni  d'Udine,  Vasaro,  Zuchero,  and  Algerdi, 
there  is  no  doubt  but  there  were  much  greater  remains  of 
the  grotte  than  what  are  now  to  be  seen,  and  in  imitation  of 
them  were  decorated  the  loggias  of  the  Vatican,  the  villas 
of  Madonna,  Pamfili,  Capraola,  the  old  palace  at  Florence, 
and  indeed  whatever  else  is  elegant  or  admirable  in  the  fin- 
ishing of  modern  Italy. 

This  classical  style  of  ornament,  by  far  the  most  perfect 
that  has  ever  appeared  for  inside  decorations,  and  which  has 
stood  the  test  for  so  many  ages,  like  other  works  of  genius, 
requires  not  only  fancy  and  imagination  in  the  composition, 
but  taste  and  judgment  in  the  application,  and  when  these 
are  happily  combined,  this  gay  and  elegant  mode  is  capable 
of  inimitable  beauties. 

Vilruvius,  with  great  reason,  condemns  an  over  licentious- 
ness of  this   kind  and  blames  the   painters  of  his  time  for 
introducing  monstrous  extravagances.     We  do  not  mean  to 
fil 


vindicate  any  thing  that  deserves  such  appellations ;  but 
surely  in  light  and  gay  compositions,  designed  merely  to 
amuse,  it  is  not  altogether  necessary  to  ex(lu(le  the  whimsical. 

Its  origin  is  discernible  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic 
writing,  where  the  heads  and  limbs  of  men  and  beasts  are 
attached  to  blocks  of  stone,  to  vases,  or  to  foliage,  &c., 
thereby  characterizing  the  inclinations  and  the  powers  of  the 
deity  or  person  whose  history  they  record,  or  whose  peculiar 
transactions  they  are  intended  to  preserve  in  the  remem- 
brance of  future  ages. 

With  the  Egyptians  it  remained  rude  and  unpolished  ; 
but  when  the  Greeks  adopted  it,  they  made  an  ornamental 
use  of  it,  and  it  became  a  medium  to  exhibit  their  general 
knowledge  of  nature.  The  taste  with  which  they  united  in 
one  form,  not  only  parts  of  various  animals,  but  objects  so 
totally  diverse  in  their  nature  and  appearance,  as  the  produc- 
tions of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  is  in  the  highest 
degree  delightful  to  contemplate.  The  formation  of  chimeri- 
cal beings,  as  the  dragon,  the  sphinx,  the  giiffin,  &c.,  owe 
their  origin  to  this  taste;  which  received  much  of  its  force 
and  interest  in  heathen  days,  from  the  mythological  enigmas 
couched  under  these  compound  forms.  Such  is  the  charac- 
ter of  that  ornament  so  common  on  Egyptian  structures,  the 
winged  serpent  surrounding  an  egg.  Now  that  these  mys- 
terious emblematic  meanings  are  disregarded,  and  no  longer 
treated  with  reverence,  grotesque  painting  and  sculpture  are 
continued  in  use  merely  because  the  forms  they  produce  are 
pleasing  to  the  eye ;  and  although  the  understanding  is  in- 
sulted by  them,  such  is  the  power  of  the  beauty  of  form,  that 
we  are  gratified  by  it,  in  spite  of  our  reason. 

Those  who  wish  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  it, 
will  find  the  best  exemplars  on  ancient  Greek  sarcophagi, 
altars,  vases,  fiiezes,  &c.,  of  which  Piranesi  and  Rocchegiani 
have  given  an  ample  store  to  the  public  in  their  valuable 
works.  Mr.  C.  H.  Tatham  has  given  likewise  a  tasteful  and 
judicious  series  of  examples  of  this  kind,  in  his  Collection  of 
Etchings  of  Ornamental  Architecture,  from  the  Antique  at 
Rome.  Le  Roy's,  Le  Potre's,  and  many  other  works  of  the 
like  kind,  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage. 

GROTTO  (from  the  French,  grotte)  is  used  for  a  little 
artificial  edifice  made  in  a  garden,  in  imitation  of  a  natural 
grotto. 

The  outsides  of  these  grottos  are  usually  adorned  with 
rustic  architecture,  and  their  inside  with  shell-work,  fossils, 
&c.  finished  likewise  with  jets  d'eaw,  or  fountains,  &c. 

A  cement  for  artificial  grottos  may  be  made  thus ;  take 
two  parts  of  white  rosin,  melt  it  clear,  and  add  to  it  four 
parts  of  bees'  wax ;  when  melted  together,  add  two  or 
three  parts  of  the  powder  of  the  stone  you  design  to 
cement,  or  so  much  as  will  give  the  cement  the  colour  of  the 
stone;  to  this  add  one  part  of  flour  of  sulphur;  incorporate 
all  together  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  afterwards  knead  them 
with  the  hands  in  warm  water.  With  this  cement,  the 
stones,  shells,  &c.,  after  being  well  dried  before  the  fire,  may 
be  cemented. 

Artificial  red  coral  branches,  for  the  embellishment  of  gro)> 
tos,  may  be  made  in  the  following  manner :  take  clear  rosin, 
dissolve  it  in  a  brass  pan  ;  to  every  ounce  of  which  add  two 
drams  of  the  finest  vermilion ;  when  you  have  stirred  them 
well  together,  and  have  chosen  your  twigs  and  branches, 
peeled  and  dried,  take  a  pencil,  and  paint  the  branches  all  over 
whilst  the  composition  is  warm  :  afterwards  shape  them  in 
imitation  of  natural  coral.  This  done,  hold  the  branches  over 
a  gentle  coal  fire,  till  all  is  smooth  and  even  as  if  polished. 

"in  the  same  manner  white  coral  may  be  prepared  with 
white  lead,  and  black  coral  with  lamp-black.  A  grotto  may 
be  built,  with  little  expense,  of  glass,  cinders,  pebbles,  pieces 


GRO 


482 


GUT 


of  large  flint,  shells,  moss,  stones,  counterfeit  coral,  pieces 
of  i-lialk,  >Ve.,  all  bound  or  cemented  together  with  the  above- 
desrrilied  cement. 

The  grotto  at;  Versailles  is  an  excellent  piece  of  building. 
Solomon  de  Caux  has  an  express  treatise  of  grottos  and 
fountains. 

GUOLIND  CILL.     See  Groitnd  Sill. 

Ground  Joists,  the  joists  which  rest  upon  sleepers  laid 
upon  the  ground,  or  on  bricks,  prop-stones,  or  dwarf  walls; 
tluy  are  consecpiently  only  used  in  basements  and  irround- 
floors. 

(jROUND  Link,  in  perspective,  the  intersection  of  the  pic- 
ture with  the  ground  plane.     See  Ground  Plane. 

(Ground  IS'iche,  a  niche  whose  bottom  is  on  a  level  with 
the  Moor. 

Ground  Plan,  the  plan  of  the  story  of  a  house  on  the 
same  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  elevated  only 
a  few  steps  before  the  door.  The  ground  floor  is  not  always 
the  lowest  floor,  the  basement  being  frequently  beneath  it. 

Ground  Plane,  in  perspective,  the  situation  of  the  original 
plane  in  the  supposed  level  of  our  horizon.  It  differs  from 
the  horizontal  plane  thus :  the  horizontal  plane  is  any  plane 
])arallel  to  the  horizon;  whereas  the  ground  plane  is  a  tan- 
gent plane  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which  we  walk,  and 
is  supposed  to  contain  the  objects  to  be  represented,  the 
earth  itself  being  considered  as  a  spherical  body. 

The  term  t/rotnid  plane  is  used  in  a  more  confined  sense 
than  that  of  orii/inal  plane,  which  may  be  any  plane,  whether 
horizontal  or  inclined. 

Ground  Plate.     See  Ground  Sill. 

Ground  Plot,  the  plan  of  the  walls  of  a  building,  where 
they  first  c(unmence  above  the  foundation  ;  though  it  is  more 
properly  the  piece  of  ground  selected  for  building  upon. 
For  dwellings,  its  chief  properties  are  a  healthy  situation,  a 
convenient  supply  of  water  and  other  necessaries  of  life,  and 
an  agreeable  aspect.  If  for  trade  or  manufacture,  it  nmst  be 
convenient  for  receiving  the  raw  materials,  and  for  exporting 
the  articles  manufactured. 

Ground  Kent.  Kent  paid  fir  the  privilege  of  building  on 
another  man's  land.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  London  it  is 
very  ditlicult  to  obtain  freehold-land,  and  most  of  the  building- 
ground,  therefore,  is  let  on  long  leases,  subject  of  course  to 
the  payment  of  ground-rent. 

Ground  Sill,  or  Ground  Plate,  the  lowest  horizontal 
timber  on  which  the  exierior  walls  of  a  building  are  erected. 
It  chiefly  occurs  in  timber  buildings;  or  in  buildings  whose 
outside  walls  are  formed  of  brick  panels  with  timber 
framings. 

Ground  Table.     The  top  of  the  plinth. 

Ground  Work.     See  Foundation. 

GROUNDS,  in  joinery,  certain  pieces  of  wood  concealed 
in  a  wall,  to  which  the  facings  or  finishings  are  attached, 
having  their  surfaces  flush  with  the  plaster.  Narrow-  grounds 
are  those  to  which  the  bases  and  surbases  of  rooms  are 
fastened.  Grounds  are  used  over  apertures,  not  only  to 
secure  the  ar<-hitraves,  but  also  to  strengthen  the  plaster. 
In  order  to  keep  the  plaster  firm,  should  the  materials  hap- 
]ien  to  shrink,  a  groove  is  sometimes  run  on  the  edge  of  the 
ground  next  to  the  plaster,  or  the  edge  of  the  ground  is 
rebated  on  the  side  next  to  the  wall  ;  so  that  in  the  act  of 
plastering,  the  stuli"  is  forced  into  the  groove  or  rebate,  which 
prevents  it  from  shitting  when  it  becomes  dry. 

GROUP,  in  painting  or  sculpture,  an  assemblage  of  two 
or  more  figures  of  men,  beasts,  or  other  things  which  have 
some  relation  to  each  other. 

GROUl'ED  COLUMNS,  or  Pilasters,  those  which  con- 
sist of  more  than  two.     Nothing  of  this  description  is  to  De 


found  among  the  ruins  of  the  ancients;  nor  are  they  confor- 
mable to  the  strict  rules  of  architecture,  though  some  few 
examples  exist  in  modern  buildings. 

GliOUT,  a  thin  semi-liijuid  mortar,  composed  of  quick- 
lime with  a  portion  of  fine  sand,  which  is  prepared  and 
poured  into  the  internal  joints  of  masonry.  It  is  particularly 
used  where  the  work  consists  of  large  masses  of  stone.  The 
process  is  called  ijrouting. 

Grouting  is  also  now  generally  used  in  street-paving. 

GRY  (Greek)  a  measure  containing  one-tenth  of  a  line. 

A  line  is  one-tenth  of  a  digit,  a  digit  one-tenth  of  a  foot, 
and  a  philosophical  foot  one-tenth  of  a  pendulum,  whose 
diodromes  or  vibrations,  in  the  latitude  of  45  degrees,  are 
each  equal  to  a  second  of  time,  or  one-sixtieth  of  a  minute. 

GUARDS  (from  the  French  ijarde,  a  defence)  in  engineer- 
ing, upright  pieces  of  wood,  nailed  to  the  lock-gates  of  a  canal, 
to  prevent  the  barges  from  striking  the  planks  of  the  gates. 

GLTERITE  (French)  in  fortification,  a  sentry-box;  being 
a  small  tower  of  wood  or  stone,  placed  usually  on  the  point 
of  a  bastion,  or  on  the  angles  of  the  shoulders,  to  hold  a  sen- 
tinel who  is  to  take  care  of  the  ditch,  and  watch  against  a 
surprise. 

(iUILD-HALL,  or  Gild-Hall,  the  great  court  of  juilica- 
ture  for  the  city  of  I^ondon,  and  other  cities ;  where  are  kept 
the  lord-mayor's  court,  the  sherill's  court,  the  court  of 
hustings,  court  of  conscience,  court  of  common-council, 
chamberlain's  court,  &c. 

GUILLOCMI  (Italian)  an  ornament  in  the  firm  of  two 
or  more  bands  or  strings  twisting  over  each  other,  so  as  to 
repeat  the  same  figure  in  a  continued  series  by  the  spiral 
returuiiigs  of  the  bands.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
ornaments,  consisting  of  bands  turning  at  right  angles,  com- 
monly called /;r<»-. 

GULA,  or  GuEULE.     See  Cymatium. 

GULBE.  the  same  as  Gorge,  which  see. 

GULLIES,  in  engineering,  a  name  ap|)lied  in  some  places 
to  the  iron  tram-plates  or  rails  laid  for  the  use  of  tram- 
waggons. 

GULOICK,  the  same  as  Impost,  which  .tee. 

GUNTER'S  CHAIN,  so  called  from  the  inventor,  the 
chain  commonly  used  by  surveyors  in  measuring  land.  It  is 
CO  feet  long,  or  22  yards,  or  4  poles  of  5|^  yards  each ;  and 
is  divided  into  100  links  of  7.92  inches  each;  100,000  square 
links  make  one  acre. 

GUUGOYLE,  the  same  as  Gargoyle. 

GUTT^  (Latin)  ornaments  formed  like  the  frustum  of  a 
cone,  depending  from  the  soflits  of  the  mntules  and  regula 
under  the  band  of  the  architraves  of  the  Doric  order.  In 
several  of  the  Grecian  Dorics,  the  gnttiB  are  cylindrical 
instead  of  being  conical  :  their  number  on  the  soflits  of  the 
mutnles  is  eighteen,  disposed  in  three  rows,  each  row  parallel 
to  the  front. 

They  are  sometimes  also  called  laehrymce,  tears  ■  and 
canipance,  or  campanvloc,  bells.  Leon  Baptista  Alberti  calls 
thetn  iiaih.     See  Drops,  and  Doric  Order. 

GUTTER,  in  building,  a  channel  for  collecting  and  con- 
veying the  water  from  the  roof,  situated  between  the  parapet 
and  the  inclined  side  of  the  covering,  or  between  the  iiicliued 
sides  of  a  double  roof,  the  intersection  of  the  vertical  plane 
of  the  wall  and  the  inclined  plane  of  the  roof,  or  the  two 
inclined  planes  forming  horizontal  lines.  When  two  inclined 
sides  of  a  roof  meet  each  other  at  an  internal  angle,  and  form 
an  inclined  intersection  to  the  horizon,  the  angle  thus  formed 
is  called  a  valley.  The  external  angles  formed  by  two 
inclined  planes  are  called  liip/t ;  and  hence  hips  are  exactly 
the  reverse  of  valleys,  and  thus  we  have  the  difllrence  between 
gutters,  hips,  and  valleys.     The  intersections  of  the  planes 


GUT 


483 


GYM 


which  fiirm  the  sides  of  gutters  are  horizontal,  but  the  inter- 
sections of  the  planes  which  form  hi]>s  and  valleys  are 
inclined.  Gutters  for  lead  are  formed  partly  by  a  boarding 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  walls,  and  partly  by  the 
inclined  sides  of  the  rouf  and  the  vertical  planes  of  the  walls, 
and  are  supported  by  horizontal  bearers  from  the  walls  to  the 
sides  of  the  rafters,  against  which  they  are  nailed  at  one  end  ; 
the  other  end  is  supported  close  to  the  wall  upon  small  posts 
or  puncheons,  which  are  notched  and  nailed  to  the  bearers. 
The  boarding,  which  is  supported  by  the  bearers,  and  which 
stands  perpendicular  to  the  planes  of  the  walls,  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  gutter,  and  is  laid  with  a  declivity  in  the 
parallel  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  wall,  of  about  an  inch 
in  10  feet,  and  with  steps,  called  drips,  at  every  12  or  18 
feet.  The  drips  are  formed  in  planes  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon  and  to  the  walls,  rising  about  two,  or  two  inches  and 
a  half,  so  as  to  add  to  the  descent  of  the  gutteis,  and  at  such 
distances  fiom  each  other  as  are  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
sheets.  Gutters  are  laid  with  lead  of  such  weight,  that  the 
superficial  foot  contains  from  seven  to  twelve  pounds,  accord- 
ing to  the  stress  that  is  supposed  to  be  on  the  surface.  The 
sheets  are  laid  from  12  to  18  feet  in  length,  as  the  descent 
for  the  water  may  permit.  When  there  is  a  sufficient  cur- 
rent for  the  water,  shorter  sheets  of  12  feet  in  length  are  to  be 
recommended  in  preference  to  longer  ones,  on  account  of  the 
latter  sometimes  cracking  by  expansion,  as  all  metals  are 
liable  to  do.  Cast  lead  is  preferable  to  milled  lead,  as  being 
more  solid  in  its  texture,  and  on  this  accoLint  is  more  to  be 
depi-nded  upon  when  it  expands,  so  as  to  keep  from  tearing 
asunder;  but  milled  lead  is  equally  thick  throughout,  and 
lias  its  surface  regularly  smooth,  properties  which  are  not  to 
be  found  in  cast  lead  ;  therefure,  wherever  beauty  and  ne^it- 
ness  of  workmanship  are  required,  milled  lead  must  be 
employed.  The  goodness  of  cast  lead  depends  upon  the 
equality  of  its  thickness,  which  cannot  at  all  times  be 
depended  upon  ;  and  it  should  be  observed,  that  plumbers 
themselves  are  divided  in  their  opinion  whether  cast  or  milled 
lead  ought  to  have  the  preference. 

In  Loudon,  parapet  walls  and  leaden  gutters  are  indispen- 
sable on  account  of  the  Building  Act,  as  the  nurneious 
inhabitants  are  less  liable  to  accidents  from  the  falling  of 
broken  slates  or  tiles ;  and  in  cases  of  fire  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  building,  they  are  convenient  for  making  an  escape  from 
the  dangi-r,  and  also  for  assisting  in  extinguishing  the  flames. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  copper,  but  this 
material  has  not  been  found  to  have  the  desired  etiect,  though 
zinc  has  been  extensively  used  of  late  years  instead  of  lead. 
The  water  is  conveyed  fiom  the  gutters  by  leaden  pipes.  In 
the  country,  dripping  eaves  are  much  used,  and  are  to  be 
preferred  in  elevated  situations,  as  in  the  winter  season  the 
gutters  and  pipes  are  frequently  stopped  by  snow  or  frost,  so 
as  to  bring  duwn  the  ceilings  and  plastering,  injure  the  walls, 
and  nil  the  timber;  and  thus  not  only  render  the  building 
unfit  for  living  in,  but  reduce  it  to  ruin  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years.  On  this  account,  many  of  the  first-rate  houses 
sufiiir  much  by  the  overflowing  of  the  water,  unless  the  gutters 
are  so  ccmstructed,  that  the  water  may  escape  before  it  finds 
its  way  into  the  building.  Gutters  should  never  be  soldered 
where  it  can  be  avoided,  particularly  when  the  soldering 
Would  make  the  sheets  of  unusual  length,  as  iu  this  case  it 
would  be  impossible  to  ensure  it  from  cracking  ;  the  expenses 
of  repairing  would  be  frequent,  and  the  ultimate  etiect 
ruinous.  The  thickest  lead  is  used  in  gutters  and  flats,  each 
generally  of  the  same  weight,  while  the  hips  and  ridges  are 
from  five  to  six  pounds  to  the  foot,  and  most  generally  of 
milled  lead. 

The  following  are  the  regulations  in  the  Metropolitan 


Building  Act  relating  to  parapets  and  gutters.  "If  an 
external  wall  adjoin  a  gutter,  then  such  external  wall  must 
be  carried  up,  and  remain  one  foot  at  the  least  above  the 
highest  part  of  such  gutter.  And  the  thickness  of  an 
external  wall  so  carried  up  above  the  level  of  the  under  skle 
of  the  gutter-plate,  and  forming  a  parapet,  must  be  at  the 
least. 

"  In  every  such  wall  of  the  extra  first-rate  of  the  first  class, 
and  in  every  such  wall  of  the  first-rate  of  the  second  class, 
13  inches  thick  ;  and 

"  In  every  other  external  wall,  of  whatever  rate,  or  which- 
ever class,  8i-  inches  thick.  " 

GUTTERING.     See  Gutter. 

GUTTUS  (Latin)  a  term  among  antiquaries  for  a  sort  of 
vase,  used  in  the  Roman  sacrifices,  to  receive  the  wine  and 
sprinkle  it  gultalim,  drop  by  drop,  upon  the  victim. 

Vigenere  on  T.  Livy,  gives  the  figures  of  the  guttus  as 
represented  on  divers  medals  and  other  ancient  monuments. 

GYMNASIUM,  a  place  fitted  for  performing  exercises 
of  the  body. 

The  word  is  yvuvaaiov,  formed  of  yv/ivof,  naked;  because 
they  anciently  put  oft"  their  clothes,  to  practise  with  the  more 
freedom. 

Among  the  ancients,  the  gymnasium  was  a  public  edifice 
destined  for  exercise,  and  where  people  were  taught,  and 
regularly  disciplined,  under  proper  masters. 

According  to  Solon,  in  Lucian's  Aiiacharsis,  and  Cicero, 
Be  Oral.  lib.  ii.  the  Greeks  were  the  first  who  had 
gymnasia;  and  among  the  Greeks,  the  Lacedaemonians; 
after  them  the  Athenians,  fiom  whom  the  Romans  borrowed 
them. 

There  were  throe  principal  gymnasia  at  Athens :  the 
Academy,  where  Plato  taught;  the  Lyceum,  famed  for 
Aristotle's  lectures ;  and  the  Cynosargus,  allotted  to  the 
populace. 

Vitruvius  describes  the  structure  and  form  of  the  ancient 
gymnasia,  lib.  v.  cap.  2.  They  were  called  gymnasia, 
because  the  champions  performed  naked;  and  palwstrce,  from 
wrestling ;  which  was  one  of  the  most  usual  exercises 
there :  the  Romans  sometimes  also  called  them  Tliernim, 
because  the  baths  and  bagnios  made  a  principal  part  of 
the  building. 

It  appears,  that  so  early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  they  did 
not  perform  their  exercises  quite  naked,  but  always  in 
drawers;  these  they  did  not  lay  aside  before  the  thirty-se- 
cond Olympiad.  One  Orsippus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  introduced  the  practice:  for  having  been  worsted,  by 
means  of  his  drawers  undoing  and  entangling  him,  he  threw 
them  quite  aside,  and  the  rest  afterwards  imitated  him. 

The  gymnasia  consisted  of  seven  members,  or  apartments. 
M.  Burette,  after  Vitruvius,  recites  no  less  than  twelve, 
viz.  1.  The  exterior  ;jor<ico,  where  the  philosophers,  rhetori- 
cians, mathematicians,  physicians,  and  other  viituosi,  read 
public  lectures,  and  where  they  also  disputed,  and  rehearsed 
their  performances.  2.  The  epheheum,  where  the  youth 
assembled  very  early,  to  learn  their  exercises  in  private, 
without  any  spectators.  3.  The  cori/ceum,  npodi/lerion,  or 
gymnaslerion,  a  kind  of  wardrobe,  where  they  stripped, 
either  to  bathe  or  exercise.  4.  ITie  elwolhesium,  alipterion, 
or  unctuarium,  appointed  for  the  unctions,  which  cither  pre- 
ceded or  followed  the  use  of  the  bath,  wrestling,  pancratia, 
&;c.  5,  The  conisteiium,  or  conislia,  in  which  they  covered 
themselves  with  sand,  or  dust,  to  dry  up  the  oil,  or  sweat. 

6.  The  pakestra,  properly  so  called,  where  they  practised 
wrestliuT,  the  pugillate,  pancratia,  and  divers  other  exercises. 

7.  The  sp/i(eruteriiun,  or  tennis-court,  reserved  for  exercises 
wherein  they  used  balls.     8.   Large  unpaved  alleys,  which 


GYN 


484 


GYP 


comprehended  the  space  between  the  porticos  and  the  walls 
wherewith  the  edifice  was  surrounded.  9.  The  xtjuti,  which 
were  porticos  for  the  wrestlers  in  winter,  or  bad  weather. 
10.  Other  xijsli,  or  open  alleys,  allotted  for  summer  and 
fine  weather,  some  of  which  were  quite  open,  and  others 
planted  with  trees.  11.  The  baths,  consisting  of  several 
ditlercnt  apartments.  12.  The  stadium,  a  large  space  of 
a  semicircular  form,  covered  with  sand,  and  surrounded 
with  scats  for  the  spectators.  For  the  administration  of  the 
gynniasia,  there  were  divers  officers:  the  principal  were, 
1.  The  ffi/>nnas!arch,  who  was  the  director  and  superintendent 
of  the  whole.  2.  The  xi/.itarch,  who  presided  in  the  xystus 
or  stadium.  3.  The  riymiiasla,  or  master  of  the  exercises,  who 
understood  their  ditlerent  effects,  and  could  accommodate 
them  to  the  ditlerent  complexions  of  the  athleta;.  4.  The 
pccdotriba,  whose  business  was  mechanically  to  teach  the 
exercises,  without  understanding  their  theory  or  use.  Under 
these  four  officers  were  a  number  of  subalterns,  whose  names 
distinguished  their  ditlerent  functions. 

As  to  the  kinds  of  exercises  practised  in  the  gymnasia,  they 
may  be  reduced  to  two  general  classes,  as  they  depend  either 
on  the  action  of  the  body  alone,  or  as  they  require  external 
agents  or  instruments.  The  former  are  chiefly  of  two  kinds, 
orchestice  and  jxtlcestrice. 

The  orchestice  comprehended,  1.  Dancing,  2.  Guhistice,  or 
the  art  of  tumbling.  3.  Sphmristicc,  or  tennis,  including  all 
the  exercises  with  j)ite,  or  balls. 

T\\e  palcestrice  comprised  all  exercises  under  the  denomi- 
nation of  pahestra ;  as  tvresl/im/,  hoxiiKj,  pancratia  koplo- 
tnachia,  ruiininy,  lenpntuj,  throwini:/  the  discus,  the  exercise  of 
the  javelin,  and  that  of  the  hoop,  denominated  by  the  Greeks 
TQoxoc,  which  consisted  in  rolling  an  iron  hoop  five  or  six  feet 
in  diameter,  beset  with  iron  rings,  the  noise  of  which  appris- 
ing the  people  to  give  way,  aflbrded  them  also  an  amusement. 
Both  strength  and  skill  were  requisite  in  directing  this  hoop, 
which  was  to  be  driven  with  an  iron  rod. 

To  these  must  also  be  added  the  exercises  belonging  to  the 
medicinal  gymnastics,  as  1.  Walking.  2.  Vociferation,  or 
shouting.     3.  Molding  one's  breath. 

The  bodily  exercises,  which  depended  on  external  agents, 
may  be  reduced  to  mounting  the  horse ;  riding  in  a  chaise,  or 
other  wheeled  vehicle;  rocking  in  beds  or  cradles,  and 
sometimes  swinging:  to  which  may  be  added,  the  art  of 
swimming.  llofTman  enumerates  no  less  than  fifty-five  sorts 
of  gymnastic  exercises. 

The  term  gymnasium  has  descended  to  modern  times.  In 
Germany,  the  higher  schools,  intended  especially  as  imme- 
diately preparatory  to  the  universities,  are  termed  gvnniasia. 
Schools  tor  the  improvement  of  bodily  strength,  grace,  or 
agility,  are  also  avlled  gymnasia.  Within  the  last  few  years 
small  portions  of  the  newly-formed  parks  in  tiie  neighbour- 
hood of  London  have  been  set  aside  for  this  purpose,  and 
provided  with  the  proper  appurtenances  for  gymnastic 
exercises.  To  these  the  ancient  word  gymnasium  is  still 
applied. 

GYNyECEUM,  (from  the  Greek  yvvri,  a  woman,  and  oiKoq, 
a  house,)  among  the  ancients,  the  apartment  of  the  women  ; 
or  a  separate  place,  in  the  inner  part  of  the  house,  where  the 
women  kept  themselves  retired,  employed  in  their  spinning, 
out  of  the  sight  of  the  men. 

Under  the  Ituman  emperors  there  was  a  particular  estab- 
lishment of  gynjBcea,  being  a  kind  of  manufactories  managed 
chiefly  by  women,  for  the  making  of  clotiies,  furniture,  &c., 
for  the  emperor's  household.  Mention  is  made  of  these 
gynaicea,  in  the  Theodosian  and  Justinian  code,  and  by  divers 
other  authors. 

In  imitation  of  these,  divers  of  the  modern  manufactories, 


particularly  those  of  silk,  where  a  number  of  women  and 
maids  are  associated  and  formed  into  a  body,  are  called 
ggnwcea. 

GYPSOGRAPHY,  a  new  method  of  engraving  on 
plaster,  to  which  this  term  has  been  given  by  the  inventors. 
Gypsogra[)hy,  or  metallic  relief-engraving,  is  performed  in  the 
following  manner.  The  surface  of  a  copper-plate  is  prepared 
with  a  thin  coating,  or  layer  of  plaster-ot'-paris,  of  uniform 
depth,  through  which  the  draughtsman  etches  with  a  point  to 
the  surface  of  the  copper:  he  is  enabled,  as  he  proceeds,  to 
observe  the  effect  of  every  touch  of  the  etching  point.  When 
the  drawing  or  etching  is  completed,  it  forms  a  complete 
matrix  or  mould,  and  is  cast  in  type-metal,  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  process  of  stereotype-casting,  and  at  once  forms 
a  block  or  plate,  which  must  in  every  minute  feature  produce 
a  perfect  fac-simile  of  the  original  design  of  the  artist,  and 
from  which,  at  the  type-press  or  steam-machine,  thousands  of 
impressions  can  be  worked  in  a  few  hours. 

GYPSUM,  a  substance  formed  by  the  combination  of 
sulphuric  acid  with  calcareous  earth. 

Gypsum  is  found  in  a  compact  and  crystallized  state,  as 
alabaster  and  selcnite,  or  in  the  form  of  a  soft  chalky  stone 
which  in  a  very  moderate  heat  gives  out  its  water  of  crystalli- 
zation, and  becomes  a  very  fine  white  powder,  extensively 
used  under  the  name  of  plaster-of  paris.  This  last  is  the  most 
common,  and  is  found  in  great  masses  near  Paris,  where  it 
forms  the  hill  Montmartre,  near  Aix  in  Provence,  and  near 
Burgos  in  Spain.  It  is  found  in  smaller  portions  in  various 
parts  of  Europe. 

Of  the  different  kinds  of  plaster  the  coarser  sorts  are 
employed,  with  the  admixture  of  common  lime-stone,  for 
cements.  The  gypsum,  which  naturally  contains  carbonate 
of  lime,  makes  vi^ry  good  cement;  but  that  which  has  an 
admixture  of  clay  and  sand,  aflbrds  a  cement  of  an  inferior 
quality. 

The  kilns  in  which  the  pl.aster-stones  are  burnt,  are  gene- 
rally of  a  very  simple  construction;  often  they  are  built  of 
gypsum  itself.  The  fiagments  to  be  calcined  are  loosely  put 
together,  in  such  a  maimer  as  to  form  a  parallelopiped  heap, 
below  which  are  vaulted  pipes  or  flues,  for  the  application  of 
a  moderate  heat.  The  calcination  must  not  be  carried  to 
excess,  since  in  this  case  the  plaster  will  be  deprived  of  its 
quality  of  forming  a  solid  mass  when  mixed  with  a  certain 
portion  of  water.  Durirjg  the  process  of  calcination,  the 
water  of  crystallization  rises  as  a  white  vapour,  which,  if  the 
atmosphere  be  dry,  is  quickly  dissolved  in  air. 

On  the  river  Wolga,  in  Russia,  the  burning  of  gypsum 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the  peasantry. 
They  calcine  all  kinds  of  gypsum  promiscuously,  on  grates 
made  of  wood,  they  then  reduce  the  plaster  to  powder, 
pass  it  through  a  sieve,  and  form  it  into  small  round  cakes, 
which  they  sell  at  from  one,  to  one  and  a  half  rouble,  per 
thousand. 

In  order  to  make  use  of  the  plaster,  water  is  added  to  the 
powder,  which  is  produced  by  pounding  the  calcined  frag- 
ments; an  operation  performed  either  in  mills  constructed  for 
the  purpose,  or  by  the  hands  of  men.  This  work  is  exceed- 
ingly prejudicial  to  the  persons  employed  in  it,  whose  health 
is  soon  impaired  by  the  pernicious  eflects  which  the  dust  of 
this  substance  has  upon  the  lungs. 

The  less  the  gypsum  intended  for  plaster  is  mixed  with 
other  substances,  the  better  it  is  qualified  for  the  purpose  of 
making  casts,  stucco,  &e. ;  the  sparry  gypsum,  or  selenite, 
which  of  com'se  is  the  purest  of  all,  is  employed  for  taking 
impressions  from  coins  and  medals;  and  for  those  beautiful 
imitations  of  marMe,  granite,  and  porphyry,  that  are  known 
by  the  name  of  scagliola,  derived  from  the  Itulian  word,  sragli 


GYP 


485 


GYP 


or  laminae  of  selenite ;  the  latter  is  vulgarly  called  talc  in  Italy 
and  France,  and  also  in  England. 

The  compact  gi/psum  of  Kirwan  {alabastrite.  La  Mcth.  ; 
albatre  gijpseux,  de  Lisle  ;  dtchter gypstein,  Werner)  when  of 
a  white,  or  yellowish,  or  greenish  colour,  semi-transparent, 
and  capable  of  receiving  a  polish,  is  ijnown  among  statuaries 
by  the  tiame  of  alabaster,  which  term  is  also  retained  as  a 
secondary  appellation  in  most  books  of  mineralogy,  and  is 
certainly  the  alabastrites  of  Pliny,  which  is  characterized  by 
that  author  as  a  stone  resembling  gypsum.  When  its  colours 
are  disposed  hi  bands  or  clouds,  it  is  called,  in  the  first  case, 
onyx  alabaster,  and  in  the  latter,  agate  alabaster.  It  not 
unfrequently  contains  a  sufficient  portion  of  carbonated  lime 
to  produce  a  brisk  effervescence  with  nitrous  acid  ;  and  hence 
has  originated  the  confusion  of  authors,  who  make  the  circum- 
stance of  eti'ervescence  an  essential  distinctive  character 
between  the  gypseous  and  calcareous  alabasters.  Its  specific 
gravity  seldom  exceeds  1.9.  Its  fracture  is  compact,  splintery, 
sometimes  verging  on  the  finegrained  foliated.  In  trans- 
parency, it  is  considerably  superior  to  white  wax,  allowing 
light  to  pass  readily  through  it,  but  not  transmitting  the  forms 
of  objects. 

Gypseous  alabaster  is  very  easily  worked,  but  it  is  not  sus- 
ceptible of  a  polish  equal  to  marble.  It  is  made  into  vases, 
columns,  tables,  and  other  ornamental  articles  of  furniture ; 
thin  slabs  of  it  have  been  used  in  one  of  the  churches  of 
Florence  instead  of  window-glass.  Its  brittleness,  however, 
and  want  of  lustre,  have  caused  it  to  be  almost  wholly  super- 
seded by  more  durable  materials.  Among  the  ancients,  the 
most  esteemed  came  from  Caramania,  Upper  Egypt,  and 
Syria  :  of  the  variety  called  onyx,  the  boxes  for  holding  per- 
fumes were  mostly  fabriciited  ;  thus,  in  Horace,  we  meet 
with  "  JVdrdi  parvus  onyx." 

The  calcareous  alabaster,  or  sinter,  {albatre  calcaire,)  is  a 
stone  of  the  same  family  as  stalactite,  consisting  chietly  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  exhibiting  a  considerable  variety  of 
colours;  such  as  pure  white,  yellowish,  greenish,  reddish,  and 
bluish  gray  :  its  fracture  is  striated  or  fibrous,  the  striae 
sometimes  parallel  and  sometimes  divergent:  its  hardness  is 
somewhat  inferior  to  that  of  marble,  which  nevertheless  does 
not  prevent  it  from  receiving  a  g(jod  polish :  its  specific 
gravity  from  2.4  to  2.8  :  its  transparency  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  white  wax  :  it  effervesces  w'ilh  acids,  and  burns  to 
lime.  Two  sorts  of  alabaster  are  distinguished  by  statuaries, 
the  common  and  oriental ;  under  the  latter  of  these  are 
ranked  the  hardest,  the  finest,  and  the  best  coloured  pieces ; 
a  number  of  sub-varieties  are  also  produced  by  the  colours 
being  in  veins,  or  dentritic,  or  in  concentric  undulating  zones. 
Italy  and  Spain  jield  the  most  beautiful  specimens:  the 
inferior  kinds  are  found  in  Germany  and  France.  It  is 
manutiictured,  like  the  gypseous  alabaster,  into  tables,  vases, 
statues,  chimney-pieces,  &c. 

Many  of  the  liot  sulphureous  waters  rise  out  of  the  ground 
of  a  turbid  wheyish  colour,  on  account  of  a  large  quantity  of 
gypsum  and  ch.dk,  which  they  hold  suspended,  and  in  a  state 
of  half  solution ;  as  these  grow  cool,  and  lose  their  carbonic 
acid,  the  earthy  particles  are  for  the  most  part  deposited, 
lining  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  channels  in  which  they 
fiow  with  a  compact  alabaster.  Advantage  has  been  occa- 
sionally taken  of  this  circumstance  to  obtain  very  beautiful 
impressions  of  bas-reliefs,  by  exposing  the  moulds  to  a  current 
of  such  water  till  they  have  become  filled  with  the  earthy 
deposit.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  springs  in  Europe, 
is  that  which  supplies  the  baths  of  St.  Philip  in  Tuscany  :  it 
is  situated  on  a  mountain  near  Radicotimi,  and  forms  the 
source  of  the  little  river  Paglia.  The  water  as  it  issues  forth 
is  very  hot,  springs  out  with  gieat  impetuosity,  has  a  strong 


sulphureous  odour,  and  holds  in  solution  a  large  quantity  of 
calcareous  matter.  From  its  very  source  it  fiows  in  deep 
channels,  covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  stalactite,  of  a  dazzling 
white,  especially  when  the  sun  shines  upon  it ;  and  which  is 
harder  or  softer  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  stream, 
and  the  obliquity  of  its  fall.  This  circumstance  suggested  to 
Dr.  Vegni,  the  idea  of  establishin^p^n  this  mountain,  a  manu- 
focture  of  artificial  alabaster.  For  this  purpose,  he  first  col- 
lected a  number  of  plaster-models,  of  the  best  bas-reliefs,  in 
Rome  and  other  places  of  Italy.  These  models  serve  to  form 
the  hollow  moulds  which  are  made  of  sulphur,  according  to 
the  following  process.  The  plaster  model  is  rubbed  over 
with  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  surrounded  with  an  edging  of 
plaster,  of  the  same  height  as  the  intended  thickness  of  the 
subsequent  bas-relief  Then  sulphur,  melted  with  just  suffi- 
cient heat  to  make  it  flow,  is  poured  on  the  plaster-model,  and 
fills  it  to  the  height  of  the  edging.  The  sulphur  mould  thus 
made,  is  placed  in  a  kind  of  wooden  tub,  roughly  put  together, 
open  at  top  and  bottom,  and  of  less  diameter  below  than 
above.  This  tub  has  on  the  inside  a  false  bottom,  made  of 
slips  of  wood  laid  cross-wise,  in  order  to  detain,  for  a  short 
time,  the  water  which  dashes  on  them.  Just  above  this  is  a 
row  of  wooden  pegs,  fastened  to  the  tub,  around  its  whole 
inner  circumference,  on  which  the  sulphur  mould  is  let  down, 
and  thus  supported.  The  whole  is  then  placed  under  the 
boiling  spring,  and  inclosed  with  walls,  to  prevent  it  from 
being  displaced  by  the  wind.  The  water,  which  dashing  or. 
the  moulds,  deposits  its  earth  both  within  and  without  them, 
giving  the  impression  of  bas-relief  within,  and  disposint;  itself 
in  an  undulated  surface  on  the  outside.  The  hardness  of  the 
alabaster  depends  on  the  degree  of  obliquity  at  which  the  mould 
is  placed  in  order  to  receive  the  dashing  of  the  water.  The 
more  vertical  its  position,  the  harder  is  the  alabaster.  However, 
as  the  hardest  models  are  not  so  white  as  the  softer,  the  water 
is  in  some  cases  caused  to  make  a  circuitous  course,  in  order  to 
deposit  all  its  grosser  particles  before  it  arrives  at  the  mould. 
Even  the  softer  ones,  however,  are  as  hard  as  Carrara  marble, 
and  surpass  it  in  whiteness.  The  time  required  for  these 
productions  varies,  according  to  the  thickness,  from  one 
month  to  four.  When  the  sulphur  mould  is  sufficiently  filled, 
and  the  ground  of  the  model  has  acquired  a  thickness  capable 
of  supporting  the  figures,  the  whole  is  removed  from  the 
water ;  the  wooden  supports  are  broken  by  gentle  strokes  of 
the  hammer,  and  the  incrustation  on  the  outside  of  the  mould 
is  chipped  ofl"  by  repeated  strokes.  Then  the  tub  is  struck 
with  a  smart  blow  of  a  hammer,  which  separates  the  model 
from  the  mould;  generally,  however,  cracking  the  latter. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  models  is  completed  by  brushing 
them  with  a  stifi"  hair-brush,  and  rubbing  with  the  palm  of 
the  hand. 

The  composition  of  this  alabaster  isgypsimi,  mixed  with  a 
small  proportion  of  carbonated  lime.  l)r.  Vegni,  after  many 
attempts,  succeeded  in  giving  a  fine  black,  or  flesh  colour,  to 
the  figures  thus  formed,  by  putting  a  vessel  half  full  of 
colouring  matter  into  the  water,  before  it  arrives  at  the 
mould.  The  colouring  may  be  also  varied,  by  protecting  par- 
ticular parts  of  the  mould,  while  the  water  continues  charged 
with  colouring  matter. 

A  spring  of  the  same  kind  as  that  jnst  described,  and 
applied  to  similar  purposes,  is  that  of  Guancavelica  in  Peru. 
The  water  rises  from  the  ground  into  a  large  bason,  boiling 
hot,  and  of  a  muddy  yellowish-white  colour.  At  a  little 
distance  from  the  bason,  the  water  becoming  cool,  deposits 
calcareous  matter  in  such  vast  abundance,  as  to  fill  large 
moulds  with  a  compact  stone,  of  which  some  of  the  houses  of 
the  town  are  constructed.  The  moulds  of  statuaries,  in  like 
manner,  being  exposed  to  the  w  ater,  are  filled  with  hard,  con- 


HAL 


486 


HAL 


fiisedly  crystallized  alabaster,  and  the  bas-reliefs  thus  pro- 
duoedj  by  polishing,  becdine  spmi-transparent,  and  very  beau- 
tiful. The  images  made  use  of  by  the  Catholics  of  Lim.a,  in 
their  religious  ceremonies,  arc  said  to  be  formed  in  this 
manuer 


Gypsum,  pulverized  by  grinding  or  burning,  has  been  used 
as  a  manure  in  Franee  and  America  ;  and  its  fertilizing  pro- 
perties highly  extolled.  'Jhe  use  of  it  in  this  country,  how- 
ever, does  not  seem  to  have  been  attended  with  similar  suc- 
cessful results. 


H. 


HACKING,  in  walling,  the  interruption  of  a  course  of 
stone,  by  introducing  another  course  upon  a  dilierent  level,  in 
consequence  of  the  want  of  stones  to  complete  the  whole 
thickness ;  and  thus  frequently  making  two  courses  at  one 
end  of  the  wall  or  pier,  of  the  same  height  with  one  course 
at  the  other  end.  The  last  stone  laid  in  one  height  is  fre- 
quently notched,  to  receive  the  first  stone  of  the  other,  where 
the  two  heights  commence.  Hacking  is  never  employed  in 
good  workmanship,  and  ought  always  to  be  guarded  against 
by  the  superintendent,  in  ease  of  work  performed  by  contract 
where  the  contractor  furnishes  the  stones.  The  term  is  used 
in  Scotland,  and  particularly  in  (ilasgow. 

H.\LF-MUUN,  in  fortification,  the  same  as  Easelin  ; 
which  see. 

Half  Round,  a  semicircular  moulding,  which  may  be 
either  a  head  or  torus. 

Half  Sface,  or  Pace,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a  resting 
place  in  a  dou»!ile  parallel-flighted  stair,  where  the  higher 
riser  of  the  lower  flight  is  in  the  same  vertical  plane  with  the 
lowest  riser  of  the  higher  flight.  Also  any  raised  platform  such 
as  the  dais  at  the  upper  end  of  the  halls  of  the  middle  ages. 

Half-Teint,  now  more  generally  written  Half-Tint,  in 
painting,  is,  precisely  speaking,  the  teint  which  lies  exactly 
midway  between  the  extreme  light  and  the  extreme  daik 
which  any  colour  is  capable  of  receiving  and  reflecting.  But 
painters  use  it  in  a  far  more  general  sense,  viz.,  as  inclusive 
of  almost  all  the  intermediate  gradations  between  these  two 
points;  and  therefore  regard  all  objects,  in  what  relates  to 
colour  and  chiaro-oscuro,  as  composed  of  these  three — ligltt, 
dark;  and  middle-tint,  or  half-tint. 

How  much  of  the  vision  of  objects  is  included  within  the 
sphere  of  half  tint,  may  be  illustrated  by  imagining  a  ball  of 
ivory  placed  opposite  the  sun,  and  viewed  in  nearly  the  same 
direction.  In  this  situation,  a  small  portion  of  it  will  reflect 
ail  image  of  the  sun  to  the  eye  of  the  ol)servcr,  which  image, 
in  the  language  of  artists,  will  be  termed  its  hii//i-lii//il. 
Towards  its  lower  part  a  very  small  portion  will  be  lost  in 
shade.  The  far  greater  part  of  the  ball,  not  reflecting  light 
enough  to  come  under  the  former  of  these  denominations,  nor 
being  sufHciently  deprived  of  it  to  receive  the  latter,  is  recog- 
nized under  the  term  we  are  now  discussing. 

When  pictures  therefore  represent  the  ordinary  effect  of 
day-light,  where  the  illumination  produces  breadth  of  light, 
as  the  sun  docs,  and  still  more  in  that  kind  of  light  produced 
by  an  illumined  atmosphere  when  the  sun  is  not  clearly  seen, 
it  is  evident  that  half-tint  must  be  the  reigning  portion  of 
tone  and  colour  in  them.  Add  to  this  that  as  objects  recede 
in  the  plane  of  the  picture  from  the  source  of  light,  they  fall 
into  comparative  half-tint,  their  high-lights  and  shadows 
participating  of  the  hue  with  which  the  intervening  atmos- 
phere envelopes  them.  From  both  these  causes  it  may  fairly 
be  reckoned  that  nine-tenths  at  least,  and  a  greater  propor- 
tion occjisionally,  in  subjects  of  this  nature,  will  be  half  tint, 
unless  artificial  shadows  are  introduced. 

This  being  the  c<ise,  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given 


to  the  management  of  the  halftint,  as  it  produces  the  pre- 
vailing tone  of  colour  in  the  picture.  The  dilficulty  lies  in 
giving  each  colour  introduced  a  gradation  participating  of 
the  same  hue,  but  at  the  same  time  preserving  the  true 
characters  of  the  original  colours  in  the  whole.  The  reason 
of  blending  this  one  hue  with  all  colours  is  made  evident  by 
considering  the  mode  of  operation  adopted  by  nature,  in 
which  all  gradations  of  shade  are  the  eftect  of  privation  of 
light,  and  consequently  of  colour,  which  depends  upon  it,  till 
at  last  every  colour  is  lost  in  one  dark  hue,  by  the  total  lack 
of  illumination;  and  that  hue  is  alike  with  all.  It  is  that 
hue,  therefore,  in  diflerent  degrees,  which  produces  the  gra- 
dation from  extreme  light  to  dark,  and  which,  acting  equally 
on  all,  produces  harmony  in  the  effects  by  breaking  each  with 
a  participation  of  itself. 

This  is  the  simplest  mode  of  producing  the  halftint,  and 
maintaining  it  with  an  harmonious  effect  throughout  the 
various  parts  of  a  picture.  It  will  of  course  allow  of  inter- 
mixtures of  reflections,  either  from  parts  of  the  same  body, 
as  in  the  folds  of  dra|)eries,  or  from  difltrent  coloured  objects 
acting  upon  each  other;  and  thus  with  its  simplicity,  rich- 
ness and  variety  may  be  combined.  What  the  hue  of  the 
dark  shade  with  which  it  is  produced,  may  be,  depends 
entirely  upon  the  taste  of  the  painter,  and  the  nature  of  the 
illumination.  One  only  rule  can  be  given.  It  ought,  in  its 
mixture  with  the  light,  or  local  colour,  to  pioduce  a  tint  more 
cool  than  that  in  its  hue. 

Halk-timiseked  Houses,  such  as  were  in  use  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabetii,  and  the  period  immediately  preceding. 
They  consisted  of  wooden  framing,  filled  in  with  plaster,  and 
had  a  very  picturesque  appearance. 

HALL,  (Sixon)  a  word  anciently  used  for  a  mansion- 
house  or  habitation. 

Hall,  (French,  sallc)  \n  architecture,  a  large  room  at  the 
entrance  of  a  line  house,  palace,  or  the  like. 

Vitnivius  mentions  three  sorts  of  halls:  the  tetrastijle 
which  has  four  columns  supporting  the  plafond  or  ceiling; 
the  Corinthian,  which  has  columns  all  round,  let  into  the 
wall,  and  is  vaulted  over;  and  the  E(iijptian,  which  had  a 
peristyle  of  insulated  Corinthian  columns,  bearing  a  second 
order  with  a  ceiling:  these  are  called  Q:ci.  The  hall  is  pro- 
perly the  lirst  and  finest  partition  or  member  of  an  apart- 
ment;  and  in  houses  of  ministers  of  state,  public  niagis 
trates,  &c.,  is  that  wherein  they  dispatch  business,  and  give 
audience,  in  very  nuignificeiit  buildings,  where  the  hall  is 
larger  and  loftier  than  ordinary,  and  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  house,  it  is  called  a  saloon. 

The  length  of  the  hall  should  be  at  least  twice  and  a  quarter 
its  breadth;  and  in. great  buildings  thj'ee  times  its  breadth. 
As  to  the  height,  it  may  be  two-thirds  of  the  breadth;  and 
if  made  w-ith  an  arched  ceiling,  it  will  be  rendered  much 
handsomer,  and  less  subject  to  .accidents  from  firo.  In  this 
case,  its  heiglit  is  found  by  dividing  its  breadth  into  six  parts, 
five  of  which  will  be  the  height  fiom  the  floor  to  the  under 
side  of  the  key  of  the  arch. 


HAN 


487 


HAN 


A  royal  apartment  is  said  to  consist  of  a  hall,  or  chamber, 
of  euavd'-,  aula  prwtoriana  ;  an  ante-chamber,  procamera  ; 
a  chamber,  camera;  a  cabinet,  conclave ;  and  a  gallery, 
porticm. 

Hai.l,  also  the  principal  ajiartmcnt  in  the  castles  and  man- 
sionsofthe  middleages.  These  were  usually  of  great  length  and 
size,  having  the  cliii-f  entrance  at  one  end,  where  was  a  screen 
surmounted  with  a  minstrel's  gallery.  At  the  farther  end 
was  a  raised  platform  or  dais,  with  frequently  an  oriel  window 
on  one  or  both  sides,  where  the  principal  guests  dined.  Tlie 
fire-place  was  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  the  hall,  w-ith  an 
a])erture  in  the  roof  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke  ;  but  at  others 
at  the  side,  with  a  chimney  carried  up  in  the  walls.  The 
aperture  in  the  roof  was  often  covered  by  an  open  lantern. 

Ainong-t  the  larger  halls  in  England,  may  be  reckoned 
those  of  Westminster,  and  Crosby  Ilall,  London  ;  Elthain, 
and  Penshurst,  Kent ;  and  that  of  llamptonCxinrt. 

Hall,  a  public  building  erected  for  the  administration  of 
the  police  and  justice  of  a  city  or  corporation. 

In  tliis  sense  we  say  the  tuwn-liall,  a  cotnpaiiifs  hall^  &c. 

A  stately  building  in  the  city  of  London,  and  the  great 
court  of  judicature  for  that  city,  is  called  Guild-hall;  and 
many  of  the  City  companies  have  very  fine  buildings,  called 
their  Halls,  as  the  Goldsmiths'  Hall,  Fishmongers'  Hall,  &c. 

Hall  is  also  particularly  used  for  a  court  of  justice  ;  or  an 
edifice  wherein  there  is  one  or  more  tribunals. 

In  Westminster-hall  are  held  the  great  courts  of  this  king- 
dom, viz.,  the  Chancery,  E.xchequer,  Queen's  Bench,  and 
Common-Pleas. 

In  adjoining  apartments  is  likewise  held  the  high  court  of 
parliament.  Westminster-hall  was  the  royal  palace,  or  place 
of  residence,  of  our  ancient  kings;  who  ordinarily  held  their 
parlianients  and  courts  of  judicature  in  their  dwelling-houses, 
and  frequently  sat  in  person  in  the  courts  of  judicature,  as 
they  still  do  in  parliament. 

The  great  hall,  wherein  the  courts  of  Queen's  Bench.  &c. 
are  kept,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  William  Rufus  ;  others 
say  by  Richard  I.  or  II.  It  is  reckoned  superior,  in  point  of 
dimensions,  to  any  hall  in  Europe  ;  being  238  feet  long, 
and  68  broad. 

HALVING,  a  method  of  joining  timbers  by  letting  them 
into  each  other  :  it  is  preferable  to  mortising,  even  where  the 
timbers  do  not  pass  each  other,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  be 
displaced  by  shrinking. 

HAM,  a  Saxon  word,  signifying  a  house. 

Ham,  is  also  used  to  denote  a  street  or  village;  whence  it 
is,  that  the  names  of  many  of  our  towns  end  in  ham,  as 
Nottingham,  Buckingham,  &c. 

HAMMER,  an  instrument  used  by  carpenters,  for  driving 
nails,  spikes,  &c. ;  and  by  masons,  for  reducing  stone,  by 
breaking  it  in  chips. 

HAMMER-BEAM,  a  transverse  beam  at  the  foot  of  the 
rafter,  in  the  usual  place  of  a  tie.  Hammer-beams  are  con- 
structed in  pairs,  having  each  a  beam  disposed  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  roof  They  are  chiefly  used  in  roofs  constructed 
after  the  Gothic  style;  the  end  which  hangs  over,  being 
frequently  supported  by  a  concave  rib,  springing  from  the 
wall  as  a  tangent  to  the  curve,  and  in  its  turn  supporting 
another  rib  forming  a  Gothic  arch  with  the  counter-part. 
The  ends  of  hammer -beams  are  decorated  with  various 
devices. 

HANCES,  or  Haunches,  the  arcs  of  circles  forming  the 
ends  of  arches  described  with  compasses,  in  imitation  of  elliptic 
arches.  The  figure  representing  the  whole  ellipsis  is  gene- 
rally described  with  four  circular  segments,  of  which  those 
that  are  opposite  are  equal  to  each  other,  and  are  bisected  by 
each  extremity  of  each  axis;  the  two  arcs  which  terminate 


the  greater  axis  are  called  the  hances.  and  those  which 
terminate  the  shorter,  the  schemes. 

HAND,  a  mea>ure  of  four  inches. 

Hand-Irons.     See  End-Iuons. 

Ha.vd-Rail,  of  a  stair,  a  rail  raised  upon  slender  posts, 
called  haluslers,  intended  to  assist  persons  in  ascending  and 
descending,  and  to  protect  them  from  falling  down  the 
well-hole. 

Hand-Railing,  the  art  of  making  hand  rails  by  moulds, 
according  to  geometrical   princijiles. 

The  art  of  forming  hand-rails  was  never,  before  the  pub 
lication  of  tne  C((rp('nler''s  Ouide,  subjected  to  any  certain 
geometrical  principle.  The  I)est  method  then  known,  was 
that  of  tracing  it,  like  an  angle-bracket,  from  the  rise  and 
tread  of  as  many  steps  as  the  rail  was  supposed  to  occupy  in 
winders,  and  making  the  face-mould  of  a  parallel  breadth, 
after  obtaining  the  middle  of  the  concave  side.  This  is 
manifestly  false  ;  and  the  magnitude  of  the  error  will  be 
greater  as  the  circumference  of  the  arc  at  the  plan  of  the 
rail  is  greater  than  its  chord.  A  rail,  or  any  portion  of  a  rail, 
formed  upon  this  principle,  could  never  stand  vertically  over 
its  plan.  The  method  here  shown  is  founded  upon  the  fol- 
lowing principles:  that  if  a  cylinder  be  cut  in  any  direction 
except  parallel  to  the  axis  or  base,  the  section  will  be  an 
ellipsis;  if  cut  parallel  to  the  axis,  its  section  is  a  rectangle  ; 
and  if  parallel  to  the  base,  its  .section  is  a  circle. 

Let  us  suppose  a  hollow  cylinder  made  to  a  given  plan,  the 
interior  will  be  concave,  and  the  exterior  convex  ;  and  let 
this  cylinder  be  cut  by  any  inclined  or  oblique  plane,  the 
section  formed  will  be  bounded  by  two  concentric  similar 
ellipses  ;  consequently,  the  section  will  be  at  its  greatest 
bread  that  each  extremity  of  the  greater  axis,  and  at  its  least 
breadth  at  each  extremity  of  the  lesser  axis.  Therefore,  in 
any  quarter  of  the  ellipsis,  there  will  be  a  continued  increase 
of  breadth  from  the  extremity  of  the  lesser  axis  to  that  of  the 
greater.  Now  a  cylinder  can  be  cut  by  a  plane  through  any 
three  points;  therefore  suppose  we  have  the  height  of  the 
rail  at  any  three  points  in  the  cylinder,  and  cut  the  cylinder 
through  these  points,  the  section  will  be  a  figure  equal  and 
similar  to  the  face-mould  of  the  rail  ;  and  if  the  cylinder  be 
cut  by  another  plane,  parallel  to  the  section,  at  such  a  distance 
from  it  as  to  contain  the  thickness  of  the  rail,  this  portion  of 
the  cylinder  will  represent  a  part  of  the  rail  with  its  vertical 
surfaces  already  wrought;  and  if  the  back  and  lower  surface 
of  this  cylindric  portion  be  squared  to  vertical  lines,  either 
on  the  convex  or  concave  side,  through  two  cert;iin  parallel 
lines,  drawn  by  a  thin  piece  of  wood  bent  upon  that  side  ; 
the  portion  of  the  cylinder  thus  formed  will  represent  the 
part  of  the  rail  intended  to  be  made. 

The  principles  upon  which  this  art  depends  are  those  of 
cutting  a  right  prism  through  any  three  given  points  in  space, 
and  of  forming  a  development  of  any  portion  of  the  surface 
of  the  prism. 

Thus,  let  the  interior  surface  of  the  surrounding  wall  be 
that  of  an  entire  cylinder,  the  breadth  of  the  steps  divided 
into  the  frustums  of  equal  and  similar  sectors,  and  the 
heights  all  equal,  as  is  universally  the  case  ;  then,  if  an  inte- 
rior cylinder  surface  be  erected  concentric  with  the  wall,  and 
the  ends  of  the  steps  or  surfaces  to  be  trodden  upon,  and  the 
planes  of  the  risers  tending  to  the  axis  be  supposed  to  meet 
the  interior  cylindric  surface,  it  is  evident  that  if  the  por- 
tion of  the  intercepted  surface  contained  between  the  indented 
line  formed  by  the  ends  of  the  steps,  and  the  circumferent 
line  at  the  base  be  developed,  or  stretched  out,  all  the  points 
of  the  indented  line  formed  by  the  outward  or  salient  angles, 
will  be  in  the  same  straight  line,  and  all  the  points  formed 
by  the  inward  or  re-entrant  angles  will  be  in  another  straight 


HAN 


488 


HAN 


line.  It  is  equally  evident,  that  this  will  not  only  be  the 
case  with  cylinders,  but  with  cylindruids,  and  every  other 
description  of  prisms  :  that  is,  the  points  of  the  development 
of  the  indented  line  will  always  have  such  a  position,  that 
two  straiglit  lines  parallel  to  each  other  may  be  drawn 
through  tlie  whole  number  of  them. 

The  points  of  concourse  of  the  salient  angles,  are  called 
the  nosinys  of  the  steps. 

The  line  drawn  through  all  the  nosings  of  the  steps,  is 
called  tlie  line  of  the  nositii/s. 

Now  let  the  portion  of  the  cylinder  before  uncovered,  be 
again  enveloped,  the  development  in  this  state  becomes  an 
envelope,  and  the  line  of  nosings  becomes  a  uniform  helix, 
which  would  be  the  (tirm  of  the  rail  for  such  a  stair. 

in  this  case,  it  would  be  easy  to  execute  the  rail  to  any 
length,  in  e(|ual  portions  succeeding  each  other;  for  as  the 
curvature  of  the  helical  line  is  everywhere  the  same,  the  same 
moulds  which  are  used  in  the  formation  of  one  piece,  would 
serve  for  every  succeeding  piece. 

The  steps  around  the  circular  part  are  termed  winders;  in 
these  the  risers  tend  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Steps  with  their  treads  of  the  .same  breadth,  are  termed 
fyers  ;  in  these  the  risers  are  all  parallel. 

Very  few  staircases  are  entirely  circular;  but  those  of  the 
semi-circular  form,  with  winders  in  the  semicircle,  and 
flyers  below  and  above,  are  very  numerous ;  in  such,  the  line 
of  nosings  would  be  crooked,  and  would  form  an  angle  at 
the  junction  of  the  flyers  and  the  windiTs,  and  that  round 
the  semicircle  would  be  an  helix,  consisting  of  half  a 
revolution. 

In  the  development  of  the  steps,  the  line  of  nosings 
would  consist  of  three  straight  lines  ;  the  two  straight  lines 
through  the  nosings  of  the  flyers,  would  bo  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  each  extremity  of  the  middle  one  would  join 
one  extremity  of  each  of  the  other  two  ;  but  the  angles 
are  commonly  taken  away,  by  introducing  a  curve  in  their 
places. 

A  hand-rail,  however,  is  not  a  mere  helical  line,  but  a 
solid,  which  may  be  contained  between  two  concentric  cylin- 
dric  surfaces,  or  concentric  prismatic  surfaces.  The  prin- 
ciples are  the  same,  whatever  be  the  form  of  the  plan.  A 
solid  erected  upon  any  plan,  is  e&\\i;Aa  prism  ;  a  cylinder  is 
therefore  a  round  prism,  and  a  cylindroid  an  elliptic  prism. 
A  hand-rail  may  stand  upon  a  circular  base,  or  partly  circular 
and  partly  straight,  or  upon  an  entire  elliptic  base.  In  the 
construction  of  hand-rails,  all  prisms  are  excluded,  which 
consist  of  plain  surfaces  ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  where 
the  sides  of  the  ]>lan  consist  entirely  of  straight  lines  ;  as  in 
such  cases,  the  rails  themselves  are  either  straight,  or  partly 
curved  and  partly  straight  upon  the  top  and  lower  sides  only, 
the  sides  being  in  vertical  planes. 

Let  us  therctbre  confine  ourselves  to  prisms  upon  a  circular 
or  an  ellipitic  base,  or  \ipon  a  base  partly  circular  and  partly 
straight  ;  or  lastly,  upon  a  base  partly  elliptical  and  partly 
straight.  The  two  last  may  be  said  to  have  compound  liases 
or  plans,  and  the  two  former  simple  bases  or  plans.  Such 
a  prism  ma}'  be  denominated  a  curved  prism.  The  plan  of 
any  curved  prism  is  understood  to  be  of  the  same  breadth, 
and  consequently  the  solid  erected  thereon  will  be  every- 
where of  the  same  thickness.  The  prism  may  therefore  be 
a  hollow  cylinder,  or  a  hollow  clyindroid,  or  a  concave  body, 
partly  cylindric  and  partly  straight;  the  latter  may  be  open 
on  one  side,  and  may  have  the  four  planes  which  join  the 
curved  surfaces  parallel  to  each  other,  and  tangent  to  each  of 
the  cylindric  surfaces. 

Let  us  therefore  suppose  such  a  prism  as  that  last  men- 
tioned, to  be  cut  entirely  through   its   verticiil   surfaces,  in 


such  a  manner  that  any  point  in  the  surface  of  division  may 
coincide  with  a  straight  line  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the 
external  prismatic  surface,  then,  every  such  line  will  be 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  its  base,  and  those  lines  in  the  cylin 
drical  part  of  the  prism  will  tend  to  the  axis.  Now  it  is 
evident,  that  the  cut,  or  dividing  surface,  will  not  be  a  plane, 
but  will  wind  or  twist  between  the  cylindric  surfoces.  It  is 
also  evident,  that  the  cut  may  pass  through  a  line  drawn  in 
any  manner  we  please,  in  one  of  the  prismatic  surfaces;  or, 
that  the  development  of  this  line  may  have  any  degree  of 
curvature  in  the  whole  length,  or  in  any  portion  (jf  the 
length,  or  may  even  be  a  straight  line.  One  of  these  being 
supposed  to  be  the  case,  let  the  upper  part  of  the  prism  be 
taken  away,  then  the  upper  surface  of  its  remaining  part 
will  be  brought  to  view ;  let  a  line  be  drawn  on  the 
exterior  surface  parallel  to  the  arris,  and  another  on  the  con- 
cave side  parallel  to  its  arris;  and  let  another  cut  or  dividing 
surface  be  made  to  pass  through  the  two  lines  thus  drawn, 
and  let  the  upper  part  be  removed  by  this  division  ;  then  the 
part  thus  removed  will  form  a  solid  helix,  or  kind  of  half 
screw,  which  may  be  either  uniform  in  its  upper  and  lower 
sui-faccs,  or  have  any  degree  of  curvature  in  any  part  that 
may  be  required,  according  to  the  development  before  men- 
tioned. This  is  the  form  of  the  rail  for  such  a  stair;  but  to 
form  the  solid  helix,  without  cutting  it  from  a  hollow  curved 
prism,  is  what  is  required  in  hand-railing. 

Now,  as  two  of  its  sides  are  actually  cylindrical,  and 
would  be  vertical  if  placed  in  position,  and  the  other  two 
winding  surfecesmay  be  formed  to  any  development  desired; 
take  any  determinate  portion  of  the  helical  solid,  as  a  quarter 
of  a  revolution,  or  perhaps  something  more,  as  occasion  may 
require,  and  endeavour  to  form  such  a  portion,  or  wreath,  out 
of  a  thin  plank,  instead  of  cutting  it  from  a  solid  curved 
prism.  Before  this  can  be  done,  it  is  necessary  to  understand 
the  principle  of  cutting  a  prism  through  any  three  fixed 
points  in  space,  by  a  plane  passing  thi'ough  those  points;  the 
points  may  be  in  the  surface  of  the  prism  itself,  and  may  be 
either  all  in  the  concave  side,  or  all  in  the  convex  side  ;  or 
partly  in  the  concave  side,  and  partly  in  the  convex  side; — 
that  such  a  supposition  is  possible  wHl  readily  appear,  since 
any  three  points  are  always  in  the  same  plane ;  and,  there^ 
fore,  the  plane  may  cut  the  prism  through  any  three  given 
points. 

The  three  points  through  -which  the  section  is  cut,  are  said 
to  be  given,  when  the  seats  are  given  on  the  plane  of  the 
base  of  the  prism,  which  plane  is  understood  to  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  prism,  and  when  the  distances  or 
heights  from  the  seats  to  the  points  themselves  are  given. 

It  is  always  to  be  understood,  that  the  three  seats  are  not 
in  a  straight  line,  and  consequently  the  three  points  them- 
selves not  a  straight  line. 

The  seat  of  a  point  in  space  on  any  plane,  is  that  point  in 
the  plane  where  a  perpendicular  drawn  through  the  point  in 
space  cuts  the  plane. 

In  the  helical  solid,  the  winding  surface  connecting  the  two 
prismatic  surfaces,  has  been  defined  to  be  of  such  a  property 
as  to  coincide  with  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  the  exte- 
rior prismatic  surface,  and,  consequently,  if  the  axis  of  the 
curved  prism  be  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  every  such 
line  will  be  piarallel  to  the  base  ;  now,  let  the  seats  of  thr-ee 
such  lines  be  given  on  the  plan,  viz.,  let  each  extreme  boun- 
dary be  one,  and  let  another  be  taken  in  the  convex  side 
passing  through  the  point,  which  would  give  the  middle  of 
the  development  of  the  said  side  of  the  plan ;  the  three  seats 
would  be  terminated  by  the  convex  atid  concave  sides  of  the 
plair,  and  will  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  convex  side, 
and  equal  in  length  to  each  other.    Call  the  three  level  lines, 


/;>/,.?  .ry.       /;y  j.t' 


Aig.3..v::i. 


I.'^CG, 


/•5.,. 


7'r..v7-i:.v7u. 


I     K  1 

11 'ill 


/j^..^  ./T/ 


rifr.4-.^g. 


Fiff.4..7^l 


I  NffA^lfCTi .  d^i . 


II  AN 


489 


HAN 


of  which  their  seats  are  given,  the  lines  of  support ;  let 
a  phme  be  laid  on  the  three  lines  of  support,  and  it  will  rest 
either  upon  three  points,  or  upon  one  of  the  said  lines  and 
two  points;  hence  the  points  wiiich  come  in  contact  with 
the  plane,  will  be  at  one  extremity  of  each  line  of  support; 
let  each  of  the  points,  which  como  in  contact  with  the  plane 
thus  posited,  be  called  a  resting  point.  The  thiee  resting 
points  are  the  three  points  in  space,  through  which  the  plane 
is  supposed  to  pass  that  cuts  the  curved  prism. 

Now  because  each  line  of  support  has  two  extremities, 
there  will  be  six  extreme  points  in  all,  but  as  only  three  can 
be  resting  points,  unless  the  plane  coincides  with  one  of  the 
lines  of  support,  it  will  be  proper  to  show,  which  three  of 
the  six  are  the  resting  points.  Let  the  plane,  thus  laid  upon 
some  three  extremities  of  the  lines  of  support,  be  continued 
to  intersect  the  base  of  the  curved  prism,  then  the  nearest 
extremity  of  the  seat  of  any  line  of  support,  to  the  intersect- 
inj;  line,  is  the  seat  of  the  resting  point  of  that  line.  For 
this  purpose,  let  a  development  of  the  convex  side  of  the 
rail  be  made  according  to  the  plan  and  rise  of  the  steps. 
The  part  of  this  development  that  is  made  to  bend  round 
the  concave  or  convex  cylindric  surface  of  the  heliciil  portion 
or  wreath,  is  called  afa/tinff-moidd,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
broujrht  to  an  equal  breadth  throughout  its  length.  Only 
one  falling-mould  is  used  in  the  construction  of  hand  rails. 
Let  therefore  the  falling-mould  for  the  convex  side  be  con- 
structed, and  let  two  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  the  ends  of 
the  upper  edge  of  that  part  of  the  falling-mould  corresponding 
tti  the  ends  of  the  wreath  perpendicular  to  the  base  of  tlie 
whole  development;  also  let  another  intermediate  line  be 
drawn  parallel  to  the  other  two.  so  as  to  bisect  the  part  of 
the  base  intercepted  by  the  said  two  parallels,  the  three 
parallels  will  give  us  the  heights  of  the  three  resting  points, 
the  shortest  height  is  at  one  extreme,  and  the  longest  at  the 
other.  Suppose  now  the  shortest  of  these  three  heights  taken 
from  each  of  the  three,  and  the  remainders  taken  as  heights, 
instead  of  the  whole,  then  the  height  of  the  first  resting 
point  will  be  nothing  and  will  therefore  coincide  with  its 
seat ;  and  if  the  middle  height  be  less  than  half  the  length 
of  the  remaining  height,  the  seats  of  the  resting  points  will 
be  the  first  and  second  extremities  of  the  first  and  second 
lines  of  support  taken  on  the  convex  side,  and  the  extremity 
of  the  third  on  the  concave  side.  The  first  resting  point  is 
a  point  in  the  intersection  of  the  plane  of  the  base  with  the 
inclined  plane. 

The  process  is  now  completely  reduced  to  that  of  finding 
the  section  of  a  prism  through  three  given  points,  which  sup- 
pose to  be  done,  and  the  plane  of  section  will  touch  the  sup- 
posed wreath  at  the  resting  points  of  each  line  of  support 
without  cutting  the  wreath  at  any  such  line  ;  then  the  three 
lines  of  .support  will  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  plane,  viz., 
on  the  under  side.  Suppose  now  another  section  tiiken  below, 
and  parallel  to  the  former,  so  that  the  wreath  may  be  just  con- 
tained between  these  parallel  sections  or  planes,  and  the 
distance  between  the  two  sections'will  represent  the  thickness 
of  the  plank.  The  section  of  the  prism  through  its  vertical 
surfaces  is  called  the  rake  or  the  rake  of  the  plan  ;  and  a  mould 
being  cut  to  the  rake  is  called   the  face-mould. 

The  manner  of  forming  a  helical  line  or  screw  is  as 
follows : — 

Plate  Vlll.  Figure  1.  Divide  the  circumference  of  the 
outer  circle  of  the  base  into  equal  parts;  draw  a  line  through 
the  centre  to  represent  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  parallel  to 
the  axis,  and  through  the  points  of  division  in  the  outer 
circumference  draw  lines;  divide  the  line  of  heights  or  the 
line  representing  the  axis,  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the 
circumference  of  the  base  is  divided  into,  and  throutrh  the 
i'2  " 


points  of  division  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  inter- 
secting, as  in  the  figure ;  through  the  jioints  of  intersection, 
draw  a  curve  whiih  will  represent  the  helix,  or  one  of  the 
arris  lines  of  the  rail. 

Figure  2. — The  projection  of  the  solid  helix  coiling  round 
the  cylinder;  which  helix  represents  the  hand-rail  before  it 
is  moulded. 

Figure  3. — No.  1. — A  solid  section  of  a  cylinder  contained 
between  two  parallel  planes,  a  part  of  the  side  of  this  solid 
contained  between  two  planes  passing  through  the  axis  is  the 
form  of  a  piece  from  which  the  rail  is  made  after  it  is  cut 
out  of  the  plank.  No.  2,  half  the  solid  section,  No.  3,  the 
inclination  of  the  cutting  planes. 

Such  large  portions  as  these,  however,  are  by  no  means 
proper  to  be  employed  in  haiid-railing,  as  the  size  would  neces- 
sarily occasion  the  fibres  of  the  wood  to  run  in  a  transverse 
direction  to  the  length  of  the  rail,  and  consequently  weaken  it, 
but  they  are  useful  in  this  place  to  convey  clear  ideas  of  the 
principle  upon  which  the  art  is  founded. 

Figure  5. — No.  I. — The  proper  form  of  a  part  fi-om  which 
a  portion  of  the  rail  is  to  be  made  after  it  has  been  cutout  of 
the  blank  ;  exhibiting  the  convex  side  of  the  same,  and  the 
upper  plain  surfice,  which  is  that  of  the  plank.  No.  2.  The 
concave  side  of  the  same,  with  the  joints  and  lower  surface  of 
the  plank. 

Figure  4. — A  portion  of  the  rail  completely  squared  with 
the  concave  side,  the  joints,  the  bottom  part  of  the  upper 
winding  surface,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  winding 
surface,  brought  into  view.  No.  3.  The  convex  side  of  the 
same,  showing  the  upper  part  of  the  upper  surface,  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  lower  surface. 

The  business  of  hand-railing  is  to  find  the  mould  for  cutting 
a  rail  out  of  planks. 

Though  hand  railing  is  only  treated  of  here,  as  connected 
with  cylindrical  well-holes  :  it  is  equally  applicable  to  rails 
erected  upon  any  seat  whatever. 

The  mould,  which  applies  to  the  two  faces  of  the  plank, 
regulated  by  a  line  drawn  on  its  edge,  so  as  to  be  vertical 
when  the  plank  is  elevated  to  its  natural  position,  is  called  the 
face-mould  ;  or  sometimes  the  raking-mould. 

A  parallel  mould,  applied  and  bent  to  the  side  of  the  rail- 
piece,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  back  and  lower  surface 
(which  are  to  be  so  formed  that  every  level  straight  line, 
directed  to  the  axis  of  the  well-hole,  from  every  point  of  the 
side  of  the  rail  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  falling-mould,  shall 
coincide  with  the  surface)  is  called  a,  falling-mould. 

When  the  upper  surface  of  the  plank  is  not  at  right  angles 
to  a  vertical  plane  passing  through  the  chord  of  the  plan,  in 
order  to  cut  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  rail  out  of  the 
least  thickness  of  wood,  the  plank  is  said  to  be  sprung. 

A  right-angled  triangular  board,  made  to  the  rise  and  tread 
of  a  step,  is  called  the  pitch-hoard. 

In  a  stair-case,  where  there  are  both  winders  and  fivers, 
two  pitch-boards  will  be  concerned,  ofdiflerent  treads,  but  of 
the  same  heights,  as  the  height  of  the  steps  must  be  equal. 

The  bevel  by  which  the  edge  of  the  plank  is  reduced  from 
the  right  angle,  when  the  plank  is  sprung,  in  order  to  apply 
the  face-mould,  is  called  the  spring  of  the  plank  ;  and  the  edge 
or  narrow  side  thus  reduced,  is  called  the  sprung  edge. 

The  bevel  by  which  the  face-mould  is  regulated  to  each  side 
of  the  plank,  is  called  the  pitch. 

The  formation  of  the  upper  and  lower  surface  of  a  rail  is 
called  ihe  falling  of  the  rail. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  rail  is  called  the  back. 
The  first  thing  in  the  practice  is  to  spring  the  plank,  then 
to  cut  away  the  superfluous  wood,  as  directed  by  the  draughts 
formed  by  the  face-mould.      This  may  be  cut  so  very  exactly 


II  AN 


490 


II  AN 


witli  a  saw,  by  an  experienced  hanl,  as  to  require  no  further 
rLMiiiction  ;  anil  when  set  in  its  place,  tlie  suiface  on  both  sides 
will  be  vertical  in  all  parts,  and  in  a  sui  face  perpendicular  to 
the  plan.  In  order  to  form  iho  buck  and  lower  Miiface,  the 
falling-mould  is  ap|)lied  to  one  side,  which  is  giiierally  the 
Convex  side,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  upper  edge  of  the 
falling-mould  at  one  end  may  cuincide  with  the  face  of  the 
plank,  the  sairie  in  the  middle,  and  to  leave  so  much  wood  at 
the  other  end  to  be  taken  away,  as  not  to  reduce  the  plank  on 
the  concave  side.  The  piece  of  wood  to  be  thus  formed  into 
the  wieath  or  twist,  being  agreeable  to  three  given  iieights. 
This  description  is  general,  in  order  to  comprehend  the  follow- 
ing construction  of  the  moulds  themselves,  which  when 
ex|)laiiied,  we  shall  then  enter  into  a  more  particular  detail  uf 
their  application. 

To  ciiiistiucl  llie  falling  and  face-moulds  of  a  rail  to  a.  level 
landing,  supposing  the  plane  of  the  plank  to  rest  upon  the 
middle  poi/it  of  the  section,  which  separates  the  upper  and 
lower  circular  parts,  and  to  rest  upon  the  line  parallel  to,  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  straight  part,  so  as  to  have  the  grain  of  the 
wood  jiarallel. 

Flute  I.  Figure  1. — The  falling-nioidd  of  the  hand-rail: 
B  c  the  exlensioii  of  the  semicircular  part ;  u  a  and  c  d  the 
treads  of  the  adjoining  flyers. 

To  fnid  the  extension  of  the  semicircidar  part,  from  the 
middle  point,  I,  of  u  c,  draw  i  K  L  perpendicular  to  u  c  ;  divide 
the  radius  i  k  into  four  equal  parts,  and  repeat  one  of  these 
parts  from  k  to  L  seven  times  ;  draw  the  diameter  m  n  parallel 
to  B  c ;  join  l  m  and  l  n,  and  produce  each  of  these  lines  to 
B  and  c  ;  then  b  c  is  the  rectification  of  the  semi-circumfeience 
M  I  N.  Draw  B  T  and  u  ii  perpendii'iilar  to  a  d  ;  make  b  e 
equal  to  the  height  of  a  step  ;  i  o  on  the  straight  line  i  l,  one 
step  and  a  half;  c  v  equal  to  the  height  i>f  two  steps  ;  and  d  h 
equal  to  the  height  of  three  steps  ;  join  a  e  and  h  f,  and 
through  o  draw  p  Q  parallel  to  B  c  ;  produce  A  E  and  h  f  to 
meet  i>  Q  at  p  and  q  ;  then  cut  off  the  angles  at  p  and  q  by 
equal  touching  curves,  one  at  each  ;  then  a  e  o  f  is  the  middle 
of  tlie  falliiig-inould  ;  and  as  the  rail  is  generally  made  two 
inches  deep,  draw  two  jiarallel  lines  each  an  inch  distant  fiom 
this  central  line,  and  s  u  &  will  be  the  upper  edge  of  the 
falling-mould,  and  (J  y  j  the  lower  edge. 

2\j  jiiid  the  face-mould  of  the  hand-rail. 

Figure  2. — At  any  convenient  place  lay  down  the  half  plan, 
a  he  defa,  of  the  hand-rail;  o  b  c/ being  the  straight  part 
of  the  rail,  and  c  d  e_/'the  plan  of  the  circular  [)art;  draw  g  e  d 
parallel  to  aforh  c  ;  bisect  d  e  at  h,  and  draw  h  i  perpen- 
dicular to  g  d  ;  make  h  i  equal  to  i  u,  Figure  1,  and  the  angle 
h  i  k  equal  to  the  angle  u  h  f  ;  let  h  represent  the  middle 
point  of  the  section  between  the  two  circular  parts  ;  and 
suppose  n  to  represent  the  resting  point  in  the  middle  of  the 
section,  whicii  se|)arates  the  straight  ami  circular  jiarts  ;  make 
B  u.  Figure  1,  equal  to  c  4  or  fa.  Figure  'i,  and  draw  r  s, 
Figure  1,  perpendicular  to  a  b,  cutting  the  upper  edge  of  the 
falling  mould  at  s  ;  make  h  r.  Figure  'i,  equal  to  h  t,  Figure  I, 
and  draw  r  s.  Figure  2,  parallel  to  g  d,  cutting  i  k  at  s  ;  make 
h  m  equal  to  rs,  and  join  m  n,  which  is  the  directing  ordinate  ; 
from  k  draw  k  I  parallel  to  m  n,  and  kl  is  the  intersection  of 
the  plane  of  the  plank  ;  find  the  countcrseclion  k  t.  as  in  the 
Si-x'Tio.NS  OF  CvLiNDEKS,  or  as  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this 
Woik,  under  yoLin  Angles. 

2o  Jind  any  2>oint  in  the  curve  of  the  face-mould. — Draw 
uv  w  parallel  to  k  I,  cutting  /-  d  at  u.,  and  the  concave  side  of 
the  plan  at  v.  and  the  convex  side  at  to  ;  draw  u  x  parallel  to  h  i, 
cutting  k  i  at  x  ;  draw  x  y  z  parallel  to  k  t ;  nuike  x  y  equal  to 
u  V,  and  x  z  etpiai  to  u  w  ;  then  y  is  a  point  in  the  concave 
side  of  the  face-mould,  and  s  is  a  point  in  the  convex  side. 
The  pitch-bevel  shown  by  the  dark  lines,  is  fouud  by  drawing 


a  vertical  line  to  the  pitch-line,  and  the  angle  formed  by  these 
lines  is  the  pitch-bevel. 

In  this  manner  as  many  points  may  be  found  as  will  be 
necessary  to  complete  the  cniicave  and  convex  sides  of  the 
falling-mould;  or  rule  eacli  system  of  lines  at  the  same  line, 
thus;  take  as  many  points  in  the  convex  side  of  the  plan  as 
will  be  found  requisite  ;  through  all  these  [loints  draw  lines 
parallel  to  k  I,  to  cut  g  d  ;  from  all  the  points  of  division  in 
//(/draw  lines  parallel  to  hi,  cutting  ki;  through  all  the 
points  of  division  in  /i'draw  lines  parallel  to  k  t ;  terminate 
each  line  from  the  point  of  intersection  equal  to  the  corres- 
ponding outer  and  inner  ordinates  of  the  plan,  and  through 
the  points  found  by  its  concave  side  draw  a  line ;  also 
through  the  points  found  by  the  convex  side  of  the  plan 
draw  another  curve  :  then  the  corresponding  points  found  for 
each  extremity  of  the  plan  will  complete  the  face-mould.  It 
is  evident  that  the  parts  3-4,  5-6  of  the  face-mould  corres- 
ponding to  a  b,  cf  on  the  plan,  is  a  parallelogram,  therefore  if 
the  point  6,  where  the  concave  side  and  the  straight  parts 
meet,  and  the  point  5,  where  the  convex  and  straight  parts 
meet,  are  found  and  joined  by  the  line  5-0  ;  and  if  5-4  and 
t)-3  be  drawn  parallel  to  ^- ?',  and  the  point'/  corresponding  to 
0,  be  found,  by  drawing  4-3  through  y,  the  straight  part  of  the 
face-mould  will  be  com|iletcd. 

The  line  of  se|)aralion  5-G  will  be  more  exactly  determined 
as  follows  :  Through  n  draw  n  7  parallel  to  /*  i,  cutting  /■  i  at 
7;  then  find  only  one  of  the  points  5  or  G,  sav  5;  draw  5-7; 
thou  5-6,  which  is  a  ]i:irt  of  5-7,  is  the  line  of  separation. 

This  face-mould  will  answer  for  the  upper,  as  well  as  the 
lower  half. 

The  angle  /2-1  is  the  spring  of  the  plank,  and  is  found  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  solid  angles,  and  having  the  inter- 
section and  cointersection,  the  faee-moidd  is  found  as  in  the 
sections  of  a  cylinder.  The  face-mould  might  have  been 
found  as  in  Figure  3,  by  taking  the  heights  from  a  line  drawn 
over  the  face-mould  parallel  to  a  d.  Figure  1,  and  laying  the 
plan  upwards,  as  in  Figure  3,  then  proceeding  with  the 
operation  downwards,  <as  directed  in  Figure 'i  upwards.  Or, 
if  the  drawing  is  inverted,  the  line  v  h.  Figure  1,  will  become 
the  base  of  the  heights,  and  everythiiig  else  will  be  in  the 
same  position  as  in  Figure  2. 

In  the  application  of  the  moulds,  imagine  the  plank  set  up 
to  the  pitch,  and  irt  the  same  way  spring  the  edge  from  the 
under  side  for  the  lower  piece,  and  from  the  upper  side  for  the 
up[ier  piece.  To  apply  the  moulds  to  the  plank,  now  sup- 
posed to  be  sprung  or  beveled,  take  the  pitch  and  draw  the 
vertical  line,  the  stock  of  the  bevel  being  applied  to  the  acute 
edge  of  the  plank,  upwards  or  downwards,  as  the  case  may 
require  :  then  draw'  a  line  equal  to  the  distance  of  3-6  from 
k  i,  \ipon  each  plane  of  the  plank  parallel  to  the  side  ;  then 
the  point  8  being  kept  to  the  end  of  the  vertical  line,  and  the 
side  3-6  upon  the  parallel  line,  draw  round  all  the  edges  of 
the  mould  ;  turn  the  mould  to  the  other  side,  apply  the  point 
8  to  the  other  end  of  the  vertical  line,  and  the  part  3-6  upon 
the  line  drawn  parallel  to  the  face,  and  draw  round  all  the 
edges  as  before ;  then  cut  away  the  superfluous  stuff".  The 
sides  of  the  piece  intended  to  foim  the  twist  must  be  perfectly 
cylindrical,  and  all  the  parts  so  formed,  that  a  straight  line  or 
edge  may  apply  toany  point,  at  the  same  time  that  it  coincides 
with  the  suiface,  and  is  parallel  to  the  vertical  line  drawn 
on  the  edge  of  the  plank. 

The  filling-mould  is  thus  applied  :  Draw  a  line  upon  the 
ends  of  the  solid  piece,  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical  sides, 
from  zero  at  each  end,  next  to  the  upper  side  ;  then  apjily 
the  upper  edge  of  the  face-mould  next  to  the  top  of  tlie  plank, 
and  each  end  to  the  corresponding  end  of  the  piece,  bending 
it  so  that  all  parts  uiay  be  in  contact  with  the  stuff";  then 


HAPTB    IRAIILIKrir 


PLATE  1 . 


11 


A 


Drawn  by  PNuKoUon.. 


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MAT^^B       RAIILINdJ, 


CL.I/K  j; 


3 


^m.  ^°i. 


/=i(?  2  ^V"  / 


Piff  J. 


Maim  ii' / 


Iin-fti/ed  bvP  .V 


£nrj  ''iv  /?  77,r„- 


HAMB    mAIJLIHdJ. 


fi.Arr.iii 


J nvi-ntcd  &clrawn,  hyJ*]Vlc)tclsan . 


Enq-'Oy  Ry/iew 


lil  AiY  iD        B.  A 1 ILIM (& , 


PL.ITE  [\- 


^^np'^iyJirAru'..    D 


TT  A^^^^ID      U  AUILIIf  CG  , 


I'l^lVF     ! 


InvaUid  H  dramt  bvPMdwUon. . 


/.n^'hyETJifW. 


HAN 


491 


HAN 


draw  a  line  round  all  the  edges,  and  it  will  shmv  the  super- 
flu  jus  wood  to  be  cut  <^tr. 

To  conslruct  the  face-)K'nilil  of  a  hand-rail  to  a  stair  upon 
a  level  landing,  in  two  jMfts,  round  a  semicircular  newel  ;  so 
t/iat  when  the  two  pieces  are  united  or  fixed  in  their  j'laces, 
the  grain  or  fibres  of  the  wood  will  mitre  at  the  joint. 

Plate  II. — Let  Fif/ure  1  be  the  rail  stretehcd  out,  as  in  the 
preceding  example  :  draw  the  chord  of  the  rail,  i  k.  Figure  2, 
No.  1  ;  bisect  the  end  k  u  at  a,  and  the  other  end  i  w  at  c  ; 
draw^z  4  c  perpendicular  to  the  chord  k  i,  cutting  the  con- 
cave and  eonve.x  .sides  at  z  and  c ;  make  z  b  equal  to  i  c,  and 
E  c,  Figure  1,  equal  to  w  c,  Figure  2,  No.  1,  extended  : 
draw  c  d.  Figure  1,  perpendicular  to  a  e,  cutting  the  upper 
edge  of  the  falling-mould  at  d,  and  the  lower  edge  at  h.  In 
Figure  2,  No.  1,  draw  a  d  perpendicular  to  ki,  and  ce  parallel 
to  a  rf  ;  make  a  d equal  to  a  d,  Figure  \;  ce.  Figure  2,  No.  1, 
equal  to  E  F,  Figure  1  ;  and  c  f.  Figure  2,  No.  1,  equal  to  c  D, 
Figure  1  ;  join  a  c  and  (/  e.  Figure  2,  No.  1  ;  draw  f  g  par- 
allel to  a.  c,  cutting  d  e  in  g;  draw  g  t  parallel  to  e  c,  cutting 
a  c  in  t ;  join  t  b  ;  draw  c  y  parallel  to  t  b.  cutting  the  eonve.x 
side  of  the  plan  at  y  ;  produce  y  c  to  cut  the  chord  i  j  at  2 ; 
draw  2  h  parallel  to  c  e;  make  2  /*  equal  to  c  e ;  draw  k  k 
parallel  to  a  d;  make  k  k  equal  to  a  d;  join  h  k  ;  produce  h  k 
and  i  k  to  meet  each  other  in  /;  draw  /  tn  parallel  to  <  6;  from 
any  point,  in,  in  I  in,  draw  m  3  per|iendicular  to  I  i;  produce  / 1 
to  p,  cutting  m  3  at  3;  through  3  draw  4  n  perpendicular 
to  h  I ;  produce  hi  to  4  ;  make  3  o  on  p  I  equal  to  3-4 ; 
joirt  0  in  ;  make  4  n  equal  to  o  m.  and  join  n  I :  then  dravv 
ordinates  on  the  plan  parallel  to  I  m,  to  cut  both  sides  of  it, 
and  al.so  the  chord  k  i ;  from  the  intersections  in  k  i,  draw 
lines  parallel  toce,  to  cut  A  /;  from  the  points  of  section  in  h  I, 
draw  lines  parallel  to  /  n  ;  make  the  lines  thus  djawn  parallel 
to  I  n,  equal  to  the  corresponding  lines  on  the  plan;  and  a 
curve  diawn  through  these  respective  points  will  give  the 
face-mould. 

In  drawing  ordinates  upon  the  plan,  care  should  be  taken 
that  an  ordinate  be  drawn  through  the  points  upon  each  side 
of  the  plan  at  the  line  of  separation  of  the  straight  and  circular 
parts,  and  also  through  each  extremity  of  the  ends;  or,  by 
finding  M  N,  the  line  of  separation,  and  the  point  k,  the 
point  L  will  be  tijund  by  drawing  k  l  paiallel  to  n  m,  and  M  L 
parallel  to  n  k;  and  thus  the  portion  .m  n  k  l,  corresponding 
to  V  X  k  u  on  the  plan,  will  be  obtained. 

The  angle  ^;  o  in  gives  the  spring  bevel.  Figure  2,  No.  3; 
and  the  angle  s  r  q  gives  the  pitch-bevel.  Figure  2,  No.  2. 
The  face-mould  is  applied  to  the  plank  by  laying  the  points 
p  and  K  close  to  the  edge  that  is  sprung;  then  drawing  the 
pitch-bevel.  No.  2,  from  either  point  p  or  k  ;  for  it  is  not 
necessary  to  draw  them  from  botli,  as  the  corresponding  point 
will  be  found  upon  the  other  side  of  the  plank;  then  proceed 
with  the  remaining  parts  as  before  directed. 

To  spring  the  plank  for  a  level  landing  through  two  given 
points,  so  us  to  parallel  the  grain. 

Plate  HI. — Let  No.  3  be  the  falling-mould,  as  before: 
draw  any  line,  c  a,  for  the  base  of  the  heights  of  the  face- 
mould  ;  then  c  d  is  the  lower  height,  where  the  two  wreathed 
pieces  meet,  and  a  b  is  the  upper  height,  making  allowance 
for  the  squaring  of  the  joint.  Lay  down  the  plan  a  k  c,  No.  1  ; 
draw  c  n  parallel  to  xk  ;  draw  a  b  perpendicular  to  a  k  ; 
make  a  b  equal  to  a  b.  No.  3,  and  the  angle  a  b  e.  No.  1,  equal 
to  the  angle  v  w  s,  No.  3;  produce  \  k  to  ts.  ;  draw  c  d  par- 
allel to  A  b  ;  make  c  d  equal"  to  c  d,  No.  3.  and  the  angle  c  d  f 
equal  to  the  angle  a  b  e,  that  is,  equal  to  the  angle  v  w  s,  No.  3 : 
produce  n  c  to  f  ;  join  f  e;  in  f  e  take  any  point,  e,  and 
draw  E  I  perpendicular  to  f  c,  meeting  it  in  i;  from  i  draw 
1  K  perpendicular  to  f  g,  cutting  it  in  l  ;  make  i  h  equal  to 
I  L,  and  join  h  e  ;    make  i,  k  equal  to  h  e,  and  join  f  k  ; 


then  F  E  is  the  director  of  the  ordinates  of  the  base,  and  f  k 
that  (jf  the  face-mould.  Proceed  with  the  rest  as  in  Plate  I. 
Figure  1. 

No.  2  shows  the  other  mould;  but  it  must  be  observed, 
that  one  mould  is  sufficient  for  both  wreaths. 

Plate  IV.  shows  the  falling  and  face-moulds  of  a  rail  with 
winders.  As  to  the  method  of  laying  down  the  moulds  from 
three  given  heights,  the  principle  is  the  same  as  described  in 
Plate  1.  for  a  level  landing.  It  therefore  only  remains  to 
speak  of  the  manner  of  forming  the  butt-joints.  Draw  a  line 
at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  falling-mould,  through  the 
middle  of  the  vertical  line,  where  otherwise  would  have  been 
the  splice  joint;  from  the  end  of  this  line  draw  another  at  the 
upper  edge,  and  also  one  from  the  under  edge,  perpendicular 
to  the  base  line  ;  then  the  middle  height  being  taken  as  usual, 
the  remote  line  is  the  height  of  the  face-mould. 

Thus,  H  I.  No.  1,  is  the  height  of  h  i.  No.  2 ;  k  l.  No.  1, 
the  height  of  ^  /,  No.  2;  and  .m  n.  No.  1,  the  height  of  m  n. 
No.  2;  the  remaining  part  of  the  construction  is  as  usual. 
No.  3  is  the  upper  face-mould,  taken  from  inverted  heights : 
or  the  fdling-mould  may  be  considered  as  inverted.  The 
same  letters  are  put  upon  both  constructions,  to  show  the 
similar  parts.  Here  are  eight  winders,  all  drawn  to  a  scale, 
to  shovr  the  proportion  of  the  parts  in  practice.  This  hand- 
rail requires  two  moulds,  on  account  of  the  middle  of  the 
falling- mould  being  much  higher  than  the  hypothenuse  of 
the  winders. 

Plate  V.  shows  the  falling  and  face-moulds  for  a  rail  con- 
structed as  in  Plate  IV.  The  only  ditlerence  is,  that  in  this 
Plate  the  middle  of  the  falling-mould  is  the  hypothenuse  of 
the  wreath.  This  situation  of  the  falling-moulds  will  cause 
both  the  face-moulds  to  be  identical :  that  is,  their  figures 
w'ill  be  equal  and  similar,  so  that  considerable  time  will  be 
saved  in  the  preparation.  This  position,  and  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  moulds,  may  always  be  adopted  when  the  distance 
between  the  opposite  parts  of  the  string  is  more  than  ten 
inches.  The  mode  of  making  the  height  of  the  rail  in  the 
middle  of  the  winders  the  same  as  that  of  the  flyers,  is  prac- 
tised by  seveial  Celebrated  staircase  hands,  though  it  is  nothing 
more  than  a  mere  matter  of  opinion,  and  m.-iy  be  adopted  or 
not,  at  the  option  of  the  architect,  or  of  the  workman,  if  left 
to  him. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  springing  of  the  plank  is 
of  the  utmost  consequence  in  the  saving  of  stufl".  where  the 
well-hole  is  wide;  but  where  it  is  narjow,  very  little  will  be 
gained  by  it. 

To  draw  the  scroll  of  a  hand-rail,  and  to  find  the  mould 
for  executing  the  twist. 

Plate  VI.  Figure  1,  No.  1,  represents  the  plan  of  the  rail. 
The  scroll  is  drawn  by  centres,  in  the  following  manner: 
Make  a  circle  in  the  centre,  3|  inches  in  diameter;  divide 
the  diameter  into  three  equal  parts;  one  of  which  subdivide 
into  six  equal  parts;  set  one  part  from  the  centre  upwards, 
draw  a  line  from  the  end  of  that  part,  at  right  angles,  towards 
the  left  hand,  and  limit  this  perpendicular  to  two  parts;  from 
the  end  of  the  last  perpendicular  draw  a  third  downward, 
limiting  it  to  three  equal  parts;  proceed  in  this  manner  till 
six  perpendiculars  have  been  drawn,  each  diftering  in  length 
by  one  from  the  preceding,  and  the  form  of  a  spiral  fret  will 
be  obtained.  The  points  of  concourse  of  every  two  lines 
will  give  the  centres,  which  are  six  in  number,  besides  the 
centre  of  the  circle,  and  are  numbered  in  order  from  such 
centre:  draw  a  straight  line  downward  fmm  the  first  centre, 
by  continuing  the  line  already  drawn  till  it  cuts  the  circle  : 
continue  the  second  pei-pemlieular  to  the  right  hand,  and  the 
third  upwards  to  the  left  hand  ;  the^e  will  form  the  limiting 
lines  for  the  four  arcs,  which  will  complete  one  revolution. 


11  A  N 


492 


11  AN 


Contimie  the  lines  in  the  same  order  for  the  next  revolution, 
or  (or  the  portion  ofit  required.  Begin  with  the  centre  next 
to  ihat  of  tlie  cijcle  for  the  first  centre,  and  describe  a  quarter 
arc  from  tlie  point  of  contact  of  the  circle  to  the  next  liniitimr 
line;  then  around  the  second  centre,  with  the  distance  to  the 
intersection  of  the  preceding  arc,  on  the  preceding  iiniitiiig 
line,  dcseiilie  another  are;  proceed  in  this  manner  till  the 
whole  spiral  is  completed.  Set  the  breadth  of  the  rail  from 
o  to  (I,  and  describe  another  sjiiral  by  the  same  centres,  bv 
tui-ning  the  arcs  the  contrary  way,  till  "the  last  arc  of  the  sjiiral 
cuts  the  fust;  which  will  complete  the  scnill  of  the  rail;  then 
the  aildition  of  a  part  of  the  straight  of  the  rail  will  complete 
the  whole. 

The  outer  spiral  consists  of  one  revolution  and  a  half,  and 
the  inner  of  oidy  about  half  a  revolution,  which  also  makes 
the  scioll  itself  appear  only  half  a  revolution  ;  but  if  more  is 
required,  every  additional  centre  will  add  a  quarter  of  a 
revolution  to  the  scroll. 

To  find  tlie  face-mould  for  the  shank  of  the  scroll. 

Fiijnre  I,  No.  1.  Lay  the  base  of  the  pitch-board  upon  the 
outside  of  the  shank  of  the  scroll,  with  the  acute  angle  turned 
to  the  outside,  or  largest  convexity  :  draw  a  line  parallel  to 
the  base  of  the  ])itch-board,  to  touch  the  convex  side  of  the 
scroll  next  to  the  straight  part;  let  this  line  cut  the  outside 
of  the  rail  at  (i:  between  0  and  C  take  any  number  of  inter- 
mediate points,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  draw  linJs  jieipendicular  to 
the  base  of  the  ]iitch-board,  to  cit  the  hypothenuse  of  the  said 
pitch-board  ;  fiom  the  points  of  .section  draw  lines  at  right 
angles  to  the  hypothenuse ;  let  the  perpendiculars  parallel  to 
the  base  line  of  the  jiitch-board  be  continued  downwards,  to 
cut  the  coHKive  side  of  the  shank  ;  and  let  one  of  the  perpen- 
diculais  be  diawn  from  the  concave,  and  another  from  the 
convex  side  of  the  rail,  where  it  is  intersected  by  the  line 
parallel  to  the  base  line;  make  all  the  lines  at  right  angles 
to  the  hypothenuse  equal  to  the  respective  ordinates  of  the 
shank  taken  from  both  concave  and  convex  sides  of  it :  then 
curves  being  traced,  and  the  straight  juirts  joined  to  the 
angular  points,  will  be  the  face-mould. 

To  find  the  falliny-mould. 

Divide  the  distance  between  0  and  0,  FIr/iii-e  1,  No.  1, 
into  six  equal  parts,  and  run  the  ehcrd  on  the  convex  side  as 
far  as  the  rail  is  required  to  fall :  upon  any  convenient  line, 
A  D,  No.  2,  run  the  chord  of  the  part  from  6  to  13;  place  the 
angular  point,  c,  of  the  pitch-board  at  4;  with  the  base  a  c, 
upon  A  D,  tange  the  angle  nc  d  made  by  the  hypotheinise  of 
the  pitch-board  and  the  line  a  d,  with  a  curve  to  touch  at  n 
and  n,  as  shown  at  No.  3;  then  draw  another  curvilinear 
parallel,  containing  the  depth  of  the  rail  bc^twecn  the  two 
curves;  and  the  lalling-mould,  No.  2,  will  be  completed  as 
far  as  the  rail  has  a  descent,  which  ends  at  13.  The  block 
of  the  scroll,  which  is  the  remaining  part  after  the  shank  is 
taken  away,  is  wrought  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  wood,  the 
height  of  the  perpendicular  upon  0.  The  shank  is  squared 
in  the  same  manner  as  shown  in  Plate  II. 

No.  4.  The  falling-mould  for  the  concave  side  of  the  rail 
is  exhibited  here,  in  order  to  show,  that  if  the  ramp  and  the 
curve  of  the  scroll  do  not  begin  together,  and  if  the  rail  be 
made  absolutely  square,  that  is,  having  all  its  plumb  sections 
rectangles,  and  the  convex  side  made  agrcealile  to  its  falling- 
mould,  with  an  easy  curve,  it  will  be  impossible  to  form  the 
back  with  a  regular  curve  on  the  concave  side,  and  a  hump 
will  always  be  formed.  Therefore,  in  reducing  the  hump  to 
an  agreeable  curve,  the  rail  will  be  thrown  out  of  the  s<juare  ; 
but  the  degree  by  which  it  deflects  fiom  the  truth  is  so  small 
as  not  to  be  perceived. 

The  inside  of  (he  falling-mould  is  formed  by  taking  the 
stretch  out  of  a  6,  be,  c  d,  &ic.,  of  the  coriesponding  parts 


0  1,  1  2,  2  3,  &c.,  in  No.  1,  and  applying  them  from  a  to  6, 
from  b  to  c,  from  c  to  d,  &c..  No.  4  ;  then  drawing  the  per- 
pendiculars from  the  points  a,  b,  r,  &c.,  and  transferring 
thereto  the  corresponding  perpendiculars  insisting  upon 
0,  1,  2,  &c..  No.  2,  and  then  tracing  the  curves.  According 
to  the  princijiles  of  hand-railing,  a  vertical  or  plumb  section 
of  the  rail  at  right  angles  to  the  cylindric  sides,  or  tending  to 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  is  level  on  the  back;  therefore,  as 
the  concave  and  convex  sides  of  the  plan  of  the  scroll  are 
concentric  circles,  the  are  on  the  concave  side,  so  fir  as  relates 
to  the  same  qua<lrant,  will  be  divided  equallv,  as  well  as  the 
outside  ;  and  therefore  drawing  lines  to  the  centres  from 
the  points  of  section  on  the  convex  side  will  divide  each 
quadrant  equally,  and  the  lines  thus  radiating  will  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  curve  on  both  sides  of  the  plan  ;  all  the  parts 
throughout  the  same  quad i  ant  will  be  equal  on  the  concave 
side  as  well  as  on  the  convex  side;  and  on  the  convex  side 
the  parts  will  he  equal  throughout  all  the  quadrants;  but  on 
the  concave  side  the  parts  of  each  succeeding  (piadrant,  iu 
turning  towards  riie  centre,  will  be  quicker  than  those  in  the 
preceding  quadrant.  In  the  part  of  the  rail  which  is  straight 
upon  the  plan,  the  sections  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  divide 
each  side  into  equal  parts,  and  the  parts  on  the  one  side  equal 
to  those  of  the  other:  hence  the  reason  why  the  hump  takes 
place  at  the  junction  of  the  ramp  and  twist. 

If  a  scroll  is  made  agreeable  to  the  form  of  the  plan  as 
struck  round  centres  with  compasses,  it  will  always  appear 
to  the  eye  as  if  crippled  at  the  separating  section  of  the 
straight  and  twisted  parts.  To  remedy  this  defect,  the  curve 
of  the  vertical  sides,  or  that  which  relates  to  the  plan, 
ought  to  be  extended  with  an  easy  curve  into  the  straight 
part. 

No.  5.  An  elevation  of  the  shank  of  the  scroll.  The  por- 
tion of  the  plan  is  taken  from  No.  1,  and  the  heiahts  which 
give  the  curves  are  taken  from  the  falling-mould.  No.  2;  its 
use  is  to  show  the  thickness  of  stufl'  which  is  contained 
between  two  parallel  lines;  the  lower  line  comes  in  contact 
w  ith  the  projection  at  two  points,  the  upper  one  comes  in 
contact  with  the  projection  in  one  point  only. 

To  show  the  method  of  forrnbif)  the  curtail  if  the  first 
step. 

Plate  VII.  Figure  1,  No.  1. — Draw  the  scroll  as  in  the 
preceding  Plate;  set  the  balusters  in  the  middle  of  the 
breadth,  putting  one  at  the  beginning  of  every  quarter ;  then 
the  front  of  the  balusters  is  in  the  plane  of  the  face  of  the 
riser,  and  the  opposite  side  in  the  plane  of  the  string-board: 
set  the  projection  of  the  nosing  before  the  baluster  on  both 
sides,  and  draw  two  spiral  lines  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
scroll,  till  the  curves  intersect  each  other,  and  they  will  then 
form  the  curtail  end  of  the  step,  as  required,  f  o  ii  i  k  repre- 
sent the  convex  side  of  the  scroll;  l  m  n,  the  convex  side  of 
the  curtail ;  and  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  the  centre  points  of  the 
balusters. 

No.  2  shows  the  profile  of  the  curtail,  the  end  of  the 
second  step,  and  part  of  the  end  of  the  third. 

Fii/ure  1,  No.  3,  shows  the  centres  for  drawing  the  curtail, 
\\hich  are  the  same  as  fi)r  drawing  the  scroll. 

To  describe  a  section  of  the  rail,  st/pjjosinr/  it  to  be  tw» 
inches  deep,  and  two  and  a  quarter  inches  broad,  the  usual 
diniJ  nsioiis. 

Figure  2. — Let  a  u  c  n  be  a  section  of  the  rail,  as  squared. 
On  A  B  describe  an  equilateral  triangle.  Any;  from  g,  as 
a  centre,  describe  an  are  to  touch  a  b,  and  to  meet  g  h  and 
g  V.  take  the  distance  between  the  point  of  section  in  g  A 
and  the  point  a,  and  transfer  it  from  the  point  of  section  to 
k,  upon  the  same  line  g  a  ;  join  Dk  ;  from  k.  with  the  dstnnce 
between  k  and  the  end  of  the  arc,  describe  another  arc,  to 


HAKiJ     iiAil,lI>«^G. 


i'i..\ri:  II 


FOfJ.VJ 


/J  /2  J/  JO 

hivcn  kd  bu  fJVuJwlson 


E-ny'hyJiTheMr 


MAiTiD  ;rai:liitg 


D  bv  PNiclwU 


U  A  ii 


493 


HE  A 


meet  d  k  ;  with  the  same  distance  describe  a  third  arc,  of 
contiary  curvature,  and  draw  a  vertical  line  to  touch  it;  thus 
will  one  side  of  the  section  of  the  rail  be  formed.  ITie 
counter-part  is  formed  by  a  similar  operation. 

Figure  3  is  the  most  simple  form  for  tlx;  section  of  a  rail, 
being  that  of  a  circle. 

To  describe  the  mitre-cap  of  a  rail. 

Figure  4. — Describe  a  circle,  a  e  b  d,  to  the  intended  size 
(the  proportion  here  between  the  rail  and  the  cap  is  as  2  to 
3)  ;  draw  the  diameters  a  b  and  e  d  at  right  angles ;  produce 
e  d,  and  place  the  middle  of  the  section  of  the  rail  upon  e  d  ; 
draw  B  Q  to  touch  the  section  of  the  rail,  and  to  cut  the  circle 
ae  b  d  m  q;  draw  the  side  p  q  of  the  mitre  ;  draw  a  b  to  meet 
the  points  of  contact,  a  and  n,  of  the  lines  parallel  to  e  d, 
which  are  tangents  to  tlis  section.  Then  to  find  any  point 
in  the  curve  of  the  section  of  the  mitre-cap  :  let  g  be  a  point 
in  the  section  of  tiie  rail ;  draw  o  k,  meeting  p  q  m  k  ;  from 
the  centre  of  the  circle  a  e  h  d,  describe  an  arc,  kf,  meeting 
ab  in//  from  the  point  of  section,/  draw /(7,  perpendicular 
to  a  b  ;  and  make /</  equal  to  f  g. 

All  other  points  are  found  in  the  same  manner ;  or  a  series 
of  lines  may  be  drawn  from  any  number  of  assumed  points 
in  the  section,  and  lines  parallel  to  e  d,  drawn  from  them  to 
cut  p  Q ;  arcs  may  then  be  described  from  each  point  of  sec- 
tion to  meet  a  b,  and  perpendiculars  drawn  from  the  points 
of  section  in  a  b  ;  all  these  perpendiculars  should  be  made 
equal  to  the  respective  ordinates  of  the  section,  and  a  curve 
drawn  through  their  extremities  will  form  the  curve  of  the 
mitre-cap. 

HANGING,  of  doors,  or  shutters,  the  act  of  placing  them 
upon  centres  or  hinges,  for  the  convenience  of  opening  and 
shutting.     See  Hikgixg. 

Hanging  Stvle,  the  style  of  a  door  or  shutter,  to  which 
the  hinge  is  fastened. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  narrow  style  fi.xed  on  the 
jamb,  on  which  the  door  or  shutter  is  sometimes  hung,  hi 
this  case  the  hanging  style  is  used  with  the  view  of  making 
the  shutter  or  door  revolve  more  than  a  right  angle,  in  order 
to  turn  it  into  a  given  position;  as  to  bring  a  door  close  to  a 
paitition,  to  keep  it  out  of  the  way. 

HANGINGS,  linings  for  rooms,  made  of  arris,  tape.stry, 
or  the  like. 

HANGS  OVER,  an  expression  used  in  speaking  of  a  wall, 
■when  the  top  projects  beyond  the  bottom. 

HARD  BODIES,  such  bodies  as  are  absolutely  inflexible 
to  any  shock  or  collision  whatever. 

This  is  the  common  meaning  of  the  term  ;  but  Huygens, 
by  hard  bodies  [corpora  dura)  meant  what  others  call  per- 
fectly elastic  bodies:  for  he  thus  expresses  himself:  "  Quaj- 
cunque  sit  causa,  corporibus  duris,  a  mutuo  contactu  resiliendi 
cum  se  invicem  impinguntur :  ponimus,  cum  corpora  duo 
inter  se  requalia,  a;quali  celeritate,  ex  adverse  ac  directe  sibi 
mutuo  occurrent,  resilire  utrumque  eadeni  qua  advenit  cele- 
ritate." Huyg.  Be  Motu  Corp.  ex  Percuss.  Hypoth.  2. 
But  this  hypothesis  is  consistent  only  with  perfect  elasticity, 
and  not  with  the  common  supposition  of  hardness  or  inflexi- 
bility, which  produces  no  resilition.  The  laws  of  motion  for 
hard  bodies  are  the  same  as  for  soft  bodies,  and  these  two 
sorts  of  bodies  might  be  comprised  under  the  common  name 
of  uiielastic. 

Some  who  follow  Leibnitz's  doctrine,  concerning  the 
measure  of  the  moving  force  of  bodies,  deny  the  existence 
of  hard  or  inflexible  bodies.  And  it  is  so  far  true,  that  no 
experience  ever  taught  us  that  there  are  any  such.  The 
hardest  bodies  to  appearance  do  not  preserve  their  figuies 
in  collision,  such  bodies  being  only  elastic,  yielding  to  the 
shock,  and  then  restoring  themselves. 


M.  Bernoulli  goes  so  far  as  to  say,  that  hardness,  in  the 
vulgar  sense,  is  absolutely  impossible,  being  contrary  to  the 
law  of  continuity.  For  supposing  two  such  hard  bodies  of 
equal  masses,  and  with  equal  velocities,  to  meet  directly, 
they  must  either  stop  or  return  after  the  collision.  The  first 
supposition  is  commonly  admitted  ;  but  then  it  follows,  that 
these  bodies  must  instantaneously  pass  from  motion  to  rest, 
without  going  through  successive  diminutions  of  their  veloci- 
ties till  they  stop  :  but  this  is  thought  to  be  contrary  to  the 
fundamental  laws  of  nature.  Hence  this  author  rejects  per- 
fectly solid  and  inflexil)le  atoms,  which  others  think  a  conse- 
quence of  the  impenetrability  of  matter. 

Hard,  a  name  given  to  a  ford  or  passable  place  in  a  river, 
particularly  in  and  near  the  Fens,  where  many  of  these 
formerly  occurred,  composed  of  gravel,  pj'obably  brought 
thither  for  the  purpose.  These  Hards  pioved  very  detri- 
mental to  navigation  in  dry  seasons,  and  obstructed  and  aug- 
mented the  floods  in  wet  ones,  until  they  were  removed. 
Frequent  mention  is  made  of  them  by  Mr.  Smeaion,  and 
by  other  writers  on  the  navigation  and  drainage  of  those 
districts. 

Hard  Finishing.     See  Plastering. 

HARDENING  OF  TIMBER.     See  Timber. 

HARMONIC  or  HARMONICAL  PROPORTION,  is 
when,  in  a  series  of  quantities,  any  three  adjoining  terms 
being  taken,  the  difference  between  the  first  and  second  is  to 
the  difference  between  the  second  and  third  as  the  first  is  to 
the  third.  The  reciprocals  of  a  series  of  numbers  in  arilh- 
raetieal  progression  are  in  harmonical  proportion  :  thus  the 
reciprocals  \,  ^,  ^,  ^.  &c.  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  are  in  harmonical 
proportion  ;  also,  the  reciprocals  1,  ^,  J,  i,  &c.,  of  1,  3,  5,  7, 
&c.  are  harmonicals. 

H.-^RMONY,  an  agreement  between  all  the  parts  of  a 
building  ;  the  word  is  of  similar  import  with  Symmetry, 
which  sec. 

HARNESS  ROOM,  a  small  apartment  for  keeping  the 
harness  in,  that  it  may  be  preserved  from  mouldiness.  The 
harness-room  should  be  perfectly  dry,  and  placed  as  near  the 
stable  as  possible. 

HASP,  a  fastening  ;  it  is  in  form  a  small  clasp  that  passes 
over  a  staple  to  be  fastened  by  a  padlock. 

HATCH- WAY,  an  aperture  through  the  ceiling,  to  aflTord 
a  passage  to  the  roof. 

HATCHET  (from  the  French  hadiette)  a  small  axe,  used 
by  joiners  for  reducing  the  edges  of  boards. 

HAUNCH.  Tl'at  part  of  an  arch  between  the  vertex  and 
the  springing. 

HEAD  (from  the  Saxon)  an  ornament  of  sculpture  of 
carved  work,  frequently  serving  as  the  key  of  an  arch  or 
platband. 

These  heads  usually  represent  some  of  the  heathen  deities, 
virtues,  seasons,  or  ages,  with  their  attributes.  The  heads 
of  beasts  are  also  used  in  suitable  places  ;  as  a  bullock's  or 
sheep's  head,  for  a  shambles  or  market-house;  a  dog's,  for 
a  kennel  ;  a  deer's  or  boar's,  for  a  park  or  forest ;  or  a 
horse's,  for  a  stable. 

In  the  metopes  for  the  friezes  and  other  antique  Doric 
temples,  we  meet  with  leprcsentations  of  bullocks'  or  rams' 
heads  flayed,  as  a  symbol  of  tlie  sacrifices  ofiiired  there. 

Head.  Jerkin,  See  Jeukin  Head. 

HEADER.     See  Heading  Course. 

HEADING  COURSE,  in  masonry,  a  course  of  stones  in 
which  their  length  is  inserted  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall ; 
those  with  their  length  in  the  face  of  the  wall  are  callid 
stretchers.     The  same  is  aUo  to  be  understood  of  brickwork. 

Heading  Joint,  in  joinery,  the  joint  of  two  or  more  boards 
at  right  angleis  to  the  fibres;    or,  in  hand-railing,  at  right 


II  EL 


494 


HEP 


angles  to  the  hack  ;  this  is  done  with  a  view  to  continue  the 
lenjith  of  the  l)oard  when  too  short.  The  heading-joints  in 
gO'.d  work  arc  always  pkuighed  and  tongned,  as  in  flooring, 
dado,  &c.  In  dado,  the  heading-joints,  besides  being  [ihjughed 
and  tongiied,  are  also  glued. 

Hkad-Way  of  a  Stair,  the  clear  distance,  measured  per- 
pendieular  to  the  horizon,  from  the  tread  of  any  step,  resting- 
place,  or  landing,  to  the  ceiling  ininiediately  above,  in  one 
revolution,  making  allowanoe  for  the  thickness  of  the  steps. 

IIEAliSE  or  Hekse,  a  metal  fiame  sometimes  set  over 
efligieson  tombs. 

HE.\RT-BOND,  in  masonry,  the  lapping  of  one  stone 
over  two  others,  which  together  make  the  breadth  of  the  wall. 
This  is  piactised  when  thorough-stones  cannot  be  procured. 
Siv  Masonkv. 

HEARTH.     &e  Chimney. 

IIEATIIER-ROOF,  that  kind  of  roof  employed  in  build- 
ing which  is  thatched  over  or  covered  with  heather  or  heath, 
instead  of  some  other  material.  It  is  recommended,  as  well 
adapted  to  buildings  of  the  farm  description,  liy  the  writer 
of  the  Siirrei/  of  I  he  County  of  Arr/yle,  in  t<cothiH(l,  on  the 
principle  that  it  does  well  with  timber  of  the  ordinary  sort, 
is  ca|>able  of  being  procured  for  a  trifle,  lasts  nearly  as  long 
as  slates,  and  gives  less  trouble  in  the  repair.  It  is  asserted 
that  a  roof  of  this  material,  when  well  put  on,  will  last  one 
hundred  years,  provided  the  timber  continues  good  that 
length  of  time.  And  it  is  stated,  that  formerly,  most  of  the 
churches  in  the  above  county  vcere.  covered  with  this  sort  of 
roof;  likewise  that  heather-roofs  arc  freiiuently  met  with  in 
the  district  of  Cowal,  and  that  there  are  a  few  of  them  in 
Kin  tyre. 

This  sort  of  material  may  certainly  be  employed  with  ad- 
vantage as  a  covering  for  small  houses  and  other  buildings, 
where  other  kinds  of  substances  cannot  be  procured,  except 
at  a  great  expense;  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  very  inferior 
to  slate,  and  other  similar  matters,  in  forming  the  coverings 
of  such  erections. 

HECATOMPEDON  (from  Ikotov,  a  hundred,  and  tt^c 
(I  foot)  a  name  given  to  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of  Minerva, 
at  Athens. 

IIECATONSTYLON  {kKarov^vXnv)  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture, a  portico  with  a  hundred  columns.  This  name  was 
peculiar  to  the  great  Portico  of  Pompey's  theatre  at  Rome. 

H  I-:CK,  a  rack. 

HEEL,  in  mouldings,  the  same  as  the  sima-inversa. 

Heel  ok  a  Rafter,  the  foot  of  the  rafter,  as  it  is  formed 
to  rest  upon  the  wall-plate. 

HEKiirr.  the  perpendicular  distance  of  the  most  remote 
part  of  a  hodv  from  the  plane  on  which  it  rests. 

HELICOlb  PARABOLA,  or  the  Parauolic  Spiral,  a 
curve  arising  upon  the  supposition  of  the  axis  of  the  common 
Apollonian  parabola  being  bent  round  into  the  periphery  of 
a  circle.  The  helicoid  parabola,  therafore,  is  a  line  passing 
through  the  extremities  of  the  ordinates,  which  converge 
towards  the  centre  of  the  said  circle. 

HELIOPOLIS,  orTiiK  Crrv  of  the  Su>j,  in  ancient  geo- 
grajihy,  a  city  of  Egypt,  placed  by  geograjihers  not  far  from 
Helle,  at  .some  distance  from  the  eastern  |)oiut  of  the  Delta. 
It  was  built,  according  to  Strabo,  on  a  long  artificial  mount 
of  earth,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  inundation. 
This  causeway,  covered  with  rubbi-h,  is  still  visible  two 
leagues  to  the  north-east  <if  Grand  Cairn,  and  three  from  the 
separation  of  the  Nile.  This  city  had  a  temple  to  the  sun, 
where  a  particular  jilace  was  set  apart  fm-  the  feeding  of  the 
sacred  ox,  which  was  there  adored  under  the  name  of  .Mene- 
vis,  as  he  was  at  Memphis  under  that  of  Apis.  There  was 
also  in  this  city  another  m;ignilieent  temple,  in  the  ancient 


Egyptian  taste,  with  avenues  of  sphinxes  and  superb  obe- 
lisks, before  the  principal  entry.  These  temples  were  Aillen 
into  decay  under  the  reign  of  Augustus;  as  the  city  h.ad  lieen 
laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  by  the  fury  of  Candiyses. 
Of  the  four  obelisks  built  by  Soehis  in  that  town,  two  were 
removed  to  Rome  ;  another  has  been  destroyed  by  the  Arabs; 
and  the  la-^t  of  them  is  si  ill  standijig  on  its  pedestal.  It  is 
composed  of  a  block  of  Thebaic  stone,  perfectly  polished,  and 
is,  without  including  its  base,  G8  feet  high,  and  about  Oi  feet 
wide  on  each  aspect.  It  is  covered  witli  hieroglyphics.  This 
beautiful  monument,  and  a  sphinx  of  yellowish  marble,  over- 
set in  the  mud,  are  the  only  remains  of  Ileliopolis.  See 
Egyptian  Architecture. 

HELIX,  a  term  applied  to  the  little  scrolls  in  the  Corin- 
thian capital,  called  also  uriUa: ;  they  are  sixteen  in  number, 
viz.  two  at  every  angle,  and  two  in  the  middle  ofthe  aliacus, 
branching  out  of  the  caulicoli  or  stalks  which  rise  Between 
the  leaves. 

HELMET,  a  warlike  ornament,  in  imitation  ofthe  helmet 
worn  l)y  the  cavaliers,  both  in  war  and  in  tournaments,  as  a 
cover  and  defence  of  the  head  ;  the  helmet  is  known  by  di- 
vers other  names,  as  the  head-piece,  steel-cup,  &c.  The  Ger- 
mans call  it  Ac/f/i  or /(<>//?/»  ;  the  Italians  clmo  ;  the  French 
casque,  as  did  also  the  ancient  English. 

The  helmet  covered  the  head  and  face,  only  leaving  an 
aperture  about  the  eyes,  secured  l)y  bars,  which  served  as  a 
visor. 

HEM,  the  protuberant  part  ofthe  Ionic  capital,  formed  by 
spirals, 

HEMl,  a  word  used  in  the  composition  of  divers  terms. 
It  signifies  the  same  with  semi  or  demi,  viz.,  half;  being  an 
abbreviation  of  fjiicavg,  heniisys,  which  signifies  the  same. 
The  Greeks  retrenched  the  la^t  syllable  ofthe  word  ijiiiavg 
in  the  composition  of  words ;  and,  after  their  example,  we  have 
done  so  too,  in  most  ofthe  compounds  borrowed  from  them. 

HEMICVCLE,  (Latin,  hemlci/cliinn,  (compounded  cjf^y^uCTy^-, 
half,  and  KirnXog,  circle)  a  semicircle.  This  word  is  particl^ 
larly  ap])lied,  in  architccturtc,  to  vaults  in  the  cradle  form  ; 
and  arches,  or  sweeps  of  vaults,  constituting  a  perfect  semi- 
circle. To  construct  an  arch  of  hewn  stone,  they  divide  the 
hemicycle  into  so  many  voussoirs;  taking  care  to  make  them 
an  uneven  number,  that  there  be  no  joint  in  the  middle, 
where  the  key-stone  should  he. 

HEMICYCLIUM,  a  part  of  the  orchestra  in  the  ancient 
theatre.  Scaliger,  however,  observes,  it  was  no  standing 
part  of  the  orchestra  ;  being  only  used  in  dram.itie  pieces, 
where  some  person  was  supposed  to  be  arrived  from  sea,  as 
in  Plautius's  Riideiis. 

HEMISPHERE,  (Latin,  hemispherinm,  compounded  of 
7)iuovg,  half,  and  a(f>aipa,  sphere)  in  geometry,  one  half  of  a 
globe,  or  sphere,  when  divided  into  two  by  a  plane  passing 
through  its  centre. 

HEMISPHEROIDAL,  a  body  approaching  to  the  figure 
of  a  hemisphere,  l)ut  not  exactly  so  ;  of  this  description  are 
what  mav  be  termed  elliptical  domes,  upon  either  iixis. 

HEMiTRlGLYPH,  the  half  triglyph. 

HENDECAGON,  Endecaoon,  or  Undecagon,  (com- 
pounded of  ti'(5f'/ca,  eleven,  and  yuvia,  an;ile)  in  geometrv,  a 
figure  which  has  eleven  sides,  and  as  many  angles.  If  each 
side  of  this  fig\ire  be  1.  its  area  will  be  equal  to  9.305630!) 
=  V  tangent  73^",  radius  being  1, 

11  ICPT.\(tON,  (of  tTTTa,  septem,  seven,  and  ywrtnt,  atu/le) 
in  geometry,  a  figure  consisting  of  seven  sides  and  scvi-n 
angles.  If  the  sides  and  angles  bo  all  equal,  it  is  called  a 
rer/ular  heptagon.  The  area  of  a  regular  heptagon  is 
equal  to  the  square  of  one  of  its  sides  multiplied  by 
3.6339126. 


MIH  GITS' (& 

Fiq.2 


I'l.ATK  I. 


Fu,A 


JJG 

iq.....^...iL 


Fiff/    N"! 


-m: 


y'l- 


F^3 


C  D 


ly?  J^2 


ri.q.;i      I'." 


/■■,>jO.    -V'V 


JtlVi-rt/^rJ  _  tv  P-VlcTlolsorv. 


HIN 


495 


II  IN 


IIEPTAGONAL,  consisting  of  seven  angles,  and  there- 
fore also  of  seven  sides. 

IIEUBOSUM  MAIiMOR,  a  species  of  marble,  much 
esteemed  and  used  by  the  ai.cient  architects  and  statuaries. 
It  was  of  a  beautiful  green  colour,  but  had  always  with  it 
some  cast  of  yellow.  It  was  dug  in  the  (|uarries  of  Taygetum, 
but  was  esteemed  by  the  workmen  the  same  in  all  respects, 
except  colour,  with  the  black  marble  dug  at  Taiiiarus  in 
Laeredenionia,  and  thence  called  Twiiuriaii  marble. 

IlEriIil.\(i-BONE.  a  term  applied  to  a  particular  kind 
of  masDury,  in  which  the  stones  are  laid  aslant,  inclining 
alternately  right  and  left.  Such  work  was  common  in 
Roman  and  S.ixon  structures. 

IIEKMOGE.XES,  the  inventor  of  the  eustyle  intercolum- 
niation;  also  of  the  oetostvie  pseudodipteros.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Vitruvius,  chap.  2.  book  iii. 

HEWN  STONE,  any  stone  when  reduced  to  a  given  form 
by  means  of  the  mallet  and  chisel. 

IIEXAEDRON,  or  Hexahedron  (formed  of  e^,  six,  and 
^dpa,  seat)  in  geometry,  one  of  the  five  regular  bodies,  popu- 
larly called  o  ciihe.    See  Cube. 

The  square  of  the  side  of  a  hexaedrcn  is  in  a  sulitriple 
ratio  to  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  circumscribed 
sphere.  Hence,  the  side  of  the  hexaedron  is  to  the  diameter 
of  the  sphere  in  which  it  is  inscribed,  as  one  to  the  -^  3  : 
and  consequently  it  is  incommensurable  to  it. 

HEXAGON,  (from  ei,  six.  and  ywi'tct,  angle)  a  figure  of 
six  angles,  and  consequently  of  six  sides.  If  the  angles  and 
sides  are  equal,  the  figure  is  called  a  regular  hexagon.  If 
the  side  of  a  hexagon  be  denoted  by  «,  its  area  will 
be  ^.SDSOTtiS  «. 

HEX.\STYLE,  (from  e|,  six,  and  g-vXo^,  column)  a  build- 
ing with  six  columns  in  front. 

HINDOO  ARCHITECTURE.  See  Indian  Archi- 
tecture. 

HINGES,  metal  ligaments,  upon  which  doors,  shutters, 
folds,  lids,  &c.,  turn  in  the  act  of  opening  and  shutting. 

There  arc  many  species  of  hinges,  viz.,  butts,  rising-hinges, 
pew-hinges,  casement-hiuges,  casting-hinges,  chest-hinges, 
coach-hinges,  desk-hinges,  dovetail-hinges,  esses,  folding- 
hinges,  garnets,  weighty  side,  side-hinges  with  rising  joints, 
side-hinges  with  squares,  screw-hinges,  scuttle-hinges,  shutter- 
hinges,  trunk-hinges,  of  various  descriptions,  hook-andeye- 
hiiiges,  and  cciitre-pin-hinges. 

HINGING,  a  branch  of  joinery,  which  shows  the  art  of 
hanging  a  board  to  the  side  of  an  aperture,  so  as  to  permit 
or  exclude  entrance  at  pleasure.  The  board  which  performs 
this  ortice  is  called  a  chisnre.  The  placing  of  hinges  depends 
entirely  ^^n  the  form  of  the  joint,  and  as  the  motion  of  the 
closure  is  angular,  and  performed  round  a  fixed  line  as  an 
axis,  the  hinge  must  be  so  fixed  that  the  motion  may  not  be 
interrupted  ;  thus  if  the  joint  contain  the  surfaces  of  two 
cylinders,  the  convex  one  in  motion  upon  the  edge  of  the 
closure,  sliding  upon  the  concave  one  at  rest  on  the  fixed  body, 
the  motion  of  the  closure  n)ust  be  performed  on  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder,  which  axis  must  be  the  centre  of  the  hinges;  in 
this  case  the  joint  will  be  close,  whether  the  aperture  be  shut 
or  open.  But  if  the  joint  be  a  plane  surface,  it  must  be 
considered  upon  what  side  of  the  aperture  the  motion  is  to 
be  performed,  as  the  hinge  must  be  placed  on  the  side  of 
the  closure  where  it  revolves. 

The  hinge  is  made  in  two  parts,  movable  in  any  angular 
direction,  one  upon  the  other. 

The  knuckle  of  the  hinge  is  a  portion  contained  under  a 
cylindric  surface,  and  is  common  to  both  the  moving  part  and 
the  other  part  at  rest;  the  cylinders  are  indented  into  each 
other,  and  made  hollow  to  receive  a  concentric  cylindric  pin 


which  passes  through  the  hollow,  and  connects  the  moving 
parts  together. 

The  axis  of  the  cylindiical  [lin  is  called  the  axis  of  Ike 
/liitge. 

When  two  or  more  hinges  are  placed  upon  a  closure,  the 
axes  of  the  hinges  must  be  in  the  same  straight  line. 

ITie  straight  line  in  which  the  axes  of  the  hinges  are  placed 
is  called  the  line  of  hinges. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  diirerent  cases. 

The  principle  of  hanging  doors,  shutters,  or  flaps,  with 
hinges. 

The  centre  of  the  hinge  is  generally  put  in  the  middle  of 
the  joint,  as  at  a.  Figure  1  ;  but  in  many  cases  there  is  a 
necessity  for  throwing  back  the  flap  to  a  certain  distance  from 
the  joint ;  in  oider  to  eflieet  this,  suppose  the  flap,  when  folded 
back,  were  required  to  be  at  a  certain  distance,  as  a  b  in 
Figure  2,  from  the  joint ;  divide  a  d  in  two  equal  parts 
at  the  point  c,  which  will  give  the  centre  of  the  hinge; 
the  dotted  lines  b  d  e  f,  show  the  position  when  folded 
back. 

Note. — The  centre  of  the  hinge  must  be  placed  a  small 
degree  beyond  the  surface  of  the  closure,  otherwise  it  will 
not  fill  freely  back  on  the  jamb  or  partition. 

It  must  also  be  observed,  that  the  centre  of  the  hinge  must 
be  on  that  side  that  the  rebate  is  on,  otherwise  it  will  not  open 
without  the  joint  being  constructed  in  a  particular  form,  as 
will  be  atlcrwards  shown. 

Figure  3  shows  the  same  thing  opened  to  a  right  angle. 

To  hang  two  flaps,  so  that  when  folded  back,  ihey  shall  be 
at  a  certain  distance  from  each  other. 

This  is  easily  accomplished  by  means  of  hinges  having 
knees  projecting  to  half  that  distance,  as  appears  from  Figure  4^; 
this  sort  of  hinges  is  used  in  hanging  the  doors  of  pews,  in 
order  to  clear  the  moulding  of  the  coping. 

To  make  a  rule  joint  for  a  window-shutter,  or  other 
folding-flaps. 

Figure  5. — Let  a  be  the  place  of  the  joint;  draw  a  c  at 
right  angles  to  the  flap,  shutter,  or  door ;  take  c,  in  the 
line  A  c,  for  the  centre  of  the  hinge  ;  and  the  plain  part  a  b, 
as  may  be  thought  necessary  ;  on  c,  with  a  radius,  c  b,  describe 
the  arc  b  d  ;  then  will  a  b  d  be  the  true  joint. 

Note. — The  knuckle  of  the  hinge  is  always  placed  in  the 
wood,  because  the  farther  it  is  inserted  the  more  of  the  joint 
will  be  covered,  when  it  is  opened  out  to  a  right  angle,  as  in 
Figure  6  ;  but  if  the  centre  of  the  hinge  were  placed  the  least 
without  the  thickness  of  the  wood,  it  would  show  an  open 
space,  which  would  be  a  defect  in  workmanship. 

To  form  the  joints  of  styles,  to  be  hung  together,  when  the 
knuckle  of  the  hinge  is  jilaced  on  the  contrary  side  of  the 
rebate. 

Figure  7. — Let  c  be  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  m  i  the  joint 
on  the  same  side  of  the  hinge;  kl  the  depth  of  the  rebate 
in  the  middle  of  the  thickness  of  the  styles,  perpendicular 
to  K  M,  and  L  F  the  joint  on  the  other  side,  parallel  to  e  m  ; 
bisect  K  L  at  H,  join  h  c  ;  on  h  c  describe  a  semicircle,  c  i  h, 
cutting  KM  at  i:  through  the  points  i  and  h,  drawiHO, 
cutting  F  L  at  G  ;  then  will  f  g  i  m  be  the  true  joint ;  but  if 
the  rebate  were  made  in  the  form  of  m  klf,  neither  of  the 
styles  could  move  round  the  joint  or  hinge. 

To  form  the  edges  or  joint  of  door-styles,  to  be  hung  to 
each  other,  so  that  the  door  may  open  to  a  right  angle,  and 
show  a  bead  to  correspond  exactly  to  the  knuckle  of  the  hinge. 
Also  the  manner  of  constructing  the  hinges  for  the  various 
forms  of  joints,  so  as  to  be  let  in  equally  upon  each  side. 

Figure  8,  No.  1,  shows  the  edge  of  a  style,  or  it  may  in 
some  cases -be  a  jamb,  on  which  a  bead  is  constructed  exactly 
to  the  size  of  the  knuckle  of  the  hinge,  and  rebated  backwards, 


IIIN 


496 


HIP 


equal  to  half  tin;  thioUness  of  the  beail  :   the  manner  of  con- 
stfui-thif^  the  rebate  will  be  shown  as  follows  : 

Througli  c,  the  centre  of  the  bead,  which  must  also  be  the 
centre  of  the  hiiijie,  draw  cud  per|iendieiilar  to  e  f;  draw  a  a 
pa4allel  t<j  it,  touching  the  bead  at  g  ;  make  o  a  equal  to  g  c, 
the  ladiusof  the  bead  ;  join  c  A ;  make  ab  perpendicular 
to  A  c,  cutting  c  D  at  »  ;  then  will  a  a  b  d  be  the  joint 
required. 

No.  2,  shows  a  part  of  the  hanging  style  constructed  so  as 
to  receive  the  edge  of  No.  1. 

No.  3,  shows  the  above  hinged  together  with  common 
butt  hinges. 

Nule. — It  must  be  observed  in  this,  and  all  the  following 
examples  of  hinges,  that  the  joints  are  not  made  to  fit  e.\actly 
close,  as  sufficient  space  for  the  paint  must  be  allowed. 

Fiyure  9,  No.  1  and  2.  The  manner  of  constructing  these 
being  only  a  plain  joint  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  style, 
no  farther  description  is  necessaiy. 

No.  3  shows  No.  1  and  2  hinged  together,  and  the  par- 
ticular construction  of  the  hinge,  so  as  to  be  seen  as  a  pait 
of  the  bead,  and  the  strap  of  the  hinge  to  be  let  equally 
into  each  style:  this  construction  will  admit  of  a  bead  of  the 
same  size  e.\actly  opposite  to  it. 

Figure  10,  No.  1  and  2.  The  manner  of  constructing  the 
edges  of  styles  to  be  hinged  together  with  common  butts,  to 
be  let  equally  into  each  style  :  the  manner  of  constructing 
this  joint  is  so  plain,  by  the  figure,  that  it  would  be  useless 
to  give  any  other  description  of  it.  No.  3,  the  two  pieces 
hinged  together. 

Methods  of  jointiiuj  stijles  together  so  us  to  prevent  seeing 
through  the  joints,  each  sii/e  of  the  styles  to  finish  with  bends 
of  the  same  size,  exactly  opposite  to  each  other,  and  for  tite 
strap  of  the  hinges  to  he  let  equally  into  both  parts  or  styles. 
Figure  11,  No.  1  and  2,  the  manner  of  constructing  the 
joint  before  hinged  together. 

No.  3  shows  No.  1  and  2  hinged  together  with  common 
butts. 

Figure  12,  No.  1  and  2,  shows  another  method  of  construct- 
ing the  joints,  before  hinged  together. 

No.  3,  shows  No.  1  and  2  hinged,  and  tlj.e  particular  form 
of  the  hinges  for  the  joint. 

The  principle  of  concealing  hinges,  showing  the  manner  of 
making  them,  and  of  forming  the  joint  of  the  hanging  style, 
with  the  other  style  connected  to  it  by  the  hinges,  either  for 
doors  or  windows. 

Figure  13,  for  a  window: 
X,  inside  bead  of  the  sash-frame. 
Y,  inside  lining. 
z,  style  of  the  shutter. 

Let  A  be  the  intersection  of  the  face  of  the  shutter,  or  door, 
with  that  of  the  inside  lining  of  the  sash-frame. 
A  R,  the  face  of  the  inside  lining. 

Bisect  the  angle  par  by  the  right  line  A  A ;  now  the 
centre  c  being  determined  in  a  a  ate,  so  that  the  knuckle  of 
the  hinge  may  be  at  a  given  distance  from  the  face  p  a  of  the 
shutter;  through  c  draw  the  line  d  d,  at  right  angles  to  aa  ; 
then  one  side  of  the  hinge  must  come  to  the  line  c  d,  the 
hinge  being  made  as  is  shown  by  the  figure. 

To  construct  the  jamb  to  be  clear  of  the  shutter. — 
On  c,  as  a  centre,  with  a  radius  c  a,  describe  an  arc  a  m, 
and  it  will  be  the  joint  required. 

Note. — When  these  sort  of  hinges  are  used  in  shutters,  the 
strap  of  the  hinge  may  be  made  longer  on  the  inside  lining, 
than  that  which  is  connected  with  the  shutter. 

Figure  14,  is  the  manner  of  hanging  a  door  on  the  same 
principle  :  the  shadowed  part  must  be  cut  out,  so  that  the 
other  strap  of  the  hinge  may  revolve;  the  edge,  c  d,  of  the 


hinge,  will  come  into  the  position  of  the  line  a  a,  when  the 
window  is  shut  in. 

Here  the  strap  part  of  l\w  hinge  may  Vie  of  equal  lengths. 
Figure    15,    the    common    method    of    hanging    shutters 
together,  the  hinge  being  let  the  whole  of  its  thickness  into 
the  shutter,  and  not  into  the  sash-frame. 

I?y  this  mode  it  is  not  so  firmly  hinig,  as  when  half  is  let 
into  the  shutter  and  half  into  the  sash-frame,  but  the  lining 
may  be  of  thinner  stuff. 

Note. — It  is  proper  to  notice,  that  the  centre  of  the  hinge 
must  be  in  the  same  plane  with  the  face  of  the  shutter,  or 
beyond  it,  but  not  within  the  thickness. 

Figure  16,  the  method  of  hanging  a  door  with  centres. 
Let  a  d  be  the  thickness  of  the  door  and  bisect  it  in  b  ; 
draw  Bc  perpendicular  to  ab;  make  bc  equal  to  ba  or  bd; 
on  c  (the  centre  of  the  hinge)  with  a  radius  c  a  or  on, 
describe  an  arc,  a  e  d,  whiih  will  give  the  true  joint  for  the 
edge  of  the  door  to  revolve  in. 

HIP,  in  architecture,  a  piece  of  timber  placed  between 
every  two  adjacent  inclined  sides  of  a  hip-roof,  for  the  pur- 
[lose  of  fixing  the  jack  rafters.  For  the  manner  of  finding 
the  length  and  backing  of  the  hips,  see  Hip-Roof. 

HIP-KNOB,  a  pinnacle,  finial,  or  other  ornament  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  hips  of  a  roof,  or  on  the  apex  of  a  gable, 
especially  where  barge-boards  are  employed. 

HIP-MOULD,  a  mould  by  which  the  back  of  the  hip-rafter 
is  formed  :  it  ought  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  apply  to  the 
side  of  the  hip,  otherwise  there  will  be  no  guide  for  its 
application. 

HIP-ROOF,  a  roof  whose  ends  rise  immediately  from  the 
wall-plate,  with  the  same  inclination  to  the  horizon  as  the 
other  two  sides  of  the  roof  have. 

The  backing  of  a  hip  is  the  angle  made  on  its  upper  edge, 
to  range  with  the  two  sides  or  planes  of  the  roof  between 
which  it  is  placed. 

Jack-rafters  are  those  short  rafters  fixed  to  hips  equidis- 
tantly  disposed  in  the  planes  of  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  roof, 
and  parallel  to  the  common  rafters,  to  fill  up  the  triangular 
spaces,  each  of  which  is  contained  by  a  hip-rafter,  the  adjoin- 
ing common  rafter,  and  the  wall-plate,  between  them.  The 
seat  or  base  of  the  rafter  is  its  ichnographic  [uojeetion  on  the 
plane  of  the  wall-head,  or  on  aiiy  other  horizontal  plane. 

The  principal  angles  concerned  in  hip-roofing  are,  the  angle 
which  a  common  rafter  makes  with  its  seat  on  the  plane  of 
the  wall-head  ;  the  vertical  angle  of  the  roof;  the  angle  which 
a  hip  makes  with  the  adjoining  common  raf>er;  the  angles 
which  a  hip  makes  with  the  wall-plate  on  both  sides  of  it; 
the  angle  which  a  hip-rafter  makes  with  its  seat;  and  the 
acute  angle  which  a  hip-rafter  makes  with  a  vertic^al  line. 
The  principal  lengths  concerned  are,  the  height  of  the  roof; 
the  length  of  the  common  rafters  and  their  seats;  the  length 
of  the  hips  and  their  seats  ;  and.  lastly,  the  length  of  the  wall- 
plate  contained  between  the  lower  end  of  a  hip  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  adjacent  common  rafter. 

The  sides  and  angles  may  be  found  by  geometriciil  con- 
struction or  trigonometrical  calculation.  It  is  evident,  that 
if  the  hipped  end  of  a  roof  be  cut  off  by  a  vertical  plane 
parallel  to  the  wall,  through  the  upper  extremity  of  the  hips, 
it  will  form  a  rectangular  pyramid,  or  one  whose  base  is  a 
rectangle.  The  base  of  this  pyramid  is  bounded  by  the  wall- 
plate  between  the  two  hips  on  one  side,  and  on  the  opposite 
side  by  the  seat  of  the  two  adjoining  common  rafters  ;  on  the 
other  two  opposite  sides,  by  that  part  of  the  wall-plate  on  each 
side  contained  by  the  lower  end  of  the  hij)  and  the  next  com- 
mon rafter  adjoining.  One  of  the  sides  is  the  isosceles  triangle 
contained  by  the  two  adjoining  common  rafters  with  their 
seat ;  the  opposite  side  is  the  hipped  end  of  the  roof,  forming 


hy  a  .v°  .3 


Fm.U.\">J. 


PLATE  II 


Fiff.JZ  N'J 


HIP 


497 


HIP 


also  an  isosceles  triiingle ;  the  other  two  opposite  sides  are  the 
right-angled  triangles  contained  by  the  two  hips  and  the  two 
adjoining  ratters  on  the  side  of  the  roof.  This  rectangular 
pyramid  may  be  divided  into  three  triangular  pyramids  by 
the  two  vertical  triangular  planes,  formed  by  the  hiprafters, 
their  seats,  and  the  common  perpendicular  from  their  vertex. 

Two  of  these  pyramids,  when  the  plan  of  the  building  is  a 
rectangle,  are  equal  and  opposite.  In  each  of  these  equal  and 
opposite  pyramids  the  base  is  a  right-angled  triangle,  con- 
tained by  the  seat  of  the  hip-rafter,  the  seat  of  the  adjoining 
common  rafter,  and  the  part  of  the  wall-plate  between  the 
hip  and  the  adjoining  common  rafter.  One  of  the  sides  is  a 
right-angled  triangle  contained  by  the  adjoining  common 
rafter,  its  seat,  and  perpendicular :  a  second  side  is  a  right- 
angled  triangle  contained  by  the  common  rafter,  the  hip- 
rafters,  and  the  wall-plate,  between  them;  and  the  remaining 
third  side  is  the  triangle  contained  by  the  hip-rafter,  its  seat, 
and  perpendicular.  With  regard  to  the  remaining  pyramid, 
its  base  is  a  right-angled  triangle  eontiiined  by  the  seats  of 
the  two  hips  and  the  wall-plate  between  them,  the  right  angle 
being  that  contained  by  the  seats  of  the  two  hips  ;  two  of  its 
sides  are  the  triangular  planes  passing  the  hip-rafter,  which 
are  also  common  to  the  other  two  pyramids  ;  its  third  side 
is  the  hipped  end  of  the  roof. 

Given  t/ie  plan  of  a  buildiiiy,  or  the  form  of  a  wall-plate  of 
a  hip-roof  and  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  to  find  the  I'arious  lengths 
and  angles  concerned,  whetlier  the  roof  is  square  or  bevel. 

E.XAMPLE  I. —  To  find  the  length  of  the  rafters,  the  bucking 
of  the  hips,  and  the  shoulders  of  jack-rafters  and  purlins, 
geometricalli/. 

Plate  I. — Figure  I. — Let  a  b  c  d  be  the  plan.  Draw  e  f 
parallel  to  the  sides,  a  d  and  b  c,  in  the  middle  of  the  distance 
between  them.  On  d  c,  as  a  diameter,  describe  the  semi- 
circle D  F  c  :  draw  f  d  and  f  c,  then  the  angle  d  f  c  is  a  right 
angle.  Draw  g  f  h  perpendicular  to  e  f.  cutting  the  sides 
A  D  and  B  c  in  G  and  h  ;  from  f  e  cut  off  f  i  equal  to  the 
height  or  pitch  of  the  roof,  and  join  g  i  ;  from  f  c  cut  oft'  f  k 
equal  to  f  i,  and  join  k  d  ;  then  g  i  is  the  length  of  a  common 
rafter,  and  d  k  that  of  tlie  hip  ;  for  if  the  triangles  g  f  i  and 
D  F  K  be  turned  round  their  seats,  gf  and  df,  until  their 
planes  become  perpendicular  to  the  triangle  g  f  d,  the  per- 
pendicular f  I  will  coincide  with  f  k,  and  the  point  i  will 
coincide  with  the  point  k  ;  the  lines  g  i  and  d  k,  representing 
the  rafters,  will  then  be  in  their  true  position. 


The  same  by  calculation,     gi' 


+  Fi'  (Euclid 


i.  47.)  therefore,  gi  =;  (gf''  +  ri')^  the  length  of  the 
common  rafter,  df"  =  gf"-(-gd'  the  square  of  the  seat 
of  the  hip.     dk*=::df"  +  fk^  =  gf'  +   Go'-f  fi', 


therefore  d  k  =   g  f'  -1-  g  d'  -4-  f  i"^' 

In  the  same  manner  the  other  hip-rafter  c  l  is  found,  as 
also  the  hip-rafters  a  m  and  b  n. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  backing  of  the  hip-rafter 
whose  seat  is  c  F. 

Geomclricalhj. — Imagine  the  triangle  c  r  l  to  be  raised 
upon  its  seat  c  f,  until  its  plane  becomes  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  wall-plate  a  b  c  d,  then  there  will  be  two 
right-angled  solid  angles  ;  the  three  sides  of  the  one  are  the 
plane  angles  of  f  c  d,  f  c  l,  and  the  hypothenusal  plane  angle 
D  c  L.  In  each  of  these  solid  angles  the  two  sides,  containing 
the  right  angle,  viz.,  the  plane  angles  f  c  h,  f  c  d,  and  the 
perpendicular  plane  angle  c  f  l,  which  is  common  to  both, 
being  given  to  find  the  two  opposite  inclinations  to  the  sides 
F  c  H  and  F  0  D,  and  the  remaining  third  sides. 

Now  the  angles  g  d  c  and  h  c  d  are  beseoted  by  the  seats 
F  D  and  F  0  of  the  hip-rafters ;  for  if  e  f  is  produced  to  meet 
D  c  in  u,  u  will  be  the  centre  of  the  circle  dfc;  and  v  c. 


u  F,  u  D,  are  equal  to  each  other  ;  and  because  u  f  is  equal 
to  u  c,  the  angle  c  f  u  is  equal  to  f  c  u ;  but  c  f  u  is  equal  to 
the  alternate  angle  f  c  h  ;  therefore,  the  angle  f  c  u  is  equal 
to  F  c  H  ;  that  is,  the  angle  u  c  h  is  besected  by  the  seat  f  c 
of  the  hip-rafter.  In  the  same  manner  may  be  shown  that 
u  D  g  is  besected  by  the  seat  d  f  of  the  other  hip-rafter. 
From  any  point,  o,  in  f  c,  draw  o  v  perpendicular  to  l  c, 
cutting  it  in  v,  and  o  w  perpendicular  to  f  c,  cutting  d  c  in 
w  ;  from  o  c  cut  off  o  Q  equal  to  o  p.  Join  q  w,  then  o  q  w 
will  be  the  inclination  opposite  the  plane  angle  Fcn,  and  this 
is  the  angle  which  the  end  of  the  roof  makes  with  the  vertical 
triangle  contained  by  the  hip-rafter,  its  seat,  and  perpen- 
dicular. Produce  wo  to  meet  Bc  in  x,  and  join  q  x,  then 
w  Q  X  is  the  inclination  of  the  two  planes  of  a  side  and  end 
of  the  roof,  whose  intersections  are  b  c  and  c  d,  on  the  plane 
of  the  wall-head.  Now,  the  angle  w  q  x,  which  is  double 
the  angle  w  q  o,  is  the  backing  of  the  hip.  Make  p  v  equal 
to  Q  w,  and  join  c  v,  then  will  p  c  v  be  the  angle  contained 
by  the  two  sides  L  c,  c  D,  or  that  of  the  hypothenusal  plane 
angle  contained  by  the  intersection  bo,  and  the  hip-rafter 
L  c.  This  angle  may  be  otherwise  found  thus  : — Produce  g  h 
to  R  ;  make  c  r  equal  to  c  l,  then  the  angle  h  c  r  is  equal  to 
p  c  V.  Now  the  angle  h  c  r,  or  p  c  v,  is  the  angle  which  the 
purlins  (when  one  of  their  faces  is  in  the  side  of  the  roof) 
make  with  the  hip-rafter  l  c  ;  and  the  angle  c  v  p,  or  c  r  h, 
is  the  angle  which  a  jack-rafter  makes  with  the  same  hip ;  in 
the  same  manner  may  the  backings  of  the  other  hips  be  found. 
The  other  bevel  of  the  jack-rafters  is  the  angle  n  i  r.  To 
find  the  other  bevel  for  cutting  the  shoulder  of  the  purlin, 
proceed  thus  :  on  f,  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  f  g, 
describe  the  arc  g  v  ;  draw  f  y  perpendicular  to  g  i,  y  z 
parallel  to  e  f,  cutting  f  d  in  z,  and  z  &  parallel  to  g  h,  cut- 
ting a  d  in  &.  Join  &  f,  then  g  &  f  is  the  angle  which  the 
other  side  of  the  shoulder  makes  with  the  length  of  the  purlin. 

At  the  other  end  of  this  diagram  is  shown  the  manner  of 
finding  the  two  bevels  for  cutting  the  shoulder  of  the  purlin 
against  the  hip-rafter  when  the  side  of  the  purlin  is  not  in 
the  plane  of  the  side  of  the  loof. 

To  find  the  same  things  by  calculation. — The  backing  of 
the  hip-rafter  and  hypothenusal  side  is  obtained  as  follows: — 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  three  plane  angles,  and  the  three 
inclinations  of  solid  angles,  consisting  of  three  plane  angles, 
are  found  exactly  as  the  sides  and  angles  of  spheric  triangles, 
any  three  parts  being  given  ;  the  degrees  of  the  plane  angles 
being  exactly  the  same  as  the  sides  of  the  spheric  triangles, 
and  the  inclinations  the  proper  measures  of  the  spheric  angles; 
therefore,  if  two  of  the  planeangles  should  be  perpendicular 
to  each  other,  the  spheric  triangle  representing  this  solid  angle 
will  have  also  two  of  its  sides  perpendicular  to  each  other. 
Now,  in  this,  there  are  given  the  two  sides  containing  the 
right  angle  to  find  the  hypothenuse  and  angles. 

It  is  shown,  by  writers  on  spherical  trigonometry,  that  in 
any  right-angled  spherical  triangle,  radius  is  to  the  cosine  of 
either  of  the  sides,  as  the  cosine  of  the  other  side  to  the  cosine 
of  the  hypothenuse.  Suppose  the  plane  angle  f  c  l  to  be 
27'',  and  the  angle  f  c  h  52°,  to  find  the  hypothenuse  and 
ano^les  of  a  right-angled  spherical  triangle,  one  of  whose  legs 
is  27°  and  the  other  52°,  it  will  therefore  be — 

As  radius,  sine  of  90°  .     .      .     .      .     .     .  =   10.00000 

Is  to  the  cosine  of  f  c  l,  27° =     9.94988 

So  is  the  cosine  of  f  c  h  52° =     9.78934 

19.73922 
10.00000 


To  the  cosine  of  the  hypothenusal  side  56°  44'      9.73922 


HIP 


498 


HIP 


This  ascertains  the  angle  which  the  jack-rafter  makes  with 
the  hip.  Since  all  the  sides  are  now  given,  we  shall  have, 
by  another  well-known  property,  of  the  sines  of  the  sides 
being  as  the  sides  of  the  opposite  angles,  the  following  pro- 
portion : — 

Asthesineof  the  hypothenuse  56°  44'    .     .   =     9.92227 


Is  to  the  sine  of  a  right  angle,  or  90° 
So  is  the  sine  of  the  side  f  c  m,  52° 


To  the  sine  of  the  opposite  angle  70°  28'  . . 


=   10.00000 

—  9.89053 

10.89753 
9.92227 

—  9.9742C 


Tlierefore  the  backing  is  twice  70°  28'  ...  =  140°  56' 
In  finding  the  angle  opposite  the  side  F  c  H,  it  was  not 
necessary  that  the  hypothenusal  side  should  have  first  been 
found.  It  might  have  been  found  iiidependenlly  thus  : — The 
sine  of  either  of  the  sides  about  the  right  angle  is  to  radius, 
as  the  tangent  of  the  remaining  side  is  to  the  tangent  of  the 
angle  opposite  to  that  side  ;    therefore. 

As  the  sine  of  the  side  f  c  l,  27°  ....=:     9.05705 


Is  to  the  tangent  of  the  side  f  c  h  52° 
So  is  radius,  sine  of  90° 


=    10.10719 
=    10.00000 

20.10719 
9.65705 


To  the  tangent  of  the  angle  opposite  the  side      

FCH,  70°28' =    10.45014 

In  the  same  maimer  may  other  beveh  be  found  by  trigo- 
nometrical calculations;  but  as  such  extreme  exactness  is  not 
necessary,  the  geometric;U  constructions  ought  to  be  well 
understood. 

E.xAMPLF.  II. — TTie  figure  a  b  c  »  [Fii/ure  2)  of  the  wall 
plate  of  a  hip  span-ronf,  and  the  liih/ht  of  the  roof  being  given; 
to  find  the  buekiny  of  the  hips,  the  angles  made  upon  the  sides 
of  the  purlins  hg  their  longitudinal  arrises,  ami  the  angles 
made  upon  the  xides  of  the  jack-rafters;  the  rO(f  being  equal  Ig 
iurimed  to  the  different  sides  of  the  building,  except  ul  the 
oblifjue  end,  a  b. 

Figure  2. — Let  the  two  sides,  a  n,  a  d,  and  d  c  of  the  wall- 
plate  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  the  end  c  n  at 
obliipie  angles  to  a  n  and  c  d  ;  draw  the  seat,  K  F,  of  the  ridge 
in  the  middle  of  the  lircadth,  parallel  to  A  n  and  DC  ;  make 
AG  and  DH  equal  to  half  the  breadth  of  the  building  ;  join 
o.  n,  which  will  be  the  seat  of  the  conmion  rafters  adjoining 
the  hips  ;  make  E  i  equal  to  the  height  of  the  roof;  and  draw 
I  G  and  I  H,  which  are  the  length  of  the  common  rafters. 
Draw  E  D  and  e  a,  the  seats  of  the  hips  ;  make  e  k  cipial  to 
Ei;  and  draw  k  a,  which  gives  the  length  of  each  hip. 
Til  rough  any  point,  l,  in  the  .seat  of  the  hip  a  e,  draw  m  n 
perpindicular  to  a  e,  cutting  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  wall- 
plate  at  M  and  n  ;  take  the  nearest  distance  from  l  to  the 
rafter  a  k,  and  make  i.  o  equal  to  it ;  and  draw  o  m  and  o  n  ; 
and  M  o  N  is  the  backing  of  the  hips,  represented  by  their  seats 
A  E  and  D  E. 

This  operation  is  the  .same  as  having  the  two  legs  of  a 
riulit-angled  solid  angle  to  lind  the  angle  opposite  to  one  of 
the  legs;  the  anjile  M  o  N  being  exactly  the  double  of  the 
angle  so  fomid;  for  the  hip  angle  of  the  roof  consists  of  two 
equal  solid  angles. 

Sup|iose  the  bevel  end  at  c  B  to  be  inclined  at  a  different 
angle  to  the  other  sides,  and  let  f  c  and  f  b  be  the  seats  of 
the  hips;  draw  f  q  perpendicular  to  f  c,  and  f  p  perpendicu- 


lar to  f  b,  each  equal  to  the  height  of  the  roof;  then  draw 
Q  c  and  p  B,  which  are  the  lengths  of  the  hip-rafters. 

The  backings  s  u  T  and  v  w  x,  are  found  in  the  same 
maimer  as  above,  and  may  be  described  in  the  same  words. 

I'rom  A,  with  the  distance  a  k,  describe  an  arc  cutting  o  h 
at  J,  and  join  a  j  ;  then  g  j  a  will  be  the  side  bevel,  which 
the  jack-rafters  make  with  the  hips;  and  if  a  right  angle  be 
added  to  o  J  A,  it  will  form  an  obtuse  angle,  which  is  that 
made  by  the  ujiper  arris  of  the  side  of  a  [luilln  placed  in  the 
inclined  side  of  the  roof  with  the  hip-rafter. 

Let  a  be  the  position  of  a  purlin  in  the  rafter  hi;  in  o  ii 
take  any  point,  b,  and  draw  b  c  parallel  to  the  inward  direc- 
tion of  the  purlin  a;  from  h,  with  any  distance,  b  c,  describe 
an  arc  c  d,  cutting  g  h  at  d;  draw  b  e,  cf  and  dg,  parallel  to 
e  f;  the  former  two  cutting  k  d  at  e  andf;  draw  fg  parallel 
to  G  H,  and  join  eg;  produce  6  e  to  h;  and  h  e g,  or  b  eg  will 
be  the  angle  required,  according  to  which  side  it  is  applied: 
this  will  be  found  synonymous  to  one  of  the  legs,  and  the 
adjacent  angle  of  a  right-angled  solid  angle  being  given,  to 
find  the  hypothenuse.  In  the  same  manner,  if  neither  side 
of  the  purlin  should  be  parallel  to  the  inclined  side  of  the 
roof,  as  at  k  in  the  rafter  g  j,  the  bevel  or  angle  upon  each 
side  may  be  f  mnd,  as  shown. 

Plate  II. — Figure  3,  shows  half  the  angle  of  the  backing 
of  the  hips,  the  length  of  the  common  and  hip-rafters,  the 
bevel  of  the  jack-rafters  on  their  upper  sides  in  an  etpial 
inclined  roof,  without  laying  down  or  drawing  any  more  than 
the  necessary  seats;  and  this  is  all  that  is  necessary  when 
each  side  of  the  roof  is  alike;  a  b  being  the  wall-[ilate 
between  the  hip  and  the  rafter  which  joins  the  top  of  the  hip, 
A  c  the  seat  of  the  rafter  which  joins  the  top  of  the  hip,  n  c 
that  of  the  hip,  a  f  the  length  of  the  rafter  which  joins  the 
hip,  B  e  the  length  of  the  hips,  c  ii  o  half  the  backing,  a  n  b 
the  angle  which  the  jack-rafters  f  >rm  with  the  upper  sides  of 
the  hips,  and,  consequently,  with  the  addition  of  a  right- 
angle,  the  side  bevel  of  the  purlin. 

Figure  4,  shows  the  same  bevels,  except  that  the  side  joint 
of  the  purlin  is  found  by  a  different  process,  thus:  from  B, 
with  the  distance  b  a,  describe  an  arc  at  x> ;  from  g,  with  the 
distance  a  c,  describe  another  arc,  cutting  the  former  at  d; 
join  B  D,  and  the  angle  g  b  d  will  be  the  angle  in  the  plane  of 
the  roof,  made  by  the  lower  arris  of  the  purlin  and  the  joint 
against  the  hij>-rafter. 

Besides  the  angles  already  mentioned,  A  f  c  FigureZ,  shows 
the  angle  formed  by  the  upper  side  of  the  rafter  and  the  ridge- 
piece,  and  the  angle  b  e  c,  the  angle  which  the  top  side  of 
the  hips  makes  with  a  vertical  or  plumb-line;  also  the  angle 
f  A  c  shows  the  form  of  the  heel  of  the  common  rafters,  and 
E  B  c  that  of  the  hips. 

Figure  5,  is  a  diagram  showing  the  length  of  the  parts  and 
angles  concerned  in  the  roof,  in  the  same  manner  as  above; 
but  the  jilaii  of  the  building,  or  form  of  the  wall-plate,  is  a 
(piadrilateral,  which  has  neither  part  of  its  opposite  si<les  |iar- 
allel ;  the  method  of  executing  the  roof  in  this  case  is  to  form 
a  level  on  the  top,  from  the  top  of  the  hips  at  the  narrow  end 
to  the  other  extremity,  as  otherwise  the  roof  must  either 
wind,  or  be  brought  to  a  ridge  forming  a  line  inclined  to  the 
horizon ;  and  either  of  the  two  last  cases  is  very  unsightly. 
But.  that  nothing  should  be  wanting,  the  construction  is  given 
in  the  next  figure. 

Plate  III. — Figure  6. —  To  lay  out  an  irregular  roof  in 
ledgment,  with  all  its  beams  bevel  upon  the  plan,  so  thai  the 
ridge  mag  be  level  tohen  finished  ;  the  plan  and  height  of  the 
roof  being  given. 

The  length  of  the  common  and  hip-iaflers  are  found  as 
usual.  From  each  side  in  the  broadest  end  •.>{  the  roof, 
through  c  and  u,  draw  two  lines  parallel  to  the  ridge-line 


HIP.  IROOIK. 


F,r,       I 


I'LAVV,  I. 


Fig.  2 


G  N 


Fig. 


Kifif^r  t; 


P\.M\L  U  . 


F/>7.l. 


hivnlfjd  hvPJ^ichoUon 


£n^'^l>yn  Jhtv 


l<D©F 


PL  VIE.III 


MIIP  mooF, 


P^9     7 


PLATE  IV 


Invrntrd    hv  P  Nicholson 


En<f*hy  RThfw 


II  ip 


499 


II  IP 


draw  lines  from  the  centres  and  ends  of  the  beams,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ridge-line,  and  lay  out  the  two  sides  of  the 
roof  2  and  3,  by  making  e  d  at  3  equal  to  x  n  in  1,  the 
length  of  the  longest  common  raficr,  and  c  a  in  3  equal  to 
u  d-  at  A,  and  so  on  with  all  the  other  rafters. 

To  Jiud  the  wiiidliKj  of  this  roof. — Take  y  d;  half  the  base 
of  the  shortest  rafter,  and  apply  this  to  the  base  of  the  longest 
rafter  from  2  to  1  ;  then  the  distance  from  1  to  2  shows  the 
quantity  of  winding. 

To  lay  the  sides  in  winding. — Lay  a  straight  beam  along 
the  top  ends  of  the  rafters  at  e,  that  is,  from  c  to  e,  and  lay 
another  beam  along  the  line  a  b,  parallel  to  it,  to  take  the 
ends  of  the  hip-rafters  at  m  and  l,  and  the  beams  to  be  made 
out  of  winding  at  first.  Raise  the  beam  that  lies  from  a  to  b, 
at  the  point  b,  to  the  distance  1  2  above  the  level ;  which 
beam,  being  thus  raised,  will  elevate  all  the  ends  of  the 
rafters  gradually,  the  same  as  they  would  be  when  in  their 
places. 

The  same  is  to  be  understood  of  the  other  side  d  ;  the  ends 
are  laid  down  in  the  same  manner  as  in  making  a  triangle  of 
any  three  dimensions. 

In  this  example,  the  purlins  are  suppo-ed  to  be  framed 
into  the  sides  of  the  rafters  flush,  so  that  the  lop  of  the  pur- 
lins may  be  Huoh  with  the  back  of  the  rafu-rs.  The  manner 
of  flaming  the  dragon  beams  and  diagonal  ties,  is  shown  at 
the  angles. 

Flute  IV. — Figure  7,  shows  the  manner  of  framing  a  roof 
when  the  sides  are  square.  The  purlins  are  prepared  to 
bridge  over  the  rafters,  which  are  notched  out  of  the  sides 
ne.\t  to  the  back,  in  order  to  receive  them. 

HIPPIUM,  in  antiquity,  that  part  of  the  hippodrome 
which  was  beaten  by  the  horses'  feet. 

IIlPl'ODliOilE,  (from  the  Latin,  hippodromus,  com- 
posed  of  Ivnog,  horse,  and  dpoy-oq,  course,  of  the  verb  dpefiu, 
ciirro,  I  run.)  in  antiquity,  a  list,  or  course,  wherein  chariot 
and  horse-races  were  pertbinied,  and  horses  exercised. 

The  Olympian  hippodrome,  or  horse-course,  was  a  space 
of  ground  000  paces  long,  suriounded  with  a  wall,  near  the 
city  El  is,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Alpheus.  It  was 
uneven  and  in  some  degree  irregular,  on  account  of  the  situ- 
ation; in  one  part  was  a  hill  of  moderate  height,  and  the 
circuit  was  adorned  with  temples,  altars,  and  other  embellish- 
ments. Pausanias  has  given  us  the  following  account  of  this 
hijipodrome,  or  horse-course: — "As  you  pass  out  of  the 
stadium,  by  the  seat  of  the  Hellanodics,  into  the  place 
appointed  for  the  horse-races,  you  Cume  to  the  barrier  {a(pegi^') 
wheie  the  horses  and  chariots  rendezvous  before  they  enter 
into  the  course.  This  barrier,  in  its  figure,  resembles  the 
prow  of  a  ship,  with  the  ^o^trurn  or  beak  turned  towards  the 
course.  The  other  end,  which  joins  on  to  the  portico  of 
Agaptus,  (so  called  from  him  who  built  it)  is  very  broad.  At 
the  extremity  of  the  rostrum  or  beak,  over  a  bar  that  runs 
across  the  entrance  {ein  Kavovog,)  is  placed  a  figure  of  a 
dolphin  in  brass.  (This  dolphin  is  a  symbol  of  Neptune,  sur- 
nanied  Hippian  or  Equestrian,  for  his  having  produced  a  horse 
by  striking  the  eai  th  with  his  trident,  according  to  the  fable  ; 
without  the  recollection  of  this  circumstance,  the  reader 
might  be  surprised  to  meet  with  the  figure  of  a  dolphin  in  a 
horse-course.)  On  the  two  sides  of  tile  barrier,  each  of  which 
is  above  400  feet  in  length,  are  built  stands  or  lodges,  as  well 
for  the  riding-hcjrses  as  the  chariots,  which  ai'e  distributeil 
by  lot  among  the  conqietitors  in  those  races;  and  before  all 
these  lodges  is  stretchtd  a  cable,  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  barrier.  About  the  middle  of  the 
prow  is  erected  an  altar,  built  of  unburnt  brick,  which,  every 
Olympiad,  is  plastered  over  with  fre>h  mortar;  and  upon  the 
altar  stands  a  brazen  eagle,  which  spreads  out  its  wings  to  a 


great  length.  This  eagle,  by  means  of  a  machine,  which  is 
put  in  motion  by  the  president  of  the  horse-races,  is  made  to 
mount  up  at  once  to  such  a  height  in  the  air,  as  to  become 
visible  to  all  the  spectators;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
brazen  dolphin  before  mentioned  sinks  to  the  ground.  Upon 
that  signal,  the  cables  stretched  before  the  lodges,  on  either 
side  of  the  portico  of  Agaptus,  are  first  let  loose,  and  the 
horses  there  stationed  move  out  and  advance,  till  they  come 
over  against  the  lodges  of  those  who  diew  the  second  lot, 
which  are  then  likewise  opened.  The  same  order  is  observed 
by  all  the  rest,  and  in  this  manner  they  proceed  through  the 
beak  or  rostrum ;  before  which  they  are  drawn  up  in  one 
line,  or  front,  ready  to  begin  the  race,  and  make  trial  of  the 
skill  of  the  charioteers  and  fleetness  of  the  horses.  On  that 
side  of  the  course,  which  is  formed  by  a  terrace  raised  with 
earth,  and  which  is  the  largest  of  the  two  sides,  near  to  the 
passage  that  leads  out  of  the  course  across  the  terrace,  stands 
an  altar,  of  a  round  figure,  dedicated  to  Taraxippus,  the  terror 
of  the  horses,  as  his  name  imports.  The  other  side  of  the 
course  is  formed,  not  by  a  terrace  of  earth,  but  a  hill  of 
moderate  height,  at  the  end  of  which  is  erected  a  temple, 
consecrated  to  Ceres  Chamyne,  whose  priestess  has  the 
privilege  of  seeing  the  Olympic  games." 

There  is  a  very  famous  hippodrome  at  Constantinople, 
which  was  begun  by  Alexander  Severus,  and  finished  by 
Constantine.  This  circus,  called  by  the  Turks  Atmeidan,  is 
400  paces  long,  and  above  100  paces  wide,  i.  e.  geometrical 
paces  of  five  feet  each.  Wheeler  says,  it  was  in  length  about 
550  ordinary  paces,  and  in  breadth  about  120;  or,  allowing 
each  pace  to  be  five  feet,  2,750  feet  long  and  000  broad.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  hippodrome  there  is  a  pyramidal  obelisk 
of  granite,  in  one  piece,  about  50  feet  high,  terminating  in  a 
point,  and  charged  with  hieroglyphics,  erected  on  a  pedestal 
of  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  ground.  The  Greek  and  Latin 
inscriptions  on  its  base  show  that  it  was  erected  by  Theodo- 
sius;  the  machines  that  were  employed  to  raise  it  were 
represented  upon  it  in  basso-relievo. 

The  beauty  of  the  hippodrome  at  Constantinople  has  been 
long  since  defaced  Ijy  the  rude  hands  of  the  Turkish  conque- 
rors; but,  under  the  similar  appellation  of  Atmeidan,  it  still 
serves  as  a  place  of  exercise  for  their  horses.  Whether  the 
Olympic  hippodrome  was  so  long  or  .so  wide  as  this  of  Con- 
stantinople, it  is  not  now  easy  to  determine ;  but  it  must 
evidently  have  been  considerably  longer  than  an  ordinary 
stadium,  in  order  to  allow  for  the  turnings  of  the  chariots 
and  horses  round  the  pillars  which  served  as  metas  or  goals, 
without  running  against  them,  or  against  one  another.  The 
length  of  the  course,  or  the  distances  between  the  two  metas 
or  goals,  is  not  easily  ascertained.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  two  pillars,  viz.,  that  from  which  the  horses  started, 
and  that  round  which  they  turned,  which  divided  the  course 
into  two  equal  lengths,  were  two  stadia  distant  from  each 
other;  consequently,  the  whole  length  of  the  race,  for  a 
chariot  drawn  by  full-aged  horses,  consisting  of  12  rounds, 
amounted  to  48  stadia,  or  six  Grecian  miles;  and  that  of  the 
chariot  drawn  by  colts  consisted  of  eight  rounds,  or  32  stjidia, 
or  four  Grecian  miles — a  Grecian  mile,  according  to  Arbuth- 
not's  computation,  being  somewhat  more  than  800  paces, 
whereas  an  English  mile  is  equal  to  1,050.  Pausanias 
informs  us,  that  in  the  Olympic  hippodrome,  near  that  pillar 
called  Nysse,  probably  that  which  was  erected  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  course,  stood  a  brazen  statue  of  Hippodamia, 
holding  in  her  hand  a  sacred  fillet  or  diadem,  prepared  to 
bind  the  head  of  Pelops  for  his  victory  over  Ginomaus;  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  whole  space  between  the  pillars  was 
filled  with  statues  or  altars,  as  that  in  the  hippodrome  at 
Constantinople  seems  to  have  been.     Here,  liowcver,  stood 


HOO 


500 


HOT 


the  tripod,  or  table,  on  which  were  placed  the  olive-crowns 
and  the  branches  of  palm  destined  for  the  victors.  Besides 
the  hippodromes  at  Olympia  and  Constantinople,  there  were 
courses  of  a  similar  kind  at  Carthage,  Alexandria  in  Egjpt. 
and  other  places. 

We  have  some  vestiges  in  England  of  the  hippodrome,  in 
which  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  country  performed  their 
races.  The  most  remarkable  is  tbit  near  Stonehengc,  which 
is  a  long  tract  of  ground,  about  350  feet,  or  200  druid  cubits 
wide,  and  more  than  a  mile  and  three-quarters,  or  6,000 
druid  cubits  in  length,  enclosed  quite  round  with  a  bank  of 
earth,  extending  directly  east  and  west.  The  goal  and  career 
are  at  the  east  end.  The  goal  is  a  high  bank  of  earth,  raised 
with  a  slope  inwards,  on  which  the  judges  are  supposed  to 
have  sat.  The  mct«  are  two  tumuli,  or  small  barrows,  at 
the  west  end  of  the  course.  These  hippodromes  were  called, 
in  the  language  of  the  country,  rliediif/ua,  the  racer  rliedagwr, 
and  the  carriage  rheda,  from  the  British  word  rhedeg,  to  run. 
One  of  these  hippodromes,  about  half  a  mile  to  the  south- 
ward of  Leicester,  retains  evident  traces  of  the  old  name 
rltedugua,  in  the  Corrupted  one  of  rawdikes.  There  is  another 
of  tliese,  says  Dr.  Stukely,  near  Dorchester,  another  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Lowther,  near  Penryth,  in  Cumberland, 
and  another  in  the  vallev  just  without  the  town  of  Royston. 

IIlSTORIC.\.L  COLUM.VS.     See  Columx. 

HOARDING,  (from  the  Saxon,)  an  enclosure  about  a 
building,  while  erecting  or  under  repair. 

HOlST,  an  apparatus,  or  lift,  for  raising  bodies  from 
a  lower  to  an  upper  story  in  a  building. 

HOLLOW,  (from  hole,)  a  concave  moulding,  whose  sec- 
tion is  about  the  quadrant  of  a  circle.  It  is,  by  some  writers, 
called  eusemeiil. 

Hollow  Bricks,  a  kind  of  brick  recently  invented, 
moulded  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  but  usually  of  larger 
size  than  those  commonly  in  use.  They  are  mere  shells,  as 
it  weie,  the  heart  of  the  brick  being  removed.  The  advan- 
tages claimed  for  such  bricks  are  their  su[ierior  strength 
when  considered  with  reference  to  the  quantity  of  material ; 
and  as  a  consequence,  their  comparative  lightness,  a  quality 
which  tells  in  very  many  ways.  In  the  maiuifacture,  tliey 
ai'e  more  evenly  baked  and  dried,  the  heat  being  equally 
distributed  over  every  part;  and  hence  their  texture  and 
hardness  are  more  to  be  depended  upnn  than  in  solid  bricks. 
When  used  for  house.s,  there  is  much  less  fear  of  damp  than 
in  new  work  as  at  present  constructed;  and  an  equability  of 
temperature  is  ensured  in  the  interior.  Sound  also  is  much 
less  easily  communicated  by  them  than  by  common  bricks. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  construct  them  with  grooves  and 
ledges,  or  with  some  similar  contrivance,  so  that  they  may 
be  titled  compactly  together  in  a  short  space  of  time,  for 
temporary  or  other  purposes.  Floors  also  are  proposed  to 
be  constructed  of  the  same  materials,  so  as  to  render  build- 
ings entirely  fire-proof. 

Hollow  Newel,  an  opening  in  the  middle  of  a  staircase. 
The  terra  is  used  in  contradistinction  to  solid  newel,  into 
which  the  ends  of  the  steps  are  built.  In  the  hollow  newel, 
or  well-hole,  the  steps  are  only  supported  at  one  end  by  the 
surrounding  wall  of  the  staircase,  the  ends  next  the  hollow 
being  unsupported. 

Hollow  Wall,  a  wall  built  in  two  thicknesses,  having  a 
cavity  between,  either  for  the  purpose  of  saving  materials, 
or  to  preserve  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  apartments. 

Hollow  Quoi.s-s,  in  engineering,  piers  of  stone  or  large 
bricks,  made  behind  each  lock-gate  of  a  canal,  which  are 
formed  into  a  hollow  fiom  top  to  bottom,  to  receive  the 
rounded  head  of  the  lock-gates.  In  some  instances  the 
hollow  quoin  is  formed  of  "one  piece  of  oak,  cut  to  the  proper 


shape,  and  fixed  vertically  against  the  wall.  Cast-iron  is 
also  now  frequently  used  for  forming  the  hollow  quoin  or 
hinge  for  the  lock-gates  of  large  canals,  or  the  entrance- 
basons  to  docks. 

HOMESTALL,  or  HOMESTEAD,  the  place  of  a  man- 
sion-house ;  the  word  is  used  in  some  countries  to  signify 
the  original  house  or  dwelling  attached  to  an  estate. 

HOMOLOGOUS,  (from  ofivoi;,  similar,  Aoyor,  reason,)  in 
geometry,  the  correspondent  sides  of  similar  figures. 

HOOD-MOULD,  a  band  or  string  carried  over  any  aper- 
ture, such  as  a  door  or  window  ;  more  particularly  employed 
in  Pointed  architecture  :  the  term  is  synonymous  with  Label 
and  \V  EATHER  Moulding. 

HOOK  PIXS,  in  carpentry,  iron  pins  made  tapering 
towards  one  end,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  pieces  of  a 
frame  together,  as  in  floors,  roofs,  &;c.  In  joinery,  the  pins 
which  answer  a  similar  purpose  are  called  Draw-Bore  Pins. 

HOOKS,  (Saxon)  bent  pieces  of  iron,  used  to  fasten 
bodies  together,  or  to  hang  articles  on,  out  of  the  way. 
They  are  of  various  kinds,  some  of  iron  and  some  of  brass; 
as  casement-hooks,  chinniey-hooks,  which  are  made  of  both 
brass  and  iron  ;  curtain-hooks,  hooks  for  doors  and  gates, 
double-line-hooks,  tenter-hooks,  armour-hooks,  &c. 

HORDING.     See  Hoarding. 

HORIZONTAL  CORNICE,  of  a  pediment,  the  level  part 
imder  the  two  inclined  cornices. 

Horizontal  Line,  in  perspective,  the  vanishing  lines  of 
planes  parallel  to  the  horizon. 

Horizontal  Plane,  a  plane  passing  throtigh  the  eye, 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  producing  the  vanishing  line  of 
all  level  planes. 

Horizontal  Projection,  the  projection  made  on  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  This  may  be  understood  either  per- 
spectively  or  orthographically,  according  as  the  projecting 
rays  are  directed  to  a  given  point,  or  are  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon. 

HORN,  (Saxon)  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  Ionic 
volute. 

HORSE  PATH,  in  engineering,  a  name  sometimes 
applied  to  the  towing-fiath  by  the  side  of  canals,  and  narrow 
navigalile  rivers,  for  the  use  of  the  towing  or  track  horses. 

House  Run,  in  engineering,  a  sinqile  and  useful  modern 
contrivance,  for  drawing  np  loaded  wheel-barrows  of  soil 
from  the  deep  cuttings  of  canals,  docks,  &:c.  by  the  help  of 
a  horse  which  goes  backwards  and  forwaids,  instead  of  round, 
as  in  a  horse-gin. 

HORSING  BLOCK,  a  square  frame  of  strong  boards, 
used  by  navvigators  or  canal  diggers  for  elevatirig  the  ends 
of  their  wheeling  planks. 

HOSPITAL.  According  to  present  usage,  the  term  is 
applied  to  buildings  endowed  by  public  or  private  charity, 
as  infirmaries,  in  which  invalids  are  lodged  and  attended; 
but  in  oldeu  times  the  term  was  used  to  signify  any  building 
erected  for  charitable  purposes,  as  for  the  relief  of  the  indi- 
gent, the  entertainment  of  travellers,  &c. 

HOSTEL,  or  Hotel,  a  French  term,  anciently  signifying 
a  house,  but  now  more  commonly  used  for  the  palaces  or 
houses  of  the  king,  princes,  dukes,  and  great  lords.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  large  inns,  taverns,  or  places  of  public 
entertainment. 

HOT-HOUSE,  in  horticulture,  is  a  structure  in  which 
exotic  plants  are  cultivated,  under  circ.i instances  approxiuuit- 
ing,  as  closely  as  possible,  to  those  under  which  they  natu- 
rally exi-t;  or  it  is  used  for  accelerating  the  production  of 
flowers  and  fi  nits  of  either  indigenous  or  exotic  plants.  IIotA 
houses  appropriated  to  the  latter  purposes  are  very  frequently- 
termed  forcing-houses. 


HOT 


501 


HOT 


In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that  descrip- 
tion of  hot-house  generally  termed  the  green-house  began  to 
be  constructed  in  Germany  ;  and  one  in  the  Apothecaries' 
Garden  at  Chelsea  is  mentioned  by  Ray  in  1684.  ITiese, 
like  many  others  of  a  later  construction,  had  glass  only  in 
the  front,  which  was  perpendicular  ;  and  the  mode  of  apply- 
ing artificial  heat  exhibited  little  more  knowledge  of  means 
for  the  end,  than  the  remains  of  flues  found  in  the  ruins  of 
the  dwelling-houses  and  baths  of  the  Romans. 

In  1724,  when  Switzer  published  his  treatise  entitled  "The 
Practical  Fruit  Gardener,"  the  principles  of  managing  hot- 
houses were  still  very  imperfectly  understood;  for  he 
observes,  p.  305.  that  ■'  peaches,  nectarines,  and  apricots 
don't  love  to  be  forced  ;  at  least,  the  fruit  is  very  seldom 
good  :  there  being  much  occasion  to  keep  the  glasses  close, 
the  fruit  is  always  rendered  flat  and  insipid.  This  is  not 
pure  speculation,  but  the  result  of  the  practice  that  I  have 
observed  in  the  glass-houses  at  Brompton  Park." 

Consider.able  alterations,  particularly  in  houses  for  grapes, 
were  made  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century.  The  most 
material  improvement  was  the  substitution  of  a  slanting  glass 
roof  for  a  perpendicular  glass  front ;  but  the  advantages  of 
this  were  much  diminished  by  the  heaviness  of  the  sashes, 
and  the  large  quantity  of  opaque  matter  which  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  employ  in  order  to  ensure  the  durability  of  such 
structures. 

In  the  present  century  great  advances  have  been  made  in 
hut-house  building,  and  more  particularly  since  1815.  The 
application  <jf  heat  by  steam  or  hot  water  through  iron  pipes, 
and  the  admission  of  a  greater  quantity  of  light  by  glazing 
on  metaQic  bars,  instead  of  wooden  sashes,  are  the  principal 
features  of  these  improvements.  The  employment  of  h^dlow 
bricks,  too,  will  probably  prove  of  great  advantage,  although 
we  are  not  aware  of  their  adoption  in  any  building  at  present 
erected.  See  Conservatory. 

Those  houses  which  are  intended  for  the  peach,  nectarine, 
cherry,  fig,  &c.  should  in  cold  situations,  be  constructed  against 
walls,  and  made  with  glass  on  one  side.  But  in  climates 
less  severe,  houses  formed  of  glass  on  all  the  sides,  having 
the  trees  so  planted  as  to  grow  irregularly  in  the  standard 
method,  will  be  more  beneficial  as  well  as  more  ornamental. 

For  the  forcing  of  vines,  they  may  be  of  any  kind  of  form, 
either  small  or  large,  aceordinjj  to  the  season  at  which  the 
trees  are  Ui  be  brought  into  fruit.  But  a  double-roofed 
house,  with  an  inner  roofing,  is  recommended  as  the  most 
proper  for  general  crops,  as  well  as  the  cheapest  in  cost  of 
erecting. 

In  the  general  construction  of  these  houses,  a  wall  of  eight 
or  ten  feet  in  height,  or  more,  is  raised  behind,  with  a  low- 
wall  in  front  and  both  ends,  on  which  is  placed  upright  glass- 
work,  four,  five,  or  six  feet  in  height,  and  a  sloping  glass 
roof,  extending  fi-om  the  top  of  the  front  to  the  back  w^all. 
Internal  flues  for  fire-heat,  in  winter,  are  also  contrived,  and 
a  capacious  oblong  or  square  pit  in  the  bottom  space,  in 
which  to  have  a  constant  bark-bed,  to  furnish  a  continual 
regular  heat  at  all  seasons;  so  as  in  the  whole  to  warm  the 
enclosed  internal  air  always  to  a  certain  temperature.  Houses 
thus  formed  are  generally  used  in  raising  jiines. 

Hot-houses  are  mostly  ranged  lengthwise,  nearly  east  and 
west,  that  the  glasses  of  the  front  and  roof  may  have  the  full 
influence  of  the  sun.  This  is  the  most  convenient  situation 
for  common  houses,  either  for  pines  or  exotic  plants.  But 
some  houses  of  the  sort,  instead  of  being  placed  in  this  direc- 
tion, are  ranged  directly  south  and  north,  having  a  sloped 
roof  to  e;ich  side,  like  the  roof  of  a  house  ;  as  also  to  the 
front  or  south  end;  both  sides  and  the  south-end  front  being 
of  glass.     These  houses  are  made  from  ten   or  twelve  to 


fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  the  length  at  pleasure  ;  and  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet  high  in  the  middle,  both  .'-ides  fully  head- 
height  ;  being  formed  by  a  brick  wall  all  round,  raised  only 
two  or  three  feet  on  both  sides,  and  south  end;  but  carried 
up  at  the  north  end  like  the  gable  of  a  house.  Upon  the  top 
of  the  side  and  south-end  walling  is  erected  the  framing  for 
the  glass-work,  which  is  sometimes  formed  two  or  three  feet 
upright,  immediately  on  the  top  of  the  wall,  having  the 
sloped  glass-work  above  ;  and  sometimes  wholly  of  a  con- 
tinued slope  on  both  sides,  rising  immediately  foin  the  top  of 
the  side-walls  to  that  of  the  middle  ridge.  They  are  furnished 
either  with  one  or  two  bark-pits  ;  but  if  of  any  considerable 
width,  generally  with  two,  ranging  paiallel,  one  under  each 
slope  of  the  top  glass,  .and  separated  by  a  two-foot  path  nin- 
ning  along  the  middle  of  the  house,  and  sometimes  continued 
all  round  each  pit,  with  flues  ranged  along  against  the  inside 
walls  ;  the  whole  terminating  in  an  upright  funnel,  or 
chimney,  at  the  north  end  of  the  building.  There  are  other 
hot-houses  which  are  formed  entirely  on  the  square,  having  a 
ten  or  twelve  feet  brick  wall  behind  ;  that  of  the  front,  and 
both  sides,  being  only  two  or  three  feet  high,  for  the  support 
of  the  glass-work,  which  is  placed  nearly  upright  almost 
the  same  height,  and  sloped  above  on  both  sides  and  front, 
which  are  wholly  of  glass.  These  are  furnished  within  with 
bark-pits  and  flues,  as  in  the  previous  instances. 

In  particular  cases  they  are  made  semicircular,  or  entirely 
circular,  being  formed  with  a  two  or  three  feet  brick  wall 
supporting  the  glass-framing,  which  is  continued  quite  round. 
The  bark-pit  is  also  circular,  and  the  flues,  after  being  carried 
all  round  the  inside  of  the  walling,  terminate  in  a  chimney  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  house.  However,  the  first  forms 
are  probably  the  best  for  general  purpo.ses. 

Hothouses  on  these  plans  are  made  of  difl^erent  dimensions, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  plants  they  are  designed  to  con- 
tain. For  common  purposes  they  should  be  only  of  a  mode- 
rate height,  not  exceeding  ten  or  twelve  to  fourteen  feet 
behind,  and  five  or  six  in  front ;  some  are,  however,  built 
much  more  lofty  behind,  to  give  suflicient  height  for  the 
taller  growing  exotics,  placed  toward  the  back  part.  Those 
of  the  first-described  size  are,  however,  best  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  pines,  and  other  moderate-growing  plants,  as  well 
as  for  forcing  in.  Very  lofty  houses  require  a  greater  force 
of  heat,  and  by  the  glasses  being  so  high,  the  plants  naturally 
tending  towards  the  glasses,  receive  less  benefit  from  the  sun 
and  are  apt  to  draw  up  too  fast  into  long  slender  leaves  and 
stems.  Where  the  top-glasses  are  at  a  moderate  distance 
fiom  the  plants,  they  receive  the  benefit  of  the  sun's  heat 
more  fully,  which  is  essential  in  winter,  become  more  stalky 
at  bottom,  assume  (particularly  the  pine-a[>iile)amore  robust 
and  firm  growth,  and  are  rendered  more  capable  of  producing 
large  fruit  in  the  season. 

After  having  determined  on  thodimensionsof  the  house  as 
to  length  and  width,  the  fcjundations  of  brick-work  should  be 
set  out  accordingly,  allowing  due  width  at  the  bottom  to  sup- 
port the  flues  a  foot  wide,  wholly  on  the  brick  basis;  de- 
tached an  inch  or  two  from  the  main  walls;  then  .setting off" 
the  back  or  north- wall,  a  brick  and  a  half  or  two  l)ri<ks  thick, 
and  the  front  and  end  walls  nine  inches,  carry  up  the  back 
wall  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high  ;  those  of  the  front  and 
ends  to  be  only  from  about  two  feet  to  a  yard.  Take  care  in 
carrying  up  the  walls  to  allot  a  proper  space  for  a  door-way, 
at  one  or  both  ends,  towards  the  back  part ;  setting  out  also 
the  furnace  or  fire-place  of  the  flues  in  the  botto?u  foundation 
towards  one  end  of  the  back  wall  behind,  formed  also  of 
brick-work,  made  to  communicate  with  the  lowermost  flue 
within.  When  the  house  is  of  great  length,  as  forty  feet  or 
more,  a  fire-place  at  each  end  may  be  necessary  ;  or,  if  more 


HOT 


502 


HOT 


convenient,  both  may  be  in  the  back  part  of  the  end  walls,  or 
in  the  middle  way  of  the  buck  wall;  each  must  communi- 
Ciitc  with  a  separate  range  of  flues.  In  either  case  they 
should  be  formed  wholly  on  the  outside  of  the  walls,  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide  in  the  clear,  but  more  in 
lengthwise  inward  ;  the  inner  end  terminating  in  a  funnel  to 
communicate  internally  with  the  flues.  An  iron-barred  grate 
should  be  fixed  at  bottom  to  support  the  fuel,  and  calculated 
for  coal,  wood,  peat,  turf,  &c.  An  ash-liule  should  be  made 
underneath.  The  mouth  or  fuel-door  should  be  about  ten  or 
twelve  inches  square,  having  an  iron  frame  and  door  fixed  to 
shut  with  an  iron  latch,  as  close  as  possible.  The  whole 
furnace  should  be  raised  si.xteen  or  eighteen  inches  in  the 
clear,  finishing  the  top  archwise.  Then  continue  carrying 
up  tlie  walls  of  the  building  regularly,  and  on  the  inside  erect 
the  flues  close  along  the  w^alls. 

It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  have  the  flues  a  little 
detached  from  the  walls,  one,  two,  or  three  inches,  that,  by 
being  thus  distinct,  the  heat  may  arise  from  both  sides,  which 
w^ill  be  an  advantage  in  more  etlectually  difl'using  the  whole 
heat  internally  in  the  house  ;  as,  when  they  are  attached  close 
to  the  walls,  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  heat  is  lost  in 
the  part  of  the  wall  behind.  In  contriving  the  flues,  they 
should  be  continued  along  the  front  and  both  ends,  in  one 
range  at  least,  in  this  order.  But  it  is  better  if  they  are 
raised  as  high  as  the  outward  front  and  end  walls,  in  one  or 
two  ranges,  one  over  the  other  On  the  tops  of  the~e  may 
be  placed  pots  of  many  small  plants,  both  of  the  exotic  and 
forcing  kinds,  with  much  convenience. 

In  the  construction  of  the  flues,  make  them  generally  about 
a  foot  wide  in  the  whole,  including  six  or  eight  inches  in  the 
clear,  formed  with  a  brick-work  on  edge ;  the  first  lower 
flue  should  comnmnicate  with  the  furnace  or  fire-place  with 
out,  and  be  raised  a  little  above  it,  to  promote  the  draught  of 
heat  more  freely.  Continue  it  along  above  the  internal  level 
of  the  floor  of  the  back  alley  or  walk  of  the  house  the  above 
width,  and  three  bricks  on  edge  deep,  returning  it  in  two  or 
three  ranges  over  one  another,  next  the  back  w  all,  and  in  one 
or  two  along  the  ends  and  front  wall,  as  the  height  may 
admit ;  each  return  two  l)ricks  on  edge  deep,  and  tiled  or 
bricked  over.  In  tlie  beginning  of  the  first  bottom-flue  a 
sliding  iron  regulator  may  Ije  fixed,  to  use  occasionally,  in 
admitting  more  or  less  heat,  being  careful  that  the  l)rick-work 
of  each  flue  is  closely  jointed  with  the  best  .sort  of  mortar  for 
that  purpose,  and  well  pointed  within,  that  no  smoke  may 
break  out.  Have  each  return  closely  covered  with  broad 
square  paving  tiles  on  the  brick-work;  covering  the  upper- 
most flues  also  with  broad  thick  flat  tiles,  the  whole  width, 
all  very  closely  laid,  and  joined  in  mortar.  The  uppermost, 
or  last  range  of  flues,  should  terminate  in  an  upright  vent  or 
chimney,  at  one  end  of  the  back  wall ;  and  where  there  are 
two  separate  sets  of  flues,  there  should  be  a  chimney  at  each 
end.  An  iron  slider  in  the  termination  of  the  last  flue  next 
the  chimney  may  also  be  provided,  to  confine  the  heat  more 
or  less  on  particular  occasions,  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

Sometimes,  in  very  wide  houses,  in  erecting  the  flues, 
spare  ones,  for  occasional  use,  are  continued  round  the  bark- 
pit, carried  up  against  the  surrounding  wall,  but  detached  an 
inch  or  two,  to  form  a  vacancy  for  the  heat  to  come  up  more 
beneficially,  and  that,  by  having  vent,  it  may  not  dry  the  tan 
of  the  bark-l)ed  too  much.  In  the  beginning  a  sliding  iron 
re"ulator  may  be  fixed,  either  to  admit  or  exclude  the  heat, 
as  expedient;  so  that  the  smoke,  by  nnmiiig  through  a 
larger  extent,  may  expend  it^  heat  wholly  in  the  lines  ;  betore 
it  be  discharged  at  the  chiuuiey.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  that  neither  the  fire-ulace  nor  flues  be  carried  too  near 
any  of  the  wood-work  of  tlie  buildings. 


After  this  work  is  done,  proceed  to  set  out  the  cavity  for 
the  bark-pit,  first  allowing  a  sjiace  next  the  flues  for  an  alley 
or  walk,  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  all  round,  and  then  in 
the  middle  space  form  the  pit  for  the  bark-bed,  six  or  seven 
feet  wide,  the  length  in  ])roportion  to  that  of  the  house,  and  a 
yard  or  more  deep;  enclosing  it  by  a  surrounding  wall.  It 
may  either  be  sunk  at  bottom  a  little  in  the  ground  raising 
the  rest  above  by  means  of  the  parapet  wall  ;  or,  if  there  is 
danger  of  wet  below,  it  should  be  raised  a  little  above  the 
general  surface.  The  surrounding  wall  should  be  nine  inches, 
but  a  half-brick  wall  is  often  made  to  do,  especially  for  that 
part  which  fi)rms  the  parapet  above  ground.  It  should  be 
coped  all  round  with  a  tiniber  plate  or  kirh,  fiained  and 
mortised  together,  which  eflectually  secures  the  brick-work 
in  its  proper  situation. 

The  bottom  of  the  pit  should  be  levelled  and  well  rammed, 
and,  if  paved  with  any  coarse  material,  it  is  of  advantage  in 
preserving  the  bark.  The  path  or  alley  round  the  pit  should 
also  be  neatly  paved  with  brick  or  stone,  as  may  be  most 
convenient. 

The  glass  part  for  enclosing  the  whole,  should  consist  of 
a  close  continued  range  of  glass  sashes  all  along  the  front, 
both  ends  and  roof,  (juite  up  to  the  back  wall  ;  each  sash 
being  three  feet  or  three  feet  six  inches  wide  ;  and  for  the 
supfiort  of  these,  framings  of  timber  must  be  erected  in  the 
brick  walling,  confiuinable  to  the  width  and  length  of  the 
sashes,  the  whole  being  neatly  fixed. 

b'or  the  reception  of  the  per[ieiidieular  glasses  in  the  front 
and  ends,  a  substantial  timber  plate  must  be  placed  along  the 
top  of  the  front  and  end  walls,  upon  which  should  be  erected 
upiights,  at  proper  distances,  framed  to  a  plate  or  crown- 
I>iece  above,  of  suflicieut  height  to  raise  the  whole  front  head- 
high,  both  ends  corresponding  with  the  front  and  back.  To 
receive  the  sloping  bars  from  the  frame-work  in  front,  a  plate 
of  timber  must  lie  framed  to  the  back  wall  above,  proper 
grooves  being  formed  in  the  front  plate  below  and  above,  to 
receive  the  ends  of  the  perpendicular  sashes,  sliding  close 
against  the  outside  of  the  ujirigiits  all  the  way  along  the  front. 
Or  they  may  be  contrived  for  only  every  other  sash,  to  slide 
one  on  the  side  of  the  other,  but  the  former  is  the  better 
method. 

From  the  top  of  the  upright  framing  in  front  should  be 
carried  substantial  cro>s-bars  or  bearers,  sloping  to  the  back 
wall,  where  they  are  framed  at  both  ends  to  the  wood-work 
or  plates,  at  n-gnlar  distances,  to  receive  and  support  the 
sloping  glass  sashes  of  the  roof.  These  are  placed  clo.se 
together  upon  the  cross-bars  or  rafters,  and  generally  range 
in  two  or  more  tiers,  sliding  one  over  the  other,  of  suflicieut 
length  together  to  reach  quite  from  the  top  of  the  upright 
franung  in  front  to  the  top  of  the  back  wall.  The  cross-bars 
should  be  grooved  lengthwise  above,  to  carry  ofl"  wet  fiilling 
between  the  frames  of  the  sloping  lights  ;  an.l  the  upper  end 
of  the  tier  of  glasses  should  shut  clo.se  up  to  the  plate  in  the 
wall  behind,  running  under  a  projier  coping  of  wood  or  lead 
which  must  be  fixed  along  above  close  to  the  wall,  and  lapped 
down,  of  due  width  to  cover,  and  shoot  ofl'  the  wet  sufficiently 
from  the  upper  termination  of  the  top  sashes.  Some  wide 
houses  have,  exclusive  of  the  sliding  glass  sashes  of  the  main 
slope,  a  shorter  upper  tier  of  glass  fi.xed ;  the  upper  ends 
being  secured  under  a  coping  as  above,  and  the  lower  ends 
hqiping  over  the  top  ends  of  the  upper  sliding  tier,  and  this 
over  that  below  in  the  same  manner,  so  as  to  shoot  the  wet 
clear  over  each  upper  end  or  termination.  Likewise,  along 
the  under  outer  edge  of  the  top  plate  or  crown-piece  in  front 
may  be  a  small  channel  to  receive  the  water  from  the  sloping 
glass  sashes,  and  convey  it  to  one  or  both  ends  without  run- 
ning down  upon  the  upright  sashes,  being  Ciircful  that  the 


HOV 


503 


HOU 


top  part  behind  be  well  framed  and  secured  water-tight,  and 
the  top  of  the  back  wall  finishe<l  a  little  higher  than  the 
glass  with  a  neat  coping  the  whole  length  of  the  building. 

The  bars  of  wood  whieh  support  the  glasses  should  be 
neatly  formed,  and  made  neither  very  broad  nor  thick,  to 
intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Those,  however,  at  top,  should 
be  made  strong  enough  to  supp  rt  the  glasses  without  bending 
under  them,  in  wide  houses,  uprights  are  arranged  within, 
at  piO[)er  distances  to  support  the  cross  rafters  more  perfectly 
than  could  otherwise  be  the  case. 

But  in  respect  to  the  glass-work  in  the  sloping  sashes,  the 
panes  of  glass  should  be  laid  in  putty,  with  the  ends  lapping 
over  each  other  about  half  an  inch,  the  vacancies  of  which 
are,  in  some,  closed  up  at  hottoui  with  putty  ;  others  leave  each 
lapping  of  the  panes  open,  for  the  admission  of  air,  and  that 
the  rancid  vapours  arising  from  the  fermentation  of  the  bark- 
bed,  iVc,  within,  may  thereby  be  kept  in  constant  motion,  to 
diminish  condensation,  and  also,  that  such  as  condense  against 
the  glasses  may  discharge  them.selves  at  those  places  without 
dropping  upon  the  plants.  The  upright  sashes  in  front  may 
either  be  glazed  as  above,  or  the  panes  laid  in  lead-work  ; 
being  very  careful  to  have  the  glazing  well  performed,  and 
proof  against  any  wet  that  may  happen  to  beat  against  them. 
The  doors  should  have  the  upper  parts  sashed  and  glazed  to 
correspond  with  the  other  glass  work  of  the  house. 

On  the  inside,  the  walls  should  be  plastered,  pargeted,  and 
white-washed:  and  all  the  wood- work,  within  and  without, 
painted  white  in  oil-colour.  Some,  however,  have  the  back 
wall  painted  or  coloured  rather  dark. 

Kanges  of  narrow  shelves,  for  pots  of  small  plants,  may  be 
erected  where  most  convenient,  some  behind  over  the  flues,  a 
single  range  near  the  top  glasses  towards  the  back  part,  sujv 
ported  either  liy  brackets  suspended  from  the  crossbars 
above,  or  by  uprights  erected  on  the  parapet  wall  of  the  bark- 
pit. A  range  or  two  of  narrow  ones  may  also  be  placed 
occasionally  along  both  ends  above  the  flues,  where  there  is 
a  necessity  for  a  very  great  number. 

hi  wide  houses,  where  the  cross-bars  or  bearers  of  the 
sloping  or  top  glass  sashes  appear  to  want  support,  some  neat 
uprights,  either  of  wood  or  iron,  may  be  erected  upon  the 
bark-bed  walling,  at  convenient  distances,  and  high  enough 
to  leach  the  bearers  above.  This  is  a  neat  mode  of  affording 
them  support. 

On  the  outside,  behind,  should  be  erected  a  close  shed,  the 
■whole  length,  or  at  least  a  small  covered  shed  over  each 
fire-place,  with  a  door  to  shut,  for  the  convenience  of  attending 
the  fires.  The  former  is  much  the  best,  as'  it  will  serve  to 
defend  the  back  of  the  house  from  the  outward  air,  and  to  stow 
fuel ;  also  for  garden  tools  when  not  in  use;  as  well  as  to  lay 
portions  of  earth  in  occasionally,  to  have  it  dry  for  particular 
purposes  in  winter  and  early  spring,  as  in  fijrcing-frames,  &c. 
Sometimes  hot-houses  are  furni>hed  with  top-covers,  to 
draw  over  the  glass  sashes  occasionally,  in  time  of  severe 
frosts  and  storms ;  and  sometimes  by  slight  sliding  shutters, 
fitted  to  the  width  of  the  separate  sashes;  but  these  are 
inconvenient,  and  require  considerable  time  and  trouble  in 
their  application.  At  other  times  they  arc  formed  of  painted 
canvass,  on  long  poles  or  rollers,  fixed  lengthwise  along  the 
tops  of  the  houses,  just  above  the  upper  ends  of  the  top 
sashes,  which,  by  means  of  lines  and  pulleys,  are  readily  let 
down  and  rolled  up,  as  there  may  be  occasion. 

HOVEL  (Saxon),  a  low  building,  with  some  part  of  the 
lower  side  open,  to  aSbrd  shelter  to  young  animals  during 
stormy  weather. 

HOVELING,  the  carrying  up  of  the  sides  of  a  chimney, 
that  when  the  wind  rushes  over  the  mouth,  the  smoke  may 
esi^ape  below  the  current,  or  against  any  one  side  of  it.  The 


working  up  of  the  sides  is  covered  at  the  top  with  tiles  or 
bricks  in  a  pyramidal  firm,  in  orilcr  to  get  rid  of  the  incon- 
venience occasioned  by  adjoining  buildings  being  higher  than 
thi'  chimney,  or  by  its  being  in  the  eddy  of  any  very  lofty 
buildings,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  high  trees ;  in  which  cases 
the  covered  side  must  be  towards  the  building. 

HOUSE,  a  habitation,  or  a  building  constructed  for  shel- 
tering a  man's  person  and  goods  from  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather,  and  the  injuries  of  ill-disposed  persons.  Houses 
differ  in  magnitude,  being  of  two  or  three,  and  four  stories ; 
in  the  materials  of  which  they  consist,  as  wood,  brick,  or 
stone;  and  in  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  designed,  as  a 
manor-house,  farm-house,  cottage,  iVc. 

A  pleasure-house,  or  country -honse,  is  one  built  for  occa- 
sional residence,  and  for  the  plca.sure  and  benefit  of  retirement, 
air,  &c.  This  is  the  villa  of  the  ancient  Romans;  and 
what  in  Spain  and  Portugal  they  call  tjuinta ;  in  Provence, 
ca.'i.nno ;  in  some  other  parts  of  France,  cliiserie ;  in  Italy, 
vif/na. 

The  citizens  of  Paris  have  also  their  maisons  de  boufcilles 
(bottle-houses)  to  retire  to,  and  entertain  their  friends ;  which, 
in  Latin,  might  be  called  miccs ;  the  emperor  Domitian 
having  a  house  built  for  the  like  purpose,  mentioned  under 
this  name  by  Martial. 

It  is  a  thing  principally  to  be  aimed  at,  in  the  site  or 
situation  of  a  country-house,  or  seat,  that  it  have  wood  and 
water  near  it. 

It  is  far  better  to  have  a  house  defended  by  trees  than  hills : 
for  trees  yield  a  cooling,  refreshing,  sweet,  and  healthy  air 
and  shade  during  the  heat  of  the  summer,  and  very  much 
break  the  cold  winds  and  tempests  from  every  point  in  the 
winter.  The  hills,  according  to  their  situation,  defend  only 
from  certain  winds;  and,  if  they  are  on  the  north  side  of  the 
house,  as  they  defend  from  the  cold  air  in  the  winter,  so  they 
also  deprive  you  of  the  cool  refreshing  breezes  which  are 
commonly  blown  from  thence  in  the  summer ;  and  if  the 
hills  are  situate  on  the  south  side,  they  then  prove  also  very 
inconvenient. 

A  house  should  not  be  too  low-seated,  since  this  precludes 
the  convenience  of  cellars.  If  you  cannot  avoid  building  on 
low  grounds,  set  the  first  floor  above  the  ground  the  higher,  to 
supply  what  you  want  to  sink  in  your  cellar  in  the  ground ;  for 
in  such  low  and  moist  grounds,  itconduces  much  to  the  dryness 
and  healthiness  of  the  air  to  have  cellars  under  the  house,  ,so  that 
the  floors  be  good,  and  ceiled  underneath.  Houses  built  too 
high,  in  places  obvious  to  the  winds,  and  not  well  defended 
by  hills  or  trees,  require  more  materials  to  build  them,  and 
more  also  of  reparations  to  maintain  them  ;  and  they  are  not 
so  commodious  to  the  inhabitants  as  the  lower-built  houses, 
which  may  be  built  at  a  much  easier  rate,  and  also  as  complete 
and  beautiful  as  the  other. 

In  houses  not  above  two  stories  with  the  ground-room, 
and  not  exceeding  twenty  feet  to  the  wall-plate,  and  upon  a 
good  foundation,  the  length  of  two  bricks,  or  eighteen  inches 
for  the  heading  course,  will  be  sufficient  for  the  ground-work 
of  any  common  structure,  and  six  or  seven  courses  above  the 
earth  to  a  water-table,  where  the  thickness  of  the  walls  is 
abated  or  taken  in  on  either  side  the  thickness  of  brick, 
namely,  two  inches  and  a  quarter. 

For  large  and  high  houses,  or  buildings  of  three,  four,  or 
five  stories,  wath  the  garrets,  the  walls  of  such  edifices  ought 
to  be  from  the  foundation  to  the  first  water-table  three 
heading  courses  of  brick,  or  28  inches  at  least ;  and  at  every 
story  a  water-table,  or  taking  in  on  the  inside  for  the  girders 
and  joists  to  rest  upon,  laid  into  the  middle,  or  one  quarter  of 
the  wall  at  least,  for  the  better  bond.  But  as  for  the  inner- 
most or  partition  wall,  a  half  brick  will  be  sufficiently  thick; 


HOU 


504 


HOU 


and  for  the  upper  stories,  nine  inches  or  a  brick  length  will 
suffice. 

The  general  principles  of  the  construction  of  edifices  and 
private  houses  will  be  found  under  the  article  Building. 
We  shall  under  this  head  give  a  description  of  the  private 
houses  of  the  ancients :  — 

Of  the  private  dwellings  of  the  ancients,  we  have  but  little 
or  no  account,  and  it  is  probable  that  I  hey  possessed  but 
small  pretensions  to  architectural  gr.mdeiir.  We  hear  of 
temples,  palaces,  and  such  like  public  buildings,  and  of  these 
we  have  careful  and  detailed  descriptions,  but  of  the  habita- 
tions of  the  mass  of  the  people,  we  have  only  a  cursory  notice. 
This  fact  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  but  little  attention 
was  paid  to  domestic  buildings  of  the  earlier  periods  of 
history,  and  such  indeed  seems  to  have  been  the  case ;  all 
the  care  of  the  people  being  coiifuied  to  the  temples  of  their 
gods,  and  the  palaces  of  their  governors.  With  a  proper 
though  misplaced  zeal,  the  ta^te  of  their  architects  was 
exhausted  in  erecting  and  adoj-ning  the  habitations  of  their 
deities;  and  indeed  in  all  ages  and  countries,  the  art  seems 
to  be  principally  indebted  for  its  progress  to  the  religious 
feelings  of  mankind. 

In  his  description  of  Bal>ylon,  Herodotus  speaks  of  houses 
being  ranged  on  either  side  of  the  various  streets  into  which 
the  city  was  divided,  and  of  others  of  a  smaller  character,  on 
either  side  of  the  outer  wall,  so  placed  as  to  allow  of  a  wide 
passage  or  roadway  between  the  two  ranges.  The  former 
are  described  as  consisting  of  three  or  four  stories,  and  the 
latter  of  only  one  story. 

If  we  may  form  a  judgment  from  the  paintings  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  their  domestic  buildings  were  of  very 
uniform  character.  Some  houses  were  two  or  three  stories 
in  height,  and  these  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  more  com- 
mon sort,  but  the  larger  mansions  were  only  of  one  story,  but 
of  considerable  extent  in  plan.  They  consisted  of  one  or 
more  rectangular  courts  surrounded  by  chambers  similar  to 
the  existing  specimens  of  Roman  construction  ;  or  sometimes 
a  group  of  building  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  such  a  court. 
The  roofs,  as  in  all  Eastern  buildings,  were  flat,  and  probably 
covered  with  an  awning,  as  a  prtitection  from  the  heat. 

According  to  Pliny,  the  Greeks  origitially  dwelt  in  caves, 
and  were  taught  the  art  of  house-building  by  two  brothers, 
Euryalusand  Hyperbius,  who  were  Tyrrhenians,  from  which 
nation  buildings  of  all  kinds  are  said  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Greece.  During  their  early  history,  up  to  the  time  of 
Aristides  and  Pericles,  their  dwellings  were  of  a  very  simple 
description,  nor  did  they  arrive  at  any  magnificence  until  the 
time  of  Alexander,  when  they  had  given  themselves  over  to 
a  luxurious  mode  of  living.  At  this  period  their  dwellings 
became  of  great  extent,  and  were  very  highly  embellished, 
being  similar  in  form  and  arrangement  to  those  of  the 
Romans, — of  which  in  all  probability  they  alforded  the  idea — 
but  fiir  inferior  to  them  in  extent  and  magnificence.  Ere, 
however,  the  Romans  had  become  thus  extravagant  in  the 
adormnent  of  their  villas,  they  had  passed  through  the  same 
stages  as  their  predecessors,  and  it  was  not  until  by  their 
conquests  they  had  become  acquainted  with  the  luxury  of 
Asia  and  Gieece,  that  they  began  to  erect  such  splendid 
mansions.  The  villa  of  Marcus  Cato,  we  are  told,  was  so 
rude,  that  the  walls  were  not  even  plastered ;  nor  did  that 
of  Scipio  Africanus,  or  the  Villa  Publica,  greatly  excel  in 
richness  of  decoration.  The  fust  houses  of  the  Romans  were 
nothing  better  than  simple  cottages  thatched  with  straw ;  and 
when  the  city  was  rebuilt  after  it  was  burned  by  the  Ciauls, 
the  houses  were  mostly  constructed  of  wood  and  covered  with 
shingles,  although  of  so  great  a  heigJit  as  to  become  danger- 
ous.    This  was   the  case,  even  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 


The  greater  part  of  the  city  was  again  destroyed  by  fire  in 
the  time  of  Nero,  and  was  rebuilt  in  a  more  substantial  and 
elegant  manner;  but  we  can  form  only  a  remote  idea  of  the 
houses,  having  no  examples  remaining. 

The  country  seats  or  villas  were  the  dwellings  on  which 
the  higher  classes  expended  the  greatest  care,  and  a  full 
description  of  these  will  be  found  in  Pliny's  Letters,  which 
we  proceed  to  give,  but,  l)efore  doing  so,  insert  some  remarks 
and  directions  on  the  subject  by  Vitruvius. 

Of  the  ]>rii'(iU'  and  public  Apartments  of  Houses,  riml  of 
their  Cunstrnetion  according  to  the  different  Ranks  of  People; 
(from  \'itriivius.) 

"These  buildings  being  disposed  to  the  proper  aspects  of 
the  heavens,  then  the  distribution  of  such  places  in  private 
houses  as  are  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  master  of  the 
house,  and  those  which  are  common  for  strangers,  mtist  be 
also  considered  :  for  into  those  that  are  thus  appropriated, 
no  one  can  enter  unless  invited  ;  such  as  the  cubiculum,  the 
triclinium,  the  bath,  and  others  of  similar  use.  The  common 
are  those  which  the  people  unasked  may  legally  enter;  such 
are  the  vestibulum,  cavaedium,  peristylium,  and  those  that 
may  answer  the  same  purposes  :  l)ut  to  persons  of  the  com- 
mon rank,  the  magnificent  vestibulum,  tablinum,  or  atrium, 
are  not  necessary,  because  such  persons  pay  their  court  to 
those  who  are  courted  by  others. 

"  People  who  deal  in  the  produce  of  the  country  must  have 
stalls  and  shops  in  their  vestibules,  and  cryptK,  horrea\  and 
apotheca;,  in  their  houses,  which  should  ije  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  as  may  best  preserve  their  goods  rather  than 
be  elegant.  The  houses  of  bankers,  and  public  offices,  should 
be  more  cominodious  and  handsome,  and  made  secure  from 
robbers;  those  of  advocates  and  the  learned,  elegant  and 
spacious,  for  the  reception  of  company  ;  but  those  of  the 
nobles,  wht)  bear  the  honours  of  magistracy,  and  decide 
the  affairs  of  the  citizens,  should  have  a  princely  vestibulum, 
lofty  atrium,  and  ample  peristylium,  with  groves  and  exten- 
sive anibulatories.erected  in  a  majesticstyle;  besides  libraries, 
pinacothecas,  and  basilicas,  decorated  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  magnificence  of  public  buildings;  fiu-  in  these  places,  both 
public  affairs  and  private  causes  are  oftentimes  determined. 
Houses  therefore  being  thus  adapted  to  the  various  degrees 
of  people,  according  to  the  rules  of  decor,  explained  in  the 
first  book,  will  not  be  liable  to  censure,  and  will  be  con- 
venient and  suitable  to  all  purposes.  These  rules  also  are 
applicable,  not  only  to  city  houses,  but  likewise  to  those  of 
the  country  ;  except  that  in  those  of  the  city  the  atrium  is 
usually  near  the  gate,  whereas  in  the  country  pseudo-urbana, 
the  peristylium  is  the  first,  and  then  the  atrium  ;  having 
a  paved  porticus  around,  looking  to  the  palestra  and 
amljulatories. 

"  I  have,  as  well  as  I  have  been  able,  briefly  written  the 
rules  relative  to  city  houses,  as  I  proposed.  I  shall  now  treat 
of  those  in  the  country,  how  they  may  be  made  convenient, 
and  in  what  manner  they  should  be  disposed. 

"  Of  Country  Houses,  with  the  description  and  use  of  their 
several  Parts. 

"In  the  first  place,  the  country  should  be  examined  with 
regard  to  its  salubrity,  as  written  in  the  first  book  concerning 
the  founding  of  a  city,  for  in  like  manner  villas  are  to  be 
established.  Their  magnitude  must  be  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  land  and  its  produce.  The  courts  and  their  size  must 
be  determined  by  the  number  of  cattle  and  yokes  of  oxen  to 
be  there  employed.  In  the  warmest  part  of  the  court,  the 
kitchen  is  to  be  situated,  and  adjoining  thereto  the  ox-house, 
with  the  stalls  turned  towards  the  fire  and  the  eastern  sky  ; 
for  the  cattle  seeing  the  light  and  fire,  are  thereby  rendered 
smooth-coated  ;  even  husbandmen,  although  ignorant  of  the 


HOU 


505 


HOU 


nature  nf  aspects,  think  that  cattle  should  look  to  no  other 
part  t)f  the  heavens  than  to  that  where  the  sun  rises.  The 
breadth  of  tlie  ox-house  should  not  he  less  than  ten  feet,  nor 
more  than  lifieen  :  the  length  should  l)e  so  much  as  to  allow- 
no  less  than  seventeen  feet  to  each  yoke. 

"  The  bath  also  is  to  be  adjoined  to  the  kitchen,  for  thus 
the  plaeeof  bathing  will  not  be  farfroni  those  of  the  husbandry 
occupations.  The  press-room  should  be  near  the  kitehtu, 
that  it  may  be  convenient  for  the  olive  business  ;  and  adjoin- 
ing thereto  the  wine-cellar,  having  windows  to  the  north  ; 
for,  should  they  be  toward  any  part  which  ma)'  be  heated  by 
the  sun,  the  wine  in  that  cellar  would  be  disturbed  by  the 
heat,  and  become  vapid.  The  oil-room  is  to  be  so  situated 
as  to  have  its  light  from  the  southern  and  hot  aspects;  for 
oil  ought  not  to  be  congealed,  but  be  attenuated  bv  a  gentle 
heat.  The  dimensions  of  these  rooms  are  to  be  regulated  by 
the  quantity  of  fruit,  and  the  number  of  the  vessels;  which, 
if  they  be  cullearim,  should  in  the  middle  occupy  four  feet. 
Also,  if  the  press  be  not  worked  by  screws,  but  by  levers, 
the  pressroom  shoidd  not  be  less  than  forty  feet  long,  that 
the  pressers  may  have  sufficient  space;  the  breadth  should 
not  be  less  than  sixteen  feet,  by  which  means  there  will  be 
free  room  to  turn,  and  to  dispatch  the  work  ;  but  if  there 
be  two  presses  in  the  place,  it  ought  to  be  twenty -lour  feet 
broad.  The  sheep  and  goat-houses  should  be  so  large,  that 
not  less  than  four  feet  and  a  half,  nor  more  than  six  feet, 
may  be  allowed  to  each  animal.  The  granary  should  be 
elevated  from  the  ground,  and  look  to  the  north  or  east,  fur 
thus  the  grain  will  not  so  soon  be  heated,  but,  being  cooled 
by  the  air,  will  endure  the  longer;  the  t)ther  aspects  generate 
worms  and  such  vermin  as  usually  destroy  the  grain. 

"The  stable,  above  all  in  the  villa,  should  be  built  in  the 
warmest  place,  and  not  look  toward  the  fire,  for  if  these 
cattle  be  stalled  near  the  fire,  they  become  rough-coated  ; 
nor  are  those  stalls  unuseful  which  are  placed  out  of  the 
kitchen,  in  the  open  air,  toward  the  east  ;  for  in  the  w  inter 
time,  when  the  weather  is  serene,  the  Ijcasts,  being  led  thi- 
ther in  the  morning,  may  be  cleaned  while  they  are  taking 
their  food. 

"The  barn,  hay-room,  meal-room,  and  mill,  are  placed 
without  the  villa,  that  it  may  be  more  secure  from  the  danger 
of  fire. 

"  If  the  villa  is  to  be  built  more  elegantly,  it  must  be 
constructed  according  to  the  symmetry  of  city  houses,  before 
described  :  but  so  as  not  to  impede  its  use  as  a  villa. 

"  Great  care  ought  to  be  taken,  that  all  buildings  have 
sufficient  light,  which  in  villas  is  easily  obtained  ;  because 
there  are  no  walls  near  to  obstruct  it.  15ut  in  the  city,  either 
the  height  of  the  party-walls,  or  the  narrowness  of  the 
streets,  may  occasion  obscurity.  It  may,  however,  be  thus 
tried  :  on  the  side  where  the  light  is  to  be  received,  let  a  line 
be  extended  from  the  top  of  the  wall  that  seems  to  cause  the 
obscurity,  to  that  place  to  which  the  light  is  required  ;  and  if, 
when  looking  up  along  that  line,  an  ample  space  of  the  clear 
sky  may  be  seen,  the  light  to  that  place  will  not  be  obstructed  ; 
but  if  beams,  lintels,  or  floors,  interfere,  the  upjier  parts 
must  be  opened,  and  thus  the  light  be  admitted.  The  upper 
rooms  are  thus  to  be  managed  ;  on  whatsoever  part  of  the 
heavens  the  prospect  may  lie,  on  that  side  the  places  of  the 
windows  are  to  be  left,  for  thus  the  edifice  will  be  best 
enlightened.  As  in  tricliniums  and  such  apartments,  the 
light  is  highly  necessary,  so  also  is  it  in  passages,  ascents, 
and  staircases,  where  people  carrying  burdens  frequently 
meet  each  other. 

'•  I  have  explained,  as  well  as  I  have  been  able,  the  dis- 
tribution of  our  buildings,  that  they  may  not  be  unknown 
to  those  who  build  ;  I  shall  now  also  brieflv  explain  the  dis- 
Cl 


tribution  of  houses,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Greeks, 
that  they  also  may  not  be  unknown. 

"  Of  the  Disposition  of  the  Houses  of  the  Greeks. 

"The  Greeks  use  no  atrium,  nor  do  they  build  in  our 
manner  ;  but  from  the  gate  of  entrance  they  make  a  passage 
of  no  great  breadth  ;  on  one  side  of  w  hich  is  the  stable,  on 
the  other,  the  porters'  rooms,  and  these  are  directly  termi- 
nated by  the  inner  gates.  This  place  between  the  two  gates 
is  called  by  the  Greeks  Ihyroreion.  After  that,  in  entering, 
is  the  peristylium,  which  peristylium  has  porticos  on  three 
sides.  On  that  side  which  looks  to  the  south,  are  two  antas, 
at  an  ample  distance  fjom  each  other,  supporting  beams,  and 
so  much  as  is  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  anttc,  want- 
ing a  third  part,  is  given  to  the  space  inwardly  ;  this  place  is 
called  by  some  prostas,  by  others  parastas.  From  this  place, 
more  inwardly,  the  great  ceci  are  situated,  in  which  the  mis- 
tress of  the  family,  with  the  workwomen,  resides.  On  the 
right  and  left  of  the  prostas,  are  cubicula;,  of  which  one  is 
called  thuhimas.  and  the  other  amphithdluimis  ;  and  in  the 
surrounding  porticos,  the  common  tricliniums,  cubiculums, 
and  family  rooms  are  erected.  Tliis  part  of  the  edifice  is 
called  gyntvconitis. 

"  Adjoining  to  this  is  a  larger  house,  having  a  more  ample 
peristylium,  in  which  are  four  porticos  of  equal  height,  or 
sometimes  the  one  which  looks  towards  the  south  has  higher 
columns  ;  and  this  peristylium,  which  has  one  portico  higher 
than  the  rest,  is  termed  rltodinn.  In  these  houses  they  have 
elegant  vestibulums,  magnificent  gates,  and  the  porticos  of 
the  peristyliums  are  ornamented  with  stucco,  plaster,  and 
lucunariffi,  of  inside  work  (wood.)  In  the  porticos  which  look 
to  the  north,  are  the  Cyzicene  triclinium,  and  pinacothecse  : 
to  the  cast  are  the  libraries,  to  the  west  the  exedrae,  and  in 
those  looking  to  the  south  are  the  square  ceci,  so  large  that 
they  may  easily  contain  four  sets  of  dining  couches,  with  the 
attendants,  and  a  spacious  place  for  the  use  of  the  games. 
In  these  oeci  are  made  the  men's  dining  couches,  for  it  is  not 
their  custom  for  the  mothers  of  families  to  lie  down  to  dine. 
This  peristylium  and  part  of  the  house  is  called  andronitiJes, 
because  here  the  men  only  are  invited  without  being  accom- 
panied by  the  women. 

"  On  the  right  and  left  also,  small  houses  are  erected, 
having  proper  gates,  triclinse,  and  convenient  cubieute,  that 
when  strangers  arrive,  they  may  not  enter  the  peristylium, 
but  be  received  in  this  hospitalium  ;  for  when  the  Greeks 
were  more  refined  and  opulent,  they  prepared  triclinioe, 
cubiculte,  and  provisions,  for  strangers  ;  the  first  day  inviting 
thein  to  dinner,  afterwards  sending  them  poultry,  eggs,  herbs, 
fruits,  and  other  productions  of  the  country.  Ilence  the 
pictures  representing  the  sending  of  gifts  to  strangers,  are  by 
the  painters  called  zenia.  Masters  of  families,  therefore, 
while  they  abode  in  the  hospitium,  seemed  not  to  be  from 
home,  having  the  full  retirement  in  these  hospitaliums. 
Between  the  peristylium  and  hospitalium  are  passages,  which 
are  called  mesaulm  ;  because  they  are  situated  between  two 
aula  ;  these  are  by  us  allied  andronas  ;  but  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  Greeks  and  Latins  do  not  in  this  agree ;  for  the 
Greeks  give  the  name  of  andronas  to  the  oecus  where  the 
men  usually  dine,  and  which  the  women  do  not  enter. 

"  It  is  the  same  also  with  some  other  words,  as  xystos, 
prothyrum,  telamones,  and  others;  for  xystos  is  the  Greek 
appellation  of  those  broad  porticos,  in  which  the  athlete 
exercise  in  winter  time ;  whereas,  we  call  the  uncovered 
ambulatories  xystos  ;  and  which  the  Greeks  c&W  peridromidas. 
The  vestibula,  which  are  before  the  gates,  are  by  the  Greeks 
called  prolhyra  ;  whereas,  we  call  prothyra  that  which  the 
Greeks  call  diathyra.  The  statues  of  men  bearing  mutules 
or  cornices  we  call  telamones,  for  what  reason  is  not  to  be 


no  [J 


50G 


Hon 


found  in  hist(jry  ;  but  tlie  Greeks  call  them  allantes  ;  Atlas 
being  in  history  represented  as  supporting  the  world  ;  for  he 
was  tile  first  who,  by  his  ingenuity  and  diligence,  diseovered 
and  taught  mankind  the  course  of  the  sun  and  moon,  the 
rising  and  setting  of  all  the  planets,  and  the  revolutions  of 
the  heavens;  for  whiih  benelit  the  painters  and  statuaries 
represented  him  bearing  the  whole  earth  ;  and  the  Atlantides, 
his  children,  which  we  call  Venjilnis,  and  the  Greeks 
P/iciacles,  are  placed  aTuong  the  stars  in  the  heavens.  1  have 
not,  htiwcver,  mentioned  this  in  order  to  change  the  custi>niary 
names  or  manner  of  discoursing,  but  only  to  explain  them, 
tiiat  these  things  might  not  be  unknown  to  the  lovers  of 
knowledge." 

Hjclracts  from  Pliny's  Letters. 
Description  of  the  villa  at  Laurcnthium. 
"  You  are  surprised,  it  seems,  that  I  am  so  fond  of  my 
Laurentinum,  or  (if  you   like  the.  appellation    better)  my 
Laurens;   but  you  will   cease   to  wonder,  when   1  acquaint 
you  with  the  beauty  of  the  villa,  the  advantages  of  its  situa- 
tion, and  the  extensive  prospect  of  the  sea-coast.     It  is  but 
seventeen  miles  distant  from  Rome;  so  that,  having  fmished 
my  affairs  in  town,  1  can  pass  my  evenings  here,  without 
breakirjg  in  upon   the  business  of  the  day.     There  are  two 
different  roads  to  it :  if  you  go  by  that  of  Laurentum,  you 
must  turn  o(f  at  the  fourteenth  mile-stone  ;  if  by  Ostia,  at 
the  eleventh.      Both  of  them  are,  in  some  parts,  sandy,  which 
makes   it  somewhat  heavy  and   tedious,  if  you  travel   in  a 
carriage,  but  easy  and  pleasant  to  those  who  ride  on   horse- 
back.    The  landscape,  on  all  sides,  is  extrejiiely  diversified, 
the  prospect,  in  some  places,  being  confined   by   woods,  in 
others  extending  over  large  and   heautifid  meadows,  where 
numberless  flocks  of  sheep  and   herds  of  cattle,  which  the 
severity  of  the  winter  has  driven  from  the  mountains,  fatten 
in  the  vernal  warmth  of  this  rich  pastuiage.     My  villa  is 
larsre  enough  to  afford  all  desirable  accommodations,  without 
being  extensive.     The  porch  before  it  is  plam,  but  not  mean, 
through  which  you  enter  into  a  portico  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  D,  which  includes  a  small  but  agreeable  area.     This 
affords  a  very  commodious  retreat  in  bad  weather,  not  only 
as  it  is  enclosi'd  with  windows,  but  particularly  as  it  is  shel- 
tered by  an  extraordinary  projection  of  the  roof.      From  the 
middle  of  this  portico  you   pass  into  an  inward  court,  ex- 
tremely pleasant,  and  from  thence  into  a  handsome  hall,  which 
runs  out  tow-iirds  the  sia;  so  that  when  there  is  a  south-west 
wind,  it  is  gently  washed  with  the  waves,  which  spend  them- 
selves at  the  loot  of  it.     On  every  side  of  this  iiall,  there  are 
either  folding-doors,  or   windows  equally   large,  by    which 
means  you  have  a  view  from  the  tVorit  and  the  two  sides,  as 
it  were,  of  three  ditlerent  seas:   from  the  back  pi'.rt,  you  see 
the  middle  court,  the  portico,  and  the  area  ;  and,  by  another 
view,  you  look  through  the   portico,  into  the   porch,  from 
whence  the  prospect  is  terminated  by  the  woods  and  moun- 
tains which  are  seen  at  a  distance.      On  the  left-hand  of  this 
hall,  somewhat  faither  from  the  sea,  lies  a  large  draw  ing- 
rooui,  and  beyond  that,  a  sect)nd  of  a  smaller  size,  which  has 
one  w  iiidow  to  the  rising,  and  another  to  the  setting  sun  : 
this  has,  likewise,  a  prospect  of  the  sea,  but  being  at  a  greater 
distance,  is  less  incommoded   by  it.     The  angle  which  the 
projection  of  the  hall  forms  with  this  drawing-room,  retjiins 
and  increases  the  warmth  of  (he  sun;  and  hither  my  family 
retreat  in  winter  to  perfiirm   their  exercises  :   it  is  sheltered 
from   all  winds,  except  those  which  are  generally  attended 
with  clouds,  so  that  nothing  can   render  this  place  useless, 
but  what,  at  the  same  lime,  destroys  the  fair  weather.      Con- 
tiguous to  this,  is  a  room  f"orming  the  segment  of  a  circle,  the 
windows  of  w  hich  are  so  placed,  as  to  receive  the  sun  the 


whole  day  :  in  the  walls  are  contrived  a  sort  of  eases,  which 
contain  a  collection  of  such  authors  whose  works  can  never 
be  read  too  often.  From  hence  you  pass  into  a  bed-chamber 
through  a  passage,  which,  being  boarded,  and  suspi-ndeil,  as  it 
were,  over  a  stove  which  runs  underueath,  tempers  the  heat 
which  it  receives,  and  conveys  it  to  all  parts  of  ihis  room.  The 
remainder  of  this  side  of  the  house  is  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  my  slaves  and  freed-men  :  but  most  of  the  apartments, 
however,  are  neat  enough  to  receive  any  of  my  friends.  In 
the  op|H)site  wing,  is  a  room  ornamented  in  a  very  elegant 
taste;  next  to  which  lies  another  room,  which,  though  large 
for  a  parlour,  makes  but  a  moderate  dining-room  ;  it  is  exceed- 
ingly warmed  and  enlightened,  not  only  by  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun,  but  by  their  reflection  from  the  sea.  Beyond,  is  a 
bed-chamber,  together  with  its  ante-ehamlier,  the  height  of 
which  renders  it  cool  in  summer  ;  as  its  being  sheltered  on 
all  sides  from  the  winds  makes  it  w-arm  in  winter.  To  this 
apartment  another  of  the  same  sojt  is  joined  by  one  common 
wall.  From  thence  you  enter  into  the  grand  and  spacious 
cooling-room,  belonging  to  the  bath,  from  the  opposite  walls 
of  which,  two  round  basons  project,  sufficiently  large  to  swim 
in.  Contiguous  to  liiis  is  the  perfuniing-room,  then  the 
sweating-room,  and  next  to  that,  the  furnace  which  conveys 
the  heat  to  the  baths  :  adjoining,  are  tw  o  other  little  bathing- 
rooms,  fitted  up  in  an  elegant  rather  than  costly  manner: 
annexed  to  this,  is  a  warm  bath  of  extraordinary  workman- 
ship, wheiein  one  may  swim,  and  have  a  prosjieet,  at  the 
same  time,  of  the  sea.  Not  far  fmm  het;ce,  stands  the  tennis 
Ciiurt,  which  lies  open  to  the  warmth  of  the  aflernoon  sun. 
From  thence  you  ascend  a  sort  of  turret,  containing  two 
entile  apartments  below  ;  as  there  are  the  same  number 
above,  besides  a  dining-room  which  commands  a  very  exten- 
sive prospect  of  the  sea,  together  with  the  beautiful  villas 
that  stand  interspersed  upon  the  coast.  At  the  other  end,  is 
a  second  turret,  in  which  is  a  room  that  receives  the  rising 
and  setting  sun.  Behind  this  is  a  large  repository,  near  to 
which  is  a  gallery  of  curiosities,  and  underneath  a  spacious 
dining-room,  where  the  roaring  of  the  sea,  even  in  a  storm, 
is  heard  but  faintly:  it  looks  upon  the  garden,  and  the  gestatio 
which  surrounds  the  garden.  The  gestatio  is  encompassed 
with  a  box-tree  hedge,  and  where  that  is  decayed,  with  rose- 
mary ;  for  the  box,  in  those  parts  which  are  sheltered  by  the 
buildings,  preserves  its  verdure  perfectly  well  ;  but  where, 
by  an  open  situation,  it  lies  exposed  to  the  sp)ray  of  the  sea, 
though  at  a  great  distance,  it  entirely  withers.  Between  the 
garden  and  this  gestatio  runs  a  shady  plantation  of  vines,  the 
alley  of  which  is  so  soft,  that  you  may  walk  bare-fimt  upon  it 
without  any  injury.  The  garden  is  chiefly  plante<l  with  fig 
and  mulberry  trees,  to  which  this  soil  is  as  fiivourable,  as  it 
is  averse  from  all  others.  In  this  place  is  a  bantjuetiug- 
room,  which,  though  it  stands  remote  from  the  sea,  enjoys  a 
prospect  nothing  inferior  to  that  view  :  two  apartments  run 
round  the  back  part  of  it,  the  windows  whereof  look  upon 
the  entrance  of  the  villa,  and  into  a  very  pleasant  kitchen- 
ground.  From  hence  an  enclosed  poi  tico  extends,  which,  by 
its  great  length,  you  might  suppose  erected  for  the  use  of  the 
public.  It  has  a  range  of  windows  on  each  side,  but  on  that 
which  looks  towards  the  sea,  they  are  double  the  number 
of  those  next  the  garden.  When  the  weather  is  fair  and 
serene,  these  are  all  throw  n  open  ;  but  if  it  blows,  those  on 
the  side  the  wind  sets  are  shut,  while  the  others  remain  un- 
closed without  any  inconvenience.  Befijre  this  portico  lies  a 
terrace,  perfumed  with  violets,  and  warmed  by  the  reflection 
of  the  sun  from  the  ]>ortico,  which,  as  it  retains  the  rays,  so 
it  keeps  ofl'  the  north-east  wind  :  and  it  is  as  warm  on  this 
side  as  it  is  cool  on  the  (j[iposile:  in  the  same  manner  it 
proves  a  defence  against  the  south- west ;  and  thus,  in  short, 


¥ 


I 


^o 


1 


«i 


I 


HOU 


507 


HOU 


by  means  of  its  several  sides,  breaks  the  force  of  the 
winds  from  what  point  soever  they  blow.  These  are  some 
of  its  winter  advantages:  they  are  still  more  cnnsiderable  in 
summer;  for  at  that  season  it  throws  a  sli;ide  upon  the  ter- 
race durinjf  all  the  forenoon,  as  it  defends  the  gestatio,  and 
that  part  of  the  garden  which  lies  contiguous  to  it,  from  the 
afternoon  sun,  and  easts  a  greater  or  less  shade,  as  the  day 
either  increases  or  decreases ;  but  the  portico  itself  is  then 
coolest,  when  the  sun  is  most  scorching,  that  is,  when  its 
rays  fall  directly  upon  the  roof  To  tlicse  its  benefits  I  must 
not  forgot  to  add,  that,  by  setting  open  the  windows,  the 
western  hreczes  have  a  free  draught,  and,  by  that  means,  the 
enclosed  air  is  prevented  from  stagnating.  On  the  upper  end 
of  the  terrace  and  portico  stands  a  detached  huilding  in  the 
garden,  whi(^h  I  call  my  t'avourite;  and  indeed  it  is  particu- 
larly so,  having  erected  it  myself  It  contains  a  very  warm 
winter-room,  one  side  of  which  looks  upon  tiie  terrace,  the 
other  has  a  view  of  the  sea,  and  both  lie  exposed  to  the 
sun.  Through  the  folding-doors  you  see  the  opposite  cham- 
ber, and  from  the  window  is  a  prospect  of  the  enclosed  por- 
tico. On  that  side  ne.xt  the  sea,  and  opposite  to  the  middle 
wall,  stands  a  little  elegant  recess,  which.  l)y  means  of  glass- 
doors  and  a  curtain,  is  either  laid  into  the  adjoining  room, 
or  separated  fiom  it.  It  contains  a  couch  and  two  chairs. 
As  you  lie  upon  this  couch,  from  the  feet  yon  have  a  pros- 
pect of  the  sea;  if  you  look  behind,  you  see  the  neigh- 
bouring villas;  and  from  the  head  you  have  a  view  of  the 
woods;  these  three  views  may  he  seen  either  distinctly  from 
so  many  different  windows  in  the  room,  or  blended  together 
in  one  conl'usud  prospect.  Adjoining  to  this  is  a  bed- 
chamber, wliich  neither  the  voice  of  the  servants,  the  mur- 
muring of  the  si'a,  nor  even  the  roaring  of  a  tempest,  can 
reach ;  not  lightning  nor  the  day  itself  can  penetrate  it, 
unless  you  open  the  windows.  This  profound  tranquillity  is 
occasioned  by  a  passage,  which  separates  the  wall  of  this 
cliaiuber  from  that  of  the  garden;  and  thus,  by  means  of 
tliat  intervening  space,  every  noise  is  precluded.  Annexed 
to  this  is  a  small  stove-room,  w  hich,  by  opening  a  little  win- 
dow, warms  the  bed-chamber  to  the  degree  of  heat  required. 
Beyond  this  lies  a  chamber  and  anti-chamber,  which  enjoys 
the  sun,  though  obliquely  indeed,  from  the  time  it  rises,  till 
the  afternoon.  When  1  retire  to  this  garden-apartment, 
1  fancy  myself  a  hundred  miles  from  my  own  house,  and 
take  particular  jileasurc  in  it  at  the  feast  of  the  Saturnalia, 
when,  by  the  license  of  that  season  of  festivity,  every  other 
part  of  my  villa  resounds  with  the  mirth  of  my  domestics  : 
thus  I  neither  interrupt  tlieir  diversions,  nor  they  my  studies. 
Among  the  pleasm-es  and  conveniences  of  this  situation, 
there  is  one  disadvantage,  and  that  is  the  want  of  a  runnint; 
Stream  ;  but  this  defect  is,  in  a  great  measure,  supplied  by 
Wells,  or  rather  I  should  call  them  fountains,  for  they  rise 
very  near  the  surfice.  And,  indeed,  the  quality  of  this  coast 
is  remarkable;  for  in  what  part  soever  you  dig,  you  meet, 
upon  the  lirst  turning  up  of  the  ground,  with  a  spring  of 
pure  water,  not  in  the  least  salt,  though  so  near  the  sea.  The 
neighbouring  firests  attiud  an  abundant  supply  of  fuel;  as 
every  other  accommodation  of  life  may  be  had  from  Ostia  : 
to  a  moderate  man,  indeed,  even  the  next  village  (between 
which  and  my  house  there  is  only  one  villa)  would  furnish 
all  common  necessaries.  In  that  little  place  there  are  no  loss 
than  three  public  baths;  which  is  a  great  convcniency,  if  it 
happen  that  my  friends  come  in  unexpectedly,  or  make  too 
short  a  stay  to  allow  time  for  preparing  my  own.  The  whole 
coast  is  beautifully  diversified  by  the  contiguous  or  detached 
villas  that  are  spread  upon  it,  wliich,  whether  you  view  them 
from  the  sea  or  the  shore,  have  the  appearance  of  so  many 
ditferenl  cities.    The  strand  is  sometimes,  after  a  long  calm, 


perfectly  smooth,  though,  in  general,  by  the  storms  driving 
the  waves  upon  it,  it  is  rough  and  uneven.  I  cannot  boast 
that  our  sea  produces  any  very  extraordinary  fish  ;  however, 
it  supplies  us  with  exceeding  fine  soles  and  prawns;  but  as 
to  provisions  of  other  kinds,  my  villa  pretends  to  excel  even 
inland  countries,  particularly  in  milk  ;  fiir  hither  the  cattle 
come  from  the  meadows  in  great  numbers,  in  pursuit  of 
shade  and  water. 

"  Tell  me  now,  have  I  not  just  cause  to  bestow  my  time 
and  my  atlection  upon  this  delightful  retreat?  Surely  you 
are  too  fondly  attached  to  the  pleasures  of  the  town,  if  30U 
do  not  feel  an  inclination  to  take  a  view  of  this  my  favourite 
villa.  I  much  wish,  at  least,  you  were  so  disposed,  that  to 
the  many  charms  with  which  it  abounds,  it  might  have  the 
vcr\-  considerable  addition  of  your  company  to  recommend  it. 
Farewell." 

The  following  observations  may  tend  to  illustrate  several 
of  the  obscure  parts,  in  the  foregoing  description  of  Pliny's 
villa  at  Laurentinum. 

Pliny  had  no  estate  round  his  seat  at  Laurentinum  ;  his 
whole  possessions  there  being  included  (as  he  informs  us, 
B.  4.  let.  3.)  in  the  house  and  garden.  It  was  merely  a  win- 
ter villa,  in  which  he  used  to  spend  some  of  the  cold  months, 
whenever  his  business  admitted  of  iiis  absence  from  Rome  ; 
and,  for  this  reason  it  is,  that  wo  find  warmth  is  so  much 
considered  in  the  disposition  of  the  several  a|>artments,  &c. 
And,  indeed,  he  seems  to  have  a  principal  view  to  its  advan- 
tages as  a  winter  house,  throughout  the  whole  description 
of  it. 

Scamozzi,  in  his  Architect.  Univers.  lib.  3.  12.  has  given  r. 
plan  and  elevation  of  this  villa.  Mons.  Fclibien  has  also 
annexed  a  plan  -to  liis  transl.ition  of  this  letter ;  as  our  own 
countryman,  the  ingenious  Mr.  Castel,  has  done  in  his  Villas 
of  the  Ancients  illustnited.  But  they  ditler  extremely  among 
themselves  as  to  the  disposition  of  the  several  [larts  of  this 
building,  and,  perhaps,  have  rather  pursued  the  idea  of 
modern  architecture,  than  that  which  is  traced  out  in  their 
original ;  at  least,  if  the  suppositi<in  advanced  by  one  of  the 
commentators  upon  this  epistle  be  true;  who  contends  that 
the  villas  of  the  aucioiits  were  not  one  uniform  pile  of  build- 
ing contained  under  the  same  roof,  but  that  each  apartment 
formed  a  distinct  and  separate  member  from  the  rest.  The 
ruins  of  this  villa  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  some  time 
about  the  year  1714,  but  whether  any  plan  was  ever  taken  of 
so  valuable  a  remain  of  antiquity,  ov  the  reality  of  it  ascer- 
tained, the  translator  has  not  been  able  to  learn. 

The  Roman  magnificence  seems  to  have  particularly  dis- 
played itself  in  the  article  of  their  baths.  Seneca,  dating 
one  of  his  epistles  from  a  villa  which  once  belonged  to  Scipio 
Afiicanus,  takes  occasion,  from  thence,  to  draw  a  parallel 
between  the  simplicity  of  the  earlier  ages,  and  the  luxury  of 
his  own  times  in  that  instance.  By  the  idea  he  gives  of  the 
latter,  they  were  works  of  the  highest  splendour  and  expense. 
The  walls  were  composed  of  Alexandrine  marble,  the  veins 
whereof  were  so  aitfnlly  managed,  as  to  have  the  apjiearance 
of  a  regular  picture  :  the  edges  of  the  basons  were  set  round 
with  a  most  valuable  kind  of  stone,  found  in  Thasius,  one  of 
the  Greek  islands,  variegated  with  veins  of  different  colours, 
interspersed  with  streaks  of  gold;  the  water  was  conveyed 
through  silver  pipes,  and  fell,  by  several  descents,  in  beau- 
tiful cascades.  The  floors  were  inlaid  with  precious  gems, 
and  an  intermixture  of  statues  and  colonnades  contributed  to 
throw  an  air  of  elegance  and  grandeur  upon  the  whole.  Vide 
Sen.  Ep.  86. 

"The  custom  of  bathing  hi  hot  water  was  become  so 
habitual  to  the  Romans,  in  Pliny's  time,  that  they  every  day 
practised  it  before  they  lay  down  to  eat,  for  which  reason. 


II  UU 


508 


II  OU 


in  the  city,  the  public  baths  were  extremely  numerous;  in 
which  V'itruvius  gives  us  to  understand,  there  were,  for  each 
sex,  three  rooms  lor  bathing,  one  of  cold  water,  one  of  warm, 
and  one  still  warmer;  and  there  were  cells  of  three  degrees 
of  heat,  for  sweating:  to  the  (i.ire-mentioned  members,  were 
added  others  for  anointing  and  bodily  exercises.  The  last 
tl/ing  they  did  before  they  entered  into  the  dining-room  was 
to  bathe;  what  preceded  their  washing  was  their  exercise  in 
the  spheiisterlum,  prior  to  which  it  was  their  custom  to 
anoint  themselves.  As  for  their  sweating-rooms,  though 
they  were,  doubtless,  in  all  their  baths,  we  do  not  tiud  them 
used  but  upon  pai  tieular  occasions."  Castel's  Villas  of  tlie 
^l/tcients,  p.  31. 

''Tile  enclosed  porticos  in  Pliny's  description  didered  no 
otherwise  from  our  present  galleries,  than  that  they  h.'id 
pillars  in  them  :  the  use  of  this  room  was  for  walking." 
Castel's   Villas,  p.  44. 

Mr.  Castel  observes,  that  though  I'liny  calls  his  house 
Villulci  ;  it  appears  that,  after  having  described  but  part  of 
it,  yet,  if  every  diieta  or  entire  apartment  may  be  supposed 
to  contain  three  rooms,  he  has  taken  notice  of  no  less  than 
forty-six,  besides  all  which,  there  remains  near  half  the  house 
undescribed,  which  was,  as  he  says,  allotted  to  the  use  of  the 
servants  ;  and  it  is  very  probable  this  part  was  made  \miform 
with  that  he  has  already  described.  Hut  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, that  diminutives  in  Latin  do  not  always  imply  small- 
ness  of  size,  but  are  frequently  used  as  words  of  endearment 
and  approbation;  and  in  this  sense  it  seems  most  probable 
that  Pliny  here  uses  the  word    Villulii. 

'I he  following  is  Pliny's  description  of  his  summer  villa  in 
Tuscany,  book  v.  letter  vi.,  addressed  to  Apolliiiaris. 

"The  kind  concern  you  expressed  when  you  heard  of  my 
design  to  pass  the  summer  at  my  villa  in  Tuscany,  and  your 
obliging  endeavours  to  dissuade  me  from  going  to  a  place 
which  you  think  unliealthy,  are  extremely  pleasing  to  me. 
J  confess,  the  atmosphere  of  that  part  of  Tuscany,  whieh  lies 
towards  the  coast,  is  thick  and  unwholesome :  but  my  house 
is  situated  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea,  under  one  of  the 
Apcnnine  mountains,  which,  of  all  others,  is  most  esteemed 
for  the  clearness  of  its  air.  But  that  you  may  be  relieved 
from  all  apprehensions  on  my  aceount,  1  will  give  you  a  de- 
scription of  the  temperature  of  the  climate,  the  situation  of 
the  country,  and  the  beauty  of  my  villa,  which  I  am  per- 
suaded you  will  read  with  as  much  jileasure  as  I  shall  relate. 
The  winters  are  severe  and  cold,  so  that  myrtles,  olives,  and 
trees  of  that  kind,  which  delight  in  constant  warmth,  will 
not  flourish  here:  but  it  produces  bay -trees  in  gieat  perfec- 
tion ;  yet,  sometimes,  though  indeed  not  oftener  than  in  the 
neiglibourhood  of  Home,  they  are  killed  by  the  severity  of 
the  seasons.  The  summers  are  exceedingly  temperate,  and 
continually  attended  with  refreshing  breezes,  which  are  sel- 
dom interrupted  by  high  winds.  If  you  were  to  come  here, 
and  see  the  numbers  of  old  men  who  have  lived  to  be  grand- 
fathers and  great-grandfathers,  and  hear  the  stories  they  can 
entertain  you  with  of  their  ancestors,  you  would  tiincy  your- 
self born  in  some  former  age.  The  disposition  of  the  country 
is  the  most  beautiful  th.at  can  be  imagined;  figure  to  your- 
self an  immense  amphitheatre;  but  such  as  the  hand  of 
nature  only  could  form.  Before  you  lies  a  vast  extended 
plain,  bounded  by  a  range  of  mountains,  whose  summits  are 
covered  with  lofty  and  venerable  woods,  wliieh  supply  variety 
of  game :  from  thence,  as  the  mountains  decline,  they  are 
adorned  with  underwoods.  Intermixed  with  these  are  little 
hills  of  so  strong  and  fat  a  soil,  thai  it  would  be  ditHcult  to 
find  a  single  stone  upon  them;  their  feitilily  is  nothing 
inferior  to  the  lowest  grounds;  and  though  their  harvest,  in- 
deed, is  somewhat  later,  their  crops  are  as  well  matured.    At 


the  foot  of  these  hills  the  eye  is  presented,  wherever  it  turns, 
with  one  unbroken  view  of  numberless  vineyards,  terminated 
by  a  border,  as  it  were,  of  shrubs.  From  thence  you  have  a 
prospect  of  the  adjoining  fields  and  meadows  below.  The 
soil  of  the  former  is  so  extremely  stitT,  and,  upon  the  first 
ploughing,  turns  up  in  such  vast  clods,  that  it  is  necessary  to 
go  over  it  nine  several  times,  with  the  largest  oxen  and  the 
strongest  ploughs,  before  they  can  be  thoroughly  broken  ; 
whilst  the  enamelled  meadows  produce  trefoil,  and  other 
kinds  of  herbage,  as  fine  and  tender  as  if  it  were  but  just 
sjirnng  u[i,  being  continually  rel'reshcd  by  never  failing  nils. 
But  though  the  country  abounds  with  great  plenty  of  water, 
there  arc  no  marshes;  for,  as  it  lies  upon  a  rising  ground, 
whatever  water  it  receives  without  absorbing,  runs  ofi"  into 
the  Tiber.  This  river,  whieh  winds  through  the  middle  of 
the  meadows,  is  navigable  only  in  the  winter  and  spring,  at 
which  seasons  it  tran>ports  the  produce  of  the  lands  to  Rome ; 
but  its  channel  is  so  extremely  low  in  summer,  that  it  sciircely 
deserves  the  name  of  a  river ;  towards  the  autumn,  however, 
it  begins  again  to  renew  its  claim  to  that  title. — You  could 
not  be  more  agreeably  entertained,  than  by  taking  a  view  of 
the  face  of  this  country  from  the  top  of  one  of  oiir  neighbour, 
ing  mountains:  you  would  suppose  that  notareid,  but  some 
imaginary  landscape,  painted  by  the  most  excjuisite  pencil, 
lay  before  you:  such  an  harmonious  variety  of  beautiful 
objects  meets  the  eye,  which  way  soever  it  turns.  Mv  villa 
is  so  advantageously  situated,  that  it  commands  a  full  view 
of  all  the  covuitry  round  ;  yet  you  approach  it  by  so  insensible 
a  rise,  that  you  find  yourself  upon  an  eminence,  without  per- 
ceiving you  ascended.  Behind,  but  at  a  great  distance,  stands 
the  Apennine  moinitains.  In  the  calmest  day  we  are  re- 
freshed by  the  winds  that  blow  from  thence,  but  so  spent, 
as  it  were,  by  the  long  tract  of  land  they  travel  over,  that 
they  are  entirely  divested  of  all  their  stiength  and  violence 
before  they  reach  us.  The  exposition  fjf  the  principal  front 
of  the  house  is  full  south,  and  seems  to  invite  the  afternoon 
sun  in  summer  (but  somewhat  earlier  in  winter)  into  a 
spacious  and  well-proportioned  portico,  consisting  of  •s.eveial 
members,  particularly  a  porch  built  in  the  ancient  manner. 
In  the  front  of  the  portico  is  a  sort  of  terrace,  embellished 
with  various  figures,  and  bounded  with  a  box-hedtre,  from 
whence  you  descend  by  an  easy  slope,  adorned  with  the  re- 
presentation of  divers  animals,  in  box,  answering  alterruitely 
to  each  other,  into  a  lawn  overspread  with  the  soft,  I  had 
almost  said  the  liipiid,  acanthus:  this  is  surrounded  by  a 
walk  enclosed  with  tonsile  evei'grc*cns,  shaped  irjto  a  vaiietv 
of  forms.  Beyond  it  is  the  gestatio,  laid  out  in  the  form  of 
a  circus,  ornamented  in  the  middle  with  box  cut  in  number- 
less ditlbr-elit  figures,  together  with  a  plantation  of  shrubs, 
prevented  by  the  shears  from  shooting  irp  too  hiLdi :  the  whole 
is  fenced  in  with  a  wall  covered  by  box,  rising  by  dillercnt 
ranges  to  the  top.  On  the  outside  of  the  wall  lies  a  meadow 
that  owes  as  many  beauties  to  nature,  as  all  I  have  been 
describing  within  (Iocs  to  art ;  at  the  end  of  whieh  are  sevei-al 
other  meadows  and  fields  interspersed  with  thickets.  At  the 
extremity  of  this  portico  stimds  a  grand  dirring-room,  which 
opens  upon  one  end  of  the  terrace ;  as  from  the  windows 
there  is  a  very  extensive  prospect  over  the  meadows  up  into 
the  country,  fi-om  whence  you  also  have  a  view  of  the  terrace, 
and  such  jiarts  of  the  house  which  project  forward,  togi'ther 
with  the  woods  enclosirrg  the  adjacent  hippodrome.  Opposite 
almost  to  the  centr-e  of  the  portico,  stands  a  square  edifice, 
whieh  cneompasses  a  small  area,  shaded  by  four  planetives, 
in  the  midst  of  which  a  fountain  rises,  from  whence  the  water, 
rumring  over  the  edges  of  a  marble  bason,  gently  refreshes 
the  suirorrndiug  plane-trees,  aird  the  ver'dui'e  underneath 
them.     This  apartment  consists  of  a  bed-chamber,  secured 


II  ou 


509 


HOU 


from  every  kind  of  noise,  and  which  the  light  itself  cannot 
penetrate;  together  with  a  common  dining-room,  which  I 
use  when  1  have  none  but  intimate  friends  with  me.  A 
second  portico  jooivs  upon  this  little  area,  and  has  the  same 
prospect  with  the  former  I  just  now  described.  There  is, 
besides,  another  room,  which,  being  situated  close  to  the 
nearest  plane-tree,  enjoys  a  constant  shade  and  verdure:  its 
sides  are  iiicrusted  half-way  with  carved  marble ;  and  from 
thence  to  the  ceiling  a  foliage  is  painted  with  birds  intermixed 
among  the  branches,  which  has  an  etl'ect  altogether  as  agree- 
able as  that  of  the  carving  :  at  the  basis  a  little  fountain, 
playing  through  several  small  pipes  into  a  vase,  produces  a 
most  pleasing  murmur.  From  a  corner  of  this  portico  you 
enter  into  a  very  spacious  ciiamber,  opposite  to  the  grand 
dining-room,  which,  fiom  some  of  its  windows,  has  a  view  of 
the  terrace,  and  from  others,  of  the  meadow;  as  those  in  the 
front  Idok  upon  a  cascade,  which  entertains  at  once  both  the 
eye  and  the  ear;  for  the  water,  dashing  from  a  great  height, 
foams  over  the  marble  bason  that  receives  it  below.  This 
room  is  extremely  warm  in  winter,  being  much  exposed  to 
the  sun;  and  in  a  cloudy  day,  the  heat  of  an  adjoining  stove 
very  well  supplies  his  absence.  From  hence  you  pass  through 
a  spacious  and  pleasant  undressing-room  into  the  cold-bath- 
room, in  which  is  a  large  gloomy  bath :  but  if  you  are  dis- 
posed to  swim  more  at  large,  or  in  warmer  water,  in  the 
middle  of  the  area  is  a  wide  bason  for  that  purpose,  and  near 
it  a  reservoir  fiom  whence  you  may  be  supplied  with  cold 
water  to  brace  yourself  again,  if  you  should  perceive  you 
are  too  much  relaxed  by  the  warm.  Contiguous  to  the  cold- 
bath  is  another  of  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  which  enjoys 
the  kindly  warmth  of  the  sun,  but  not  so  intensely  as  that  of 
the  hot-balh.  which  projects  farther.  This  last  consists  of 
three  divisions,  each  of  ditlerent  degrees  of  heat:  the  two 
former  lie  entirely  open  to  the  sun  ;  the  latter,  though  not  so 
much  exposed  to  its  rays,  receives  an  equal  share  of  its  light. 
Over  the  undressing-room  is  built  the  tennis-court,  which,  by 
means  of  particular  circles,  admits  of  difl'erent  kinds  of  games. 
Not  far  from  the  baths,  is  the  staircase  leading  to  the  enclosed 
portico,  after  you  have  fiist  passed  through  three  apartments  : 
one  of  these  looks  upon  the  little  area  with  the  four  plane- 
trees  round  it ;  the  other  has  a  sight  of  the  meadows  ;  and 
from  the  third  you  have  a  view  of  several  vineyards  :  so  that 
they  have  as  many  different  prospects  as  expositions.  At 
one  end  of  the  enclosed  portico,  and,  indeed,  taken  oft'  from 
it,  is  a  chamber  that  looks  upon  the  hippodrome,  the  vine- 
yards, and  the  mountains;  adjoining  is  a  room  which  has  a 
full  exposure  to  the  sun,  especially  in  winter;  and  from 
whence  runs  an  apartment  that  connects  the  hippodrome  with 
the  house :  such  is  the  form  and  aspect  of  the  front.  On  the 
side,  rises  an  enclosed  summer  portico,  which  has  not  only  a 
prospect  of  the  vineyards,  but  seems  almost  contiguous  to 
them.  From  the  middle  of  this  portico  you  enter  a  dining- 
room,  cooled  by  the  salutary  breezes  from  the  Apennine  val- 
leys ;  from  the  windows  in  the  back  front,  which  are  extremely 
large,  there  is  a  prospect  of  the  vineyards ;  as  you  have  also 
another  view  of  them  from  the  folding-doors,  through  the  sum- 
mer portico.  Along  that  side  of  this  dining-room,  where  there 
are  no  windows,  runs  a  private  staircase  for  the  greater  con- 
veniency  of  serving  at  entertainments :  at  the  farther  end  is  a 
chamber  from  whence  the  eye  is  pleased  with  a  view  of  the 
vineyards,  and  (what  is  not  less  agreeable)  of  the  portico. 
Underneath  this  room  is  an  enclosed  portico,  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  grotto,  which,  enjoying,  in  the  midst  of  the  summer 
heats,  its  own  natural  coolness,  neither  admits  nor  wants  the 
refreshment  of  external  breezes.  After  you  have  passed  both 
these  porticos,  at  the  end  of  the  dining-room  stands  a  third, 
which,  as  the  day  is  moic  or  less  advanced,  serves  either  for 


winter  or  summer  use.  It  leads  to  two  different  apartment^, 
one  conlaim'iig  four  chambers,  the  other  three  ;  c.ich  enjoving, 
by  turns,  both  sun  and  shade.  In  the  fnmt  of  these  agree- 
able buildings,  lies  a  very  spacious  hippodrome,  entirely  open 
in  the  middle,  by  which  means  the  eye,  upon  your  first 
entrance,  takes  in  its  whole  extent  at  one  glance.  It  is 
encompassed  on  every  side  with  ])lane-trees,  covered  with 
ivy,  so  that  while  their  heads  flourish  with  their  own  foliagb, 
their  bodies  enjoy  a  borrowed  verdure;  and  thus,  the  ivy 
twining  round  the  trunk  and  branches,  spreads  from  tree  to 
tree,  and  coiniects  them  together.  Between  each  plane-tree 
are  planted  box-trees,  and  behind  these,  bay-trees,  which 
blend  their  shade  with  that  of  the  planes.  This  plantation, 
forming  a  straight  boundary  on  both  sides  of  the  hippodrome, 
bends  at  the  farther  end  into  a  semicircle,  which  being  set 
roimd  and  sheltered  with  cypress-trees,  varies  the  prospect, 
and  casts  a  deeper  gloom  ;  while  the  inward  circular  walks, 
(for  there  are  several)  enjoying  an  open  exposure,  are  per- 
fumed with  roses,  and  comiect,  by  a  very  pleasing  contrast, 
the  coolness  of  the  shade  with  the  warmth  of  the  sun.  Having 
passed  through  these  several  winding  alleys,  you  enter  a 
straight  walk,  which  breaks  out  into  a  variety  of  others, 
divided  by  box  edges.  In  one  place  you  have  a  little  meadow ; 
in  another,  the  box  is  cut  into  a  thousand  diflerent  forms; 
sometimes  into  letters,  expressing  the  name  of  the  master; 
sometimes  that  of  the  artificer;  whilst  here  and  there  little 
obelisks  rise  intermixed  alternately  with  fruit-trees:  when, 
on  a  sudden,  in  the  midst  of  this  elegant  regularity,  you  are 
surprised  with  an  imitation  of  the  negligent  beauties  of  rural 
nature:  in  the  centre  of  which  lies  a  spot  surrounded  with  a 
knot  of  dwarf  plane-trees.  Beyond  these  is  a  walk  planted 
with  the  smooth  and  twining  aftinthus,  where  the  trees  are  also 
cut  into  a  variety  of  names  and  shapes.  At  the  upper  end  is 
an  alcove  of  white  marble,  shaded  with  vines,  supported  by 
four  small  Carystian  pillars.  From  this  bench,  the  water, 
gushing  through  several  little  pipes,  as  if  it  were  pressed  out 
by  the  weight  of  the  persons  who  repose  themselves  upon  it, 
falls  into  a  stone  cistern  underneath,  from  whence  it  is  received 
into  a  fuiely  polished  marble  bason,  so  artfully  contrived,  that 
it  is  always  full  without  ever  overflowing.  When  I  sup  here, 
this  bason  serves  for  a  table,  the  larger  sort  of  dishes  being 
placed  round  the  margin,  while  the  smaller  ones  swim  about 
in  the  form  of  little  ve^sels  and  wafer-fowl.  Corresponding  to 
this,  is  a  fountain  which  is  incessantly  emptying  and  filling; 
for  the  water  which  it  throws  up  a  great  height,  falling  back 
into  it,  is,  by  means  of  two  openings,  returned  as  fast  as  it  is 
received.  Fronting  the  alcove  (and  which  reflects  as  great  an 
ornament  to  it  as  it  borrows  from  it)  stands  a  summer-house 
of  exquisite  marble,  the  doors  whereof  firoject  and  open  into 
a  green  enclosure  ;  as  from  its  upper  and  lower  w  indows,  the 
eye  is  presented  with  a  variety  of  different  verdures.  Next 
to  this  is  a  little  private  recess  (which,  th^  >ugh  it  seems  distinct, 
may  be  laid  into  the  same  room)  furnished  with  a  couch ;  and, 
notwithstanding  it  h.as  windows  on  every  side,  yet  it  enjoys 
a  very  atjrecable  gloominess,  by  means  of  a  spreading  vine 
which  climbs  to  the  top,  and  entirely  overshades  it.  Hero 
you  may  recline  and  fancy  yourself  in  a  wood  ;  with  this 
difference  only,  that  you  are  not  exfiosed  to  the  weather.  In 
this  place  a  fountain  also  rises,  and  instantly  disappears: 
in  different  quarters  are  disposed  several  marble  seats,  which 
serve,  no  less  than  the  summer-house,  as  so  many  reliefs  after 
one  is  wearied  with  walking.  Near  each  seat  is  a  little  foun 
tain;  and,  throughout  the  whole  hippodrome,  several  small 
rills  rim  murmuring  along,  wheresoever  the  hand  of  art 
thought  proper  to  conduct  them,  watering  here  and  there 
different  spots  of  verdure,  and,  in  their  progress,  refreshing 
the  whole. 


HO  U 


510 


HOU 


"  And  now,  I  should  not  have  hazarded  the  im[iutation  of 
being  too  minute  in  this  detail,  if  I  had  not  proposed  to  lead 
you  into  every  corner  of  my  house  and  gardens.  You  vrill 
hardly,  1  imagine,  think  it  a  trouble  to  read  the  deseription 
of  a  place  which.  1  am  persuaded,  would  please  you  were  you 
to  see  it;  especially  as  you  have  it  in  your  power  to  stop, 
and,  by  throwing  aside  my  letter,  sit  down,  as  it  were,  and 
rest  yourself  as  often  as  you  think  proper.  I  had,  at  the 
same  time,  a  view  to  my  own  gratification  ;  as,  1  confess,  I 
have  a  very  great  alfection  for  this  villa,  which  was  chiefly 
built  or  tinished  by  myself  In  a  word  (for  why  should  1 
conceal  from  my  friend  my  sentiments,  whether  right  or 
wrong?)  I  look  upon  it  as  the  first  duty  of  every  writer 
frequently  to  throw  his  eyes  upon  his  title-page,  and  to  con- 
sider well  the  subject  he  has  proposed  to  himself;  and  he 
may  be  assured,  if  he  precisely  pursues  liis  plan,  he  cannot 
justly  be  thought  tedious;  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  if  he 
sufil-rs  himself  to  wander  from  it,  he  will  most  certainly  incur 
that  censure.  Homer,  you  know,  has  employed  many  verses 
in  the  description  of  the  arms  of  Achilles,  as  Virgil  also  has 
in  those  of  iEneas;  yet  neither  of  them  are  proli.x,  because 
they  each  keep  within  the  limits  of  their  original  design. 
Aratus,  you  see,  is  not  deemed  too  circumstantiid,  though  he 
traces  and  enumerates  the  minutest  stars;  for  he  does  not  go 
out  of  his  wav  for  that  purpose,  he  only  follows  where  his 
subject  leads  him.  In  the  >ame  maimer  (to  compare  small 
things  with  great)  if  endeavouring  to  give  you  an  idea  of  my 
house.  I  have  not  deviated  into  any  article  foreign  to  the 
purpose,  it  is  not  my  letter  which  de^Cl■ibes,  but  my  villa 
which  is  described,  that  is  to  be  con>ideied  as  large.  But 
not  to  dwell  any  longer  upon  this  digression,  lest  I  should 
myself  be  condemned  by  the  ma.xim  1  have  just  laid  down; 
1  have  now  informed  you  why  1  |irefir  my  Tuscan  villa  to 
those  which  1  possess  at  Tusculum,  Tiber,  and  Pncneste. 
Besides  the  advantages  already  mentioned,  1  here  enjoy  a 
more  profound  retirement,  as  1  am  at  a  further  distance  from 
the  business  of  the  town,  and  the  interru]ition  of  troublesome 
avoc;ilitins.  All  is  calm  and  composed  ;  circumstances  which 
contribute,  no  less  than  its  clear  air  and  unclouded  sky,  to 
that  health  of  body  and  cheerfulness  of  mind  which  1  parti- 
cularly enjoy  in  this  place ;  both  which  I  preserve  by  the 
exercise  of  study  and  hunting.  Indeed,  there  is  no  place 
which  agrees  better  with  all  my  family  in  general ;  I  am 
sure,  at  least,  1  have  not  yet  lost  one  (and  I  speak  it  with 
the  sentiments  1  ought)  of  all  those  I  brought  with  me  hither  : 
may  the  g<jds  continue  that  happiness  to  me,  and  that  honour 
to  my  villa!     Farewell !" 

This  villa  in  Tuscany  was  Pliny's  principal  scat,  lying 
about  150  miles  from  Rome,  and  in  which  he  usually  resided 
during  the  summer  season.  The  reader  will  observe,  there- 
fore, that  he  considers  it  in  a  very  ditl'erent  manner  from 
that  of  Laurentiiiurn  (his  winter  villa,)  both  with  respect  to 
the  situation  and  the  house  itself  Cluver,  in  his  geograjihy, 
has  placed  this  villa  a  little  abt)vc  Ti/erniim  Tiheriiim,  now- 
called  Citta  di  Castello,  where  our  author  built  a  temple  at 
his  own  expense.  This  h^'JS  given  room  to  imagine  that 
possibly  there  may  be  yet  some  remaining  traces  of  this  house 
to  be  discovered  in  Tuscany,  near  a  town  which  the  Italians 
CJill  Stintiynaiw,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ponle  di  Suit 
Sle/uno,  about  ten  miles  north  of  an  episcopal  city  now 
called  Borgo  di  Sati  Sepulchro. 

Amongst  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Komans,  houses  were  flat 
at  top,  so  that  persons  might  walk  upon  them;  and  usually 
had  stairs  on  the  outside,  by  which  they  might  ascend  and 
descend  without  coming  into  the  house.  Each  house,  in  fact, 
was  so  laid  out  that  it  enclosed  a  quadrangular  area  or  court. 
This  court  was  exposed  to  the  weather,  and   being  open  to 


the  skv.  gave  light  to  the  house.  This  was  the  place  where 
companv  was  received,  and  for  that  purpose  it  was  strewed 
with  mats  or  carpets  for  their  better  accommodation.  It  was 
paved  with  marble  or  other  materials,  according  to  the 
owner's  abilitv,  and  providi^d  with  an  umbrella  of  vellum,  to 
shelter  them  from  the  heat  and  inclemencies  of  the  weather. 
This  part  of  their  houses,  called  by  the  Romans  impluviinn 
or  cava  adinm,  was  provided  with  channels  t<J  carry  off  the 
water  into  the  common  sewers.  The  top  of  the  house  was 
level,  and  covered  with  a  strong  plaster,  by  way  of  terrace. 
Hither,  especially  amongst  the  Jews,  it  was  customary  to 
retire  for  meditation,  private  converse,  devotion,  or  the 
enjovmcnt  of  the  evening  breezes. 

Home  examples  of  the  domestic  buildings  of  the  Romans 
still  exist  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  but  they  by  no 
means  equal  those  above  described.  At  the  fjrmer  place 
the  houses  are  small,  and  only  one  story  in  height ;  but  at  the 
latter  we  have  a  few  on  a  somewhat  grander  scale.  There 
are  about  80  houses  standing  in  this  town,  of  which  those  <if 
Diomedes,  Sallust,  and  Pansa,  are  the  finest ;  the  second 
standing  upon  a  plot  of  ground  about  40  yards  square ;  and 
the  latter  occupying,  with  its  court  and  garden,  a  space  of 
about  100  yards  by  40. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  la^t,  and  commencement  of  the 
present  Century,  some  fmv  examples  have  also  been  discovered 
in  our  own  country.  The  most  important  is  that  at  Wood- 
chester.  in  (Jloucestershire,  which  was  discovered  by  Mr. 
Lysons  in  1795,  and  consists  of  a  large  open  court  or  atrium, 
an  inner  court,  anil  a  smaller  one  in  the  wing — the  whole 
being  surroinnlcd  with  offices  and  apartments  about  sixty  in 
number.  The  length  of  the  apartments  is  about  25  feet. 
Another  example  in  the  same  county  was  discovered  in  1818, 
at  Great  Witcombe.  Another  example  is  that  at  Bignor, 
Sussex,  discovered  by  Mr.  Lysons  in  1811,  of  which  we  give 
the  f  lUowing  description,  extracted  from  the  original  account, 
and  partially  from  Stuart's  Dictionary: — 

"The  first  discovery  of  this  villa  occurred  in  1811.  A 
farmer  who  occupied  the  land,  in  removing  the  earth,  dis- 
covered a  fine  mosaic  pavement,  which  was  afterwards  found 
to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  floor  to  one  of  the  rooms.  In 
the  centre  of  this  apart  inent  was  an  hexagonal  pixcina,  or 
cistern,  formed  of  a  hard  white  sort  of  stone,  4  feet  in 
diameter  and  1  foot  7f  inches  in  depth,  with  a  border  of 
stone  round  it  Q^  inches  wide,  and  a  step  within  it,  at  nearly 
half  its  depth,  5^^  inchi's  wide  ;  at  the  bottom  is  a  roimd  hole, 
3  inches  in  diameter,  from  which  a  leaden  pipe  for  e^irrying 
ofl'  the  water  was  afterw  ards  discovered  on  the  outside  of  the 
south  wall,  running  in  a  southern  direction.  The  room 
appeared  to  have  been  he.-ited  by  an  hypocanst,  and,  in  clear- 
ing awav  the  earth,  part  of  a  small  Doric  colunm  was  found. 
In  the  next  room  discovered,  the  walls  remained  to  the  height 
of  more  than  two  feet  at  the  north-east  corner,  w  here  was  a 
funnel  above  the  pavement,  communicating  with  the  hypo- 
canst  below.  The  pavement  was  in  good  preservation  ;  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  room  were  40  feet  4  inches  by  17  feet. 
The  first  room,  31  feet  11  inches  by  19  feet.  The  walls  on 
the  east,  west,  and  north  sides,  were  2  feet  6  inches  thick ; 
that  on  the  south,  3  feet.  This  is  conjectured  to  have  been 
the  iricliiiiiim,  or  grand  banqueting  room.  Another  pave- 
ment was  found  in  a  third  room,  at  the  end  of  w  hich,  opposite 
from  the  room  last  mentioned,  was  a  doorway  3  f'ct  3i  inches 
wide,  leading  into  another  room,  22  feet  by  10  feet  4  inches 
— the  pavement  formed  of  coarse  red  tessene.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  great  pavement,  the  foundations  of  a  cryptopor- 
ticus  were  discovered,  which  appears  to  have  been  of  much 
larger  dimensions  than  any  one  hitherto  discovered  in  this 
island;  it  was  10  feet  wide,  and  157  feet  0  inches  long.     Its 


HOU 


511 


HOU 


tessellated  pavement  was  destroyed,  except  at  the  west  end; 
on  the  north  side  of  this  jjalU'iy  the  foundation-walls  of  a 
ranjie  of  rooms  was  diseovered,  running  eastward,  in  a  line 
with  the  great  room  first  discovered.  The  one  which  adjoined 
that  room  on  the  east  side  was  1!)  feet  2  inches  by  18  feet  9 
inches,  and  had  a  floor  of  terras  of  a  light  red  colour.  The 
ne.xt  room  to  the  eastward  was  nearly  of  the  same  dimensions, 
and  had  a  coarse  tessellated  pavement.  Adjoining  the  two 
last-mentioned  rooms  on  the  north  side,  were  the  foun- 
dations of  one  16  feet  square,  containing  a  mosaic  pavement. 
The  prce/urniiim  of  the  hypocaust,  by  which  the  grc.it  room 
and  others  had  been  heated,  was  discovered  on  the  north  ^ide 
of  the  north  wall  of  the  third-mentioned  room,  and  consisted 
of  two  walls  18  inches  thick  and  18  inches  asimder,  project- 
ing 16  inches  from  the  wall  of  the  building;  between  them 
was  a  kind  of  arch  formed  by  bricks  prujecting  beyond  each 
other,  and  communicating  with  the  fliu's  under  the  diflerent 
pavements;  about  30  feet  north  of  the  room,  marked  5,  in 
Mr.  Lysons'  plan,  a  very  fine  mosaic  pavement  was  dis- 
covered, and  a  magnificent  apartment,  marked  3,  was  traced, 
to  which  5  was  (bund  to  have  served  as  an  ante-room.  The 
wall  on  the  north  side  of  this  room  was  found  to  continue 
32  feet  towards  the  west,  where  it  terminated  with  a  ])rojec- 
tion  or  buttress  of  two  feet,  forming  two  sides  of  what 
appeared  to  have  been  a  kind  of  court,  enclosing  an  area  of 
80  feet,  filled  with  great  ipianlities  of  stones,  bricks,  and 
tiles.  At  a  small  distance  from  the  west  wall  of  the  great 
room,  last  described,  the  base  and  part  of  the  shaft  of  a  small 
column  were  discovered.  At  the  west  end  of  the  ante-room, 
5,  was  a  very  small  room,  4,  (9  feet  by  12  feet.)  having  two 
doorways,  one  on  the  east,  opening  into  5,  and  the  other  on 
the  north,  communicating  with  the  square  area  marked  1. 
The  continuation  of  the  east  wall  of  the  room  11,  at  the 
west  end,  or  rather  the  continuation  of  the  cryptoporticus, 
was  next  explored  to  the  southward,  and  traces  of  it  were 
found  to  the  extent  of  100  feet.  The  room  27,  adjoining  26, 
had  its  walls  still  remaining  on  the  east,  north,  and  south 
sides,  to  about  two  feet  high,  which  were  covered  with  stucco 
two  inches  thick,  painted  red,  with  a  skirting  of  plaster  at 
two  inches  high,  projecting  two  inches  and  a  half  from  the 
wall.  On  the  east  side  was  found,  in  good  preservation,  a 
fi-replace  21^  inches  wide  in  front,  17  at  the  back,  and  8  deep, 
with  a  hearth  formed  of  8  bricks,  each  about  7  inches  square. 
The  fireplace  was  f  )rmed  by  two  brick  tiles  on  each  side, 
which  had  been  cramped  together  with  iron,  and  were  placed 
on  the  sides  of  the  stove  introduced  by  Count  liumford. 
1  am  not  aware,  Mr.  Lysons  observes,  of  any  open  fireplace  of 
this  kind  having  been  discovered  elsewhere  in  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  building,  though  it  is  certain,  from  various  pas- 
sages in  the  Roman  writers,  that  other  means  were  employed 
by  the  ancients  for  warming  their  apartments,  liesides  hypo- 
causts.  Thecaminus  is  mentioned  byCicero,  Horace,Vitruvius, 
and  others ;  but  the  learned  commentators  on  these  authors 
are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  its  firm  or  situation,  and  it  has 
been  much  questioned  by  some  of  them,  on  the  authority  of 
several  passages  in  ancient  writers,  and  from  none  having 
been  discovered  in  Roman  buildings,  whether  there  was  any 
chimney,  or  other  means  of  conveying  away  the  smoke, 
though  it  is  hardly  to  be  conceived  that  a  room  could  have 
been  habitable  under  such  circumstances  at  times,  when  it 
was  necessary  to  close  the  doors  and  windows. 

This  room  was  144  by  17;  the  room  29  was  16  feet 
5  inches  by  15  feet  6  inches,  and  against  the  wall  was  another 
fireplace  resembling  the  one  described.  The  range  of  rooms 
running  eastw\ard  from  the  great  triclinium,  were  found  to 
extend  the  whole  length  of  the  cryptoporticus  10.11.  On 
\he  south  side  of  the  building,  another  cryptoporticus  was 


discovered,  marked  45;  which  communicated  with  a  range 
of  12  rooms,  containing  nothing  remarkable  except  those  at 
the  east  end,  which  fimii>hed  many  interesting  remains  of 
baths.  The  room  56  is  nearly  a  square  of  25  feet,  and  con- 
tained a  finely  preserved  mosaic  pavement.  Beyond  this 
mosaic  pavement  were  three  rows  of  black  and  red  tiles, 
6  inches  square,  laid  chequer-wise  ;  and  next  to  the  wall 
a  row  of  bricks,  each  11  inches  by  15^.  Great  part  of  a 
small  stone  coluiim  was  found  on  the  pavement,  in  the  same 
style  as  the  fragment  first  discovered,  being  a  sort  of  irregular 
Doric,  the  tori  of  the  liase  being  both  of  the  same  size.  The 
adjoining  room  55  was  30  feet  by  25;  the  floor  formed  of 
black  and  white  stones,  and  next  to  the  wall  a  row  of  bricks. 
Nearly  in  the  middle,  was  a  cold  bath  18  feet  from  east  to 
west,  and  3  feet  2  inches  deep ;  it  had  3  steps  on  the  east, 
north,  and  west  sides.  On  the  west  side  of  this  room  appeared 
the  remains  of  an  extensive  hypocaust  nuirked  53  54  ;  and 
from  the  frequency  of  the  brick  piers,  it  appeared  that  the 
apartment  over  it  must  have  been  a  sudatory,  probably 
divided  into  several  smaller  rooms.  The  pra;furnium  was 
on  the  outside  of  the  wall,  on  the  south  end  ;  the  piers  were 
2  feet  9  inches  high,  and  7^  inches  square,  and  consisted 
of  18  Layers  of  bricks,  with  a  larger  one  lOA  inches  square, 
laid  at  the  top  and  bottom.  In  room  52  adjoining,  was 
another  hypocaust,  communicating  with  a  larger  one  by  an 
arch  of  brick.  The  area  No.  1  was  in  another  examination 
found  to  he  surrounded  by  an  inner  wall,  which  appeared  to 
have  formed  a  kind  of  portico;  and  an  entire  column  was 
found  resembling  the  fragments  found  before,  which  showed 
that  it  had  been  surrounded  by  a  colonnade.  A  cold  bath 
was  also  found  in  the  apartment  marked  21.  Mr.  Lysons 
thinks  the  villas  to  have  been  the  residence  of  a  proprcetor, 
or  at  least  of  the  legate  or  governor  of  the  province.  At 
the  time  Mr.  Lysons  first  communicated  an  account  of  this 
villa  to  the  Archieologia,  the  discovery  was  confined  to 
the  rooms  marked  No.  1  to  26.  During  the  years  1816 
and  1817,  by  tracing  the  foundations  of  the  walls  on  the  east 
and  west  sides  of  the  great  court,  it  was  discovered  that  the 
cryptoporticus  extended  all  round.  The  western  crypto- 
porticus 46,  was  8  feet  wide  and  108  long,  including  a  small 
room  4.5,  at  the  north  end,  which  had  a  mosaic  pavement. 
Several  rooms,  No.  27,  51, 52,  53,  54,  55,  56  and  57.  besides 
the  cryptoporticus  and  passages,  were  discovered  on  the 
westein  side  of  the  great  court,  most  of  them  extending  into 
an  arable  field  belonging  to  the  rector  of  Bignor.  No  remains 
of  pavements  were  discovered  in  this  division  of  the  building, 
except  those  in  the  cryptoporticus  above  mentioned,  and 
some  fragments  of  the  coarser  kind  in  the  rooms  No.  28  and  29. 
Many  large  tesseraa  were  found  among  the  rubbish  in  the 
passage  No.  50.  By  digging  further  to  the  eastward  of  the 
single  wall  mentioned  in  the  former  account,  that  wall  was 
ascertained  to  be  part  of  an  Eastern  cryptoporticus.  Nos.  60 
and  61,  which  completed  the  enclosure  of  the  great  court, 
and  the  foundations  of  the  buildings,  were  discovered  in  a 
field  called  the  Loure-field,  extending  181  feet  eastward. 
Nos.  62  to  71.;  several  of  these  buildings  were  of  large 
dimensions,  and  they  were  enclosed  within  a  boundary  wall 
of  considerable  thickness,  not  built  at  right  angles  with  the 
eastern  side  of  the  principal  court,  but  in  a  very  irregular 
manner,  the  following  being  the  dimensions  of  the  several  sides 
of  this  court,  viz.:  the  eastern  side  277  feet  4  inches;  the 
west  side  385  feet  5  inches;  the  north  side  286  feet;  and 
the  south  side  322  feet  8  inches. 

It  would  appear  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Britons 
must  have  advanced  considerably  in  the  civilized  arts  of  life, 
by  such  examples  of  Roman  luxury  as  were  alibrdcd  in  their 
larger  residences,  such  as  that  above  described,  for  although 


no  u 


512 


HOU 


not  equal  to  those  in  Koine,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  of 
considiTable  dinu'nsions,  and  decorated  with  taste  and  skill, 
in  jiroof  of  which  we  have  oidy  to  refer  to  the  mosaics  and 
paintings.  Whether,  however,  the  Britons  did  not  profit  by 
such  examples;  or  whether  they  were  prevented  by  external 
circiimstain'cs  from  turning  their  increased  skill  and  know- 
leiige  to  practical  account,  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  they 
did  nt>t  improve  so  much  in  these  matters  as  they  might  rea- 
sonably be  expected  to  have  done. 

It  is  true,  that  after  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  they 
were  fully  einfdoyed  in  resisting  the  attacks  of  their  rougher 
neighbours,  and  probably  had  but  little  time  for  cultivating 
the  arts  of  |ieacc.  They  cannot  have  made  much  progress 
in  house-building  before  the  arrival  and  successful  invasion 
of  the  Saxons;  (or  had  they,  we  should  certainly  look  for 
some  proof  of  it  in  the  erections  of  their  invaders,  and  this 
we  do  not  lind.  Most  of  their  churches  and  cathedrals,  or  at 
least  of  tiie  earlier  ones,  seem  to  have  been  constructed  of 
timber,  and  we  cannot  therefore  suppose  that  their  domestic 
buildings  were  erected  in  a  more  durable  or  costly  manner. 
William  of  Malmsbury  speaks  of  them  as  "  low  and  mean 
dwellings;"  they  were  probably  constructed  of  wood,  and 
rootfed  with  reeds  and  straw.  But  even  in  Norman  limes, 
and  for  scjnie  period  after  the  Conquest,  there  seems  to  have 
been  but  little  progress  Juade  in  this  respect.  The  principal 
buildings  erected  for  habitation  iujmediately  after  the  con- 
quest of  the  Normans,  consisted  of  small  round  towers  raised 
on  a  mound,  and  designed  with  an  eye  to  security  rather 
than  convenience.  Located  in  an  enemy's  country,  and  in  the 
midst  of  men  who,  although  conquered  in  battle,  were  never- 
theless impatient  of  their  victors'  control,  and  unsubdued  in 
courage,  it  became  a  matter  of  necessity  to  secure  themselves 
against  the  contingency  of  a  sudden  attack,  and  William 
found  it  a  matter  of  policy  to  promote  the  erection  of  fortilled 
residences  by  his  followers.  The  earliest  buildings  of  this 
kind  were  simple  towers,  either  round,  rectangular,  or  poly- 
gonal in  plan,  and  of  small  size,  but  of  considerable  strength, 
the  walls  being  sometimes  as  much  as  12  feet  in  thickness, 
while  the  external  diameter  of  the  entire  building  did  not 
measure  more  than  from  40  to  50  feet.  The  windows  and 
apertures  were  very  narrow,  and  the  entrance  raised  several 
feet  above  the  ground,  and  approached  by  a  steep  flight  of 
steps.  Such  a  building  is  the  keep  at  Conisborough,  erected 
about  this  time.  It  is  circular  in  plan,  about  90  feet  in 
height,  which  is  divided  into  three  stories,  the  lowermost, 
which  is  lighted  only  from  the  interior,  being  used  probably 
as  a  dungeon  ;  the  next,  in  which  is  the  entrance,  as  a  store- 
room ;  and  the  upper  ones,  for  residence.  The  interior  dia- 
meter, in  this  instance,  is  about  23  feet,  and  the  thickness  of 
the  walls  from  10  to  13  feet.  At  a  somewhat  later  period, 
such  towers  or  keeps  were  surrounded  by  a  court  enclosed 
within  a  strong  wall  and  ditch,  the  former  being  strengthened 
by  towers  at  intervals,  and  the  latter  crossed  at  the  entrance 
by  a  drawbridge,  which  was  defended  by  an  advanced  out- 
work or  watch-tower,  termed  the  barbacan.  hi  such  castles 
the  keep  was  not  used  as  a  place  of  residence,  except  in  cases 
of  danger  or  emi^rgency,  more  convenient  and  roomy  apartr 
ments  being  provided  in  the  towers  or  court-yard. 

We  next  arrive  at  the  Edwardian  castles,  which  present 
an  improved  appearance.  The  keep  was  now  dispensed  with, 
the  castle  being  still  strongly  fortilied  by  an  outer  wall,  with 
towers  at  intervals ;  but  greater  attention  seems  to  have 
been  paid  to  convenience  and  domestic  comfort ;  and  the 
buildings  begin  to  assume  the  character  of  a  fortified  resi- 
dence rather  than  of  a  mere  stronghold  :  strength  is  evidently 
not  the  only  property  considered,  although  still  a  necessary 
qualification.  Caernarvon  Ciistle  is  a  good  example  of  this  date. 


During  the  fourteenth  century,  the  sterner  features  of 
castles  were  considerably  modified,  and  assumed  a  lighter  and 
more  peaceful  apjiearance.  Tlie  apartments  were  enlarged, 
and  rendered  at  once  more  commodious  and  agreeable.  The 
apertures  of  the  windows  also  were  considerably  enlarged, 
and,  late  in  the  period,  filled  with  tracery  in  the  heads. 
Examples  exist  at  Windsor,  Warwick,  and  Kenilworth. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  during  all  this  time 
there  was  in  existence  a  different  class  of  dwellings  of  a  less 
imposing  character,  but  perhaps  more  strictly  entitled  to  the 
appellation  of  domestic  buildings.  They  are  included  under 
the  general  term  of  nianor  houses. 

Previous  to  the  thirteenth  century,  houses  were  built  of 
timber,  and  at  first  onlj'  of  one  story,  being  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  the  inverted  hull  of  a  ship,  forme<l  of  timber  frame 
work,  the  intervals  being  filled  in  with  horizontal  planks. 
Afterwards,  this  hull  was  raised  on  walls,  likewise  of  timber 
frame-work  filled  up  with  clay,  stones,  and  plaster.  Stowe 
says  that  the  houses  in  Lfindon  of  this  [leriod  were  not  more 
than  1  (')  feet  in  height ;  built  of  wooil,  and  covered  with  reeds 
and  straw.  The  general  plan  seems  to  have  been  that  of  a 
parallelogram,  and  where  there  were  two  stories,  the  ap))roach 
to  the  upper  was  by  an  external  staircase.  The  lower  story 
was  vaulted,  and  lighted  by  small  windows;  but  there  docs 
not  appear  to  have  l)ecn  any  convenience  for  warming,  except 
in  the  upper  floor,  where  there  is  a  hearth  in  the  middle  of 
the  floor  with  smoke  hole  above:  the  windows  also  of  the 
upper  floor  were  larger  than  those  below\  In  scmie  instances, 
the  building  was  surrounded  by  a  moat.  An  example  of  this 
kind  exists  at  Boothby  P;ignel,  Lincolnshire.  .In  some  houses 
of  the  same  date,  the  principal  feature  was  the  hall,  which 
extends  the  whole  heiglit  of  the  building,  and  is  sometimes 
divided  into  aisles  similar  to  those  of  a  church,  as  in  the  palace 
of  the  bishop  of  Hereford. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  same  general  plan  was  pre- 
served ;  but  at  its  close,  some  little  differences  occur,  as  at 
Little  Wenham  Hall,  Suflblk,  where,  above  the  general  range 
of  building,  which  is  two-storied,  one  portion  is  carried  up 
an  additional  story,  so  as  to  present  externally  the  appearance 
of  a  tower.  In  this  example,  the  lower  portion  of  the  build, 
ing  is  constructed  of  flint  and  stone,  and  the  upper  part  of 
brick — a  material  not  found  in  any  previous  example,  and 
not  generally  used  for  a  considerable  time  afterwards. 
Square  towers  were  common  additions  to  the  houses  of  the 
next  century,  the  plans  of  w  hich  were  more  varied  than  those 
of  preceding  periods.  The  Mote,  Iglitam,  Kent,  is  an  exam- 
ple of  this  date ;  it  is  square  on  plan,  and  surrounded  by  a 
moat.  Timber  houses  of  this  date  exist  at  York  and  Salis- 
bury, with  ornamental  barge-boards,  which  appear  to  have 
been  introduced  about  this  time,  as  were  also  dormer  windows 
and  chimney-shafts. 

In  the  fifteenth  century,  the  erection  of  castles,  as  distin- 
guished from  manor-houses,  may  be  said  to  have  ceased  ;  the 
two  were  merged  together,  as  it  were ;  for  although  the 
dwellings  were  still  fortified,  they  were  incapable  of  a  regular 
siege,  as  comfort  was  no  less  considered  than  security. 
Houses  were  erected  of  all  shapes  and  materials,  and  often 
considerably  oramented.  The  square  plan,  amongst  others, 
was  still  in  use,  as  was  also  the  surrounding  moat,  although 
the  latter  was  not  so  frequent  as  formerly.  Chimneys  became 
common  at  this  period,  and  several  shafts  were  oflen  con- 
nected into  one  stack.  Panelled  ceilings  were  now  intro- 
duced, both  of  wood  and  plaster ;  and  the  windows  became 
large,  and  highly  ornamented  ;  bay  and  oriel  windows  were 
common.  The  internal  walls  of  large  mansions  were  often 
painted,  or  hung  with  tapestry,  and,  towards  the  close  of  the 
century,  lined   with  wainscot.      Examples  of  this  date  are 


HOU 


513 


HOU 


Eton  Collesje,  Eltham  and  Hampton -Court  palaces,  and 
Crosby-IIall.  Timlier  houses,  which  have  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  tiiiibci-s  (illed  with  ornamented  plaster,  are  also 
of  this  date.  Brick  came  iulo  very  general  use  during  this 
century. 

During  the  commencement  of  the  next  century,  the  houses 
retained  iiiueh  the  same  character,  although  perhaps  some- 
what more  enriched,  and  occasionally  with  some  introduc- 
tion of  Italian  work.  Ere  the  close,  however,  the  Italian 
style  had  become  predominant,  which  gi\es  a  vast  difference 
in  the  buildings  of  the  si.xteenth  century.  The  ceilings 
of  this  last  style  were  entirely  of  plaster,  which  is  often 
highly  enriched  with  carving.  Ornamental  staircases  and 
galleries  were  first  introduced  at  this  period,  but  open  balus 
ters  were  not  common  at  the  first,  the  space  below  the  hand- 
rail being  filled  up  with  plaster.  Timber  houses  are  still 
common,  and  often  of  good  design,  the  intervals  between  the 
quartering  being  filled  with  bricks  or  plaster.  Examples  of 
this  date  are  Wollaston-Hall,  Nottinghamshire  ;  Longleat, 
Wiltshire;  the  Quarries,  Rochester;  and  Little  Charlton 
House,  Kent. 

During  the  next  century,  the  Italian  style  of  building 
contiimed  to  prevail,  the  Gothic  features  gradually  dis- 
appearing until  thej-  were  entirely  lost  in  the  works  of  Jnigo 
Jones,  Vanbiugh,  &c.  Amongst  the  earlier  works  may  be 
mentioned  Audlej'  End,  Essex;  Uatfield  House,  Herts;  and 
Holland  House,  near  London;  and  amongst  the  latter,  the 
spacious  mansions  of  Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard. 

in  the  earlier  Domestic  buildings  of  this  country  but  little 
attention  was  given  to  comfort.  For  a  very  long  peri(pd 
the  houses  were  constructed  of  a  timber  framing,  either 
covered  with  planks,  or  having  the  intervals  between  the 
parts  of  the  framing  filled  in  with  cl.ay.  Such  materials  of 
course  rendered  the  houses  subject  to  frequent  conflagrations  ; 
and  in  cities  where  the  houses  were  closely  packed  toge- 
ther in  narrow  streets,  such  accidents  were  most  destructive. 
A  law  was  enacted  by  Richard  I.,  that  all  houses  in  the  city 
should  be  built  to  a  certain  height  of  stone,  and  covered  with 
slate  or  tiles;  and  after  the  fire,  which  consumed  the  greater 
part  of  Oxford  in  1190,  the  same  precaution  was  adopted  in 
that  city  ;  and  in  cases  where  the  people  were  too  poor  to 
effect  (his,  a  high  stone  wall,  built  up  between  every  fourth 
or  fifth  house,  was  deemed  sufficient.  In  these  cases,  how- 
ever, the  stonework  was  only  rough  rubble-work.  Brick 
was  introduced  from  Flanders,  and  we  do  not  find  any 
instance  of  its  employment  in  this  country  until  the  close  of 
the  thirteenth  century  at  Wenham-Hall,  where  the  lower 
part  is  of  stone,  and  the  upper  story  of  brick.  This  material 
did  not  come  into  general  use  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
at  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  but  before  its  close 
it  was  very  much  employed. 

In  the  interiors,  the  walls  were,  in  most  cases,  left  bare, 
or  sometimes  painted  or  hung  with  arras  or  tapestry  sus- 
pended on  hooks  three  or  four  inches  from  the  wall.  This 
ornamentation,  however,  was  seldom  introduced  but  in  regal 
mansions,  or  such  as  vied  with  them  in  splendour;  they  were 
by  no  means  of  frequent  or  common  use,  nor  were  probably 
emfiloyed  at  all  till  the  fourteenth  century.  There  was 
a  splendid  specimen  of  tapestry  in  Warwick  Castle  in  1344, 
and  Chaucer,  who  lived  a  few  years  later,  in  describing  his 
chamber,  says — 

"  All  the  walls  with  colours  6ne, 
Were  paint  both  text  and  glose  ;" 

The  floors  were  either  of  earth  or  stone,  but  at  a  later 
period  were  rough-cast  with  plaster  and  pebbles,  and  the 
dais,  or  upper  end  of  the  hall,  planked.     They  were  strewed 

65 


with  straw,  or  leaves,  even  in  royal  residences,  for  we  hear 
of  parties  holding  lands  of  Edward  I.,  on  condition  of  pro- 
viding straw  for  strewing  the  king's  chamber  in  winter,  and 
herbs  in  summer;  and  Fitzstephen  tells  us,  that  Thomas 
a  Becket,  when  chancellor  to  Henry  II.,  "  had  his  hall  strewed 
every  day  in  the  winter,  with  fresh  straw  or  hay,  and  in  the 
summer  with  rushes  and  green  leaves  fresh  gathered,  that 
such  knights  as  the  benches  could  not  contain,  might  not 
dirty  their  fine  clothes  when  they  sat  on  the  floor."  From  this 
we  learn  that  such  litter  served  for  a  seat  even  in  great 
houses ;  it  also  served  for  a  bed  amongst  a  lower  class  of 
persons. 

The  fireplace  was  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  where  logs  of 
wood  were  supported  on  dogs,  the  smoke  being  allowed  to 
find  its  way  as  best  it  could,  through  an  opening  in  the  roof, 
which  was  usually  covered  with  a  small  turret  or  lantern,  the 
sides  being  left  open,  or  filled  with  louvre-boards.  There  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  any  means  of  warming  the  smaller 
chambers,  except  by  pans  of  charcoal.  It  is  true,  we  find 
chimneys  in  Winwall  House,  which  is  supposed  to  belons!  to 
the  twelfth  century,  but  this  is  an  unique  specimen,  and  it  is 
certain  that  they  were  not  in  use  for  a  considerable  period 
after  that.  At  Rochester  and  Hedingham  Castles  also,  we  have 
examples,  but  the  flues  are  carried  up  only  a  very  short  dis- 
tance in  the  wall,  and  then  turned  out.  Early  examples  of 
chimneys  are  found  .at  Conway  Castle,  built  by  Edward  I. 
in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  at  Kenilworth 
of  about  the  same  date.  These,  however,  are  but  exceptions  ; 
chimney  flues  were  not  common  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Glass  for  windows  does  not  seem  to  have  been  in  use  in 
any  other  than  ecclesiastical  buildings,  until  the  time  of 
Edward  I.,  and  then  it  was  of  very  rare  occurrence,  to  be 
found  only  in  the  halls  of  princes.  The  common  practice 
adopted  for  the  admission  of  light  consisted  in  the  insertion 
of  louvre-boards  in  apertures  at  the  upper  part  of  the  apart- 
ment, but  these,  although  effectual  to  exclude  the  rain,  were 
but  little  adapted  to  exclude  the  wind  also.  To  this  end 
another  expedient  was  resorted  to — oiled  canvas  or  linen  was 
stretched  over  the  apertures,  which  was  to  a  certain  extent 
effectual  for  all  requirements,  and  certainly  a  great  improve- 
ment  upon  louvre-boarding.  Glass  did  not  come  into  general 
use  for  gentlemen's  houses  before  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  we  find  Sir  Thomas  More,  in  his  "  Utopia."  alluding  to 
this  circumstance,  when  he  says,  that  they  keep  the  wind  off 
their  houses  with  glass,  for  it  is  there  much  used,  and  some 
also  with  very  fine  linen  dipped  in  oil  or  amber.  That  it 
was  occasionally  in  use  some  time  previous  to  this  period,  is 
evident  from  Chaucer's  description  of  his  chamber,  for 
he  says : — 

"  With  glas 

Were  all  the  windowps  well  yglazed; 

Full  clere,  with  not  a  hole  ycrased  ;" 

They  were  also  beautifully  painted,  for  he  goes  on — 

"  Tliat  to  behold  it  was  g^eat  joy  ; 
For  holly  all  the  story  of  Troy 
Was  in  the  glaising  wrought." 

Such  were  the  comforts  of  our  ancestors;  we  should 
scarcely  call  them  by  that  name  now-a-days,  when  the  regal 
luxuries  of  former  times  are  looked  upon  as  necessaries  even 
by  our  poorer  classes.  From  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
however,  domestic  convenience  and  comfort  made  rapid  pro- 
gress; we  fear  we  might  say  too  rapid,  for  the  real  happiness 
and  welfare  of  the  people.  Belonging  to  the  olden  times,  we 
find  ecclesiastical  structures,  which,  even  in  their  present 
state  of  nesilect  and  decay,  rival  the  resources  of  modern 
taste  and  skill,  while  their  "domestic  buildings  were  mean  and 


H  UN 


514 


HYP 


cheerless:  we  have  lived  to  see  the  tables  turned — chiirchos 
mean,  coM,  and  nef^leoted  ;  nay,  even  our  old  structures,  the 
betpiests  ot'our  ancestors,  allowed  to  fall  to  ruin  and  decay, 
while  our  own  dwellins;s  arc  Inadi'd  witli  luxuries,  and  over- 
crowded with  ornament.      But  this  scandal  is  passing  away, 


and  we  are  glad  to  see  some  slight  return  to  the  principles  of 
our  forefathers. 

For  a  further  ehicidation  of  this  subject,  as  regards  the 
Domestic  buildings  of  Old  England,  we  refer  to  the  article 
on  Tudor  Architectcre. 


The  dwelling-houses  of  the  metropolis  are  divided  by  act  of  parliament  into  three  classes,  each  of  which  is  subject  to 
certain  regulations  as  regards  the  building,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 


Ifin  height 


If  in  area 


If  containing 


more  tlian  70  ft,,  more  than  in  sqrs.,  j 
ami  not  more     an<t  not  more  tlian,)-7  stories 
than  85  ft.        I     14  sqrs. 


(more  than  7 
fstories. 


more  tlian  85  ft.  more  tiian  14  sqrs. 

I 
more  than  .')2  ft,,  more  tiian  6  sqrs., 
iukI  [Hit  more     and  not  more  tiian  }-B  stories, 
tlian  70  ft.        I    111  iiqrs. 


more  ttian  ^S  ft.,  more  tlian  4  sqrs., 
anti  not  more  ami  not  moro  than 
than  52  feet.    1    6  sqrs. 


I 
not  more  than  33  not   more   than    4 
feet,  I    sqrs. 


]-b  stories. 


not         more 
titan  4  stories. 


The  Raters. 


Srd. 


4tli. 


The  thiclcness  of  external  walls  roust  be 


2IJ  in.  from  top  of  foot- 
in'.j  to  underside  of  lloor 
next  but  3  below  top- 
most Hour. 

21V  in.  from  top  of  foot- 
ins;  to  nntlersirie  of  fl<.or 
next  but  2  below  t(q)- 
most  floor. 

17;  in.  rri>m  top  of  font-)      , 
inzto  underside  of  lloor  (^""" 
next  but   I  below  lop-l 
most  Hor)r.  ) 

17V  in    frron   top  of  foot-) ,     ,„     . 

■  112  to  underside  of  fi'iort""  '     "     ', 
next  b,,t^2   below  top-^     -nee^^f 

13    in.    t'ltmi    top    of  f"ot-V„,      e.      . 
ins  to  un.Wrsi.le  of  fi..nr(""'   ^„^*     \" 
next     below     topmostj    J^J-^^j,-; 


and  13  in. 
thence  to 
top  of  wull. 

and  17i  In. 
tlience  to 
top  of  wall. 


13     in 

lienee      to 
top  of  wall. 


The  thickness  of  partj-walls  mast  be 


21i  in.  from  top  of  footiiis 
to  undersitle  of  Monr  next 
but  three  below  topmost 
floor, 

21,1  in.  from  top  of  footin? 
to  nnderside  of  floor  next 
but  tliree  below  topmost 
floor. 

171  in.  from  top  of  footinir 
to  iindiTside  of  floor  next 
but  one  below  topmost 
floor ; 

17!  in.  from  top  of  footin;.' 
to  imderside  of  floor  tie\I 
but  two  below  topmost 
floor: 

13  in.  fVom  top  of  footinj: 
to  underside  of  floor  next 
but  one  below  topmost 
floor. 


and  17\  in.  thence  to)and  13  In. 


thenee 
to  top  of 
w.ill. 
and  13  In. 
tlipnco 
to  top  of 

wall. 


underside  of  floor 
next  below  top- 
most floor, 

md  17'  in.  tlience  to 
underside  of  top- 
modt  floor, 

(_13  in.  thence  to  top 
I     of  wall. 

)l3  in.  tlience  to  •m-)""''  ''  '" 
[    derside  of  topmost^     """<'« 
\     floor,  \ 


to  top  of 
wall. 


.and  ^1   thence  to  top 
of  wall. 


HOUSING,  the  space  excavated  out  of  a  body,  for  the 
insertion  of  some  part  of  the  extremity  of  tmollier,  in  order 
to  fasten  the  two  together:  thus  the  string-lio:ird  of  a  stair 
is  most  frequently  excavated,  or  notclied-nut  for  the  receii- 
tion  of  the  steps.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  niche  for 
containing  a  si:itue. 

HOVKLLING,  a  method  tidopted  for  the  prevention  of 
smoky  chimneys  by  carrying  up  the  two  sides  which  are 
the  most  obnoxious  to  currents  of  air,  above  the  others; 
or  liy  leaving  apertures  on  all  sides  for  the  escape  tif  tlie 
smoke. 

HUE  (from  the  Saxon)  in  painting,  any  degree  of  strength 
or  viviilness  of  colour,  from  its  greatest  or  deepest,  to  its 
weakest  tint. 

ITUMKRI.  the  angles  of  a  temple  formed  by  the  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  walls  of  the  cella. 

HUNDRED  t)l'"  LIME,  a  denoniiuation  of  measure,  in 
some  places  denoting  35,  and  in  others  25  heaped  bushels 
or  liags. 

Hi'NDRED,  Great  or  .SVfl/o/rof/,  =  1 121b.  avoirdnpoise  ^ 
4  quarters  =  7  slone  (of  HJlb.)  =  14  cloves  (81b.)  =  1(5 
cloves  (71b.)  =:  1,792  ounces  =  20  972  drachms  avoirdu- 
poise  =  ,9:W:;3  long  cwt.  (1201b.)  =  1031b.  2i  oz.  Dutch, 
or  Scottish  weight.  This  is  the  leg.il  hundred-weioht  of  the 
custom-house  of  liondoii,  and  in  all  the  souihern  parts  of 
England. 

IluNiiuKD,  Lnnq.  or  Northern,  =  1201b,  =  8y  stones 
(1411).)=  12  rationes(101b)=1.071428(>gie.atcwt.  (1I2II).) 
This  weii;ht  is  legalized  on  all  or  most  of  the  canals  .'md 
navigalile  rivers  in  the  north  of  England  and  of  the  midland 
counties,  by  their  acts  for  ct)llecting  tolls,  &c. 

Hundred  is  also  used  as  a  measure  to  express  a  certain 
quantity  or  number  of  things. 

Deal  boards  are  sold  at  six  score  to  the  hundred,  called 
the  long  Ininilred.  Pales  ,ind  laths  are  counted  at  live  score 
to  the  hundred  if  five  feet  long,  and  six  score  if  three  feet 
long. 

HUNG,  Ddiilile.  see  Double  Huxg, 

HUNTING  TOWERS,  ancient  buildings  erected,  as  is 
supposed,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  ladies  an  opportunity  of 
vieuing  the  progress  of  the  chase.  Examples  remain  at 
Chatsworth,  and  tit  Tibbermuir  near  Perth,  in  Scotland, 


TIURLEKS.  a  name  given  to  a  rude  erection  of  stones 
existing  near  St.  Clare,  Girnwall.  Thvy  are  of  Druidical 
origin.     See  Celtic  Architecture. 

HURRIES,  in  engineering,  is  .sometimes  applied,  at  New- 
castle and  other  places,  to  the  strong  stages  of  wood  erected 
on  the  sides  of  navigable  rivers  and  harbours,  to  whicth  the 
railways  are  conducted  from  the  coal  pits;  by  which  means 
the  load  is  emptied  at  once,  by  the  help  of  a  spout,  from  the 
railwav  waL'gons  into  the  holds  of  ships. 

HUT  (from  the  Saxon  hiitle)  a  small  cottage  or  hovel. 
It  is  also  used  for  the  soldiers'  lodges  in  the  field,  otherwise 
called  linr racks  or  caserns. 

HUT,  in  rural  economy,  a  low  sort  of  buildinff,  of  the 
cottage  kind,  generally  constructed  of  earthy  materials,  as 
strong  loamy  clay,  &c,  A  number  of  huts  of  this  descrip- 
tion have  been  built  on  the  borders  of  the  South  Esk,  in 
Scotland,  which  have  a  very  neat  and  rural  appearance. 
alliirding  the  idea  at  a  distance  of  their  being  formed  of  a 
kind  of  brown  brick-work.  The  materials  employed  consist 
of  a  sort  of  mudily  clay,  blended  with  the  I'oots  of  aquatic 
plants,  which  are  dii;;  beyond  the  flood-mark  of  the  river,  in 
such  sizes  and  shapes  iis  are  suitable  for  the  intended  pur- 
pose. The  pieces,  or  peats,  as  they  are  called,  are  generally 
cut  out  in  the  form  of  bricks,  but  somewhat  larger,  being 
prepared  in  every  respect  in  the  manner  of  peat-fuel.  It  is 
useful  in  some  cases  to  build  huts  with  lime-mortar,  but  more 
eomiiionly  with  clay  only. 

These  huts  a'C  generally  preferred  by  the  cottagers  to  such 
as  are  built  of  stone,  bein^  warmer,  .ami  nearly  as  durable. 

It  seems  not  improbalile  but  that  a  similar  sort  of  material 
for  building  this  kind  of  cottages  may  be  met  with  in  m.iny 
situ.ations  where  it  has  not  yet  been  discovered,  and  be  made 
use  of  in  this  way,  as  well  as  for  various  fences  of  the  wall 
kind. 

IIYP.KTITRAL  TEMPLE,  see  the  followin;:  article, 

HYI'.ETHRON,  or  IIvp.etiiros  (from  the  Greek,  open 
o/<o?'f')  a  temple  with  ten  columns  on  the  pron.aosand  posticus, 
in  external  appearance  similar  to  the  dipteral  ;  but  within,  it 
had  ,1  double  tier  of  columns  on  each  side,  detached  froin  Ihe 
w.all,  and  the  middle  area  was  open  to  the  sky.  The  cell 
was  approached  from  bolh  front  and  rear.  From  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Vitruvius,  it  appears,  that  Rome  did  not  afford 


HYP 


515 


riYP 


any  px;imple  of  this  species ;  and  he  points  out  the  temple  of 
JiipiliT  Olympus  at  Atliens  as  one. 

HYPERBOLA  (from  vrrep  and  fidXXu)  one  of  the  conic 
sectiims,  being  tliat  which  is  made  by  a  plane  cutting  the 
opposite  siile  of  the  cone  produced  above  the  vertex,  or,  Ijy  a 
phiiie  wliich  mikes  a  greater  angle  with  the  ba>e  than  the 
opposite  side  of  the  cone  maives.  In  this  figure  the  squares  of 
the  ordinates  are  greater  than,  or  exceed,  the  rectangles  under 
tile  parameters  and  abscissas,  whence  the  name  hyperbola. 

.1  I'ein  useful  properties  nf  the  hijperhola. — 1.  The  squares 
of  the  ordinates  of  any  diameter  are  to  each  other,  as  the 
reel  angles  of  their  abscissas. 

'i.  \s  the  scpiare  of  any  diameter  is  to  the  square  of  its 
conjugate,  so  is  the  rectangle  of  two  abscissas  to  the  square  of 
their  ordinate. 

3.  The  distance  between  the  centre  and  the  focus,  is  equal 
to  the  distance  between  the  extremities  of  the  transverse  and 
conjugate  axes. 

4.  The  difference  of  two  lines  drawn  from  the  foci  to  meet 
in  any  point  of  the  curve,  is  equal  to  the  transverse  axis. 

5.  All  the  p.arallelograms  inscribed  between  the  four  con- 
jugate hyperbolas,  are  equal  to  each  other,  and  each  is  equal 
to  the  rectangle  of  the  two  axes. 

6.  The  rectangles  of  the  parts  of  two  parallel  lino,  termi- 
nated by  the  curve,  are  to  each  other  as  the  rectangles  of  the 
parts  of  any  other  two  parallel  lines,  anywhere  cutting  the 
former.  Or,  the  reetangles  of  the  parts  of  two  intersecting 
lines  are  as  the  squares  of  their  parallel  diameters,  or  squares 
of  their  parallel  t;ingents. 

7.  All  the  parallelograms  are  equal  wdiich  are  formed 
between  the  asymptotes  and  curve,  by  lines  parallel  to  the 
asymptotes. 

For  other  properties,  see  the  articles  Cose,  and  Conic 
Section'. 

HvPERBOLA,  Acute,  one  whose  asymptotes  make  an  acute 
angle. 

Hyperbola,  Ainhijciidl,  that  which  has  one  of  its  infinite 
legs  falling  within  an  angle  formed  by  the  asymptotes,  and 
the  other  falling  without  that  angle. 

HvpERBOLA,.'l/)o/^<)*(/o«,the  common  hyperbola,  as  derived 
from  the  cone.     See  Hyperbola. 


Hyperbola,  Defirient,  a  curve  having  only  one  asymptote, 
though  two  hyperbolic  legs  running  out  infinitely  by  the  side 
of  the  asymptote,  but  contrary  ways. 

Hyperbola,  A'i/«(7u/era/,  has  its  asymptotes  equal  to  each 
other. 

Hyperbolas,  Jnfinile,  or  Hyperbolas  of  the  higher 
KINDS,  an-  expressed  or  defined  by  general  equations  similar 
to  that  of  the  conic  or  common  hyperbola,  only  having  gene- 
ral exponents,  instead  of  the  partieular  numeral  ones,  but  so 
that  the  sum  of  those  on  one  side  of  the  question  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  those  on  the  other  side.  Such  as  o  i/  "'-|-°  = 
b  j"  [il  -\-  jr)",  where  x  and  y  are  the  abscissa  and  ordinate 
to  the  axis  or  diameter  of  the  curve;  or  x"  i/°  =  <i'"  +  °, 
where  the  aliscissa  x  is  taken  on  one  asymptote,  and  the  or- 
dinate (/  parallel  to  the  other. 

HYPERB-  )L1C  CONOID,  a  solid  formed  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  an  hyperbola  about  its  axis  ;  it  is  otherwise  called 
Hyperboloid.  which  see. 

Hyperbolic  Curve,  the  same  as  the  hyperbola.  To 
draw  a  tangent  to  any  point  in  the  hyperbolic  curve,  draw  a 
semi-diameter  to  the  given  point,  and  find  its  conjugate;  then 
through  the  given  point,  draw  a  straight  line,  parallel  to  the 
conjugate  diameter ;  which  line  will  be  a  tangent  to  the 
curve. 

To  find  the  focus  of  the  hyperbolic  curve,  take  the  dis- 
tance between  the  extremities  of  the  transverse  and  conjugate 
axes,  and  apply  it  from  the  centre  upon  the  axis,  and  the 
remote  extrcmit_v  of  the  distance  gives  the  focus. 

Hyperbolic  Cylindroid,  a  solid  formed  by  the  revolution 
of  an  hyperbola  about  its  conjugate  axis,  or  Hue  through  the 
centre  i^erpendicular  to  the  transverse  axis. 

II YPKRBOLOID,  a  conoid  formed  by  the  revolution  of 
an  hyperbola  about  its  axis.  It  is  otherwise  called  nn/iyper 
bulic  conoid. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  an  hyperboloid.  or  the  frustum  of 
an  hyperboloid. — To  the  areas  of  the  two  ends,  add  four 
times  the  area  of  the  midille  section  parallel  thereto,  and  mul- 
tiply the  suin  bj^  one-sixth  part  of  the  axis  or  height,  and  the 
product  is  the  solidity.  In  the  complete  hyperboloid,  the  area 
of  the  end  at  the  apex  being  nothing,  the  rule  will  be  similar 
to  what  is  laid  down  under  the  article  Conoid. 


2x 

An  hvpcrboloid  is  to  a  paraboloid  of  the  same  base  and  altitude  as  <  H j—  is  to  t  -\-  x. 

o 

Let  t  =  the  transverse  )  „  ^,  i-      i,         i    i 

.,  ^     J-  axes  of  the  generating  hyperbola, 

c  ^  the  conjugate  j  °  o    .  r 

X  =  the  abscissa  or  altitude  of  the  solid. 

y  =  the  ordinate  or  radius  of  the  base. 

p  -  3.1416. 

t  X  -^  x'' 
Then  y'  =  c'  X  5 ,  by  the  property  of  the  solid; 


and  p  y^  X  ^  p  c''  X  X 
p  y*  X  ^  pc^  x^  X 


tx  ■\- 


i  ^  +  f 
t^ 
lx-\-  x^ 


the  fluxion  of  the  solid ; 
-,  the  fluent  of  the  solid  ; 


but  because  y-  ^  c'  X  \ — ,  w'e  obtain  <?  = 


.'/'  c 


Therefore,  substituting  — = ;  for  <?  in  the  fluent  p  c'  x'  X 

t  X  -\-  x' 


tx  +  X 

X 


t+i 


,     .    pyx 
we  obtain  — — — 


the  base  multiplied  into  the  altitude,  X 


t  + 


t  +  X 


-,  for  the  solidity  of  the  solid. 


pyx  P  y 

the  base  multiplied  into  the  altitude  ;  that  is,  — '- — ;  now  —  — 

proposition  is  manifest. 


t  -f  X 


t  +  ^  X 

X —  =  half  the  area  of 

2  t  +x 

But  the  paraboloidal  area  is  half  the  area  of 
^X-f  :  :  t  +  ^x  :  t  +  X ;   and  hence  the 


HYP 


516 


H  Y  P 


m'PERTHYRUM,  the  lintel  of  a  doorway,  or  that  part 
of  the  frame  which  stands  over  the  superoiruim.  In  Grecian 
buildings  it  consisted  of  a  frieze  and  cornice,  the  latter  sup- 
ported by  a  console  at  each  extremity. 

HYPOCAUSTUM,  (from  vno  under,  and  Kavg-ov  to  burn.) 
among  the  Greeks  and  Komans,  a  subterraneous  place,  in 
which  was  a  furnace  for  heating  the  baths.  Another  Itind  of 
hypocaustum  was  a  sort  of  kiln  to  heat  their  winter  parlours. 

Several  hypocausts  have  been  found  amongst  the  Roman 
remains  still  existing  in  Britain.  About  three  years  since,  the 
remains  of  a  portion  of  a  Roman  villa  were  laid  open  in  Lower 
Thames-street,  London,  and  beneath  the  floor  of  one  of  the 
rooms  was  discovered  a  hypocaust  formed  of  columns  about 
two  feet  in  height,  each  consisting  of  fourteen  tiles  about 
twelve  inches  square.  These  were  connected  at  the  top  by 
larger  tiles,  which  formed  the  superstructure  of  the  floor. 
Flue-tiles,  with  varied  patterns  incised  on  their  surfaces,  were 
likewise  found  amongst  the  ruins,  which  originally  conveyed 
warm  air  up  the  sides  of  the  building. 

More  recently,  a  hypocaust  was  discovered  at  Cirencester, 
and  in  a  most  perfect  condition,  the  furnace,  which  was  in 
existence,  still  containing  some  portion  of  the  fuel.  In  this 
case,  the  columns  were  of  two  kinds,  square  and  circular,  the 
former  being  composed  of  tiles  laid  one  upon  the  other  to 
the  number  often,  and  the  latter  being  formed  of  blocks  of 
stone.  Resting  upon  these  pillars  were  large  square  tiles,  as 
in  the  preceding  example,  and  above  these  a  layer  of  concrete 
six  inches  in  thickness,  on  which  the  pavement  was  laid.  The 
room  above  the  hypocaust  measured  twenty-five  feet  square, 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  hypocaust  extended  only  half- 
way underneath,  the  remaining  half  of  the  pavement  being 
laid  solid. 

Still  more  recently,  the  remains  of  some  apartments  have 
been  found  within  a  Roman  camp  at  Lymne,  Kent.  An  exten- 
sive hypocaust  was  discovered  under  the  floor  of  these  apart- 
ments, formed  entirely  of  layers  of  large  tiles  placed  at  regular 
intervals,  but  the  pavement  had  been  totally  destroyed.  Seve- 
ral  hollow  flue-tiles  were  also  discovered  of  a  similar  descrip- 


tion to  those  above  alluded  to.  These,  in  all  probability,  were 
connected  with  the  hypocaust,  and  served  to  convey  the  hot 
air  from  the  furnace  through  the  principal  apartments  of  the 
villa,  the  hypocausts  being  used  not  only  for  baths,  as  is  by 
some  supposed,  but  also  in  the  place  of  fires,  and  answered  an 
exactly  similar  purpose  to  our  modern  hot-air  pipes. 

In  a  hypocaust  discovered  at  Lincoln  some  few  years 
since,  the  piers  supporting  the  pavement  were  all  of  the 
circular  firm. 

HYPODROMUS,  (Greek  vtto,  under,  tmd.  ^go/iog,  from 
TpE^hv,  to  rti7i,)  amongst  the  Romans,  a  shady  or  covered 
walk  or  amV)ulatory. 

HYPOG.(EUM,  (from  vtto,  under,  and  y^  the  earth,')  in 
ancient  architecture,  a  name  given  to  all  parts  of  a  building 
that  were  underground. 

Tlie  term  was  more  particularly  applied  to  the  common  sort 
of  sepulchres  used  by  the  Romans;  they  were  built  under- 
ground, whence  their  name,  and  are  now  known  under  the 
name  of  catacombs.  The  urns  containing  the  ashes  of  the 
deceased  w-ere  placed  round  the  chamber  in  niches  cut  out  in 
the  walls,  which,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  niches  of  a 
pigeon-house,  were  called  columbaria. 

Montfauciin  has  given  descriptions  and  illustrations  of 
several  such  hypog.Ta  in  his  Antiquite  Expliquce.  In  many 
examples,  especially  in  those  of  later  date,  the  chambers  are 
highly  ornamented. 

HYPOPODITM,  (from  vtto,  under,  and  nsg,  font,)  a 
piece  of  furniture  in  the  ancient  baths,  on  which  the  feet 
rested. 

HYPOSCENIUM,  (from  vtto,  under,  and  oktjvt],  a  scene,) 
a  partition  under  the  losjium  appointed  .for  the  nuisie. 

HYPOTRACHELIUM,  (from  vtto,  under,  and  rpaxTJXiov, 
the  neck,)  the  lower  part  of  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  capitals, 
comprehended  between  the  astragal  at  the  top  of  the  shaft, 
and  the  tillct  or  annulets  under  the  ovolo.  This  description 
applies  only  to  the  Roman  Doric;  for  the  Grecian,  instead 
of  an  astragal,  had  from  one  to  three  horizontal  grooves  cir- 
cumscribing the  column. 


END    OF    VOL      I. 


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